PV Module Reliability

Scorecard Report
2016
Report Contributors
Jenya Meydbray, VP Strategy & Business Development
Frederic Dross, Head of Module Business
Table of contents
1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................... 1

2 PV MODULE AGING MECHANISMS.......................................................................................... 3

2.1 Field studies of PV performance ............................................................................................. 4
2.2 The objective of laboratory testing ......................................................................................... 5

3 MODULE RELIABILITY AND TESTING ...................................................................................... 7

3.1 A brief history of module reliability......................................................................................... 7
3.2 The limitations of existing certification standards ..................................................................... 8
3.3 Degradation versus failure .................................................................................................... 9

4 THE PRODUCT QUALIFICATION PROGRAM .............................................................................10

4.1 Module selection and sampling process..................................................................................10
4.2 Light-induced degradation ...................................................................................................10

5 PV MODULE RELIABILITY SCORECARD RESULTS.....................................................................11

5.1 Results summary ................................................................................................................11
5.2 Thermal Cycling .................................................................................................................12
5.3 Dynamic Mechanical Load ....................................................................................................13
5.4 Humidity-Freeze .................................................................................................................14
5.5 Damp Heat ........................................................................................................................15
5.6 PID test .............................................................................................................................16

6 CONCLUSIONS: INTERPRETATION OF RESULTS .....................................................................18

6.1 Use of laboratory data .........................................................................................................18
6.2 Conclusions........................................................................................................................18
1 INTRODUCTION

In the spring of 1997, Siemens Solar Industries announced the extension of its module warranty expanding
it from 10 years to 25 years. This announcement marked the beginning of an industry standard, setting the
25-year warranty as a basic requirement for project investors trying to understand the full life economic
viability of solar projects.

Yet even today, the risks associated with module performance over long periods of time remain fairly
unclear. Publicly available and high quality field data on long term operating performance of PV systems is
limited. Additionally, field data takes many years and by that time the technology has evolved. Because of
this, over the past few years high quality and independent lab data has established a critical role in
evaluating PV module quality and long term reliability.

85% of the 234 GW of installed global PV capacity has been in the field for less than five years. It will be
more than twenty years from now before actual lifetime field data for the majority of todays capacity can be
gathered.

Figure 1-1 Cumulative installed global PV capacity

Source: GTM Research

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Additionally, while the 57 percent drop in module prices from 2010-2013 helped catapult industry growth,
industry concerns over cost reduction at the expense of module quality have persisted even as module
pricing has stabilized. The import tariff (AD/CVD) policy in the U.S. has driven many manufacturers to
contract manufacture or build new factories in tariff-free countries such as Malaysia, Vietnam, Thailand,
India, etc. Reacting to intense pricing pressures and dynamic supply chain behavior may be at the expense
of quality. Yet neither price nor top-tier ranking have been proven to indicate module quality or performance.

With full-life field data more than twenty years away and without access to publicly available data comparing
long-term module reliability by vendor, how can buyers and investors factor quality into their procurement
discussions?

The PVEL-GTM PV Module Reliability Scorecard aims to address this critical problem. With its supplier-
specific performance analysis, the Scorecard can help investors and developers generate quality-backed
procurement strategies to ensure long-term project viability.

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2 PV MODULE AGING MECHANISMS

As the solar industry matures long term performance and reliability of PV modules and other system
components (i.e. inverters) have received increased focus from the investment community. Reduced cost of
capital has resulted in the out years having real value in discounted cash flow analysis. The objective of any
component quality management strategy is to avoid procuring equipment that exhibits early lifetime failure
and to select equipment that performs successfully over the long term. There are well over one hundred PV
module manufacturers globally active today - often with multiple factories each, sometimes producing in
multiple continents. These manufacturers utilize a broad range of materials, manufacturing techniques and
quality control practices. This results in a wide range of product quality and reliability. To properly address
the risk of early failure of todays products, it is helpful to have a clear understanding of common PV module
failures seen in operating PV power plants. Developing an understanding of how modules age in the field
will highlight technology risks and enable the implementation of an effective procurement quality assurance
strategy.

Aging and failure mechanisms seen over the past several decades have been documented over a wide range
of power plant locations and material sets. Field failures of PV equipment can stem from materials,
fundamental product design flaws or failures in quality control during manufacturing. Figure 2-1 below
indicates leading PV module aging and failure mechanisms that occur as infant mortalities, mid-life failures,
and wear out.

Figure 2-1 Aging mechanisms leading to PV module degradation

Source: IEA PVPS 2014

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2.1 Field studies of PV performance
The solar industry generally lacks comprehensive public datasets of PV equipment performance in the field
however several large studies have been performed. Dirk Jordan and Sarah Kurtz from NREL have
performed a comprehensive literature survey on published PV module and system degradation rates. In this
study they identified almost 10,000 PV module degradation rates from almost 200 studies in 40 countries.
Accurate measurement of field performance is very sensitive to several sources of error that could skew the
results. Soiling, maintaining calibration and cleanliness of irradiance sensors, module baseline data
(nameplate vs. flash test), and not appropriately accounting for LID are just a few major sources of data
errors. To account for this the authors segregated data from higher quality studies as defined by: multiple
measurements taken for increased confidence; the measurement methods and calibrations were clearly
described and were generally similar at each measurement point; details on the installation (disregarding
proprietary considerations) are provided. The results of the NREL study shown in Figure 2-2 and Figure 2-3
indicate a mean degradation of about half a percent per year (for the high quality dataset) which is
generally in line with expectations. However, there is a long tail with degradation beyond one percent
annually. This long tail is likely driven by equipment issues caused by poor quality manufacturing, materials,
or product design.

Figure 2-2 Results of Kurtz-Jordan NREL study of PV degradation

Source: Compendium of Photovoltaic Degradation Rates, D.C. Jordan, et al, NREL, 2015

Figure 2-3 Results of Kurtz-Jordan NREL study on PV degradation

# of modules Mean Median P90

Dataset
surveyed Degradation Rate Degradation Rate Degradation Rate

High Quality 1,936 0.5 0.6 % / year 0.4 0.5 % / year 1.2 % / year

All Module Data 9,977 0.9 1.0 % / year 0.9 1 % / year 1.7% / year

Source: Compendium of Photovoltaic Degradation Rates, D.C. Jordan, et al, NREL, 2015

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In another large study, DuPont performed extensive field inspections (visual inspection and thermal imaging)
of 60 global sites totaling 1.5 million PV modules from 45 manufacturers to evaluate aging behaviors in the
real world. System ages ranged from 0 to 30 years. Their findings are outlined in Figure 2-4, issues were
identified on 41% of the modules surveyed.

Figure 2-4 DuPont inspection of field PV modules

Failure Categorizations

Broken, etched, hazed

Glass / Superstrate
glass

Discoloration or
Encapsulant
delamination

Corrosion, hot spot,

broken interconnect,
Cell / Interconnect
snail trails, cracks, burn
marks

Cracking, yellowing,
Backsheet
delamination Source: courtesy of DuPont Photovoltaic Solutions, Quantifying PV
Module Defects in the Service Environment, Alex Bradley, et al,

2.2 The objective of laboratory testing

The most accurate way to determine if a product can last 20 years in the field is to instrument it and deploy
it for 20 years. This level of testing is obviously prohibitive. Laboratory testing should be leveraged to
understand PV equipment aging behavior in a commercially reasonable timeframe. Quite a bit can be
learned about PV modules in only a few months in the laboratory. Unfortunately, extrapolating lab results to
precisely predict field degradation rate is not possible today. However, relative performance in the
laboratory is expected to translate to the field. For example, if module A outperforms module B in Thermal
Cycling in the lab it will very likely outperform in the field as well for the aging mechanisms captured by this
test. In addition to degradation analysis the stress tests available today are very effective at screening for
PV module defects that cause severe degradation or safety issues such as bad solder joints or a poorly
adhered junction box. Figure 2-5 outlines failure modes targeted by each laboratory stress test as published
by NREL.

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 Figure 2-5 PV module failure modes per laboratory test

Accelerated Stress Failure Mode

Broken Interconnect
Broken Cell
Solder Bond Failures
Thermal Cycling
Junction Box Adhesion
Module Connection Open Circuits
Open Circuits leading to Arcing
Corrosion
Delamination of Encapsulant
Encapsulant loss of adhesion & elasticity
Damp Heat
Junction Box Adhesion
Electrochemical corrosion of TCO
Inadequate edge deletion
Delamination of Encapsulant
Humidity Freeze Junction Box Adhesion
Inadequate edge deletion
Delamination of Encapsulant
Encapsulant loss of adhesion & elasticity
UV Exposure
Encapsulant Discoloration
Ground Fault due to backsheet degradation
Source: Reliability Testing Beyond Qualification as a Key Component in Photovoltaics Progress Toward Grid Parity, Wohlgemuth, et al, NREL, 2011

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3 MODULE RELIABILITY AND TESTING

3.1 A brief history of module reliability

When discussing the origins and early phases of terrestrial module reliability assessment, two bodies of work
are typically cited: the Jet Propulsion Laboratorys Block Buy program and the Joint Research Centers
European Solar Test Installation.

Figure 3-1 Jet Propulsion Laboratorys block buy modules

Source: Jet Propulsion Laboratory

The JPL Block Buy program started in the mid-1970s as terrestrial PV module development started to gain
traction. Throughout the programs lifetime, it had the goal of developing and implementing environmental
tests for crystalline silicon modules. By the projects end, it had established many of the tests that are still
used for reliability assessment today, including temperature cycling, humidity freeze and mechanical load.

The European Solar Test Installation (ESTI) project was initiated in the late 1970s and focused on both
testing modules and creating standard performance metrics for solar cells. The project is ongoing and is
currently focusing on developing an industry standard for module power verification.

These two programs formed a foundation for todays basic module qualification test, the International
Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) 61215, and safety test, the Underwriters Laboratories (UL) 1703.

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3.2 The limitations of existing certification standards
Though most projects require UL and/or IEC certification to ensure a minimum bar of module robustness, it
is widely accepted that these certification standards are not sufficient to demonstrate PV module reliability
nor consistency.

First, it should be noted that UL 1703 is purely a safety test. The goal of the test is to ensure that the
module does not pose a hazard during operation.

The IEC 61215 standard is the minimum baseline industry-accepted module assessment program, applying
environmental stress tests first developed in the JPLs Block Buy program. However, the scope of these tests
accounts only for so-called infant mortality and leaves aside a number of common potential causes of failure.
For instance, resilience to PID is not tested at all (more on that later). This means that the IEC 61215 tests
are only well suited to weed out modules that would be likely to fail within the first years in the field
(screening for defects).

Certification testing is performed on only on a small number of samples and isnt necessarily representative
of high volume commercial production over time. Besides, the manufacturer is free to select the physical
modules sent for testing and no random selection out of the production line is necessary. Furthermore,
maintaining certification does not require periodic re-testing unless materials or designs change. Applying
these IEC tests for PV module defect screening is becoming a common and effective Batch Acceptance test,
screening for serial defects for PV module procurement in large residential or commercial procurements or
utility scale projects, but it is not sufficient to start to quantify long-term reliability of the module
construction. Based on DNV GLs experience at least 6% of commercial PV modules do not pass the IEC
61215 Thermal Cycling test see Figure 3-2 below.

Additionally, the IEC certification only functions as a pass/fail set of tests. It does not report the actual
magnitude of degradation after the tests, nor does it seek to discern the root cause of performance loss.

Figure 3-2 DNV GLs historical Thermal Cycling degradation results

Source: DNV GL Laboratory Services Group

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3.3 Degradation versus failure
Power degradation over time is built into project expectations and is warranted by the manufacturers. The
current standard 25-year warranty is typically triggered if modules degrade more than 3% within the first
year and at a linear rate down to 80% of its initial nameplate power in year 25. Small levels of power
degradation in the field are difficult to accurately measure due to the uncertainty of measurement tools.
Warranty claims are therefore typically only executed for gross underperformance or complete failure. Prior
to module purchase measurement of the resilience of modules to the most common degradation
mechanisms is therefore of essential importance.

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4 THE PRODUCT QUALIFICATION PROGRAM

DNV GL (formerly PV Evolution Labs a.k.a. PVEL) developed the Product Qualification Program to support
the downstream solar community back in 2013. The objectives of the program are twofold. First, it provides
PV equipment buyers and PV power plant investors with independent and consistent reliability and
performance data to help implement effective supplier management process (such as an Approved Product
or Vendor List). Additionally, it provides module manufacturers focused on the reliability of their products
the visibility they need to be successful in this competitive market. The Product Qualification Program
provides DNV GLs downstream partners with 3rd party performance data (PAN files, IAM, NOCT, and LID) as
well as reliability data as outlined in the table below. Data in the PV Module Reliability Scorecard is pulled
from this Product Qualification Program. In the past 2 years DNV GL has executed 40 Qualification Programs
across 30 manufacturers.

Figure 4-1 DNV GLs Product Qualification Program compared to IEC 61215

Test Thermal Humidity Mechanical PID

Damp Heat
Cycling Freeze Load
Product
Qualification 800 TC cycles 3,000 DH hours 30 HF cycles Dynamic Load 600 hours
Program

IEC 61215 Static

200 TC cycles 1,000 DH hours 10 HF Cycles None
Standard mechanical load

Source: DNV GL Laboratory Services Group

4.1 Module selection and sampling process

Independent PV module sampling is a critical step in testing and qualification. This step builds confidence
that the production process and Bill of Materials (BOM) are representative of commercial production. DNV GL
works with independent inspectors from SolarBuyer and CEA for all modules tested in the PV Module
Reliability Scorecard. This is a standard part of the Product Qualification Program.

4.2 Light-induced degradation

Upon initial exposure to light, modules experience a permanent reduction in power output. The phenomenon
is called light induced degradation or LID. On average, LID for crystalline silicon modules ranges from 0.5%
to 3%, with some modules exhibiting a loss of up to 5%. Manufacturers using n-type silicon cells such as
SunPower exhibit no LID loss. Manufacturers take this into account by factoring in a 3% power loss
(typically) during the first year of the module warranty.

To ensure that light-induced degradation does not jeopardize the conclusions of the chamber testing, all PV
modules in the PV Module Reliability Scorecard were light soaked for at least 40 kWh / m2 before entering
the testing chambers.

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5 PV MODULE RELIABILITY SCORECARD RESULTS

5.1 Results summary

Overall, most participating PV module manufacturers performed well, with relatively few incidents of outright
failure. The mere participation in the PVEL Product Qualification Program indicates already the importance
that the participating manufacturers place on the reliability of their products. Because of this the average
and median results presented here may be better than the average and median results of the industry taken
as a whole. Results indicate average values of multiple individual PV modules from each manufacturer. The
factory locations are listed in the table below. All PV modules are standard 60 or 72-cell crystalline silicon
modules. A different number of manufacturers participated in each test. The vertical axis in each chart
indicates the power degradation caused by stress testing in percent relative to pre-stress output (after light
soaking). Top performers are defined as those to the left of the red vertical line indicated on the results
charts.

Figure 5-1 PV Module reliability scorecard test results summary

Reliability Test Top Result Bottom Result Median Result Std. Dev.

Thermal Cycling -1.07% -34.59% -4.68% 7.29%

Damp Heat -0.57% -58.77% -3.59% 14.86%

Humidity-Freeze -0.13% -4.10% -2.30% 1.11%

Dynamic Mechanical
-0.18% -7.28% -1.55% 1.98%
Load

PID (-1kV) 0.47% -58.27% -2.69% 18.60%

Source: DNV GL Laboratory Services Group

Figure 5-2 Manufacturer factory locations

Manufacturer Factory Location

CSUN Tuzla/Istanbul, Turkey

Hanwha Qidong, Jiangsu, China

JA Solar Hefei, Anhui, China

Jinko Shangrao, Jiangxi, China

Kyocera Tijuana, Mexico

Phono Solar Nanjing, Jiangsu, China

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 Q-Cells Kwidzyn, Poland

REC Singapore

RECOM Taoyuan, Taiwan

Tenksolar Shanghai, China

Trina Changzhou, China

Yingli Baoding, China and Hengshui, China

ZNShine Jintan, Jiangsu, China

Source: DNV GL Laboratory Services Group

5.2 Thermal Cycling

PV modules are constructed from several materials, each with varying coefficients of thermal expansion
(CTE). As ambient temperature and irradiance fluctuates, materials expand or contract. When adjacent
materials have mismatched CTEs (for example silicon solar cells and metal busbar ribbons), the interface
experiences stress which causes aging such as solder joint fatigue.

Following preparation and characterization, modules were cycled from -40C to 85C. When the temperature
rises above 25C, the maximum power current is injected into the modules, causing localized heating if
solder joints are degrading. IEC 61215 requires only 200 cycles which may be estimated to represent a few
years of field exposure. The PV Module Reliability Scorecard procedure extends the test to 800 cycles. This
simulates an estimated 25+ years of field exposure. It should be noted that the test procedure does not
combine all conditions that modules may experience in very harsh environments. High-intensity and/or
high-photon-energy light exposure is for instance present in arid desert environments and may expose the
modules to additional failure modes such as encapsulant browning.

5.2.1 Thermal Cycling Test Results

Nineteen companies participated in the thermal cycling test with degradation rates varying from -1% to -
35%. As shown in the graph below, four of seven of the top-performing modules were Chinese-produced.
Phono Solar (produced in Nanjing, China) and Kyocera (produced in Tijuana, Mexico) were the top
performing manufacturers with less than 1.5% degradation. Other modules were produced in Taiwan.

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 Figure 5-3 Thermal Cycling results

Source: DNV GL Laboratory Services Group

5.3 Dynamic Mechanical Load

The dynamic mechanical load (DML) test determines a modules ability to handle cyclic pressure loads often
caused by wind or snow. Significant or repetitive pressure will cause deflection of the glass and can result in
cell cracks or solder joint degradation.

Various aspects of the processing steps such as cell soldering and cell etching, as well as the selection of
glass, EVA and backsheet material, impact a modules sensitivity to physical damage from mechanical loads.
It should also be noted that in real-life conditions, large pressure loads can also be combined with other
environmental conditions such as cold and wet environments.

The PV Module Reliability Scorecard utilizes a test sequence of mechanical stress to cause cell cracks (1,000
cycles at 1,440 Pa) followed by thermal stress (50 cycles of Thermal Cycling) to cause crack propagation
followed by freezing moisture stress (10 cycles of Humidity Freeze) which causes cell cracks to impact power
output. This test sequence therefore also probes the ability of modules to sustain high performance despite
presence of cracks or microcracks, for instance originated by rough transportation or installation.

In order to test real-world performance, the tested module is mounted per the manufacturers specifications.

5.3.1 Dynamic Mechanical Load Test Results

Seventeen companies participated in the dynamic mechanical load test with degradation rates varying from
-0.2% to -7.3%. Seven of the eleven top-performing modules were Chinese-produced. Other top performing
modules were produced in Taiwan, Mexico and Poland. The top four performers which all degraded less than
0.5% were Tenksolar, RECOM, Kyocera, and Phono Solar.

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 Figure 5-4 Mechanical Load test results

Source: DNV GL Laboratory Services Group

5.4 Humidity-Freeze
Several materials used in PV modules such as junction box and frame adhesives, backsheets, and
encapsulants can absorb moisture. In Northern regions of North America, Europe and Asia, where
temperatures often drop below freezing conditions, this moisture can freeze inside the module package. The
expansion of moisture during this freezing process can be very detrimental to the module integrity. Ice
crystals can cause failure of adhered interfaces resulting in delamination or other mechanical failure.
Corrosion of the cell metallization can also be caused by this environmental test. The humidity-freeze test
mimics environmental conditions where ambient moisture and freezing temperatures coexist.

In the standard IEC 61215 test, modules are exposed to temperatures of 85C and a relative humidity of 85%
for a minimum of 20 hours. This step ensures the modules are saturated with water. The temperature is
then rapidly dropped to -40C for a minimum of a half-hour (maximum 4 hours), freezing any moisture
within the module. This cycle is completed a total of 10 times in the IEC standards test procedure. The PV
Module Reliability Scorecard extends the test to 30 cycles.

5.4.1 Humidity-Freeze Test Results

Eighteen companies participated in the humidity-freeze test, with degradation rates varying from -0.1% to -
4.1%. Four out of seven of the top-performing modules were Chinese-produced. The other top modules
were produced in Mexico and Poland.

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 Figure 5-5 Humidity Freeze results

Source: DNV GL Laboratory Services Group

5.5 Damp Heat

Figure 5-6 Layers of a PV module

Source: Dow Corning

High ambient temperature and humidity such as those in some parts of Southern U.S. (e.g. Florida) and in
parts of EU and Asia (e.g. Romania, Turkey, India, and Thailand), as well as some subtropical regions in
Central and South America (e.g. Panama, Brazil), result in conditions that are likely to bring about aging
stimulated by this test, the PV Module Reliability Scorecard uses the Damp Heat test profile outlined in the
IEC standard.

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In the IEC 61215 test procedure, modules are held at a constant temperature of 85C and a relative
humidity of 85% for 1,000 hours (~42 days). This allows modules to become completely saturated with
moisture which is stressful on adhered interfaces. As outlined in the literature occasionally modules that
pass this certification test may fail if the test is extended by only a few additional hundred hours. The PV
Module Reliability Scorecard extends the test procedure to 3,000 hours. It is important to note that 2,000
hours is widely considered to be sufficient for long term PV Module qualification testing for regions that
exhibit less extreme humidity levels.

5.5.1 Damp Heat Test Results

Twenty one companies participated in the damp heat test, with degradation rates varying from -0.6% to -
58.8%. Six out of ten of the top performing modules were Chinese-produced. The other top modules were
produced in Mexico, Taiwan and Singapore.

Figure 5-7 Damp Heat results

Source: DNV GL Laboratory Services Group

5.6 PID test

During operation, because the modules are connected in series, and because the frames are all connected
together, cells experience a voltage bias relative to the module frame. Several system design decisions
impact the voltage between the cells and frame such as system grounding configuration (negative vs. bi-
polar vs. floating) and string voltage (600 vs. 1kV vs. 1.5kV). The electric field between the solar cell and
module frame causes sodium ions contained in the glass to diffuse either toward the cell or toward the
frame (i.e. away from the cell) depending on the polarity of the voltage drop. This effect can damage cell
properties and can result in a large reduction in power output. This effect is commonly known as potential
induced degradation or PID.

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It should be noted that there are reversible and non-reversible PID mechanisms. Electrochemical corrosion
and sodium ion damage to the PN junction are likely irreversible, while PID due to the accumulation of static
charge on the surface of cells, also known as polarization, can be countered by equalizing the charge with a
reverse voltage at nighttime. This laboratory test captures both irreversible and reversible mechanisms.

5.6.1 The PID Test Procedure

During the test, a -1kV voltage bias is applied in damp heat testing conditions (T= 85C, RH= 85%) for 100
hours. This provides the temperature and moisture conditions necessary to stimulate increased leakage
currents.

5.6.2 PID Test Results

Twenty two companies participated in the PID test, with degradation rates varying from 0% to -58.3%.
Seven of the thirteen top performing modules were Chinese-produced. The remaining top performing
modules were produced in Mexico, Taiwan, Singapore and Poland.

Figure 5-8 PID results

Source: DNV GL Laboratory Services Group

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6 CONCLUSIONS: INTERPRETATION OF RESULTS

6.1 Use of laboratory data

There is no truer test of a modules reliability than real-world experience. PV power plants experience a
myriad of conditions that cannot be perfectly replicated by accelerated testing. Modules experience all
stresses in the field at the same time to varying degrees. Laboratory testing is well controlled and typically
limited to a single stress type at a time. Laboratory observations should be utilized to accurately assess how
a specific set of aging mechanisms impact module output over the duration of the test. Laboratory data
should be leveraged to effectively manage your Approved Vendor List by setting degradation thresholds (e.g.
5%). Additionally, Accelerated Testing should be used to screen for PV module defects in large
procurements.

Degradation levels identified by the PV Module Reliability Scorecard testing program should not be used as a
direct forecast of yearly degradation rates for fielded modules. It should be used as a mechanism to Qualify
PV modules and associated Bill of Materials and factory locations, and as a tool to compare module expected
reliability and long-term performance qualitatively.

These tests provide a comparison of how vendors, modules, bill-of-materials and factories compare with one
another on a given set of controlled environmental conditions, stimulating a given set of failure mechanisms
encountered in the field.

By choosing vendors with lower degradation levels the likelihood of technical and financial success for your
project is increased.

6.2 Conclusions
We find three key takeaways from the Scorecards test results.
Overall, many module vendors performed well across all tests. For example, 8 manufacturers
degraded less than 3% after 4 times the IEC duration in Thermal Cycling (the IEC pass/fail criteria
for 200 cycles is 5% degradation).
Two manufacturers performed in the top group on every test: Kyocera and Phono Solar.
Roughly 55 60% of top group modules were manufactured in China. This is roughly equivalent to
the ratio of Chinese module participation in the full PV Module Reliability Scorecard. This
demonstrates that manufacturing location is not a good proxy for reliability.

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ABOUT DNV GL
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