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Beowulf
Edited & with an Introduction

by Harold Bloom
Bloom’s Guides: Beowulf
Copyright © 2008 by Infobase Publishing
Introduction © 2008 by Harold Bloom
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Beowulf / [edited by] Harold Bloom.
p. cm. — (Bloom’s guides)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-0-7910-9432-7 (hardcover : acid-free paper)
ISBN 978-1-4381-1441-5 (e-book)
1. Beowulf. 2. Epic poetry, English (Old)—History and criticism.
I. Bloom, Harold.
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Contents
Introduction 7
The Story Behind the Story 9
List of Characters 11
Summary and Analysis 13
Critical Views 27
J.R.R. Tolkien on Poetic Structure 27
Joan Blomfield on Style 32
Stanley B. Greenfield on the Epic Quality 37
Edward B. Irving, Jr. on Negative Definitions 43
T.A. Shippey on Symbols in the World of the Poem 62
James W. Earl on the Gold Hoard 67
David Williams on Cain’s Progeny 69
Linda Georgianna on Beowulf’s Speech before the
Dragon Fight 72
Susanne Weil on Free Will 80
Paul Dean on History and the Passage of Time 86
Thomas A. Prendergast on Memory and the
Idolatrous Pleasures of Heroic Poetry 95
Bibliography 102
Contributors 106
Acknowledgments 108
Index 110
Introduction
HAROLD BLOOM
The Old English epic Beowulf may have been written during the
first half of the eighth century, or it may have been composed
at about the year 1000, which is the date of the manuscript.
Either way, it was written in a Christian Britain, but one with
many memories of the pagan past. Is Beowulf a Christian
poem? Just barely; in any case, it has a profoundly elegiac
relation to its Germanic origins. Though the nameless poet of
this heroic epic must have been at least ostensibly Christian,
Beowulf eschews any mention of Jesus Christ, and all its biblical
references are to the Old Testament. The prime human virtue
exalted in the poem is courage; Beowulf fights primarily for
fame, for the glory of becoming the prime Germanic hero,
and secondarily he battles for gain, for treasure he can give
away, so as to show his largess at bestowing gifts. Grendel and
his even nastier mother are descendants of Cain, but they are
not described as being enemies of Christ. Even the dragon
of the poem’s conclusion is by no means identified with the
dragon of Revelation. Perhaps aesthetic tact governs the poet
of Beowulf: his hero’s virtues have nothing to do with salvation,
and everything to do with warlike courage. When Beowulf ’s
people, at the epic’s conclusion, lament the death of their
lord—“They said that among the world’s kings, he was the
mildest and gentlest of men, most kind to his people and most
eager for praise”—mildness, gentleness, and kindness are hardly
Christian, since they never are exercised toward Beowulf ’s
human enemies, and that praise for which the hero was “most
eager” is purely Germanic. Since the audience of Beowulf was
definitely Christian, what were the motives of the poet?
One valid answer may be nostalgia, most brilliantly expressed
by Ian Duncan:
7
As Beowulf progresses, the monumental records of past
origins grow ambiguous and dark, from the bright mythic-
heroic genealogies and creation songs of the opening,
through the annals of ancient strife carved on the golden
hilt from the Grendel hall, to the dragon hoard itself, a
mysterious and sinister, possibly accursed relic, signifying
racial extinctions. But Beowulf seems to recognize . . . that
his affinity with the dragon has extended to a melancholy
kinship. . . .
Hence the dark conclusion, where the dragon and the hero
expire together. All of the poem then is a beautiful fading away
of Germanic origins, presumably into the light of a Christian
common day. An even subtler reading is offered by Fred C.
Robinson, who sees the poem as a blend of pagan heroism
and Christian regret. This double perspective does seem to
be a prominent feature of Beowulf and reminds me of the
double perspective of the Aeneid, a poem at once Augustan
and Epicurean. But does Beowulf conclude with the triumph of
the Christian vision? God’s glory as a creator is extolled in the
poem, but nowhere are we told of God’s grace. Instead, there
are tributes, despairing but firm, to fate, hardly a Christian
power. Though the beliefs of the writer of Beowulf doubtless
were Christian, his poetic sympathies pragmatically seem to
reside in the heroic past.
8
The Story Behind the Story
Scholars consider the author of Beowulf an immensely gifted
poet, but that is all that is really known about him. His name
and biographical information were not preserved, leaving
the issue open to much speculation. Some critics suggest that
each of the poem’s three fights may have been composed by a
different author and later combined by others who added the
various digressive narratives, but most subscribe to the notion
of a single poet.
Judging from the poem’s content and style, certain elements
of Beowulf ’s composition are clear. Whether or not the poet
originally produced an oral or a written composition, the work
definitely follows conventions of the oral poetic tradition.
While the poet obviously had knowledge of Christianity, he
also draws from traditional Germanic heroic poetry spread
and passed down through minstrels. No character named
Beowulf appears in any other known heroic poem, but his
adventures slightly resemble those in the widely recounted
“Bear’s Son” tale (also called “Strong John” and “The Three
Stolen Princesses”). Although Beowulf seems most connected
to Old Norse folklore, some of it is based on fact; historical
records document the existence of Hygelac, king of the Geats
(and Beowulf ’s uncle in the story), who died in 521 c.e.
The only concrete evidence of the poet’s existence is a
Beowulf manuscript produced around 1000. Two different
scribes copied the poet’s work in West Saxon, an Old English
literary dialect, and an early editor gave the poem its title.
The only surviving copy, this manuscript was preserved in
the library of Sir Robert Cotton and is currently housed in
the manuscript codex Cotton Vitellius A. XV (collected with
three prose stories about monsters and one poem fragment)
in the British Museum. The manuscript was damaged by fire,
but Icelandic scholar Grímur Thorkelin transcribed it and
published an edition in 1815.
Since the early English masterpiece was first published,
scholars have tried to determine where and when the work
9
could have originated. They have employed the study of
archaeology, history, linguistics, and Christianity in this pursuit
but still have no conclusive answers. The poetic dialect does not
indicate a specific time or region, nor does the representation
of Christianity in the poem indicate a specific period. Historical
knowledge can only narrow the date of composition to
anywhere between the seventh century, closer to the time the
Scandinavian leaders mentioned in the story actually lived, and
the ninth century, when the Danes invaded England.
Within this broad time frame, there are a few likely places
where the poet could have composed his work. In identifying
areas of high culture and support for the arts, scholars have
named two plausible candidates: the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms
of Northumbria, in northern England, and Mercia, in south-
central England. Northumbria seems a possible place of origin
between 673 and 735, an era known as the age of Bede, after a
noted teacher and historian. The court of King Aldfrith, who
reigned from 685 to 705, welcomed scholars and poets.
During the reign of King Offa II (757–796), Mercia
cultivated many learned artists, making it another likely home
for the Beowulf poet. Offa was the most powerful English king
of this time, and the digression in Beowulf mentioning Offa,
king of Angeln in the fourth century, could have been meant as
a tribute to a royal patron.
Seventh-century East Anglia, with the highly developed
culture of the Wuffingas dynasty (625–55), has also been
judged a possibility. Archaeologists unearthed a treasure burial
at Sutton Hoo similar to the described burials of Scyld and
Beowulf, and grave goods linked to royal burials in Uppsala,
Sweden, have also been found that are similar to ones described
in the poem. The Wuffingas dynasty and its first two kings,
Wehha and Wuffa, who could have migrated from Uppsala to
East Anglia, resemble the names Wylfingas, Weohstan, and
Wiglaf mentioned in the poem. This mystery will never be
solved, but the Beowulf poet lives on through the undisputed
greatness of his work.
10
List of Characters
beowulf, the hero of the poem, is an ideal warrior. Strong,
brave, and always honorable and loyal to his kinsmen, he has an
illustrious career, first as a warrior, then as a lord, then as king
of the Geats. Beowulf ’s courage and skill help him vanquish
Grendel, Grendel’s mother, and the dragon, but this last victory
costs him his life.
Grendel is a large monster who devours humans despite the

fact that he somewhat resembles a man. He terrorizes Heorot,
Hrothgar’s mead hall in Denmark, for twelve years, killing
anyone who spends the night in the hall. Grendel is protected
against the threat of weapons but meets his match in Beowulf,
who dismembers him with his powerful grip.
Grendel’s mother, a smaller version of Grendel, attacks Heorot

to avenge Grendel’s death. Beowulf kills her with a magical
ancient sword he finds in her lair.
Hrothgar, the king of the Scyldings or Danes, is a wise and

generous ruler but is too old to protect his people from
Grendel and Grendel’s mother, a similar challenge Beowulf
will face when he becomes an elder king. After Beowulf defeats
the two monsters, Hrothgar gives him sage advice about the
vicissitudes of life and the dangers of pride.
the dragon is a fire-breathing, snakelike monster that

ultimately kills Beowulf, although it dies in the process.
Unlike Grendel and his mother, the dragon is not particularly
intelligent.
unferth, a thane in Hrothgar’s court, challenges Beowulf ’s

accomplishments and is soundly chastised by him. Unferth
eventually accepts Beowulf ’s superiority as a warrior and lends
him his sword.
11
Wealhtheow, Hrothgar’s wife, epitomizes the ideal queen
in her generosity and hospitality toward thanes and guests.
The hazards of her essentially diplomatic role are repeatedly
expressed in tales of queens caught between warring peoples.
Hygelac is Beowulfâ†œ’s uncle and the king of the Geats. Like

Hrothgar, he rewards Beowulf appropriately for his heroic
actions.
Wiglaf is a young and inexperienced thane who is the only

retainer to stand by Beowulf during his fight with the dragon.
As befits an honorable thane, Wiglaf is willing to risk his life
to repay his lord, who is also a kinsman, for all the gifts the
younger man has received from him.
12
Summary and Analysis
Beowulf, the longest Anglo-Saxon poem in existence, is a
deceptively simple tale about the adventures of a sixth-century
Germanic hero who fights three monsters in what is now
Denmark and Sweden. Beneath this straightforward and, to
a modern reader, somewhat simplistic plot, however, lies a
highly structured work filled with historical and legendary
allusions that subtly parallel, contrast, and foreshadow the
poem’s action.
The work begins with the funeral of a great king, Scyld
Scefing, the legendary founder of the Danish royal dynasty
(lines 1–63). (It will end with the funeral of another great king—
Beowulf, the poem’s protagonist.) According to legend, Scyld
was found alone in a boat laden with treasure when he was a
child. Upon his death the Danes honor him by placing his body
in another treasure ship and putting the ship out to sea.
Scyld Scefing’s subjects begin to call themselves the Scyldings
and are well ruled by his son Beowulf (usually referred to as
Beow to differentiate him from the hero of the poem). Beow, in
turn, is succeeded by his son Healfdene, who has four children:
Heorogar, Hrothgar, Halga, and a daughter whose name has
been lost but who married Onela, a Swedish (or in Anglo-
Saxon terms, Scylfing) king.
Of these children, Hrothgar is especially successful in battle
and becomes ruler of the Scyldings after Heorogar is killed
(lines 64–85). Rulers at this time relied on the allegiance
of warrior-retainers called thanes. Their relationship was
embodied in the heroic code, which required of the thane
unbounded courage in battle and absolute loyalty to the ruler.
In exchange, a ruler was expected to protect and provide for
his thanes (who, after all, could not support themselves if they
were constantly away fighting). A ruler was supposed to share
generously the wealth taken in conquest, giving lavish gifts to
his thanes in reward for their services. In addition, he provided
them with a mead hall—a place to live, with food, drink, and
nightly entertainment.
13
The elderly Hrothgar is a good ruler and builds the
largest and most lavish mead hall ever seen, calling it Heorot.
Although the poet alludes to Heorot’s later destruction during
a war—the result of “the sharp-edged hate of [Hrothgar’s]
sworn son-in-law”—at this point it is a welcoming place where
the king holds feasts and hands out treasure. Beowulf abounds
with similar allusions to future sorrows embedded in a joyful
present. These references to grim events to come, which the
poet’s original audience would readily recognize, serve one
of the poem’s primary themes: the vicissitudes of life and the
impermanence of all human endeavors.
The noise and merriment of the festivities, particularly the
song of a scop, or bard, praising God, proves a torment to
one creature—Grendel, a powerful and evil monster who lives
as an outcast on the nearby moors (lines 86–193). Grendel,
the poem explains, is a descendant of the biblical character
Cain, who killed his brother Abel and was cursed by God. All
malevolent monsters are Cain’s descendants; like Cain, they
strive against God but ultimately in vain.
Enraged by the happy sounds coming from Heorot, Grendel
waits for night to fall. Then he creeps into Heorot, seizes
thirty sleeping thanes, and takes “his slaughtered feast of men
to his lair.” The next night, Grendel attacks again, until the
frightened thanes abandon Heorot and sleep elsewhere.
For twelve years, Grendel terrorizes Heorot. Hrothgar is
distraught at the deaths of his thanes, but the monster seems
unappeasable. Although the Scyldings use Heorot during the
day, at night Grendel takes up residence in the hall. Hrothgar
and his men appeal to their heathen gods—a practice that
Beowulfâ†œ’s Christian author heartily condemns as ignorance of
“God . . . our protector above, / the King of Glory”—but the
“night-evil” continues.
Word of Grendel eventually reaches Beowulf, a thane of the
Geat king Hygelac (lines 194–370). Strictly speaking, Grendel
is no concern of the Geats, a group occupying what is today
southern Sweden. But by risking his life in a dangerous battle,
Beowulf can win honor (symbolized by the gold he could expect
to be given by Hrothgar) and fame—which, it was believed, was
14
the only thing that endured beyond this ephemeral life. Beowulf
resolves to destroy the monster and, gathering fourteen fellow
warriors, sets off by ship for Denmark. The ship is spotted by
a Scylding watchman, who hurries down to the shore to find
out who the approaching warriors are. Impressed by Beowulfâ†œ’s
strong appearance and his explanation of why he and his men
have come, the guard agrees to conduct the Geats to Heorot.
The well-armed Geats enter the mead hall and sit down
on one of the hall’s many benches. They excite considerable
curiosity, and Hrothgar’s herald, Wulfgar, asks them who they
are. Beowulf tells him and asks to speak to Hrothgar. Wulfgar,
also impressed by Beowulfâ†œ’s appearance, encourages his king to
speak to them.
Hrothgar, it is determined, knew Beowulfâ†œ’s father, Ecgtheow,
and has heard that Beowulf has “the strength of thirty [men] /
in his mighty hand-grip.” Hrothgar believes that God, “in
the fullness of mercy,” has sent Beowulf to deliver them from
Grendel (lines 371–490). Although the author has revealed that
these characters are not Christian, their religion—despite their
earlier appeal to heathen gods—resembles the monotheism of
the Old Testament Jews (rather than the actual religious beliefs
of sixth-century Scandinavians).
Hrothgar agrees to speak with the Geats, and Beowulf
introduces himself, reveals his mission, and gives an account of
his previous exploits, including vanquishing a family of giants
and slaughtering sea serpents. Asking Hrothgar’s permission
to fight Grendel, Beowulf says that, like the monster, he will
forsake weapons and use only his bare hands. Expressing a
decided fatalism, he declares, “Whoever death takes / will
have to trust in the judgment of God.” All he asks is that
Hrothgar send his “war-shirt” to his king, Hygelac, should
Grendel triumph. In agreeing to let Beowulf fight the monster,
Hrothgar reveals that he harbored Beowulfâ†œ’s father after
Ecgtheow had “struck up a mighty feud / . . . among the
Wylfings” by killing a warrior named Heatholaf, and that
Ecgtheow had sworn allegiance to him. Among Germanic
warriors—as the poem’s numerous accounts of blood feuds
make clear—vengeance for the killing of a lord or kinsman
15
was a moral imperative. Thus feuds created even more feuds,
and a warrior without the protection of a lord was extremely
vulnerable to acts of retribution.
The Geats and Scyldings sit down to feast before night falls
(lines 491–606). A jealous Scylding, Unferth, “who would
not grant that any other man / under the heavens might ever
care more / for famous deeds than he himself,” tries to shame
Beowulf. He asks if Beowulf is the same warrior who once lost a
seven-day swimming match to a man named Breca and declares
that he expects similar failure if Beowulf challenges Grendel.
Beowulf reveals that he and Breca did engage in a swimming
match—in full armor, no less—but he did not lose. Rather,
after five days at sea, Beowulf was attacked by sea monsters.
He slaughtered all nine and came to shore in Finland—quite a
swim from Sweden. Beowulf then chastises Unferth, declaring,
“I never have heard / such struggle, sword-terror, told about
you.” He goes on to recriminate Unferth—and his fellow
Scylding warriors—for their lack of courage and ferocity, which
has brought shame to them and made Grendel’s reign of terror
possible:
“I’ll tell you a truth . . . :

never would Grendel have done so much harm,
the awesome monster, against your own leader,
shameful in Heorot, if heart and intention,
your great battle-spirit, were sharp as your words.
But he has discovered he need not dread
too great a feud, fierce rush of swords,
not from your people, the ‘Victory-Scyldings.’â†œ”
Tonight, Beowulf declares, he will show the monster “the

courage and strength / of the Geats in combat.”
The Scyldings are heartened by Beowulfâ†œ’s resolve (lines
607–709). Hrothgar’s queen, Wealhtheow, comes forward
and offers the mead cup to all the warriors, including Beowulf.
Evening comes, and the Scyldings retire, leaving the Geats in
the hall to face Grendel. Beowulf strips himself of his armor
and weapons, and his retainers go to sleep fully expecting to be
16
killed in the night. But God, the poet asserts, has granted the
Geats “comfort and help, / a weaving of war-luck.”
Grendel glides into the hall, hoping to find a straggler or
two (lines 710–836). Seeing a host of men, he exults in his
luck, expecting to make a meal of them. Beowulf is quietly
watching Grendel when the monster seizes and devours a
nearby Geat. Grendel then reaches for Beowulf, who grabs the
monster’s arm in his mighty grip. Grendel quickly realizes that
he is in trouble and attempts to escape, but the two engage in
a tremendous fight that, the poem asserts, would have knocked
down a lesser hall.
Beowulfâ†œ’s men try to hack the monster with their swords, but
Grendel is charmed against “all weapons of battle.” Grendel
cannot shake Beowulfâ†œ’s grasp, however, and Beowulf rips off
the monster’s arm at the shoulder. Mortally wounded, Grendel
flees Heorot, never to return. Beowulf is left with the greater
glory—and Grendel’s arm, complete from the shoulder to the
clawlike fingers.
Morning comes, and the Scyldings are ecstatic to find that
Grendel has been vanquished (lines 837–924). Some Scylding
warriors follow the tracks of the wounded monster, who has
returned to his den under a lake in the moors. Then they ride
back to Heorot, speaking of Beowulfâ†œ’s tremendous deed. Along
the way, a scop composes a poem celebrating Beowulfâ†œ’s victory,
thus assuring that word of the hero’s deeds will survive him.
The scop goes on to tell the stories of the heroic Sigemund,
who slew a dragon, and the tyrannical Heremod, who killed
many of his own subjects before meeting his end. The Scyldings
return to Heorot as Hrothgar enters.
Upon seeing Grendel’s arm, Hrothgar thanks God and
promises to love Beowulf as a son (lines 925–1062). Beowulf
recounts the events of the night before, leaving the Scyldings,
especially Unferth, appropriately impressed. A tremendous
feast is held, during which Hrothgar gives Beowulf and the
other Geats horses, armor, and treasure, including “the largest
gold collar / ever heard of on earth.” That gold collar links the
present with the future as the poem reveals that the Geat king
Hygelac will be wearing it when he dies in battle “that time he
17
sought trouble, stirred up a feud, / a fight with the Frisians,
in his pride and daring.” The grisly battlefield and the joyous
celebration in the mead hall are juxtaposed to great effect
(“.â•¯.â•¯.â•¯warriors rifled the corpses / after the battle-harvest. Dead
Geats / filled the field. Now cheers for Beowulf rose”), again
emphasizing the vicissitudes of men’s fortunes.
During the celebration, a scop tells the tragic tale of a
war between the Danes and the Jutes (lines 1063–1250).
The account is especially sad because Hildeburh, the wife
of the Jute king Finn was also the sister of the Danish king
Hnaef. (Princesses often served as “peace-weavers”—they
were given in marriage to rulers of other peoples as a way of
settling conflicts.) But when war broke out between the two
peoples, Hildeburh’s brother and son fought on opposing sides,
and both were killed. A short peace followed; then the new
Danish king, Hengest, attacked the Jutes, killed Finn, and took
Hildeburh back to Denmark.
After the scop has finished the tragic tale of one queen,
another Danish queen, Wealhtheow, speaks of the unity of her
people: “Each noble here is true to the other, / every kind heart
death-loyal to lord.” The irony is keen, for as the poet has
implied, the treachery of Wealhtheow’s nephew Hrothulf will
eventually tear apart her family just as Hildeburh’s family was
destroyed.
The ominous tone is made more explicit as the thanes settle
down in Heorot for the night (lines 1251–1299). One will
be killed, the poet reports, because Grendel has a mother. As
the thanes sleep, Grendel’s mother comes to Heorot seeking
revenge for the death of her son. Although not as strong or
terrible as Grendel, she bursts into the hall and quickly kills a
thane, escaping with his body—and with Grendel’s arm.
Beowulf is spending the night elsewhere, but when morning
comes he goes to Hrothgar’s chambers and hears the bad news
(lines 1300–1382). Hrothgar is distraught at the death of his
thane, Aeschere, who was a trusted counselor. But he knows
who committed the dastardly act: a female monster who had
often been seen accompanying Grendel as he stalked the moors
and whose lair is known to be under a lake not far from Heorot.
18
Hrothgar offers Beowulf more treasure if he will go to the lake
and kill the monster.
Beowulf agrees (lines 1383–1472). In a speech that
succinctly expresses the warrior’s fatalistic outlook in the
pursuit of renown, Beowulf declares,
“Grieve not, wise king! Better it is

for every man to avenge his friend
than mourn overmuch. Each of us must come
to the end of his life: let him who may
win fame before death. That is the best
memorial for a man after he is gone.”
Hrothgar, Beowulf, and a group of warriors set out for the

lake, which is a sinister place in the middle of a foreboding
landscape. When they arrive, they see signs of the previous
night’s carnage: The water is red with blood, and Aeschere’s head
is lying nearby. The lake is also seething with serpents. A Geat
bowman kills one with an arrow, and the others haul it ashore
with their spears to reveal its gruesome, monstrous form.
Beowulf is nonetheless undaunted and gathers his armor,
including a sword, Hrunting, lent to him by a repentant
Unferth (lines 1473–1590). Beowulf contains many descriptions
of famed swords and their histories. In this warrior culture,
a well-made sword was more than a tool—it was a most
prized possession, almost an object of veneration, and was
passed down from generation to generation. Beowulf makes
appropriate provisions for his treasure in case of his death and
plunges into the water. Grendel’s mother grabs him and pulls
him toward her den, a cave at the bottom of the lake. Although
protected by his armor, he cannot draw his sword and is beset
by serpents. Once in the den, however, and free of the snake-
infested lake, Beowulf seizes the initiative, striking Grendel’s
mother with Hrunting. But the blade does not “bite through
to kill”—the first time, we are told, that “a word could be said
against that great treasure.”
Undaunted by Hrunting’s failure, Beowulf, “battle-furious,”
grabs Grendel’s mother by the shoulder and throws her to the
19
floor. She quickly gets up, knocks him down, and sits on him,
pulling out her knife to finish him off. But her blade cannot
penetrate his armor, and Beowulf gets back onto his feet, at
which point, the poet asserts, God decides the struggle in
favor of good. Looking around, Beowulf spots a large ancient
sword, “longer and heavier than any other man / could have
carried in the play of war-strokes.” He grabs this “shearer
of life-threads,” draws it, and strikes Grendel’s mother. The
sword slices through her neck, killing her. The cave is then
illuminated by a light of mysterious origin, “even as from
heaven comes the shining light / of God’s candle.” Using this
light, Beowulf explores the den and finds Grendel’s body, which
he decapitates.
Meanwhile, the warriors standing around the lake see a
tremendous amount of blood in the water and conclude that
Beowulf has been killed (lines 1591–1639). The Scyldings
return home, while the Geats maintain a mournful vigil.
Beowulf, however, is experiencing even stranger events below.
The blood from the monsters begins to melt the sword “in
battle-bloody icicles” until Beowulf is left with only the jeweled
hilt. Taking the hilt and Grendel’s head, he leaves the den,
rises to the surface of the lake, and swims ashore. His men are
overjoyed to see him alive, and they return to Heorot, four of
them carrying Grendel’s oversized head on a spear.
At Heorot, Beowulf recounts his adventure and presents
Hrothgar with the sword hilt (lines 1640–1884). The king
praises Beowulf for his valor but urges him not to become
like Heremod, who began his career as an illustrious warrior
and ended it a parsimonious tyrant. In a sermonlike speech,
Hrothgar declares that a hero that God permits to “travel far
in delight”—that is, to enjoy happiness and pleasure for a long
time—can easily assume that his good fortune will last forever.
His “portion of arrogance / begins to increase,” and, as he
succumbs to the sins of pride and covetousness, “[h]is future
state”—death—“is forgotten, forsworn, and so is God’s favor.”
Hrothgar implores Beowulf to “guard against that awful curse
. . . and choose the better, eternal gains.” For though his “fame
lives now,” “sickness or war . . . or sword’s swing / thrown
20
spear, or hateful old age” will one day level Beowulf, just as he,
Hrothgar, has been humbled by the twelve years of suffering
and sorrow Grendel brought him. After Hrothgar’s speech, a
feast is served, and when night falls, the guests sleep peacefully
in Heorot.
The next day Beowulf returns Hrunting to Unferth
with thanks and takes his leave of Hrothgar. The two swear
friendship, and Hrothgar gives Beowulf many gifts. With tears
running down his face, the old king clasps Beowulfâ†œ’s neck and
kisses him, expecting “that never again would they look on
each other / as in this brave meeting.” The Geats return to
their ship, load their treasure, and set sail.
They quickly reach their lord’s lands (lines 1885–1962).
The poem praises their hall; their king, Hygelac; and especially
their young and generous queen, Hygd, who is compared
favorably with Modthrytho, a fourth-century queen who in her
youth had any thane who looked at her face in the daytime put
to death.
Beowulf and his men sit with Hygelac in his hall,
and Beowulf recounts his adventures, praising Hrothgar’s
hospitality (lines 1963–2199). Beowulf also discusses the
hostilities between Hrothgar’s Danes and the Heathobards, a
people from southern Denmark. Hrothgar is planning to have
his daughter, Freawaru, marry the Heathobard prince Ingeld,
in order to ensure peace between the two peoples. But Beowulf
is not convinced that their enmity can be overcome by such
a match. (His caution, as the poem’s original audience would
know, is justified. In 520 Ingeld attacked and burned Heorot
before being routed by the Danes.)
Beowulf then brings in the treasure he was given by
Hrothgar and presents it to Hygelac. In sharing his booty with
his king—as in his conduct on the battlefield and in the mead
hall—Beowulf shows himself to be a paragon of virtue, the poet
maintains. He is “ever loyal” to Hygelac, his lord and kinsman,
and generous toward Hygelac’s queen, Hygd, giving her the
gold necklace that Wealhtheow had bestowed on him. He has
gained renown in battle but has “no savage mind”—he never
kills “comrades in drink,” reserving for its appropriate use on
21
the battlefield “the gift / that God [has] given him, the greatest
strength / that man ever had.” Yet in his youth, the poet reveals,
Beowulf had shown no signs of future greatness. The Geats
“were convinced he was slow, or lazy, / a coward of a noble.” As
a result “he got little honor, / no gifts on the mead-bench from
the lord of the [Geats].”
Now that he has proved his mettle, however, Beowulf
receives ample reward from Hygelac, who gives him his
father’s gold-covered sword—the most prized among the
Geats—as well as land, a hall, and a throne of his own.
Beowulf is now a lord.
Several years pass, and Hygelac is killed in battle (lines
2200–2277). His son, Heardred, is also killed, and the kingdom
passes to Beowulf. Beowulfâ†œ’s rule is a prosperous time that lasts
fifty years, until a fugitive stumbles into a vaulted barrow filled
with treasure and—while its guardian, a dragon, sleeps—makes
off with a precious cup.
Under the dragon’s watchful eye, the hoard—the combined
wealth of a people destroyed by war—had been undisturbed
for three hundred years (lines 2278–2311). But now, as the
fugitive brings the cup back to his lord as a peace offering, the
dragon awakes, sees the intruder’s footprints, and, checking his
treasure, realizes that he has been robbed.
Though the dragon (who is not presented as a particularly
intelligent creature) has no idea what the treasure is and
certainly cannot use it, the theft angers him. That night
he seeks retribution, burning houses, including Beowulfâ†œ’s
hall, the “gift-throne of the Geats” (lines 2312–2344). To
Beowulf, this causes “great anguish, pain deep in mind”—in
large part because he fears that it might be divine punishment
for some sin he has committed. Though filled “with dark
thoughts strange to his mind,” he promptly readies himself
to battle the beast. Realizing that the traditional wood shield
will be of little use against the dragon’s flames, he orders a
special shield of iron made. This will not be enough to save
him, for, as the poet reveals, Beowulf is destined “to reach
the end of his sea-faring days, / his life in this world, together
with the serpent.”
22
As in Beowulfâ†œ’s younger days, when he singlehandedly
fought Grendel and Grendel’s mother, the old ruler scorns
the notion of approaching his enemy “with troops, with a full
army”; having “endured / much violence before, taken great
risks / in the smash of battles,” he does not fear the dragon.
At this point, the poem reflects upon the highlights of
Beowulfâ†œ’s illustrious career before he became king (lines 2345–
2509). After the battle in which Hygelac was killed (which
took place in Frisia, in what is now the Netherlands), Beowulf
swam back to southern Sweden, carrying as trophies the armor
of no less than thirty warriors he had slain. He so impressed
Hygd that she offered him the throne over her own son,
Heardred. The ever-noble Beowulf turned her down, however,
and supported Heardred “among his people with friendly
wisdom, / kept him in honor, until he grew older, / [and] could
rule the Geats.” When a usurper, Onela, seized the Scylfing
throne and exiled the rightful heirs—Eanmund and Eadgils—
Heardred gave them refuge, and Onela attacked his hall and
killed Heardred and Eanmund in retaliation. Beowulf then
became the Geat king and supported Eadgils in his successful
attempt to retake the Scylfing throne.
“And so he survived,” the poet says, “every encounter, every
awful conflict, / heroic battles, till that one day / when he had
to fight against the worm [dragon].” Having heard how the
feud with the dragon began, Beowulf sets out for the dragon’s
lair with eleven retainers, guided reluctantly by the fugitive
who had stolen the cup (lines 2510–2601).
When they reach the lair, Beowulf, his spirit “sad, / restless,
death-ripe,” speaks to his men of events important to his life
and to the history of the Geat people. Central to this speech
are the concepts of vengeance and honor. Beowulf recounts the
story of how Haethcyn, his uncle, accidentally killed his own
brother Herebeald—an act made all the more horrible because
it could not be avenged, as that would involve murdering a
kinsman. Brokenhearted, Hrethel—who was Haethcyn and
Herebeald’s father as well as the king of the Geats—died,
and the Scylfings seized the opportunity to attack the Geats
(an event that will presumably happen again after Beowulfâ†œ’s
23
death). “My kinsmen and leaders avenged that well,” Beowulf
says, though in the battle Haethcyn, who had assumed the
Geat throne, was killed. The next day “the third brother,”
Hygelac, “brought full vengeance / back to the slayer” when
Ongentheow, the Scylfing king, was killed. Beowulf then
touches on the exploits he performed in service to Hygelac,
including his slaying of the champion of an enemy people, the
Hugas, with his bare hands. “I wish even now,” he declares, “to
seek a quarrel, do a great deed.”
He insists on fighting the dragon alone and commands his
men to wait nearby. Although this demonstrates that Beowulf
has not lost his valor or desire for renown, some commentators
view it as an essentially irresponsible act, an example of the
kind of pride Hrothgar had warned him against years before.
For Beowulfâ†œ’s death, which might have been unnecessary, will
bring calamity to his people.
When Beowulf heads to the entrance of the dragon’s lair
with a shout to announce his presence, the dragon comes
out breathing flames. Beowulfâ†œ’s armor protects him from the
fire, but when he strikes the beast, his sword fails him and the
dragon is only slightly wounded. The two rush together again,
and Beowulf is hurt.
In the meantime, Beowulfâ†œ’s men have deserted him and
run off into the woods. One, however, a young man named
Wiglaf, who is a kinsman of Beowulfâ†œ’s, remembers the favors
the king has shown them and implores his comrades to come to
Beowulfâ†œ’s aid (lines 2602–2705). No one responds, so Wiglaf
alone takes up his sword (an old family heirloom) in Beowulfâ†œ’s
defense—the first time the young retainer has fought for his
lord. As Wiglaf joins Beowulf, the dragon charges again and
burns up the thane’s wooden shield. Wiglaf takes refuge behind
Beowulfâ†œ’s shield while Beowulf strikes the dragon with all his
strength—only to have his sword shatter on the dragon’s skull.
The dragon charges again, biting Beowulf with his huge
teeth and burning him with his fire. Wiglaf proves resolute,
and despite the flames, he strikes the dragon. His blow lessens
the dragon’s fire, giving Beowulf the chance to pull out his
knife and deliver the killing stroke to the dragon’s belly.
24
The dragon is vanquished, but Beowulf has been fatally
wounded, for the dragon’s bite is poisonous (lines 2706–2820).
Wiglaf washes Beowulfâ†œ’s wounds, and the king, recognizing
that he will soon die, laments the fact that he has no son to
take his place. He professes joy in his fifty-year reign, however,
for during this time no foreign ruler had dared to “seek out a
battle, / make any onslaught, terror, oppression, / upon Geatish
men.” Nor had Beowulf sought any intrigue, sworn deceitful
oaths, or harmed his kin. Just as he had previously been an ideal
thane, Beowulf, it seems, has been an ideal ruler.
Beowulf now directs Wiglaf to bring out some of the
dragon’s treasure—so that he “may more easily give up [his] life
/ and the dear kingdom that [he has] ruled long.” Wiglaf obeys,
but by the time he returns, Beowulf has lost consciousness.
Wiglaf revives him with some water, and Beowulf, seeing the
treasure, declares,
“I give thanks aloud to the Lord of all,

King of Glories, eternal Ruler,
for the bright treasures I can see here,
that I might have gained such gifts as these
for the sake of my people before I died.”
With his last breaths, he directs Wiglaf “to watch / the country’s
needs” and gives instructions for his funeral and for the creation
of a large barrow on a cliff to serve as his memorial. Then he
gives Wiglaf (who is the last of the Waegmundings, a family to
which Beowulf also belongs) his gold necklace, helmet, rings,
and mail-shirt. After observing that fate has swept away all his
noble kinsmen and he must follow, Beowulf dies.
Wiglaf is saddened by his lord’s death, although the poem
points out that Beowulf performed an important service to
his people by killing the dragon (lines 2821–3027). Wiglaf
returns to the cowardly retainers, accusing them of desertion
and predicting that their ignominy will haunt them for the rest
of their lives. He then sends a messenger to relay to the Geats
news of Beowulfâ†œ’s death. The messenger does so, predicting
that their enemies—especially the Scylfings—will attack them
25
now that their protector is gone and summarizing the feud
between the Geats and Scylfings. The Geats gather to see
Beowulf and the dragon, whose treasure is revealed to have
been cursed (lines 3028–3182). Wiglaf leads some of the Geats
into the dragon’s cave, where they gather treasure to bury with
Beowulf. They then push the dragon’s body into the sea.
Beowulfâ†œ’s people bury the remains from his funeral pyre, along
with all the treasure, in the memorial barrow they construct.
They bemoan the loss of their leader, who was “of the kings in
this world, / the kindest to his men, the most courteous man, /
the best to his people, and the most eager for fame.”
(In Old English poetry, each line was divided into two halves,
which were separated by a pause, or caesura. For the sake of
typographical simplicity, the caesura has not been rendered
here. All quotations are from Howell D. Chickering Jr.’s 1977
translation.)
26
Critical Views
J.R.R. Tolkien on PoeTic STRucTuRe

The general structure of the poem, so viewed, is not really
difficult to perceive, if we look to the main points, the strategy,
and neglect the many points of minor tactics. We must dismiss,
of course, from mind the notion that Beowulf is a ‘narrative
poem’, that it tells a tale or intends to tell a tale sequentially.
The poem ‘lacks steady advance’: so Klaeber heads a critical
section in his edition. 27 But the poem was not meant to
advance, steadily or unsteadily. It is essentially a balance, an
opposition of ends and beginnings. In its simplest terms it is
a contrasted description of two moments in a great life, rising
and setting; an elaboration of the ancient and intensely moving
contrast between youth and age, first achievement and final
death. It is divided in consequence into two opposed portions,
different in matter, manner, and length: A from 1 to 2199
(including an exordium of 52 lines); B from 2200 to 3182 (the
end). There is no reason to cavil at this proportion; in any case,
for the purpose and the production of the required effect, it
proves in practice to be right.
This simple and static structure, solid and strong, is in each
part much diversified, and capable of enduring this treatment. In
the conduct of the presentation of Beowulf ’s rise to fame on the
one hand, and of his kingship and death on the other, criticism
can find things to question, especially if it is captious, but also
much to praise, if it is attentive. But the only serious weakness,
or apparent weakness, is the long recapitulation: the report of
Beowulf to Hygelac. This recapitulation is well done. Without
serious discrepancy28 it retells rapidly the events in Heorot, and
retouches the account; and it serves to illustrate, since he himself
describes his own deeds, yet more vividly the character of a
young man, singled out by destiny, as he steps suddenly forth in
his full powers. Yet this is perhaps not quite sufficient to justify
the repetition. The explanation, if not complete justification, is
probably to be sought in different directions.
27
For one thing, the old tale was not first told or invented by
this poet. So much is clear from investigation of the folk-tale
analogues. Even the legendary association of the Scylding court
with a marauding monster, and with the arrival from abroad
of a champion and deliverer was probably already old. The
plot was not the poet’s; and though he has infused feeling and
significance into its crude material, that plot was not a perfect
vehicle of the theme or themes that came to hidden life in
the poet’s mind as he worked upon it. Not an unusual event
in literature. For the contrast—youth and death—it would
probably have been better, if we had no journeying. If the single
nation of the Geatas had been the scene, we should have felt the
stage not narrower, but symbolically wider. More plainly should
we have perceived in one people and their hero all mankind
and its heroes. This at any rate I have always myself felt in
reading Beowulf; but I have also felt that this defect is rectified
by the bringing of the tale of Grendel to Geatland. As Beowulf
stands in Hygelac’s hail and tells his story, he sets his feet firm
again in the land of his own people, and is no longer in danger
of appearing a mere wrecca, an errant adventurer and slayer of
bogies that do not concern him.
There is in fact a double division in the poem: the
fundamental one already referred to, and a secondary but
important division at line 1887. After that the essentials of
the previous part are taken up and compacted, so that all the
tragedy of Beowulf is contained between 1888 and the end.29
But, of course, without the first half we should miss much
incidental illustration; we should miss also the dark background
of the court of Heorot that loomed as large in glory and
doom in ancient northern imagination as the court of Arthur:
no vision of the past was complete without it. And (most
important) we should lose the direct contrast of youth and age
in the persons of Beowulf and Hrothgar which is one of the
chief purposes of this section: it ends with the pregnant words
oþ þæt hine yldo benam mægenes wynnum, se þe oft manegum scod.
In any case we must not view this poem as in intention
an exciting narrative or a romantic tale. The very nature
of Old English metre is often misjudged. In it there is no
28
single rhythmic pattern progressing from the beginning of
a line to the end, and repeated with variation in other lines:
The lines do not go according to a tune. They are founded
on a balance; an opposition between two halves of roughly
equivalent30 phonetic weight, and significant content, which
are more often rhythmically contrasted than similar. They
are more like masonry than music. In this fundamental fact
of poetic expression I think there is a parallel to the total
structure of Beowulf. Beowulf is indeed the most successful Old
English poem because in it the elements, language, metre,
theme, structure, are all most nearly in harmony. Judgement
of the verse has often gone astray through listening for an
accentual rhythm and pattern: and it seems to halt and stumble.
Judgement of the theme goes astray through considering it
as the narrative handling of a plot: and it seems to halt and
stumble. Language and verse, of course, differ from stone
or wood or paint, and can be only heard or read in a time-
sequence; so that in any poem that deals at all with characters
and events some narrative element must be present. We have
none the less in Beowulf a method and structure that within
the limits of the verse-kind approaches rather to sculpture or
painting. It is a composition not a tune.
This is clear in the second half. In the struggle with Grendel
one can as a reader dismiss the certainty of literary experience
that the hero will not in fact perish, and allow oneself to share
the hopes and fears of the Geats upon the shore. In the second
part the author has no desire whatever that the issue should
remain open, even according to literary convention. There
is no need to hasten like the messenger, who rode to bear
the lamentable news to the waiting people (2892 ff.). They
may have hoped, but we are not supposed to. By now we are
supposed to have grasped the plan. Disaster is foreboded.
Defeat is the theme. Triumph over the foes of man’s precarious
fortress is over, and we approach slowly and reluctantly the
inevitable victory of death.31
‘In structure’, it was said of Beowulf, ‘it is curiously weak, in a
sense preposterous,’ though great merits of detail were allowed.
In structure actually it is curiously strong, in a sense inevitable,
29
though there are defects of detail. The general design of the
poet is not only defensible, it is, I think, admirable. There may
have previously existed stirring verse dealing in straightforward
manner and even in natural sequence with Beowulfâ†œ’s deeds, or
with the fall of Hygelac; or again with the fluctuations of the
feud between the houses of Hrethel the Geat and Ongentheow
the Swede; or with the tragedy of the Heathobards, and the
treason that destroyed the Scylding dynasty. Indeed this must
be admitted to be practically certain: it was the existence
of such connected legends—connected in the mind, not
necessarily dealt with in chronicle fashion or in long semi-
historical poems—that permitted the peculiar use of them in
Beowulf. This poem cannot be criticized or comprehended,
if its original audience is imagined in like case to ourselves,
possessing only Beowulf in splendid isolation. For Beowulf was
not designed to tell the tale of Hygelac’s fall, or for that matter
to give the whole biography of Beowulf, still less to write the
history of the Geatish kingdom and its downfall. But it used
knowledge of these things for its own purpose—to give that
sense of perspective, of antiquity with a greater and yet darker
antiquity behind. These things are mainly on the outer edges
or in the background because they belong there, if they are to
function in this way. But in the centre we have an heroic figure
of enlarged proportions.
Beowulf is not an ‘epic’, not even a magnified ‘lay’. No terms
borrowed from Greek or other literatures exactly fit: there is
no reason why they should. Though if we must have a term,
we should choose rather ‘elegy’. It is an heroic-elegiac poem;
and in a sense all its first 3,136 lines are the prelude to a dirge:
him þa gegiredan Geata leode ad ofer eorðan unwaclicne: one of the
most moving ever written. But for the universal significance
which is given to the fortunes of its hero it is an enhancement
and not a detraction, in fact it is necessary, that his final foe
should be not some Swedish prince, or treacherous friend, but
a dragon: a thing made by imagination for just such a purpose.
Nowhere does a dragon come in so precisely where he should.
But if the hero falls before a dragon, then certainly he should
achieve his early glory by vanquishing a foe of similar order.
30
There is, I think, no criticism more beside the mark than
that which some have made, complaining that it is monsters
in both halves that is so disgusting; one they could have
stomached more easily. That is nonsense. I can see the point
of asking for no monsters. I can also see the point of the
situation in Beowulf. But no point at all in mere reduction
of numbers. It would really have been preposterous, if the
poet had recounted Beowulfâ†œ’s rise to fame in a ‘typical’ or
‘commonplace’ war in Frisia, and then ended him with a
dragon. Or if he had told of his cleansing of Heorot, and then
brought him to defeat and death in a ‘wild’ or ‘trivial’ Swedish
invasion! If the dragon is the right end for Beowulf, and I
agree with the author that it is, then Grendel is an eminently
suitable beginning. They are creatures, feond mancynnes, of
a similar order and kindred significance. Triumph over the
lesser and more nearly human is cancelled by defeat before
the older and more elemental. And the conquest of the ogres
comes at the right moment: not in earliest youth, though the
nicors are referred to in Beowulfâ†œ’s geogoðfeore as a presage of
the kind of hero we have to deal with; and not during the later
period of recognized ability and prowess;32 but in that first
moment, which often comes in great lives, when men look up
in surprise and see that a hero has unawares leaped forth. The
placing of the dragon is inevitable: a man can but die upon his
death-day.
Notes
27. Though only explicitly referred to here and in disagreement,
this edition is, of course, of great authority, and all who have used it
have learned much from it.
28. I am not concerned with minor discrepancies at any point in
the poem. They are no proof of composite authorship, nor even of
incompetent authorship. It is very difficult, even in a newly invented
tale of any length, to avoid such defects; more so still in rehandling
old and oft-told tales. The points that are seized in the study, with
a copy that can be indexed and turned to and fro (even if never read
straight through as it was meant to be), are usually such as may easily
escape an author and still more easily his natural audience. Virgil
certainly does not escape such faults, even within the limits of a single
book. Modern printed tales, that have presumably had the advantage
31
of proof-correction, can even be observed to hesitate in the heroine’s
Christian name.
29. The least satisfactory arrangement possible is thus to read only
lines 1–1887 and not the remainder. This procedure has none the less
been, from time to time, directed or encouraged by more than one
‘English syllabus’.
30. Equivalent, but not necessarily equal, certainly not as such
things may be measured by machines.
31. That the particular bearer of enmity, the Dragon, also dies
is important chiefly to Beowulf himself. He was a great man. Not
many even in dying can achieve the death of a single worm, or the
temporary salvation of their kindred. Within the limits of human life
Beowulf neither lived nor died in vain—brave men might say. But
there is no hint, indeed there are many to the contrary, that it was
a war to end war, or a dragon-fight to end dragons. It is the end of
Beowulf, and of the hope of his people.
32. We do, however, learn incidentally much of this period: it is
not strictly true, even of our poem as it is, to say that after the deeds
in Heorot Beowulf ‘has nothing else to do’. Great heroes, like great
saints, should show themselves capable of dealing also with the
ordinary things of life, even though they may do so with a strength
more than ordinary. We may wish to be assured of this (and the poet
has assured us), without demanding that he should put such things in
the centre, when they are not the centre of his thought.
Joan Blomfield on Style

The setting out of the material is not in Beowulf an evolution,
following one main line or connecting thread. Instead, the
subject is disposed as a circumscribed field in which the themes
are drawn out by a centre of attraction—in this case, the
character of the good warrior. Far-flung tales and allusions,
apparently scattered material and disconnected events are
grouped in a wide sweep around the hero’s character. In fact,
these are his character, and their significance in the poem
consists in this particular relation; by comparisons we are shown
Beowulfâ†œ’s nature, by searchlights into the past and future we are
to sense the magnitude and true import of his achievements.
From this periphery he draws his substance and reality. By
these means he lives and his destiny impregnates the whole
poem. The good warrior is displayed as a being consummated
32
through all phases of his life and in all aspects of his character.
The whole progress from adventurous youth to wisdom-
weighted old age, many discreet elements—the bear-warrior
strength, the knightly courtesy, vanity beside humility, and so
on—are comprehended in this static unity. It has often been
observed that there is no development of plot or character. The
concluding state of affairs must be implicit in the beginning.
With such a plan, a pre-ordained course of events, familiar
topics, and stock situations are essential for the achievement of
depth and scope. Not by transitions and transformations but
by suggestion of the ever-present identity of seed in fruit and
fruit in seed does the poet adjust the emotional tension. The
reference to the burning of Heorot woven into the description
of its first glories, and the forecast of family strife while yet all
is well in Hroðgar’s court are straightforward instances. More
complex is the messenger’s announcement of Beowulfâ†œ’s death1:
at great length he recounts the rising to power of the Geats—
now to fall a prey to peoples they had overcome; their downfall
will be the direct consequence of Beowulfâ†œ’s death—who died
in defending them; he þe us beagas geaf has gained with his last
breath yet more beagas,2 treasure which is thus his personal
perquisite, which in perishing with him on the pyre, shall
symbolize the joys now to pass for ever from the Geats.3 This
tendency to antithesis, frequently verging on paradox, and the
constant play of irony are but stylistic manifestations of those
movements of the poet’s thought which shape the very stuff of
the poem.
Stylistic detail might be expected to give reliable indications
of the lines on which the theme is constructed; and it is
fortunate that the style of Beowulf has attracted a large share
of the most discerning criticism. Analysis of style is in this
case a justifiable approach to analysis of structure. The general
impression that Beowulf, lacking clarity and speed, is remarkable
rather for depth and vibrancy needs explanation in terms both
of style and of structure. These effects are partly due to a
method of evocation and cross-reference in which contrast is an
important element. Notable examples of description by contrast
are the allusions to Sigemund, Heremod, and Offa; and there
33
are constant lesser instances of this method and its corollary,
parallelism. As a structural principle, it may be traced in the
antiphonal exordium. We hear first of the mighty destiny and
wide fame of the Scyldings.4 The crescendo of Scylding power
rouses opposing forces of cunning evil ever lurking to reverse
the prosperity of mankind; by Grendel’s raids the fame of the
Scyldings is blasted, the utmost human effort frustrated, the
mightiest of rulers made impotent. Beowulf is then introduced
in the all-powerful enterprise of untried youth. Here the
concentration of the double flow increases: for Beowulf is
connected with Hroðgar both by grateful allegiance, because
of the favour shown to his father, and by his undertaking the
trial of valour where others have failed. Complementing the
knowledge that Hroðgar his hold wine is in need is Beowulfâ†œ’s
desire to crown his exploits by the supreme enterprise of
ðing wið þyrse. The duty of allegiance emerges in Hroðgar’s
recapitulation of Beowulfâ†œ’s æþelu (457–72), the demands of
Beowulfâ†œ’s career in his own account of his setting forth5 (405–
41). Both are presaged in the greeting of Wulfgar (338–9), who
recognizes in the bearing of Beowulf the wlenco and higeþrymm
which have brought him to Heorot, as contrasted with wræcsið
(which brought his father). The allusion is oblique—Wulfgar
is challenging Beowulf as a stranger—and its application by
so much the more pointed. This same alternation is at work
throughout the poem. The suspension of the theme—the
“balance” of which Professor Tolkien speaks—demands a
constant confrontation of similar and dissimilar.
A fundamental element in this balance is the poet’s
distribution of his material within the orbit of a central idea.
The descriptive method of recurrence-with-elaboration
distributes epithets and qualifying phrases in this way. The
simplest form is piling of varied repetition, of the type:
eorlscipe efnde, ealdre geneðde, mare o fremede (2,132–3). 6
More complicated is the type: þonne heoru bunden, hamere
geþruen, sweord swate fah swin ofer helme ecgum dyhtig andweard
scireð (128–7), or forðon he ær fela nearo neðende niða gedigde,
hildehlemma, sydðan he Hroðgares, sigoreadig seeg, sele fælsode;
and at guðe forgrap Grendeles mægum Wan cynnes (2,349–53).7
34
Here the amplification of several interdependent ideas is
carried through by turns, so that the parts of the sentence
are interlocked by a spaced and cumulative reinforcement—a
method which reaches its ultimate development in the poetry
of the Norse skalds. And in the last analysis, the “synonyms” so
characteristic of Old English poetic diction express in little the
multiplicity, the resolution into separate aspects, shown in the
presentation of the theme itself.
For the structure of the poem is not sequential, but
complemental; at the outset certain parts of a situation are
displayed, and these are given coherence and significance
by progressive addition of its other parts. Already Klaeber
has noticed a circumscribing movement, and in the most
penetrating passages of his criticism he constantly recurs to
this idea.8 He recognizes “an organic relation between the
rhetorical characteristics and certain narrower linguistic facts
as well as the broader stylistic features and peculiarities of the
narrative” (p. lxv), citing in particular “retardation by means of
variations and parenthetical utterances” and further elaborating
the idea in his statement: “The preponderance of the nominal
over the verbal element, one of the outstanding features of
the ancient diction, runs parallel to the favourite practice of
stating merely the result of an action and of dwelling on a state
or situation.” Yet having worked out this organic relation and
as good as stated the pervading conception imposing form on
the whole material out to its fringes of verbal detail, he can
suggest no structural unity, but speaks instead of “looseness”
and “matter more or less detached from the chief narrative”
(pp. liii, lvii).
Klaeber has noted the outstanding instances of a
circumambient structure, although the heading under which
he groups them—Lack of Steady Advance—again shows that
he does not allow the principle its fundamental importance.
Most clearly in the fight with Grendel, but also to some extent
in the slaying of Grendel’s mother and the account of the
dragon’s hoard, we see the unfolding of an event into its separate
aspects. Apparently, the sum of them all—synchronism and the
momentary visual impression—is the one aspect not considered
35
poetically significant. The course of the fight in the hall is several
times reviewed,9 each time in different terms and with varying
emphasis. Grendel’s movements and motives and his final sense
of defeat are first described (745–57). The poet next reverts to
Beowulfâ†œ’s grapple, considered as a fulfilment of his œfemprœc. In
764–5 the climax, the tearing off of Grendel’s arm, is obscurely
stated in a metaphor.10 The fight is then represented from the
point of view of the Danes (765–90) who hear the din raging
within their hall; the climax is here marked by the shriek of
defeat, which is elaborated at some length (782–88). Lastly, the
sensations of the Geats when they see their lord at grips with
the monster provide an opportunity for contrasting Grendel’s
magic immunity from bite of iron with his impotence against the
decrees of providence (801–15); these reflections are concluded
with an explicit account of the severing of the claw, darkly alluded
to before. The outcome for each of the three parties—Beowulf,
Grendel, and the Danes—is then summed up, and the severed
claw again mentioned, this time as the proof and symbol of
Grendel’s final defeat. A similar disregard for the synchronizing
of the separate aspects of an action is seen in the defeat of
Grendel’s mother. Throughout the struggle the poet draws out
the implications of each stage; he describes the virtues of the
magic sword which Beowulf seizes in his desperation (1,557 ff.),
occupies seven lines with the brandishing and victorious thrust,
and next proceeds to display in one of his rare similes the flash
of light which marks the defeat of the sorceress (1,570–2). The
beheading of Grendel’s corpse is also worthy of note. Much space
is given to the retribution implied in this act, and the appearance
of the huge headless body is touched upon: only in the final
phrase is it stated ond hine þa heafde becearf.
Notes
1. 2,900–3,075.
2. 3,011–14:
þær is maðma hord

gold unrime grimme gecea(po)d
ond nu set siðestan sylfes feore
beagas (geboh)te.
36
3. 3015–24.
4. Contributory themes in the same manner are insinuated: Scyld’s
rich burial is contrasted with his destitute arrival, and the last state of
Heorot with the first.
5. Cf.
hæbbe ic mærða fela

ongunnen on geogoþe
and the emphasis on ana (425, 437).

6. See also 50–2; 1,228–9; 1,408–10; 2,421–3; 2,602–4.
7. See also 194–8; 1,368–72; 1,477–20; 1,448–54; 2,356–9.
8. “Irregular, circuitous movements,” p. lxv; “circuitous route,” p.
lxiii; “The thought of this passage, though proceeding by a circuitous
route, is not obscure,” note on 86–114: Klaeber’s Beowulf, 3rd edition,
1936.
9. Cf. Klaeber, pp. lviii and note on 710 ff.
10. In support of this interpretation, cf. other instances of the
concrete defined in abstract terms: fela laf; wœteregesa, “the terrible
waters”; fugles wynn, Rid. 277, and the probable double entendre in
feorhlastas, 846.
Stanley B. Greenfield on the Epic Quality

Although the digressions in the second part of Beowulf have
been fruitful material for historically-oriented students of the
poem, they have been somewhat unyielding to literary critics.
The former have found ample sustenance in Hygelac’s Frisian
expedition, the poem’s one historically verifiable fact; and
with the aid of archaeological evidence and the testimony of
Scandinavian saga they have drawn the battle lines between
Swedes and Geats. The latter, concerned with structural unity
and aesthetic decorum, have too frequently felt constrained
to denigrate the second part of Beowulf. They find the fight
with the dragon too much encumbered with “history”, with
retrospection and prognostication, as if the poet had not found
his dragon combustible enough and needed more fuel for his
poetic fire. These critics are more apt to perceive an aesthetic
rationale in the digressions and episodes of Part I: in the tragic
dramas of Finn and Ingeld, in the comparisons of Beowulf to
37
Sigemund and Heremod, in the poignant foreshadowíngs of
Danish downfall. Even favorable criticism of Part II has largely
relegated the historical material to a background or framework
role, viewing it in approving but rather general terms. For
example:
. . . the whole elaborately investigated matter of the

Geatish-Swedish wars, which seem to play so relatively
large a part in the later Beowulf, is really significant from
the point of view of the poem, as part of a lively and
most moving framework or setting in which the rising
tragedy of the hero can the more effectively be brought
home—not only the tragedy of Beowulf, but the temporal
tragedy of men in this world. Or one might say that these
allusions and digressions, like so many others, help to give
something of universal quality and meaning to the poem.1
That the Beowulf-poet has handled the events of Geatish

history with insight and poetic power the recent researches of
Adrien Bonjour and Arthur G. Brodeur2 clearly demonstrate,
and the observations which follow are designed, for the most
part, to supplement their perceptions. First let us consider in
certain historical passages the poet’s selection of events from
the totality of “history” in the poem, the themes he seems to
emphasize in the different selections, and some aspects of the
diction in these accounts.
Three passages in Part II of Beowulf conjoin Hygelac’s
Frisian raid and the Swedish-Geatish wars: lines 2349b–2399a,
2425–2515, and 2910b–3000. (There is a fourth reference to
the wars which stands by itself, accounting for the provenience
of Wiglafâ†œ’s sword. This passage structurally balances an earlier
reference to Hygelac’s death in Part I of the poem.) The
circumstances of the Frisian Fall come easily to mind: Hygelac’s
at-first-successful foray and ultimate defeat by the Hetware,
Beowulfâ†œ’s revenge on Hygelac’s slayer, and the champion’s
escape over the sea with thirty suits of armor. The Northern
wars offer more trouble to the memory. As Miss Whitelock
remarks, “The poet’s account of these matters is scattered,
38
and out of chronological order, so that modern readers find
it difficult to gather the sequence of events without the aid of
pencil and paper”.3 It may not be amiss, therefore, to set down
briefly the dramatis personae and chronology of events in these
wars, that we may see the historic totality plain.
On the Geatish side, the principal actors are King Hrethel
and his sons Herebeald, Haethcyn, and Hygelac; Hygelac’s wife
Hygd and son Heardred; and Beowulf, Hygelac’s nephew. On
the Swedish side are King Ongentheow and his sons Ohthere
and Onela, and Ohthere’s sons Eanmund and Eadgils. The wars
begin after Hrethel’s death from sorrow over the unavenged
and unavengeable death of his eldest son. With Haethcyn on
the Geatish throne, an attack is made, but as to who dared
first presume, critics still debate (see note 13). The upshot
is the battle at Ravenswood in Sweden, where Ongentheow
kills Haethcyn and threatens to exterminate his followers. But
when Hygelac comes to the aid of his brother, Ongentheow
prudently retreats into his fortress. But retreat is insufficient,
and there he is killed by the Geat brothers Wulf and Eofor,
whom Hygelac rewards handsomely. The first phase of the feud
is ended, with the Geats victorious.
Ohthere rules in Sweden when Hygelac, now King of the
Geats, makes his fatal raid on the Franks. He rules, too, during
the period of Beowulfâ†œ’s regency. But when Heardred reaches
maturity and occupies his rightful place as king, Onela, much
to the wintry discontent of Ohthere’s son Eanmund, occupies
the Swedish throne. Eanmund and his brother Eadgils,
revolting against their uncle, are forced to flee; they take
refuge with Heardred in Geatland. Onela pursues, and having
killed Eanmund and his Geatish protector, he departs, leaving
Beowulf to rule the Geats. In uferan do-grum Beowulf supports
Eadgils against Onela, avenging Heardred’s death when Onela
falls. Finally, with Beowulfâ†œ’s own death in the fight with the
dragon, it is predicted that the Swedes will again attack, and
this time destroy the Geats as a nation.
So much for a chronological reconstruction. But how do we
actually learn about the historic events? How may we construe
their segmented presentation in the three passages under
39
consideration? We may first note, with Brodeur,4 that the three
accounts are presented from different points of view: the poet’s,
Beowulfâ†œ’s, and Wiglafâ†œ’s Messenger’s. . . .
Passage III (lines 2910b–3000), the third point of view on the
wars, is part of the speech of Wiglafâ†œ’s Messenger. Unlike the
first two passages, it does not move chronologically. First the
Messenger alludes to the Fall of Hygelac; then he moves back
in time to give the longest exposition of the first phase of the
wars between Swedes and Geats, supplying the needed details
in the Ongentheow-Haethcyn-Eofor battles. This order of
events stresses the conflict in the North as the ultimate source of
Geatish destruction. Thematically, the Messenger’s speech has
a double concern: presumption and rewards. Whereas the poet,
in referring to the Fall of Hygelac, had focused on Beowulfâ†œ’s
survival, and Beowulf had emphasized revenge, the Messenger
views the outcome of the action as a result of Hygelac’s
arrogance9 in making the raid; and in his account of the Swedish-
Geatish feud, he finds the Geats presumptuous and the causa
belli.10 He dwells on Hygelac’s inability to give treasure when
he was killed in Frisia, contrasting with his largess in rewarding
Eofor and Wulf for their dispatching of Ongentheow. The
Messenger minimizes the concept of revenge until he begins his
prophecy of doom: “Þæt ys sîo fæhðo ond se fêondscipe, / . . .
ðe ic / we-n / hafo.” His emphasis on arrogance vs. humbling
and on treasures paid and unpaid suits the context of his speech
very well: the death of Beowulf and the renewal of feud begun
in arrogance and ending in loss of treasure to all—the maiden
who will tread a foreign land deprived of gold, the reburial
of the cursed and useless treasure, and the ultimate loss of
gle-odre-am to all the Geats.
The apparent contradictions between Passages II and
III (and the earlier reference to Hygelac’s Fall) may best be
viewed, I think, in terms of their speakers and contexts. Since
Beowulf, in Passage II, is intent on revenge as he prepares
his attack on the old night-flyer, it is aesthetically suitable
and psychologically proper that he single out his revenge
on Daeghrefn in talking about Hygelac’s Fall, that he blame
the sons of Ongentheow for starting the Northern feud, and
40
that he give credit obliquely to Hygelac in propria persona for
avenging Haethcyn’s death. It is understandable, too, that he
should intimate that he prevented the famous necklace from
passing into the hands of the Franks. He is a Germanic warrior
uttering his gylp, however subdued and elegiac the tone of that
boast may be. The Messenger, on the other hand, has another
axe to grind. As a result of Beowulfâ†œ’s Fall, the Geats themselves
will fall; and he is determined to locate the responsibility for
the imminent disaster in the Geats: in their aggression against
the Frisians, in large measure already paid for, and in their
aggression against the Swedes, not yet fully paid for.11 He by-
passes the more recent phase of the wars, involving the sons
of Ohthere and their uncle Onela—more a Swedish civil war,
anyway, as Bonjour has pointed out,12 in which the Geats got
accidentally involved—in favor of the ruin and destruction the
Geats in their arrogance carried to Ongentheow. Even if we
accept Dobbie’s reconciliation of the two different accounts of
the start of hostilities, that “we are probably to understand that
the first invasion was made by the Swedes . . . and that shortly
thereafter Haethcyn initiated a war of retaliation and invaded
Sweden”,13 the difference in emphasis in Beowulfâ†œ’s and the
Messenger’s speeches remains and is, I believe, aesthetically
effective. Also, the Messenger, like the poet in Passage I and
unlike Beowulf, achieves a fine balance of sympathy between
the Geats, of whom he is one, and the Swedes, the traditional
enemy, broadening our perspective once again as the epic
draws toward its appointed end. If the passages are thus viewed,
no real contradictions exist; we are presented rather with
refractions of historical truth seen through the prisms of the
speaker’s perspectives and states of mind.
The Beowulf-poet’s artistry is amply revealed in these
three prismatic views of Geatish history. Where Olympian
detachment sustains a theme of survival, heroic purpose lingers
on revenge, and vatic admonition, in turn, sees beyond heroic
presumption. The totality of such views and themes may
well lead to the universal quality that Wrenn and others have
noted. Perhaps it also contributes to the epic quality of the Old
English poem.14
41
Coleridge has defined what seems to me to be a central
attribute of epic: in epic, he says, Fate subordinates human will
to its purposes; human will, in effect, subserves the larger ends of
destiny.15 Such a Fate-controlled universe we find in Homer, in
Vergil, in Milton. Odysseus’s will, for example, in a sense serves
the purposes of Poseidon and Athena, and Hector stands before
Troy’s gate because Fate will have it so; Aeneas leaves his Dido to
fulfill his destiny and Rome’s; and Adam and Eve, though acting
freely, are clearly attuned to God’s providence. In Beowulf, epic
effect is achieved differently. Wyrd and God may be repeatedly
mentioned, but their force is less personal, less directive, than
the Olympian and Heavenly decrees. The poem gives us no
sense that Beowulf moves through his heroic deeds in accord
with a higher will. Rather, Beowulfâ†œ’s is an historic destiny, as
are all the doom-laden movements of the poem. The Scylding
dynasty will fall—because historically it fell; the Geats will lose
their national independence—because history records the loss.
Wyrd will no longer grant Beowulf unalloyed victory when he
fights the dragon—because the doom of the Geats is nigh. There
is no “higher” destiny in Beowulf; and yet there is epic sweep.
If there is a distinction and withal a similarity between other
epics and Beowulf, it is in the kinds of destiny manifest; and it
is precisely in the accretion of historical material—the many-
viewed repetitions of the Swedish-Geatish wars in particular—
that we are made epically aware. While the universal quality
of other epics may reside in the assimilation of human motives
and forces to suprahuman though basically anthropomorphic
purposes, in Beowulf, it would appear, history subsumes the hero
as an individual. This historic destiny, in a centrally significant
way, universalizes and makes epic this Old English heroic poem.
Notes
1. C. L. Wrenn, ed., Beowulf (London, 1953, 1958), p. 73.
2. Adrien Bonjour, The Digressions in Beowulf (Oxford, 1950);
Arthur G. Brodeur, The Art of Beowulf (Berkeley and Los Angeles,
1959), esp. Chap. III.
3. Dorothy Whitelock, The Audience of Beowulf (Oxford, 1951),
p.â•¯54.
4. Brodeur, op. cit., pp. 83–85.
42
9. Most edited texts read genægdon “attacked” in line 29l6b to avoid
alliteration on the fourth stress of the line; but the MS. has ge hnœgdon
“humbled”. Cf. the poet’s account in Part I of the poem, in the earliest
reference to Hygelac’s raid, lines 1206–07a: “syddan he- for wlenco
we-an a-hsode, / fæhðe to- Frysum.”
10. The passage is, I am aware, subject to differing interpretations.
I follow Klaeber (Beowulf, 3rd ed.) here, p. xxxviii: “It is started by the
Swedes, who attack their Southern neighbors. . . .”
11. The Messenger’s emphasis on the Geats’ past aggressiveness
contrasts ironically with their unheroic behavior in the dragon fight.
It is not just Beowulfâ†œ’s death that will precipitate the Geats’ downfall,
but report of their cowardly conduct, as Wiglaf had made clear to
them. After all, Beowulf was old and would have died soon anyway;
but there is bitter irony in the fact that the circumstances of his death
gave the Geats the opportunity to show their cowardice, thus inviting
their neighbor’s attack. The Geats are responsible for their own
destruction. Not enough emphasis is placed on this point, it seems to
me, in discussions on the “tragedy” of Beowulfâ†œ’s death.
12. Bonjour, op. cit., p. 42.
13. E. V. K. Dobbie, ed., Beowulf and Judith, ASPR IV (New York,
1953), p. xxxix.
14. For some indication of critical hesitancy to call Beowulf an
epic, see note 6 of my article, “Beowulf and Epic Tragedy”, CL, xiv
(1962), 92.
15. Samuel T. Coleridge, Shakespearean Criticism, ed. Thomas M.
Raysor (London, 1960), I, 125.
Edward B. Irving, Jr. on Negative Definitions

Since a study of all the rhetorical patterns would be a book in
itself, we must limit ourselves to examining a few important
patterns. Most of this chapter will be concerned with negative
constructions, since they have always been recognized as a
striking feature of Germanic rhetoric. They surely play a major
role in creating the impression of a persistent tone of irony and
understatement that modern readers receive from this poetry,
and they also have much to do with the usual representation of
behavior in extreme terms. Particular attention will be given to
that form of rhetorical heightening which is provided by the
frequent combination of a negative clause or phrase with the
adversative conjunction ac or with other words such as hwæðre
43
or swa þeah, with the general meaning usually something like:
“It is by no means A; on the contrary it is B.”2
The poet may use negative terms to state or amplify his
conception of what a true hero should be in two different
ways. He may mention what a true hero is not or does not do
(namely, bad things), or he may mention what a nonhero is not
or does not do (namely, good things).
Let us begin by looking at some examples of the second
kind of statement, in which characters or behavior more
or less sharply defined as being the opposite of heroic are
typically described. Two such examples occur in the passage
in Hrothgar’s sermon where the wicked king Heremod is
described. Heremod is, to be sure, an antitype of the ideal king
rather than of the ideal hero, but the passage illustrates the
principle of the construction especially well.
Ne wearð Heremod swa

eaforum Ecgwelan, Arscyldingum;
ne geweox he him to willan, ac to wælfealle
ond to deaðcwalum Deniga leodum.3 (1709b–12)
Heremod was not so [helpful] to the descendants of

Ecgwela, to the honorable Scyldings; he did not grow
up to be what they wished—far from it, he grew into the
slaughter and violent death of the Danish people.
In such a passage we can sense the full rhetorical effect of this

adversative form of statement. Here we have the energetic
clash of powerful opposites: growth, potentiality for good, and
the people’s will on one hand; murder and destructiveness on
the other. On one side of the ac fulcrum is stated (in negative
terms) one ideal of true kingship: that the king grow into what
his people wish him to be, or that he grow to become loved
by his people. On the other side of the ac the two tautological
compounds wælfealle and deaðcwalum put particularly heavy
stress on the anarchic violence we actually find in this king.
Heremod’s brutality leads to alienation from humanity, as we
see in the following lines:
44
breat bolgenmod beodgeneatas,
eaxlgesteallan, oþþæt he ana hwearf,
mære ðeoden, mondreamum from. (1713–15)
In furious anger he cut down his table-companions and

comrades in arms, until at last he went off alone, that
famous prince, away from men’s joys.
Keeping two opposites alive simultaneously in the hearer’s

mind (in this instance, attributes of good and bad kings) may be
the most important function of this form of rhetoric.
What we find here, and in many similar passages, is a
form of statement in terms of extremes, where poetic energy
may originate in the violent oscillation of sense from one
extreme to another. Our second example, from the passage
immediately following the lines we have quoted, shows just
such an effect.
Deah þe hine mihtig god mægenes wynnum,

eafeþum stepte, ofer ealle men
forð gefremede, hwæþere him on ferhþe greow
breosthord blodreow. Nallas beagas geaf
Denum æfter dome; dreamleas gebad
þæt he þæs gewinnes weorc þrowade,
leodbealo longsum. (1716–22a)
Even though mighty God had favored him and exalted

him beyond all men in joys of might and strength—still
a bloodlust grew in his secret heart. He gave no rings to
any Danes to gain glory; no, he lived to be joyless and to
suffer pain for his violence, and longlasting affliction.
Here hwæþere serves as the rhetorical fulcrum. We are told that,

on the one hand, God, by giving Heremod the same gift of
heroic strength he has given Beowulf, has encouraged him and
raised him above other men. But Heremod suddenly turns to
evil, and to a particular form of evil (stinginess, not giving rings)
that is peculiarly ironic in view of God’s generosity toward him.
45
The very willfulness of his behavior is signaled by the abrupt
adversative transitions hwæþere and nallas. The expression “not
giving rings” is in fact here a notable understatement, since
Heremod apparently murders his subjects. We see the same
expression later in Hrothgar’s sermon, in the exemplum of the
man corrupted by pride and the devil’s arrows, a man much
resembling Heremod:
Þinceð him to lytel þæt he lange heold,

gytsað gromhydig, nallas on gylp seleð
fædde beagas, ond he þa forðgesceaft
forgyteð ond forgymeð, þæs þe him ær god sealde,
wuldres waldend, weorðmynda dæl. (1748–52)
What he has held for so long now seems to him too little;
he covets fiercely—never any longer does he proudly
bestow ornamented rings; and he then ignores and scorns
the created world, the great share of honors which God,
Ruler of glory, had given him.
Even if we leave murder out of the picture, avarice itself

is always something more serious than mere stinginess in
Germanic heroic poetry; it represents the immoral violation of
a personal relationship that happens to be symbolized by the
exchange of material wealth. In this light we may with some
justice regard avarice as a form of extreme behavior.
Unferth, the Dane who insultingly challenges Beowulf
when he arrives at the great Danish hall of Heorot, is in some
respects another antitype of the hero. One negative phrase of
the type we are examining is applied to him:
Gehwylc hiora his ferhþe treowde,

þæt he hæfde mod micel, þeah þe he his magum nære
arfæst æt ecga gelacum. (1166b–68a)
Each of them trusted his spirit, that he had a great heart,

even though he had not been honorable to his kinsmen in
the play of sword-edges.
46
The past history of Unferth and his position at Hrothgar’s
court are by no means clear and may never be, but this remark
by the poet, couched as it is in the habitual ironic mode of
understatement, can hardly mean anything other than that
Unferth has murdered his kinsmen.4
Again, the cowardly retainers who retreat from the
dragon’s attack and hide in the forest are certainly pictured as
nonheroes:
Næs ða lang to ðon

þæt ða hildlatan holt ofgefan,
tydre treowlogan tyne ætsomne.
Ða ne dorston ær dareðum lacan
on hyra mandryhtnes miclan þearfe,
ac hy scamiende scyldas bæran,
guðgewædu, þær se gomela læg,
wlitan on Wilaf. (2845b–52a)
It was not long before those slow in battle came out of

the forest, ten cowardly faith-breakers together; they had
not dared to make play with their spears in their lord’s
moment of great need; on the contrary, in shame they
bore shields and armor to where the old man lay, and they
looked at Wiglaf.
Now that the dragon is dead and the danger over, they come
forward quickly, although when they were needed they did not
come at all.5 But the negative clause here (2848–49) serves to
define very plainly their primary obligation as retainers: to come
to their lord’s help when he has need of them. The clause with ac
that follows presents a minor problem in interpretation, however.
Precisely what is being opposed to what? If the emphasis in the
preceding clause is on scamiende, is the chief contrast then between
the retainers’ previous shamelessness in flight and their present
feelings of mortification? More interesting is the possibility of an
ironic contrast between the help they did not bring when it was
so urgently needed and the useless shields and corselets they now
officiously carry to the place where Beowulf lies dead.
47
Another passage in which the retainers’ duty is stated flatly
and unequivocally by means of a negative phrase is the following:
Nealles him on heape handgesteallan,

æðelinga bearn, ymbe gestodon
hildecystum, ac hy on holt bugon,
ealdre burgan. (2596–99a)
In no way did those war-comrades, those sons of

noblemen, take their stand around him in formation as
fighting-men should; no, they fell back into the forest and
took care of their own lives.
This is again rhetorical statement in terms of the polarizing of

possible behavior into two extreme kinds. The alliteration here
of hildecystum and holt draws our attention to the alternatives: to
stand in military formation or to go hide in a forest. As so often
in Old English poetry, and in Germanic literature generally,
this kind of statement vividly dramatizes a character’s free
choice of action, at the same time that a phrase like aeðelinga
bearn reminds us of his hereditary aristocratic obligations.
Heroic life is consistently presented as a series of such radical
choices.
Another possible violation of heroic decorum, though in this
instance certainly a venial one, may be the storm of emotion
that overwhelms King Hrothgar when he says farewell to
Beowulf, as the hero takes leave of Denmark and returns home.
Wæs him se man to þon leof

þæt he þone breostwylm forberan ne mehte,
ac him on hreþre hygebendum fæst
æfter deorum men dyrne langað
beorn wið blode. (1876b–80a)
That man was so dear to him that he could not hold back
the surge in his breast; on the contrary, a secret longing
in his bosom for the dear man strained against rational
restraints, burned in his blood.
48
Beowulfâ†œ’s feelings on this occasion are not described. Assuming
that he too feels some measure of grief, one may perhaps
see a contrast between his stoical behavior and Hrothgar’s
yielding to the expression of emotion (a moment before we
were told of Hrothgar’s tears). But the more important contrast
here is between youth and age (often referred to in this part
of the poem6) rather than between heroic self-restraint and
emotionalism. Hrothgar’s long experience in disappointment
has taught him that they will probably never see each other
again; Beowulf is still too young to see the world this way. The
rhetorical structure of this sentence differs somewhat from
the structure of the previous examples, in that here we have
a parallel rather than the usual contrast, for the ideas of the
dearness of the man, the fight for self-control, and the hot wave
of emotion are really to be found here on both sides of the ac
fulcrum. Possibly the ac construction in this instance may serve
simply to emphasize in a general way the strength of Hrothgar’s
feelings, since such a construction ordinarily suggests some
form of emotional tension.
Let us turn now to some examples of the more common way
of defining the heroic ideal by negations, this time by negating
or denying the nonheroic. It goes without saying that courage
is the most important heroic attribute; consequently there
are a number of negative expressions that allude to the hero’s
courage in terms of his “not fearing” or not showing other
signs of cowardice.7 Not only phrases but compounds like
unforht or (in The Battle of Maldon) unearg (uncowardly) fall into
the same category.
In Maldon, as I have suggested elsewhere, constant reminders
of the possibility of flight from battle do much to increase
the dramatic tension of the poem.8 There, of course, such
verbal reminders operate in the context of a narrative that in
fact describes mass flights. While the flight of the cowardly
retainers does of course take place in Beowulf, it does not have
as much relative importance in the poem; it is merely one
dark background stroke in the tremendous heightening and
brightening of the figure of Beowulf. Even though they are
used less intensively than in Maldon, such formulas probably
49
serve to keep alive at the edge of the audience’s consciousness
the thought that it is after all normal behavior to be frightened
under such conditions.
From an assortment of negative phrases describing other
nonheroic attributes, we might construct an interesting model
of the Anglo-Saxon nonhero: a man who kills his companions
over drinks and secretly weaves an ensnaring net of malice for
others; who has a ferocious temper and the bad manners to find
fault with gift swords.9 Behavior like this may well have been
common in England in the seventh or eighth century, perhaps
even common enough to be called a realistic norm. But, since
such speculation takes us beyond the bounds of our poem,
it would be more profitable to examine these expressions in
context. Three of them happen to occur in the same scene.
The final lines (2101–62) of Beowulfâ†œ’s report to Hygelac
after he has returned to Geatland project an image of Hrothgar
as ideal king, stressing as they do the grief Hrothgar had to
suffer under the oppression of Grendel, the warmth of his
affection for Beowulf, and, above all, his great generosity. The
speech comes to its climax when Beowulf orders Hrothgar’s
splendid gifts to be brought into the hall and presents them
formally to his uncle Hygelac. Hrothgar’s magnanimity is used
here (as nearly everything in the poem is used sooner or later)
to reveal to us Beowulfâ†œ’s own virtues: in this instance, his love,
generosity, and loyalty.
The occurrence of three of our negative expressions in
this triumphant scene is of interest partly because it reveals
what comes into the poet’s mind as he contemplates uncle and
nephew. A central theme all through this passage is fidelity,
symbolized as usual by the exchange of gifts, and, again as usual,
we are urged to think both of the affection that inspires the
gifts and the obligations they entail. It is entirely characteristic
of Old English poetic style that fidelity must be defined or set
off or deepened in meaning by strong hints of its opposite.
In his presentation speech to Hygelac, Beowulf mentions
that the arms Hrothgar has given him once belonged to
Heorogar, Hrothgar’s older brother, and that Hrothgar had
not wished to give them to Heorogar’s son Heoroweard. We
50
are not told what Hrothgar’s reason for this last decision may
have been, but later versions of the story in Saxo Grammaticus
and in the saga of Rolf Kraki make it seem at least possible
that Heoroweard, like his cousin Hrothulf, may also have been
eying his uncle’s throne.10 In any event the reference to the
Scylding royal family must at least have reminded the poet of
some plotting nephew, whether Heoroweard or Hrothulf, for
otherwise the ensuing description of Beowulf as a nephew loyal
to Hygelac would have had little point.
Swa sceal mæg don,

nealles inwitnet oðrum bregdon
dyrnum cræfte, deað ren[ian]
hondgesteallan. Hygelace wæs,
niða heardum, nefa swyðe hold,
ond gehwæðer oðrum hroþra gemyndig. (2166b–71)
This is how a kinsman should behave—and not be secretly

weaving a treacherous net for others or laying a deathtrap
for a comrade. His nephew [Beowulf] was indeed very
loyal to war-toughened Hygelac, and each of them was
attentive to the happiness of the other.
This passage is a good example of the rhetorical effect we have

been discussing. The semantic rhythm here is positive (swa sceal
mæg don)—negative (the nealles clause)—positive (Beowulfâ†œ’s
own loyalty). From a different point of view one could see it as
constructed in another way: the first two parts are statements
of ethical alternatives, while the third is a specific instance of
choice. Beowulf has chosen one of the two possible modes of
behavior.
What is done in miniature in this brief passage is done on a
larger scale in the scene as a whole. Into this scene of absolute
and dedicated fidelity in Hygelac’s hall the poet introduces
a flood of dark reminders of treachery in Heorot, chiefly
through references to Hrothgar (2155), to Hrothgar’s queen
Wealhtheow and the marvelous necklace she gave Beowulf at
the great banquet, and to an unnamed hypothetical nonhero
51
who bears some resemblance both to Unferth and to the evil
Danish king Heremod, as we can see in the following passage:
Swa bealdode bearn Ecgðeowes,

guma guðum cuð, godum dædum,
dreah æfter dome, nealles druncne slog
heorðgeneatas; næs him hreoh sefa,
ac he mancynnes mæste cræfte
ginfæstan gife, þe him god sealde,
heold hildedeor. (2177–83a)
Thus Ecgtheow’s son [Beowulf], a man known in battles,

showed his bravery in heroic deeds, lived to gain glory;
never was he the one to strike comrades over drinks by
the hearth; his temper was never savage. No, with the
greatest strength of mankind this valorous man kept safe
the abundant gifts which God had given him.
Strength and courage are essential to the hero but they are not
enough. Heremod and Unferth, both fatally undisciplined,
showed their aggressiveness in the violent disruption of social
order; Beowulf, while assuredly a veteran warrior, a guma
guðum cuð, saved his fighting for the battlefield. The negative
image of the nonhero is needed here for clearer definition of
the moral requirements of true heroism, as they are embodied
in Beowulf.
Elsewhere and in somewhat different ways, negative phrases
are used to differentiate Beowulf from other men. The Danish
coastguard’s awed reactions to his first sight of Beowulf, for
example, are largely conveyed in a rapid series of expressions
that define the nature of the hero by excluding the expected,
the normal, the usual, by saying what he is not:
No her cuðlicor cuman ongunnon

lindhæbbende; ne ge leafnesword
guðfremmendra gearwe ne wisson,
maga gemedu. Næfre ic maran geseah
eorla ofer eorþan ðonne is eower sum,
52
secg on searwum; nis þæt seldguma,
wæpnum geweorðad, næfne him his wlite leoge,
ænlic ansyn. (244–51a)
Never have shield-bearers arrived here in a more open

way, yet you were not sure of the permission of our
fighting-men or the consent of our kinsmen. I never saw
a bigger man on earth than one of you, that fighter in
armor. He is certainly no hall-lounger, unless his looks
belie him, his noble face.
How can the puzzled coastguard establish the identity

of these strange visitors? He can do it only by excluding
them from successive categories. Their behavior is entirely
different from that of previous visitors to Denmark, who
apparently have come either as deferential guests or as furtive
spies. But these men come openly and confidently; they walk
as if they already had the password. Indeed all the password
they need walks among them in the person of Beowulf.
And so at the end of this passage the coastguard singles out
Beowulf from the rest of the band: he is bigger, braver, of a
more resolute and heroic appearance. Yet it is interesting to
see how such a luminous and compelling image is constructed
out of negative expressions.
Later Wulfgar, who keeps the door of Hrothgar’s hall,
further distinguishes Beowulf and his men from other visitors.
After a moment’s inspection, he concludes that these men
are not only brave men but that they are responsible and
honorable volunteers rather than wreccan, that type so common
in Germanic literature, roving professional adventurers or
refugees from foreign vendettas.
Wen ic þæt ge for wlenco, nalles for wræcsiðum,

ac for higeþrymmum Hroðgar sohton. (338–39)
I believe that you have come to see Hrothgar out of sheer

pride and greatness of spirit, certainly not as adventurers
in exile.
53
Another negative construction (if we may take forhicge as
expressing an essentially negative idea) sets Beowulf apart from
ordinary warriors in respect to his method of fighting:
Ic þæt þonne forhicge . . .

þæt ic sweord bere oþðe sidne scyld,
geolorand to guþe, ac ic mid grape sceal
fon wið feonde ond ymb feorh sacan,
lað wið laþum. (435–40a)
I have no intention on that occasion . . . of carrying any

sword or wide yellow-bordered shield to battle; on the
contrary, I will be obliged to grapple with the fiend with
my hands and fight for life, one enemy against another.
Other warriors in heroic poetry make much of the process of

assembling their weapons for battle, but Beowulf is different.
The difference is most clearly dramatized in the half-ironic
“disarming of the hero” scene just before the fight with
Grendel, in the course of which Beowulf methodically divests
himself of all the traditional accouterments of the epic fighter
in order to meet the monster with his bare hands.
Finally, as king, Beowulf differs from others in his response
to Queen Hygd’s offer to him of the throne of the Geats:
No ðy ær feasceafte findan meahton

æt ðam æðelinge ænige ðinga,
þæt he Heardrede hlaford wære
oððe þone cynedom ciosan wolde;
hwæðre he hine on folce freondlarum heold,
estum mid are, oððæt he yldra wearð,
Wedergeatum weold.11 (2373–79a)
None the sooner could the destitute Geats prevail on

the prince in any way to become Heardred’s lord or
willingly to accept the kingdom; no, he [Beowulf] went
on to maintain Heardred in his proper place in the nation
54
by his friendly advice and respectful affection, until he
[Heardred] grew up to rule over the Storm-Geats.
Placed in a situation of this kind, where the king is only a

child, most men would yield readily to the reasonable pleas
of their people to assume power. Many men would be only
too glad to seize the royal authority. But Beowulf goes to the
other extreme: far from plotting to seize power for himself,
he devotes himself to keeping young Heardred in power
by his friendly counsels. He will not accept a position that
he thinks he does not deserve, even when it is freely (and
probably legally) offered to him by a majority of the Geats
and by their queen.
Defining the Monstrous

Just as the hero can be effectively defined by the use of
negatives, so negatives can serve to describe the hero’s chief
antagonist Grendel, especially in his relation to some familiar
human norm. In fact it may well be that the essential reality
of Grendel is best understood in terms like these, for in
many ways Grendel could be called an instance of Negative
Man. As a fighter and as a “visitor” to the Danish hall that he
devastates, he is often treated ironically as a peculiar kind of
human warrior. But he is set off from ordinary warriors in one
respect, for example, because, as Beowulf points out, for all
his courage and ferocity he does not even know how to fight
with a sword:
Nat he þara goda þæt he me ongean slea,

rand geheawe, þeah ðe he rof sie
niþgeweorca; ac wit on niht sculon
secge ofersittan. (681–84a)
He has no knowledge of how to fight properly, to swing

sword against me and hew at my shield, even though
he is brave in his savage attacks; no, tonight we must do
without swords, the two of us.
55
Not only is Grendel cut off from the normal concerns of a
Germanic warrior by his ignorance of the use of weapons, but
he is further excluded from the ranks of noblemen because he
has no father, or at least his father’s name is not known by men.
þone on geardagum Grendel nemdon

foldbuende. No hie fæder cunnon,
hwæþer him ænig wæs ær acenned
dyrnra gasta. (1354–57a)
People named him Grendel in the old days. They knew

nothing of any father, whether any such mysterious spirit
had ever been born for him.
Since, in all epic poetry, a patronymic is at least as necessary to

a hero as a sword, Grendel’s title to heroic identity is wholly
obscured.
Unlike normal men, Grendel does not pay the Danish
people the honor they surely deserve, but instead he obeys his
own fierce impulses in disposing of them:
Nymeð nydbade, nænegum arað

leode Deniga, ac he lust wigeð,
swefeð ond sendeþ, secce ne weneþ
to Gardenum. Ac ic him Geafa sceal
eafoð ond ellen ungeara nu,
guþe gebeodan. (598–603a)
He extorts toll, and honors no man of the Danish nation;

quite the contrary, he does just as he pleases, butchers
and sends to death (?), expecting no resistance from the
Spear-Danes. But I am the one who will show him very
soon now the strength and courage and fighting-power of
Geatish men.
In this passage we see Grendel beyond the control of any of the

Danes and equally beyond the control of any code of conduct
that would be binding on noblemen.12
56
Grendel and his mother of course live somewhat beyond the
pale, in a lake-bottom home which no human being has ever
seen:
No þæs frod leofað

gumena bearna, þæt þone grund wite. (1366b–67)
No one of the sons of men lives so old and wise that he

knows the bottom [of that lake].
The range of human experience and wisdom cannot even reach

the place where Grendel lives.
As was already suggested, several negative expressions
of this kind are closely related to the poet’s consistent and
ironic presentation of Grendel as a mock thane, and serve
to provide particularly compact and vivid statements of the
irony. Grendel is first shown to us as a wretched exile from
the human race, living in the darkness of social disgrace and
spiritual isolation, perpetually bearing God’s anger. Infuriated
by the harmonious sounds of human joy in Heorot, he comes
first as a “guest” to visit the hall; perhaps he is even viewed
ironically as the good neighbor paying a social call on the
new arrival (Heorot has just been completed and occupied).
When the Danes abandon Heorot, Grendel “rules” there;
it is in the context of a passage describing the wholesale
evacuation of the hall by the terrified Danes that Grendel is
called a “hall-thane” (142). But Grendel’s authority in Heorot
has limits.
Heorot eardode,
sincfage sel sweartum nihtum;
no he þone gifstol gretan moste,
maþðum for metode, ne his myne wisse. (166b–69)
He lived in Heorot, that treasure-bright hall, in the black

nights; but he was never permitted to draw near the gift-
throne or the treasure because of the Lord, and did not
know pleasure in it.13
57
Even though Grendel seems to be living in the hall, he cannot
(perhaps has no wish to) approach the gift-throne—that is to
say, make proper use like an ordinary retainer of the treasure
for which Heorot is so famous. While the much-discussed
phrase for metode might possibly mean in the presence of a
secular lord (who is distributing treasure to his men), more
likely it refers to God and hence suggests that a supernatural
order in the world must finally set limits to the outrages of such
creatures as Grendel.
In another well-known passage, the same kind of irony is
used to bring out Grendel’s distance from mankind. It is almost
as if the Danes in the poem (or at least the audience listening
to the poem) were being invited to try to bring Grendel into
some meaningful and familiar pattern of reference, some
relationship to the structure of human society. In this case the
frame of reference is the Germanic wergild system of monetary
compensation for wrongs done.
Sibbe ne wolde
wið manna hwone mægenes Deniga,
feorhbealo feorran, fea þingian,
ne þær nænig witena wenan þorfte
beorhtre bote to banan folmum,
[ac se] æglæca ehtende wæs,
deorc deaþscua, duguþe ond geogoþe,
seomade ond syrede, sinnihte heold
mistige moras; men ne cunnon
hwyder helrunan hwyrftum scriþað. (154b–63)
He wished no peace-settlement with any man of the

Danish force, and he refused to remove the deadly evil or
to compound by making payment. No wise man had any
cause to hope for the bright remedy from that butcher’s
hands! Far from it—that terrifying creature, the dark
death-shadow, kept on plaguing them, young and old,
tirelessly lying in wait and ambushing them, ruling the
misty moors in endless night. Men do not know where
such mysterious hellions go in their roamings.
58
The lines just preceding this passage have strongly emphasized
the violence of Grendel’s feud with Hrothgar (heteniðas, fyrene,
fæhðe, sæce). But, as we see later in the poem in the story of
Beowulfâ†œ’s own father Ecgtheow, human feuds can be resolved
and peace can be restored, if the participants in feuds want
peace. But sibbe ne wolde—Grendel does not want peace, nor
indeed relationship of any sort with any human being, no
matter how such relationship is (ironically) extended to him.
Denied here emphatically is the (ironic) hope that he will abide
by human laws and pay the fine for his murders, even though
the idea is toyed with almost humorously for a few lines.
The verses that follow (here I assume that the ac se supplied
by most recent editors in line 159 to replace letters lost from
the manuscript is almost certain) move us abruptly, in the
usual way of an ac construction, away from this temporary
accommodation with mankind, this way of seeing Grendel as
somehow human. A man as well as a monster could be called
an æglæca, an inspirer of fear—Beowulf himself is called one
in line 2592—but no man is a deorc deaþscua, a dark shadow of
death. And then we move out quickly even further from the
human center into perpetual night, the misty moors, all those
areas beyond any ordering powers of the human imagination.
As we cannot know his motives, so we cannot know Grendel’s
dwelling-places: men ne cunnon.
An ironic transaction of a somewhat similar kind is
described by Beowulf in his report to Hrothgar on the fight
with Grendel. In order to save his life, Grendel had left his
arm behind when he fled. The act of leaving his arm seems
to be represented as some kind of involuntary offering (and,
if we take feasceaft literally, all he could pay) but this down
payment nets him nothing.
No þær ænige swa þeah

feasceaft guma frofre gebohte;
no þy leng leofað laðgeteona,
synnum geswenced, ac hyne sar hafað
mid nydgripe nearwe befongen,
balwon bendum. Ðær abidan sceal
59
maga mane fah miclan domes,
hu him scir metod scrifan wille. (972b–79)
But the destitute man did not purchase any comfort by

this action; the horrible plunderer, crippled by sin, lived
none the longer for it; on the contrary, pain had seized
him tight in an inescapable grip, in the bonds of death.
And in that place he must wait, that man branded with
crimes, to see how bright God will wish to judge him at
the Great Judgment.
Perhaps it is significant that the words guma and maga, common

words for man, are applied to Grendel in this passage, for what
is stressed here is Grendel’s sinfulness (synnum geswenced, mane
fah) and his ultimate responsibility for his actions in the face
of the Last Judgment. However badly Grendel may seem to
fit the usual patterns of human society and behavior, he is not
an animal; in some higher scheme of order he is seen as human
and therefore responsible. Yet, just as the sacrifice of his arm
gains him no respite, his suffering and death gain him no pity. A
total failure as hero, he wins no glory or reputation in the eyes
of others; he does not even win their momentary sympathy:
No his lifgedal
sarlic þuhte secg ænegum
þara þe tirleases trode sceawode. (841b–43)
His parting from life did not seem pitiable in any way
to any of the men who looked at the trail of one devoid
of glory.
These curious ironic expressions, constantly bringing as they

do the possibility of Grendel’s humanity into the periphery of
our consciousness even in the act of emphatically denying it,
have considerable importance in the meaning of the poem, as
we shall see when we look more closely at Grendel in Chapter
Three. For, despite all his inhuman and monstrous attributes, it
is ultimately Grendel’s human ancestry that makes him the kind
60
of monster he is—the renegade who has deserted humanity to
live in the wilds of exile, the frantic destroyer of the society he
was once symbolically driven from in his ancestor Cain, the
bearer always of the mark of murderer, and the bearer too of
the mark of man.
Notes
2. Some remarks by Randolph Quirk in the introduction to his
book, The Concessive Relation in Old English Poetry (New Haven, Yale
University Press, 1954), probably suggested this general subject to
me originally. I should make clear that the study here means to be
suggestive rather than statistically exhaustive. Not all negatives in the
poem are included, for example, although those negatives that are
made more emphatic by the addition of some intensifier (e.g. nealles,
no, ne . . . wiht) have all been examined. Enough examples will be cited
to point to a pattern, but examples that are of no special rhetorical
interest will sometimes be omitted.
3. The text quoted here and throughout (unless otherwise
indicated) is basically that of E. V. K. Dobbie, Beowulf and Judith,
Anglo-Saxon Poetic Records, 4 (New York, Columbia University
Press, 1953). Dobbie’s text has been somewhat simplified for the
purposes of this book by the omission of his brackets and italics
in those cases where he is indicating readings from the Thorkelin
transcripts. I do use brackets and italics in the customary way to
indicate emendations of the manuscript, however, and I occasionally
modify Dobbie’s punctuation.
4. The reader will find in Chapter Four [of Irving’s book] a more
extensive discussion of the larger context of this scene, the Great
Banquet in Heorot.
5. The phrase næes ða lang to ðon or its equivalent seems at times
to be a half-ironic way of describing a noticeably rapid sequence of
events, as, for example, in Beowulf 2591 or Guthlac 903 ff.
6. For example: ealdum infrodum 1874; oþþæt hine yldo benam /
mægenes wynnum 1886b–87a.
7. For example: nis þæt seldguma 249 (that is no hanger-about in
the hall [but a fighter]); not being frightened but ... 2967b–69; not
fleeing a step but ... 2524b–27a; not dreading battle 2345–49a; not
flinching from violence 1537; not caring about life 1442, 1536.
8. Edward B. Irving, Jr., “The Heroic Style in The Battle of
Maldon,” Studies in Philology, 58 (1961), 457–67.
9. Respectively: nealles druncne slog / heorðgeneatas 2179b–80a;
nealles inwitnet oþrum bregdon / dyrnum cræfte 2167–68a: næs him hreoh
sefa 2180b; nales wordum log / meces ecge 1811b–12a.
61
10. See R. W. Chambers, Beowulf: An Introduction (3d ed. with
a supplement by C. L. Wrenn, Cambridge, The University Press,
1959), pp. 29–30.
11. In line 2377 Dobbie reads him, most other editors hine, for MS
hî.
12. In the latter part of this passage we may note another use
of the ac construction that Beowulf happens not to illustrate very
impressively. Here the ac is an expression of the heroic response,
signaling the deliberate placing of Beowulfâ†œ’s will (or Geatish will,
since the alliteration in line 601 surely reinforces the contrast between
Geats and Danes) against this wildly [corrected] careening force of
evil. Cf. also lines 1269–70. Beowulf has no other good examples,
but this “heroic adversative” can be found in other poems; several
of Juliana’s speeches have this form (Juliana 105–16, 147–57, for
example.)
13. See the note in the second supplement of Fr. Klaeber, Beowulf
and the Fight at Finnsburg (3d ed. Boston, D.C. Heath, 1950), p. 465,
and John C. Pope’s remarks on this passage in his review of Arthur
G. Brodeur’s The Art of Beowulf (Speculum, 37 [1962], 415), where he
paraphrases line 169b as “he feels no gratitude for gifts (or, as I prefer
to think, no affection for treasure).”
T.A. Shippey on Symbols in

the World of the Poem
A consistent fusion of tangible and intangible is built into the

poem’s scenery as into its words. Though the poet never says
straight out that ‘glory’, ‘worth’, ‘treasure’, and ‘weapons’ are
all aspects of the same thing, his phraseology does the job for
him: Beowulf is dome gewurþad at line 1645, just as Hrothgar’s
saddle is since gewurþad at 1038 and the ‘hall-man’ (a tinge of
scepticism here) wæpnum gewurþad, ‘made to look worthy by
weapons’ at 331. Translation must inevitably be cultural as well
as semantic. It is worth noting, though, that this complex of
evaluations is not as alien as it might look. Over the last couple
of centuries modern English has been busily developing the
word ‘prestige’. This meant originally ‘illusion’, but shifted
during the nineteenth century in the direction of ‘influence
or reputation derived from previous character . . . or esp. from
past successes’ (so says the Oxford English Dictionary entry,
62
published in 1909). Now, of course, it has become something
possessed by men of power and (unlike honour) conferred
very largely by the trappings of success—the ‘prestigious’ car,
clothes, wristwatch, home-address. As such it has strong links
with dom and lof. Admittedly, Mr Gladstone in 1878 called
‘prestige’ a ‘base-born thing’ and said specifically that it was
not to be used in translating ancient epics. However, being
‘high-minded’ probably spoils more criticism than being ‘base-
born’. The word is a useful reminder of the way abstracts and
objects can mix.
Swords, halls, and symbols

We are liable to call such mixtures ‘symbolism’. Indeed,
according to the OED a symbol is ‘something that stands for,
represents, or denotes something else . . . esp. a material object
representing or taken to represent something immaterial or
abstract.’ The coastguard’s sword is a symbol, then, a material
object which everyone takes to represent the abstraction weorþ.
However, one can easily imagine a member of Beowulfian
society insisting that this is not symbolism at all, just matter-
of-fact. ‘Look’ (he might say) ‘you wear a sword to show you’re
ready to fight, and people treat you politely because they can
see you are. Distinguishing between being ready physically
(swords), being ready emotionally (courage), and having social
status (honour)—that’s just splitting hairs! The three things
go together, and if you lose any one of them you’ll forfeit the
other two very soon.’ To return to modern terminology, there
is a cause-and-effect relationship between the object and what
it represents (like that between wealth and Rolls-Royces). The
sword is an ‘index’ of honour—admittedly a stylized one—
rather than a ‘symbol’ tout pur.3
This is not just a dispute over vocabulary. We need to keep
in mind (as I have said already) that social signs in Beowulf
function systematically, in systems which cannot be entirely, or
even largely, the creation of the poet. The literary associations
which ‘symbolism’ has acquired tend to blur this perception
and hinder appreciation. Swords in Beowulf, for instance,
evidently have a life of their own. The young retainer Wiglaf
63
draws his as he prepares to help his king in the dragon’s den;
and the poet stops for twenty lines (2611–30) to remark on the
weapon’s significance. This one was not donated, but first won
in battle and then inherited. Accordingly it is a reflection of
the courage shown by Wiglafâ†œ’s father and (given Anglo-Saxon
notions of good breeding) a sign of hereditary worth. In the
end it becomes totally identified with its owner’s personality,
so much so, as E. B. Irving has noted,4 that it does not weaken
and he does not melt—we would have expected these verbs the
other way round.
But what happens if you inherit nothing? Since weapons
are indexes of honour and status, deprivation of them becomes
doubly unendurable. Beowulf himself imagines a scene (2032–
69) in which a sword is worn by someone like Wiglaf who
had it from his father; but this is seen by the man from whose
father’s corpse it was gloriously taken. ‘Meaht ðu, min wine, mece
gecnawan?’ asks a troublemaker [Can you, my friend, recognize
that sword?]. He means, ‘Are you a man or a mouse?’, but
neither Beowulf nor the poet bothers to explain this, since
everyone knows the next act has to be murder. In exactly
the same way the poet feels that the displaying of a sword to
Hengest at the climax of the ‘Finnsburh Episode’ (lines 1143–5)
will be self-explanatory. To us, as it happens, it is not; but we
can see that the object prompts revenge with irresistible force
and in total silence. In Beowulf objects can communicate whole
chains of abstraction and reflection by their presence alone, and
in a way felt by poet and audience to be too natural for words.
Some objects in fact reach ‘mythic’ status—most obviously,
halls. What the poet thinks about these can be derived most
immediately from his run of twenty to thirty compound words
for describing them. Halls are for drinking in (‘winehall’,
‘beerhall’, ‘meadhall’); they are filled with people (‘guesthall’,
‘retainer-hall’); in them worth is recognized (‘gold-hall’,
‘gifthall’, ‘ringhall’). They are also the typical though not
the only setting for festivity and for poetry. It is this ‘loud
merriment in hall’ [dream . . . hludne in healle] which Grendel
hears and hates from the beginning, while Hrothgar’s poet
sings ‘clear in Heorot’ on every one of the three nights.
64
Beowulf spends there. What he produces is healgamen [the
sport (you expect) of halls], and when the Geats look into their
gloomy future at the end, the two things they fear to lose are
their ‘prestigious rings’ [hringweorðung] and the ‘melody of the
harp’ which, rather implausibly, used to ‘wake the warriors’
(from their beds on the hall floor, that is, see lines 1237–
40). Finally, whether it is from paint or firelight or candles,
halls are associated with brightness. Heorot is goldfah [gold
ornamented], and shines like a beacon: lixte se leoma ofer landa
fela [the light blazed over many lands]. Inside it is decorated
with glittering tapestries, goldfag scinon web after wagum [on
the walls the webs shone golden], while at line 997 the poet
calls it simply þæt beorhte bold [the bright building]. In the end
the dragon comes to Beowulfâ†œ’s home ‘to burn the bright halls’
[beorht hofu bærnan], and there is a sudden striking image early
on of Grendel prowling ‘the treasure-ornamented hall on the
black nights’ [sincfage sel sweartum nihtum].
Already one can see how the ‘mythic’ interpretations come
in. The hall equals happiness equals light. What do the
monsters which invade halls equal? They are creatures of the
night, ‘shadow-walkers’, ‘lurkers in darkness’, things which
have to be under cover by dawn. It is no great stretch of the
imagination to link their darkness with death. Meanwhile
the poet’s vocabulary, once more, shows an assumption that
the happiness of the hall means life. In line 2469 old King
Hrethel ‘gumdream ofgeafâ†œ’ [gave up the joys of men], his
grandson Beowulf (3020–21) ‘laid aside laughter, gamen ond
gleodream, merriment and the joys of song’, the Last Survivor’s
kinsmen (2252) ‘gave up this life, gesawon seledream, had seen
the joy of the hall’. The compound words show how tightly
men and harps and halls cluster together in the poet’s mind,
and presumably in his audience’s. A similar familiarity informs
the untranslated and possibly unconscious metaphor near the
end, when the poet ruminates that it is a mystery where we all
must go:
þonne leng ne mæg

mon mid his magum meduseld buan. (3064–5)
65
[When a man can no longer, with his kinsmen, inhabit the
meadhall.]
Meduseld is semantically indistinguishable from its familiar

precursors medoærn, medoheal. By this time, however, what it
means is ‘Life-Gone-By’. The poet has no need to explain.
Halls are ‘indexes’ of happiness, then, because in them
people are most likely to be free from poverty. They are
‘symbols’ too, because they are crowded with not entirely
realistic conventional signs, like harps and gold and brightness.
Their vulnerability implies a shared social myth about the
limits of human capacity (stated most overtly by the councillor
of King Edwin in Bede).5 However, they remain at all times
stubborn and solid facts, things which could be seen in reality
as well as heard about in poetry. It is important that literal-
minded Anglo-Saxons could always take halls literally, because
what they would get from Beowulf was not the notion that
Heorot was like life, but the more searching one that life was
like Heorot. ‘We too’, they might conclude, ‘live in a little
circle of light. Every time we go to sleep expecting to wake
up, we could be as wrong as Hrothgar’s retainers. Æschere is
us.’ Involvement of this nature deepens many of the scenes in
the poem. Modern readers no longer reach it naturally and
wordlessly, but they are not completely immune to it either.
Professor Tolkien’s ‘Golden Hall’ in the second volume of The
Lord of the Rings is still called ‘Meduseld’, and the name still has
its power.
Notes
3. These distinctions, and others, are clearly drawn in Jonathan
Culler’s Structuralist Poetics (London 1975), pp. 16–20. Several of the
points made in this essay form particular examples of the general
procedure Culler recommends.
4. E. B. Irving Jr, A Reading of Beowulf (New Haven and London,
1968), p. 159.
5. Bede, A History of the English Church and People (Penguin
Classics translated by L. Sherley-Price, revised edn Harmondsworth,
1968), Book 2, Chapter 13. See further Kathryn Hume, ‘The Concept
of the Hall in Old English Poetry’, Anglo-Saxon England 3 (1974) pp.
63–74.
66
James W. Earl on the Gold Hoard
Since we have in the poem itself a digression on the history
of the gold-hoard and its guardian dragon, we need not begin
the project of determining their functions in the poem by
searching outside the poem for analogues. In this digression,
commonly called “The Lay of the Last Survivor,” an old man,
who has lived to see his whole nation perish and its culture
fall into ruin, walks through his empty town; he laments the
impermanence of the things of the world, and buries the
treasures of his ancient civilization in the earth. These are
the treasures guarded by the dragon which will ultimately kill
Beowulf. There is a fundamental moral discovery attached to
the old man’s action, which is explicit in his speech:
“Earth, hold now the possessions of earls; now men

cannot. Good men obtained them from you before; death
in battle, deadly trouble, has taken each of the bold men
of my race; they knew the joys of the hall, and now life
has left them. O who might now wear the sword or polish
the ornamented cup, the precious drinking-bowl? The
warriors have all gone elsewhere. The plated gold of the
king’s helmet shall fall away; the treasure-keeper sleeps
who would polish the war-masks; and the armor which in
battle endured the bite of swords behind the breaking of
shields, decays with the hero. The rings of the chain-mail
will no longer travel abroad on the warrior. No longer
the joy of the harp, the song of the instrument; no longer
does the good hawk swing thrugh the hall; no longer does
the town resound with the swift horses. Violent death has
sent the race of heroes elsewhere.” (ll. 2247–66)1
The history of the gold-hoard in this digression prefaces the

main narrative of Beowulfâ†œ’s dragon-fight and is related to it
in two ways. First of all, it attaches a moral significance to the
treasure which the dragon guards. Everything we know about
this hoard tells us that this is a treasure which should indeed be
guarded; it is emblematic of the awful truth that treasure, and
67
worldly achievement in general, cannot secure a culture against
its inevitable decay. It is emblematic of the truth which the
whole poem illustrates, that worldly success is only temporary,
or perhaps even illusory. The dragon who guards this hoard
does not seem necessarily to be a representative of evil. Rather,
the beast serves the wisdom and the moral vision of the Last
Survivor. And guarding barrows is the natural function of
dragons—and a morally neutral function perhaps, as we can see
in these lines from the Cotton gnomes (“Maxims II”):
Masts are on ships,

they hold up the sails; swords lie on the breast,
noble irons; dragons are in barrows,
old, wise, and treasure-proud; fish are in the water,
they bring forth their own; kings are in the hall,
they deal out rings. (ll. 24–29)2
Our dragon, then, seems to be morally significant, though not

necessarily evil. In fact, in both Beowulf (l. 2277) and the gnomes
(l. 27) the dragon is described as frod (old and wise). The most
important question, of course, is why Beowulf has to combat the
beast, and perish in the process. Let me just suggest for now that
Beowulfâ†œ’s death is after all an illustration of the truth which the
hoard represents, from the evidence of the Last Survivor’s speech.
The second way in which the digression helps to clarify the
significance of Beowulfâ†œ’s struggle with the dragon is that it is a
clear prophecy of Beowulfâ†œ’s fall at the poem’s conclusion. For
not only are we told at great length that in spite of Beowulfâ†œ’s
long and successful kingship, he and his race are doomed; but
even more pointedly, we are told rather unexpectedly at the
very moment of his death that he and his one faithful retainer
Wiglaf are themselves, very literally, last survivors. Beowulfâ†œ’s
last words recall those of the Last Survivor; he says to Wiglaf:
“You are the last survivor [endelaf] of our race, the

Waegmundings; fate has swept all of my kinsmen,
valorous princes, to their destiny; I must follow them.”
(ll. 2813–16)
68
Wiglaf, learning his lesson from Beowulfâ†œ’s fate, hardly needs
further instruction; and like the Last Survivor of the digression,
he too buries the gold, and “they let the earth hold the treasure
of earls, the gold in the ground, where it lies even now, as
useless to men as it ever was” (ll. 3166–68). And like the Last
Survivor, Wiglaf does not bury the treasure for safekeeping—
the English courts have even decided that question, in the
celebrated case of Mrs. Pretty. The gold is not intended to be
recovered; rather it is buried as an expression of a well-defined
moral conviction—that moral conviction which the whole
poem is meant to reinforce. Beowulf, his race, and his people
fall victim at the end of the poem, not to sin, or avarice, or even
evil (note that the Last Survivor describes his ancestors who
won the gold as “good men [gode]”); they fall victim, rather,
to the simple truth about life, shared by both Germanic and
Christian tradition, that the things of this world dreosaþ ond
feallaþ, they “fade and fall away,” to quote both Hrothgar and
the Wanderer. The transience of worldly things, of course, is
not an unusual theme on Old English poetry, but its expression
in narrative form in Beowulf is more elaborate and powerful
than in any other of our poems.
In the history of the gold-hoard, then, we can see the
controlling theme of the poem clearly expressed, and we can
see how the poet explicates his symbols within the poem, with
the aid of the so-called “digressive” episodes.
Notes
1. All translations from Old English are my own.
2. “Draca sceal on hlaewe, / frod, fraetwum wlanc.” The Anglo-Saxon
Minor Poems, ed. Elliott Dobbie, Anglo-Saxon Poetic Records, vol. VI
(New York: Columbia University Press, 1942), p. 56.
David Williams on Cain’s Progeny

If the thematic significance of the battles with monsters in the
main narrative may be seen as that continual moral opposition
required in the world against the persistent evil of fratricide,
infidelity, and all antisocial crimes, then Beowulf is at once
69
the anachronistic embodiment of Christian social values and
a greatly endowed, if mortal, Germanic warrior in pursuit
of the inevitably mundane, although praiseworthy, goals of
pagan thane and lord. In his exceptional moral tenacity in
upholding the values of kinship, comitatus, and peace
throughout the poem he suggests the ideal Christian knight
and king. He opposes the forces of social destruction embodied
in the monsters, who are, of course, while embodiments of
evil, individual enemies physically threatening their frightened
victims and must be fought and destroyed in defence not only
of moral principle but of life and limb, as well. Beowulf himself
enters the contest with this pragmatic purpose, and as has been
said, it is only gradually that he perceives the common origin of
these harassments and their moral-historical significance.
This wider significance embedded in the main narrative
is illuminated through the poet’s use of the Cain legend. In
making the monsters the progeny of the first fratricide, he is
not adapting a self-conscious literary myth but employing an
ethical and temporal scheme universally subscribed to in the
middle ages, lending to his poem the metaphysical dimensions
of the moral history of mankind. Thus in Grendel and the
dragon the medieval audience of the poem would be able to
recognize the survival of Cain’s monstrous progeny and the
symbol of his sin in those who formed the bestial clan dedicated
to the destruction of social harmony and brotherhood and
determined to eradicate the Abels of the earth. Herein one
discovered the unbroken historical line in which evil had
been passed down from the initial unnatural act of the first
spiller of blood to the very present time, still haunted and
persecuted by the monstrous offspring of Cain. The monsters
thus represent the actual perpetuation of Cain’s evil in the form
of physical menace. Because of the traditions that surround
them with an air of the marvellous, the same monsters evoke
the fabulous. Somewhat irrationally, as with much legend, the
monsters are both of angelic origin and human, their sire both
Cain and Satan. Grendel and the dragon are both actual and
fabulous, generalized rather than fictionalized, as representative
of historical and moral fact.
70
The same theme of the evil spirit of Cain and the opposition
to it is carried out on another level of the poem, for in the so-
called digressions we see an extension of the idea to the modes
of past and future history. These historical episodes, which
constitute a considerable portion of the poem, extend the
scriptural idea of moral history beyond the epoch of biblical
time to the immediate past of the German nations and find in
that history a corroboration of the scriptural and exegetical idea
of the continuity of evil. They also provide a contemporary
historic complement to the moral significance of Grendel
and the dragon. In this manner the main action becomes a
paradigm of the actions in the historical episodes and provides
a universal explanation for them, relating Germanic history to
that of Rome, Greece, Israel, and Eden.
The historical episodes are, then, not really digressions
from the main theme but rather the means by which that
theme achieves full moral and social significance and
aesthetic completion. Having as the setting of his poem the
historic present of the Danish and Geatish courts, the poet
has carefully structured the episodes to reveal the universal
significance of events in the respective national pasts and
futures, moving out from the main theme periodically to past
allusions and future prophecies in which signs already present
in the main theme may find their mirror reflection in these
episodes. The general facts of the Geatish and Danish past
would have been known to an Anglo-Saxon audience since
they constituted a history of interest to that audience. Thus
the future as the poet reports it in Beowulf is recognizable to
the audience as part of its own more recent past, and, setting
itself in the present of the poem, the audience is able to
accept as prophecy the allusions to the future, knowing, of
course, that they have already been fulfilled. Having managed
his poem and his audience in this way, the poet is able to
reveal the ethical significance of history with the authority
of history itself. Thus the episodes cover three Scandinavian
sagas prior to Hrothgar’s reign: the stories of Heremod,
Sigemund, and Finnsburg. As R. W. Chambers has claimed,
it is clear that in the literature and minds of Teutonic people a
71
strong connection existed between Heremod and Sigemund,1
and it is through this connection that the Sigemund episode
seemed to form a part of the Danish past. Along with these are
the prophecies concerning the Danish future: the treachery of
Hrothulf and Unferth and the story of Freawaru.
Similar structuring may be noted in the handling of the
tragedy of the Geatish nation. The past events of Haethcyn’s
fratricide, the Swedish wars, and the story of Eormanric extend
the main theme to the past of this nation. Its future is evoked
in the closing prophecy of the destruction of the Geats under
Wiglaf. Thus the theme of the spirit of Cain described in these
episodes, including historical examples from several Germanic
nations at different moments in time, is presented not as a
particular malady of an evil nation but as a fundamental part of
the universal human social condition. Spanning past, present,
and future of the time of the poem, the theme of the episodes
seems to transcend time as well as place, and unlimited as it is
to a particular nation, the evil of social discord is seen as part of
the eternal human struggle.
On the level of the poem represented by the episodes, the
children of Cain are not physical monsters but human beings
who perpetuate Cain’s sin, becoming his sons by adopting
his spiritual disposition. Thus the transition between history
and allegory is accomplished in such a way that characters are
simultaneously engaged on both levels.
Note
1. Chambers, Beowulf: An Introduction 90–1.
Linda Georgianna on Beowulfâ†œ’s Speech

before the Dragon Fight
Just prior to his last fight, Beowulf delivers a long speech on

the headlands above the dragon’s cave (ll. 2425–37).1 It is,
with the exception of his report to Hygelac on returning from
Heorot, Beowulfâ†œ’s longest and perhaps his most puzzling
speech. Little has been written about the speech as a whole;
72
in fact, rather little attention has been paid to any of Beowulfâ†œ’s
speeches, which is perhaps not surprising given Beowulfâ†œ’s
stated preference for deeds over words. “It is better for a
man to avenge his friend than to mourn much,” Beowulf tells
Hrothgar, and indeed in a heroic narrative we might ordinarily
expect actions to take precedence over words. So it dismays
those who would judge the poem primarily as a heroic narrative
to find, as Klaeber did, that despite the hero’s initial appearance
as “an aggressive war hero of the Achilles or Sigfrit type,”
Beowulf is in fact “somewhat tame, sentimental, and fond of
talking,”2 and nowhere more so than in this speech.
When viewed primarily in terms of whether or not it
“advances the action,” Beowulfâ†œ’s speech before the dragon
fight must seem inept.3 Not only does the rambling monologue
itself delay the fight, but the central story told in the speech
concerns the sorrow and death of a hero and king for whom
heroic action is delayed endlessly. Deferral or delay, evident
throughout the poem in its style and structure, emerges here
to become a subject of the narrative, suggesting that the poet’s
interests may not lie solely in fostering what Klaeber calls
“true epic movement.”4 On the contrary, in the speech under
discussion as well as in the second part of the poem generally,
the poet seems intent on disengaging his audience from the
forward movement of the heroic story in order to suggest the
limits of heroic action and perhaps of heroic narratives as well.
In the Danish episodes, at least, action predominates.
Beowulfâ†œ’s words in Heorot seem for the most part mere
extensions of his deeds.5 His boasts, while polite, are also
fairly direct and squarely focused on the deeds of courage he
is about to perform. References to history or to circumstances
are subordinated to the promise of action. The poem’s opening
lines, “We have heard about the glory of the Spear-Danes in
the old days . . . how those princes did brave deeds,” herald in
a major key the theme of old heroic deeds and the fame such
actions have brought.6
But in what is usually regarded as the poem’s second half
or movement (ll. 2200–3182), the focus shifts. Edward Irving
remarks that in Beowulf “history is made in Part I, while it is
73
studied in Part II.”7 In the Heorot episodes deeds are done.
Memories seem fresh, manageable, and close at hand, and
although we sometimes see further than the characters—
the poet’s remarks on the devil worship of the Danes are a
notorious example—for the most part such moments seem
exceptional intrusions upon an otherwise unmediated view of
Beowulfâ†œ’s glorious deeds. But in the poem’s second half, deeds
are talked about and meditated upon, described over and over
from different angles of vision and at different paces.8 The
revisionary impulse seems at work here, creating a complicated
context for the text of Beowulfâ†œ’s deeds by emphasizing causes,
connections, and circumstances. In fact, so involved does the
poem become in what could be called deep background that
the central act of part two—Beowulfâ†œ’s fight with the dragon—is
at times all but lost sight of.
In the first part of the poem one can hardly miss the fight
with Grendel, which is prepared for with what has been
described as fine cinematic skill. 9 In most cases everything
but the poetic present is clearly labeled a digression, often in
the form of a scop’s song concerning some self-contained and
chronologically remote episode. 10 But in part two, it is the
present itself that seems the digression. Beowulfâ†œ’s fight with
the dragon at times seems a thin, brief, somewhat dreamlike
moment all but overwhelmed by the involved, repetitive
accounts of past action and forecasts of the future: how the
treasure came to be here, how the dragon came to be here,
how Beowulf came to be here, and what will become of them
all and the Geatish people with them. The heroic moment, the
present, so significant at the poem’s beginning, is in the second
part almost bled of significance and reality as meaning shifts to
the past and future.11
Nowhere are these distinctions between the two parts
of the poem more apparent than in the poet’s preparation
for Beowulfâ†œ’s last fight. Nearly two hundred lines separate
Beowulfâ†œ’s ordering his shield from his using it, lines dense
with historical material spanning the history of the Geatish
people. More than half of these lines make up Beowulfâ†œ’s speech,
delivered as he sits on the headlands above the dragon’s cave.
74
The hero’s “gilp-cwide” of part one (ll. 407–56), delivered to
Hrothgar as a tactful but confident piece of self-advertisement,
is replaced here by a retrospective, highly digressive, meditative
speech, less a preamble to action than an amble through various
related and unrelated memories of childhood, both joyful and
sorrowful, memories of the brave deeds of kinsmen and finally
of his own glories as a hero. Out of this odd blend of elegiac
stasis and heroic affirmation Beowulf shapes his resolve to
fight the dragon. But the speech has a different effect on the
audience, I would argue, distancing us from Beowulfâ†œ’s coming
battle and from his heroic world, undermining the value and
effectiveness of heroic action at precisely the moment when the
hero is most relying on it.
The speech consists of a series of dissociated memories
juxtaposed without comment: early childhood memories of
Beowulfâ†œ’s happy youth in the hall of his grandfather, King
Hrethel; the story of Herebeald’s accidental death at the hands
of his brother Haethcyn; the even more digressive simile
comparing Hrethel’s sorrow to that of the father of an executed
felon; and finally a brief recalling of the Swedish-Geatish feud
that follows upon Hrethel’s death. Beowulf ends his reverie by
reaffirming his loyalty to Hygelac, proved by his hand-to-hand
combat with Daeghrefn, presumably Hygelac’s slayer. The poet
breaks the speech briefly here, then resumes with Beowulfâ†œ’s
boast, which closely follows the phrasing of his earlier boasts, a
promise to attempt to perform a “great deed” (mærpu fremman,
l. 2514) and win fame and treasure.
The speech, which situates Beowulf for the first time in a
personal as well as dynastic and national history, is treated by
most critics as evidence of Beowulfâ†œ’s age and new depth of
character. It certainly represents a side of the hero we have not
seen before. For a character so often associated with the action
of the moment, this speech represents a real turn in showing
Beowulf reflecting in an almost leisurely way on Hrethel’s
sorrow and unheroic death. Beowulfâ†œ’s meditative mood is
especially surprising in that he is virtually at the dragon’s
door. The hero has pondered his possible guilt, ordered his
shield, assembled his men, and hastened to the cave; the time
75
for reflection seems long since passed. John Pope explains
the speech as the poet’s way of representing the hero’s old
age realistically in terms of Beowulfâ†œ’s experience and frame of
mind without having to portray him as subject to the “ordinary
infirmities of age.”12 In Pope’s careful reading the speech
serves the double purpose of preparing at the same time for
Beowulfâ†œ’s death and for his battle: the stories of Hrethel and
the mourning father serve the first purpose, while the stories
of more recent Geatish feuds and Beowulfâ†œ’s own triumph serve
the second. Edward Irving further develops the relationship
between these two purposes in terms of character, arguing
that for Beowulf the case of King Hrethel serves as a negative
example of his own current situation. Thus “the will to act is
defined by its opposite, the world without action,” a reading
which might help to explain Klaeber’s enigmatic note, “The
king’s morbid surrender to his grief is significant.”13 Although
King Hrethel could find no remedy for his sorrow, Irving
argues, Beowulf is still free to act and gain revenge from the
dragon just as his kin did in the Swedish-Geatish feud. His
meditation on King Hrethel and the nameless father causes
him to hesitate but ultimately feeds his resolve to act, thus
increasing his stature in our eyes. The poet, according to
Irving, presents a new standard of heroism, involving sympathy
and understanding in addition to “the capacity to act in total
dedication.” Eamon Carrigan, somewhat less sympathetic to
the hero than Irving, at least sees Beowulfâ†œ’s turn from elegy to
heroic affirmation as logical: Beowulf “now sees the acceptance
of feuding as an escape from the elegiac hopelessness” of
Hrethel’s death. Rejecting despair, he quickly recalls those kin
who could and did gain vengeance and fame, Haethcyn for
the attack by the Swedes, Hygelac for the death of Haethcyn,
and Beowulf himself for the death of Hygelac. Such memories
propel him toward his final boast announcing his intention of
performing a deed of fame.14
Such interpretations, which emphasize the psychological
coherence of the speech and its function as a preamble to
the poem’s final action, are useful and are preferable to
the critical tendency to treat apparent inconsistencies or
76
shifts in point of view in this poem as evidence, in and of
themselves, of interpolation, loss of lines in the manuscript,
or a happy disregard for coherence. 15 Yet there is also
a danger in underplaying inconsistencies and gaps in this
poem, especially when it is done in the name of “realistic”
character development. In reading the speech as an indication
of Beowulfâ†œ’s maturity, readers have to work hard to smooth
out inconsistencies, supply needed transitions and logic, and
in general remold the speech into a more modern “dramatic
monologue”16 than perhaps it is. For Beowulf is not Prince
Hamlet, nor was he meant to be.17 His transitions connecting
joyful childhood memories to the tragedy of Herebeald’s death,
the mourning of the nameless father, King Hrethel’s death, and
the Swedish-Geatish feud are by no means smooth, but rather
abrupt, confusing, and disorienting. They tell us more about
the poet’s methods and habits of mind than Beowulfâ†œ’s growing
sensitivity to sorrow. The emphasis on delay, introspection,
and indirection describes the Beowulf poet more aptly than
Beowulf the character; indeed certain parts of the speech, such
as the reference to Hrethel’s having “chosen God’s light,” are
distinctly out of character, and thus all the more disconcerting
to an audience.18 A better explanation for the structure and
subject of the speech lies not in Beowulfâ†œ’s character but rather
in the poet’s method, particularly in the poem’s second half, of
disorienting his audience by suddenly shifting the terms of his
story. The effect, rather than encouraging a closer sympathy
with Beowulf in his old age, is to force the audience to distance
itself from the hero and the action of the narrative present.
In short, the poet engages in what might nowadays be called
a revolt against the narrativity of the poem’s first half. He
frustrates our desire for narrative progress and logic even as
he frustrates his hero’s need for clarity of vision and purpose
in this speech, which is itself an interruption of the narrative
and, in addition, has as its subject a hero’s inability to act as a
heroic narrative would require. This is not a new idea. What
now might be called antinarrativity was described years ago in a
famous section of Klaeber’s commentary titled “Lack of Steady
Advance.” What is new is the modern or postmodern taste
77
for subversive elements in narratives. For Klaeber, they were
simply “trying.”19
Notes
1. All references are to line numbers as given in the edition of
Frederick Klaeber, Beowulf and the Fight at Finnsburg, 3rd ed. with 1st
and 2nd suppls. (Boston, 1950), hereafter cited as Klaeber.
2. Ibid., p. 1.
3. Andreas Heusler’s influential essay, “Der Dialog in der
altgermanischen erzählenden Dichtung,” Zeitschrift für deutsches
Altertum 46 (1902), 189–284, rpt. in Heusler’s Kleine Schriften, 2, ed.
Stefan Sonderegger (1969), pp. 611–89, divides all of the speeches
in Beowulf, and even parts of speeches, into two categories: “active”
speeches, which advance the action, and “reflective” speeches, which
retard action. Klaeber, pp. lv–lvi, follows Hensler and concludes that
although the poet makes “felicitous use” of discourse in the poem’s
first part, where in general dialogue advances “true epic movement,”
the lack of “battle challenge and defiance in the poem’s later speeches
is an obvious, inherent defect in our poem.” For a less narrow
treatment of the poem’s speeches, which also draws upon Hensler’s
work, see E. G. Stanley, “The Narrative Art of Beowulf,” in Medieval
Narrative: A Symposium, ed. Hans Bekker-Nielsen et al. (Odense,
1979), pp. 67–72.
4. P. lvi.
5. Just before Beowulf reaches for Grendel in the hall at Heorot,
he recalls his boast and immediately acts on it: “Gemunde þa se goda,
mæg Higelaces, / æfenspræce uplang astod / ond him fæste wiðfeng”
(ll. 758–60). On the topos of words and deeds, see T. A. Shippey,
Beowulf, Studies in English Literature 70 (London, 1978), pp. 12–14,
and Stanley B. Greenfield, “Of Words and Deeds: The Coastguard’s
Maxim Once More,” in The Wisdom of Poetry: Essays in Early English
Literature in Honor of Morton W. Bloomfield, ed. Larry D. Benson and
Siegfried Wenzel (Kalamazoo, 1982), pp. 45–51.
6. “Hwæt, we Gar-dena in geardagum, / . . . þrym gefrunon, /
hu ða æþelingas ellen fremedon!” E.G. Stanley discusses the ways
in which meter as well as language emphasizes deeds in these lines
in “Beowulf,” Continuations and Beginnings: Studies in Old English
Literature, ed. E. G. Stanley (London, 1966), p. 112.
7. A Reading of Beowulf (New Haven, 1968), p. 201; see also pp.
195–206.
8. On the poet’s interest in retelling, see Fred C. Robinson,
Beowulf and the Appositive Style (Knoxville, 1985), pp. 25–27.
Robinson argues persuasively that the poet’s “appositive style”
works throughout the poem, forcing the audience continually to
78
hold several points of view in mind simultaneously and to readjust
its understanding of what is being described as it reflects on the
differences between what appear as parallel statements. Similarly
E. G. Stanley would seem to make no distinction between the
two parts of the poem in his stimulating treatment of the Beowulf
poet’s penchant for indirection and delay; see “The Narrative Art of
Beowulf,” pp. 58–81. However, both Irving (A Reading) and Klaeber
(pp. liii–lviii), in spite of their disagreements concerning the effects,
would agree that part two of the poem emphasizes action far less
than the Heorot episodes. See also the thoughtful treatment of
the poet’s narrative method in part two by Howell D. Chickering,
Beowulf: A Dual-Language Edition (Garden City, N.Y., 1977), pp.
359–60, hereafter cited as Chickering.
9. See Brodeur, The Art of Beowulf (Berkeley, 1960), pp. 88–106;
Alain Renoir, “Point of View and Design for Terror in Beowulf,”
Neuphilologische Mitteilungen 63 (1962), 154–67; Richard N. Ringlet,
“Him Seo Wen Geleah: The Design for Irony in Grendel’s Last Visit
to Heorot,” Speculum 41 (1966), 49–67; Stanley B. Greenfield,
“Grendel’s Approach to Heorot: Syntax and Poetry,” in Old English
Poetry: Fifteen Essays, ed. Robert P. Creed (Providence, 1967),
pp. 275–84; and John Niles, Beowulf: The Poem and Its Tradition
(Cambridge, Mass., 1983), p. 154.
10. On differences between the digressions of the poem’s two parts,
see Brodeur, Art, pp. 132–57, and the classic study of Adrien Bonjour,
The Digressions in “Beowulâ†œfâ†œ” (Oxford, 1950).
11. For an early treatment of the poet’s manipulation of time in
the poem, see Adrien Bonjour, “The Use of Anticipation in Beowulf,”
Review of English Studies, o.s. 16 (1940), 290–99. For some current
critics, as for many of the poem’s early-twentieth-century readers,
Beowulf remains essentially an adventure story. Thus John Niles
describes the design of the poem as follows: “If the reader does not
become lost in the many byways of the narrative, the large-scale
symmetry of its design will be evident: (A) introduction, (B) fight
with Grendel, (C) celebrations, (D) fight with Grendel’s mother, (C)
celebrations, (B) fight with dragon, (A) close” (Beowulf, pp. 157–58).
In the view of many readers, byways are a crucial part of the poet’s
design, not a deviation from it.
12. “Beowulfâ†œ’s Old Age,” in James L. Rosier, ed., Philological Essays:
Studies in Old and Middle English Language and Literature in Honor of
Herbert Dean Meritt (The Hague, 1970), p. 5&. For a similar view, see
Bonjour, The Digressions in “Beowulf,” pp. 33–34.
13. A Reading of Beowulf, pp. 223–29, here p. 227; see Klaeber’s note
to l. 2435.
14. “Structure and Thematic Development in Beowulf,” Proceedings
of the Royal Irish Academy 66 (1967), 34–37, here p. 36.
79
15. Signs of this tendency are evident in the notes to any edition
of the poem which attempts to report the history of textual criticism,
such as that of E. V. K. Dobbie, Beowulf and Judith, Anglo-Saxon
Poetic Records 4 (New York, 1953), hereafter cited as Dobbie. For a
historical study of the Germanic preconceptions which may have led
earlier critics to reconstruct the poem freely, see E. G. Stanley, The
Search for Anglo-Saxon Paganism (Cambridge, Eng., 1975). Those who
would emphasize the great differences between Anglo-Saxon notions
of a good story and our own include Kenneth Sisam, The Structure of
Beowulf (Oxford, 1965), especially pp. 1–16, and, more recently, John
Niles, Beowulf, pp. 163–76 et passim.
16. Chickering, Beowulf, p. 368.
17. See Kemp Malone, The Literary History of Hamlet, 1: The
Early Tradition (Heidelberg, 1923), pp. 156 ff., and Adrien Bonjour,
“Beowulf and the Tragic Muse,” in Studies in Old English Literature in
Honor of Arthur G. Brodeur, ed. Stanley B. Greenfield (Eugene, Ore.,
1963), pp. 129–35.
18. See below, pp. 849–50. J. R. R. Tolkien, “Beowulf: The Monsters
and the Critics,” Proceedings of the British Academy 22 (1936), 286,
considers this phrase the poem’s “chief defect” of the kind involving
putting Christian references “inadvertently in the mouth of a
character conceived as a heathen.” For an opposing view, see John
Norton, “Tolkien, Beowulf, and the Poet: A Problem in Point of
View,” English Studies 48 (1967), 527–31.
19. P. lvii. On the often-quoted phrase “lack of steady advance,”
see Stanley, “The Narrative Art of Beowulf.” Examples of modernist
interest in antinarrative elements can be conveniently found in
most of the essays gathered in W. J. T. Mitchell, ed., On Narrative
(Chicago, 1981). In particular see the essays of Hayden White, Frank
Kermode, Paul Ricoeur, and Robert Scholes.
Susanne Weil on Free Will

Who is the “Shaper” in Beowulf? Is it wyrd, the fixed fate
that shaped the pagan world of the Anglo-Saxons? Or is
it the Christian God whose worship they adopted? As the
story of Beowulf was told and retold through the centuries, it
seems to have picked up the verbal vestiges of cultural change
like a snowball rolling through time: so many pagan and
Christian ideas exist side by side in the poem that critics have
long argued whether it is essentially a pagan or a Christian
80
work. Some insist that it is a pagan poem which Christian
transcribers defaced with dogma; others contend that its pagan
pronouncements are relics of a time its culture outgrew—the
poetic equivalent of the human appendix. Neither view gives
much credit to the poet’s intentions and artistry. Is Beowulf,
then, a literary fossil in which two opposing belief systems are
frozen together, fascinating from the standpoint of cultural
anthropology, but ultimately lacking a unified theme? Or does
the poem contain a genuine synthesis of two world-views? I
believe that the latter is true, and shall attempt to show how
a striking pattern of “hand-words” helped the Beowulf poet to
establish that synthesis.
To begin with the language itself: many words that express
the concept of wyrd are derived from the Old English root
meaning “to shape.” Gescipe, “destiny,” means literally “that
which is shaped”; the verb sceppen means “to destine, to shape”;
one of the most frequently used words for “God” is Sceppend,
literally “Shaper.” Since the motif of wyrd as the implacable
arbiter of men’s struggles resounds throughout the Anglo-
Saxon canon like a perpetual minor chord, the synonymous
nature of fate and shaping in Old English should not be
surprising: the singers of the canon were always aware that the
events of their lives had been “shaped” by a force (or forces)
beyond their control. Given the primacy of tactile imagery
throughout their poetry, their vision of destiny as a process of
shaping is characteristic. It is as if their Shaper were a sculptor,
carefully crafting the form of each man’s fate, molding a rough
edge here, a smooth curve there, until the work took on its final
cast in the moment of death.
As monks moved into Britain and began to record Anglo-
Saxon writings, the Sceppend was assumed to be the Christian
God: but who was he before that? The Anglo-Saxon tongue
existed before the Christianization of Britain, and yet the
Germanic religion which had held sway there had no supreme
Shaper. According to the Icelandic Eddas (the best record
remaining of Germanic, and by extension of ancient Anglo-
Saxon beliefs), the Aesir shaped the first man and woman from
trees but had few of the other powers we normally attribute to
81
gods; not even immortal, they were themselves hostages to wyrd
in the form of Ragnarrok, the day when the forces of chaos
would overwhelm them (Green, 17–28; 203–208). Life began in
the Germanic universe with giants being mysteriously shaped
out of vapor; the Aesir themselves came to being because a
hungry cow licked an ice floe until her lickings inadvertently
shaped their progenitor (16)—but who created the cow? Even
the three Norns who spun and snipped the threads of fate for
each man were shadowy figures, spinning, not quite shaping,
apparently acting without a purpose of their own. As we push
the parameters of the mythology, every possible explanation
seems to lead to another mystery. The Anglo-Saxon universe
seems curiously without cause, yet brimming with effects—all
subsumed under the murky heading of wyrd, which remains a
force, not a figure. Who, then, is the Shaper?
A look at the proliferation of pronouncements about the
power of wyrd in Beowulf suggests an answer to this question.
Beowulf, repeating the received wisdom of his age, says that
Gaeð a wyrd swa hio scel (Fate always goes as it must!: 445b), yet
also that Wyrd oft nereð/unfægne eorl, ýonne his ellen deah (Fate
often saves an undoomed man if his courage is good: 572b–
573). The narrator says that
. . . þone ænne heht

golde forgyldan, þone ðe Grendel ær
mane acwealde, swa he hyra ma wolde,
nefne him witig god wyrd forstode
ond dæs mannes mod. Metod eallum weold
gumena cynnes, swa he nu git deð.
Forþan bið andgit æghwær selest,
ferhðes foreþanc. Fela sceal gebidan
leofes ond laþes se þe longe her
onðyssum windagum worolde bruceð.
(1053b–1062)1
[. . . he ordered that gold be given

for that one whom Grendel had before
cruelly killed, as he would have killed more
82
if wise God and the man’s courage had not
forestalled that fate. God ruled all
the race of men, as he now yet does.
Yet is discernment everywhere best,
forethought of mind. He shall endure much
Of what is dear and dreadful who here
In these trouble-days long uses this world.]
(italics mine)
In the first of these axioms, fate is unalterable; in the second,

it plays favorites; in the narrator’s aside, it is subordinate
to both “wise God” and “the man’s courage.” Someone is
confused here, and I would suggest that it is neither Beowulf
nor the narrator: rather, it is the modern audience, tending
to miss the point of these pronouncements. Critics who see
the poem as primarily Christian (Margaret Goldsmith comes
to mind) view the narrator’s pronouncement on the power
of God as evidence that Christian providence, not wyrd,
was the Shaper of the Anglo-Saxon world—ignoring other
pronouncements that the narrator makes elsewhere about
the supreme power of fate. If proving God to be the sole
power were the narrator’s purpose, why would he immediately
append the caveat “yet is discernment everywhere best,
forethought of mind?” He seems to be telling his audience
not to count on the power of God or wyrd: the future will be
a mixture of satisfaction and suffering even though God (or
fate) “rule(s) all the race of men.” What a man can depend on
is his “forethought of mind”: this is the core of the individual’s
power to endure. Pronouncements about the importance
of self-reliance outnumber pronouncements about anyone’s
power: for example, when Beowulf discovers that his borrowed
sword cannot harm Grendel’s mother, the poet tells us:
. . . strenge getruwode,
mundgripe mægenes. Swa sceal man don,
þonne he æt guðe gegan þenceð
longsumne lof; na ymb his lif cearað.
(1533–1536)
83
[... he trusted in his strength,
in his strong hand-grip. So shall man do
when he thinks to win at war
long-lasting praise; he does not care about his life.]
Beowulf wastes no time wondering what fate has written about

this battle: he thinks ahead to the reputation he wants to win
and fights on. Swa sceal man don was not praise, but a cultural
imperative which epitomized the Anglo-Saxon modgeðanc (“way
of thinking”): what mattered was not who shaped a man’s death,
or when he died, but how he died.
This is where modern debates on the meaning of wyrd
in Anglo-Saxon poetry go awry, for in considering whom
the Anglo-Saxons believed shaped their fate, we need to
understand fate as they would have defined it. The excerpt
above strongly suggests that a man’s reputation was as integral
to his fate as the time and place of his death: that reputation
was Anglo-Saxon immortality. Call it God’s providence or
the mysterious, ubiquitous wyrd: an arrow by any other name
would kill you. Your choice, then, was whether you took that
arrow in the back or head-on, and how you chose determined
whether you would be sung as a hero, a villain—or not at
all. Your reputation at death even affected your family’s
future, determined whether your sons would be powerful
lords’ retainers and whether your daughters would marry
well. Most important, it was a matter of personal honor to
be remembered as a man of courage. It would be a good
fate, indeed the best, to die gloriously in the protection of
your people as Beowulf does—an ignoble fate to live after
deserting your lord, as Beowulfâ†œ’s cowardly retainers do at the
end of the poem. Bravery in extremity, grace under pressure:
these are choices, and these a man could shape. Because the
Anglo-Saxons believed this, I would like to suggest that the
power behind the words of shaping in Anglo-Saxon poetry
was, in the sense that mattered most to them, the power of
the individual.
The unusual preponderance of words meaning “hand”
(hereafter “hand-words”) in Beowulf supports my contention
84
that the individual was the primary shaper of his fate in Anglo-
Saxon poetry. Folm, mund, and hond are not commonly used
in Old English (compared with words meaning “battle,”
“warrior,” or “sword,” etc.), and yet they appear sixty-five
times in the 3,182 lines of Beowulf (a sizeable number of
their 435 appearances in what remains of the canon2). Forty-
seven of those appearances, a full two-thirds, occur in clusters
during episodes in which Beowulfâ†œ’s life or reputation hangs
in the balance, either in episodes of actual combat such as
the above example (in which Beowulf trusts in his “strong
handgrip”) or in the scenes of his political testing at the hands
of Hrothgar, Unferth, or Hygelac. I believe that these hand-
words constitute an oral formula little remarked but crucial,
for Beowulf, through the “strength of thirty” in his hands,
transforms himself from the son of an outcast to a great hero
and king in a culture where ancestry determined one’s role in
society. If Beowulf did not “shape his fate,” no character in
Anglo-Saxon legend ever did.
Notes
1. All passages from Beowulf are from Dobbie, E.V.K., Beowulf and
Judith, vol. 4 of The Anglo-Saxon Poetic Records. New York: Columbia
UP, 1953. Translations are by E. Talbot Donaldson and Stanley
Greenfield.
2. See A Concordance to the Anglo-Saxon Poetic Records.
Works Cited
Beowulf: The Donaldson Translation, Backgrounds, and Sources of Criticism.
Ed. Joseph F. Tuso. New York: W.W. Norton & Co., 1975.
Bessinger, Jr., Jess, ed. A Concordance to the Anglo-Saxon Poetic Records.
Ithaca and London: Cornell UP, 1978.
Dobbie, E. V. K, ed. Beowulf and Judith, vol. 4 of The Anglo-Saxon
Poetic Records. New York: Columbia UP, 1953.
Green, Roger Lancelyn. Myths of the Norsemen, Retold from the Old
Norse Poems and Tales. Harmondsworth: Penguin Books Ltd., 1960.
Greenfield, Stanley B. “Beowulf and Epic Tragedy.” Festschrift on Old
English Literature in Honor of A. G. Brodeur. 1963.
———. A Readable Beowulf. Carbondale: Southern Illinois University
Press, 1982.
Goldsmith, Margaret. The Mode and Meaning of Beowulf. London:
Althone Press, 1970.
85
Stanley, E. G. Continuations and Beginnings. London: Nelson, 1966.
134–40.
Stanton, F. M. Anglo-Saxon England. London: Oxford UP, 1947.
Timmer, B. J. “Wyrd in Anglo-Saxon Prose and Poetry.” Essential
Articles on Old English Poetry. Hamden: Archon Books, 1968.
124–163.
Paul Dean on History and

the Passage of Time
I
Whether or not the Beowulf-poet had read the Aeneid—the
evidence is inconclusive—they have in common an enigmatic
vision of the past. We can easily apply to Beowulf the terms
used some years ago in a critical dispute over whether Virgil
could be called a great poet of history as well as a great poet
of time. Professor A.D. Nuttall thought he could not, because
his approach was typological and ‘the typological imagination
is interested in sameness while the historical imagination is
interested in difference’, but Dr Stephen Medcalf thought he
did have such an interest, praising his ‘obsession with time, and
his belief, or at least readiness to believe, that a new epoch with
a radical shift in the nature of things, was happening in his own
time’.1 I am on Dr Medcalfâ†œ’s side about Virgil, and about Beowulf
too, which I shall try to show is a great poem about history, and
even about philosophy of history. This position is by no means
widely accepted. Voices have been raised to deny historical
consciousness, not only to the author of Beowulf, but to the
Anglo-Saxons as a whole. For instance, Michael Hunter writes:
All the strands of the past, Roman, Germanic, biblical

or native, were knitted into single, comprehensive
fabric [.â•¯.â•¯.] The past was visualized in terms of a heroic,
idealized present [.â•¯.â•¯.] There was only one past for the
Anglo-Saxons, one in which many traditions were vaguely
confused . . .2
While Adelaide Hardy is still more dismissive:

86
The urge to create an identity through the illusion of
continuity with the past is obviously different from
‘historical sense’, which depends on the desire to
distinguish between fact and fiction, and the ability to
place events in their proper chronological context. [. . .]
It is to be doubted that before the coming of Christianity
the Anglo-Saxons possessed an ‘instinctive historical
sense’ which enabled them to preserve the details and
chronology of events from the past; and it is more likely
that they viewed the past through legends which gave a
mysterious illusion of continuity.3
The last comment can be ignored as beside the point for a

post-Christian poem such as Beowulf. Hardy quotes Tolkien’s
assertion that the poet had an ‘instinctive historical sense’,
a point which he immediately sabotaged by adding that it
had been used ‘with a poetical and not an historical object’—
whatever that means!4 He need not have been so cautious.
One could begin to contest the views of Hunter and Hardy
by pointing to King Alfred’s translation of Boethius, so
long despised but now at last beginning to be recognised as
possessing its own intellectual integrity.5 Boethius, like Virgil,
was seen as a vital mediator between the pagan and Christian
worlds, and, as will emerge, I believe his influence on Beowulf
can be much more convincingly maintained than Virgil’s. In
one of the best comparisons of the Consolation and Beowulf,
W.F. Bolton comments that
What the Consolatio addresses through dialectic and

doctrine, however, Beowulf approaches through literary
form: the artifact becomes an embodiment of the
concept.6
Bolton here raises a crucial point—the relation of the poem’s

philosophy of history to its artistic form. The matter is of
some theoretical interest, since a historical poet faces complex
technical challenges. Within the time-scale of the subject-
matter he must create a past, present and future, which must
87
in turn be balanced against the past, present and future of
himself and his audience, the relationship between the two
time-scales frequently giving occasion for irony or pathos and
lending itself to an objectifying or distancing of the poem’s
readers or hearers from its personages. A third dimension,
beyond the poet’s control, occurs after his lifetime when he,
his contemporaries and his poem become history for a future
generation. All this applies equally to the Aeneid and to Beowulf,
both, in some sense, epics which incorporate the history (to be
understood as including much that is not history to us) of their
first audiences with the teleological aim of showing ‘how we
got here’. I do not agree with Professor Nuttall that teleology,
and its concomitant, a figural imagination, preclude awareness
of historical change. All we can reasonably say is that they
account for historical change in a way which is no longer widely
accepted. Yet that does not make them debased intellectual
currency: Hegel and Marx were teleological in approach and
continue to be taken more seriously than our poet!
Because he is first a poet, not an historian or a philosopher,
critics have particular responsibilities when discussing the
historical ‘background’ of the poem. and here, if I may say so
without offence, it seems to me that Beowulf needs rescuing from
its admirers. The historical references in the poem are part of its
existence as a poem, not simply extraneous material of a different
order of being. I do not say that the enormous amount of
research into the historical allusions in Beowulf has been a waste
of time, but I do believe it has been misdirected. The questions
the researchers ask themselves are ‘what are the historical events
to which the poet refers here, how accurate is his knowledge of
them, and where did this knowledge come from?’ But clearly,
if we want to respond to the poem as literature, the question
must be ‘what is the effect on the poem as a poem of presenting
these details in this way at this point?’—and this question can
only be answered by looking hard at the poem, not away in
another direction. Further, the sheer perplexity induced in
the hearers and readers by the elliptical nature of the allusions
may well be deliberate. Scholars assure us that the original
audience would have spotted at once what was being referred
88
to, but we cannot know that that was the case, and it is at least
equally likely that some of them were as baffled as we are. As
events and identities accumulate, come and go, and merge into
a dizzying kaleidoscope, the poet rams home the lesson that
history is both an enigma and a burden. But if we are following
a re-ordered summary we shall never grasp this. In short, the
excavators of historical allusion in the poem have ceased to
consider it as a poem. Professor Ruth Morse shows us a more
excellent way in stressing ‘what kind of representation of what
understanding for what audience are essential questions to
ask when evaluating medieval and renaissance history’, and
in reformulating the question in the poet’s mind as ‘on the
assumption that something very like this might be thought to
have happened, how are we to understand the events?’7
So too with the structure and the ‘digressions’: it is no
use abstracting the historical allusions, re-arranging them in
chronological order and giving a connected narrative, with
the implication that the poem is structurally defective. The
comment quoted above that ‘historical sense’ involves ‘the
ability to place events in their proper chronological context’
begs the question, for there is a chronological context which
seems ‘proper’ to the poet; it is simply not a linear one. He
chose to proceed by indirections and we are told what we need
to know when he thinks we need to know it and not before, in
the way in which he thinks we need to know it and in no other
way. Leyerle was right: ‘there are no digressions in Beowulfâ†œ’.8
It was again Tolkien who pointed to an illuminating
approach to the poem’s structure, although again his phrasing
was unhappy. In a celebrated passage in his 1936 lecture he
stated that Beowulf
is essentially a balance, an opposition of ends and

beginnings. In its simplest terms it is a contrasted
description of two moments in a great life, rising and
setting; an elaboration of the ancient and intensely moving
contrast between youth and age, first achievement and
final death. It is divided in consequence into two opposed
portions, different in matter, manner and length.9
89
Tolkien’s ‘simplest terms’ were too simple. Kenneth Sisam
rightly objected that ‘it is not clear what beginnings in the first
part and what ends in the latter part are opposed’, and Bolton
warns against making ‘a leap from the demonstrated formal
properties of the poem to the predicted thematic properties’.10
Yet this binary principle of construction has been detected
in other Old English poems such as The Wanderer and The
Seafarer, as well as in the Aeneid and other classical literature.11
There may be cause for saying that it is not only present, but
functionally present, in Beowulf.
Tolkien’s statement is open to objection not because he
says something is there which is not there (everyone agrees
that there is a major structural break at line 2200, and I
shall use this as a dividing point between this essay and its
continuation) but because he says it works in a way in which
it does not. For his ‘simplest terms’ collapse into a single
moment of apprehension or realisation what is in fact a
gradual dawning of awareness in the reader’s mind, a process
which it requires the architectural development of the whole
poem to enact. His connection of the binary structure with
the half-line, later in his lecture, was a surer intuition; for
Beowulf is a remarkable case of a poem whose microcosmic
and macrocosmic structures reinforce one another. Its stylistic
preference for parataxis over subordination matches its
fondness for significant collocation rather than sequential
narrative. The best word for the relationship between its
vision of the past and its, structural technique is Donne’s:
‘interinanimation’.
So far I have been mainly concerned with critical opinion,
but in the rest of the essay I wish to concentrate on what we
can deduce from the text itself about the poet’s view of the
past. This old New Critical procedure may have value in this
case, however, because, despite continuing debate, we actually
have no idea when or where the poem was written,12 and to
attempt: to relate the events it incorporates to some proposed
‘contemporary’ context may be at best a circular argument, at
worst a distracting irrelevance.
90
II
The poem opens with a demand for our attention now which
is immediately followed by an appeal to our common past
experience, specifically our memory of certain kinds of story—
‘Hwæt we [. . .] gefrunon’—and what we have heard of is also
remote from us in time—‘Gar-Dena | in geardagum/þeod-
cyninga | þrym’ (1–2). Syntactically, as my fragmenting of
the quotation shows, the past is wrapped round by communal
memory.
The management of time in the ‘Prologue’, the first fifty
lines or so, induces in us a sense of temporal dislocation
characteristic of de poem as a whole. The story of Scyld is
narrated in a rapid impressionistic way, with ambiguous or
vague temporal indications such as ‘aerest’, ‘oðþaet’, ‘æfter’,
‘lange hwile’, ‘lange ahte’ (6, 9, 12, 16, 31).13 The brisk sketch
of the conquests which consolidated his leadership comes
to a temporary point of stasis in the exclamation ‘þæt wæs
god cyning’ (11) which gives ‘an impression of finality in a
summarizing statement’â†œ”14 and is later used of Hrothgar and
Beowulf himself (863, 2390). This is a good moment to dispose
of another vexed question, that of ‘formulaic phrases’. The
fact that a phrase is used more than once does not empty it
of meaning: on the contrary, each repetition is coloured by its
predecessors and acquires an extra dimension of meaning. So,
here, the phrase establishes, across great tracts of the poem,
a parallelism of character which also makes us think about
the implications of ‘god’ in each case. After its use at 11 a
new indefinite movement gets under way with ‘æfter’ (12) as
the valour of Scyld’s son Beowulf is praised. All the editors
solemnly remind us that this Beowulf is is not the eponymous
hero, but that is exactly the point, and when the hero does
finally say ‘Beowulf is min nama’ (343) the poet has engineered
a momentary confusion which again points up the parallels.
From these long stretches of time we swoop on particular
moment as Scyld dies ‘to gescæp-hwile’ (26), ‘at the appointed
hour’ (appointed by whom?), introducing the first lengthy
91
concentration on a specific event—a funeral, anticipating the
end of the poem. Scyld’s burial is telescoped together with his
initial voyage, as a baby, in a moment which does provide some
justification for Tolkien’s comments quoted earlier:
Naelæs hi hine læssan lacum teodan,

þeod-gestreonum, þon þa dydon,
þe hine æt frumsceafte forð onsendon
ænne ofer yðe umbor-wesende (43–6)
The use of ‘frumscæfte’, also found in line 91 and in Caedmon’s

Hymn to mean the creation of the world, lends an aura of
immense age to Scyld; his life is both unimaginably long and
compressed into a single instant, a brief interval between two
voyages into the unknown.
From 53 his success story seems due to be repeated—and
consolidated, for this figure who came from nowhere and had
no past, whose very name is a symbol of his function, is now
the founder of a burgeoning dynasty. Time moves rapidly on:
we hear of Hrothgar’s birth in 61 and of his military leadership
in 64:
þa wæs Hroðgare here-sped gyfen,

wiges weorð-mynd, þæt him his wine-magas
georne hyrdon, oððþæt seo geogoð geweox
mago-driht micel. Him on mod be-arn
þæt heal-reced hatan wolde. . . (64–8)
‘þa’, ‘þxt’ and ‘oððþaet’ continue the temporal vagueness, but

the caesura in 67 marks a decisive break. From the acts which
confirm Hrothgar’s leadership we move to an idea; out of the
flux of time emerges the imposition of an individual will, a will
not merely to build a hall but to create something historically
new, unprecedented—
medo-ærn micel men gewyrcean,

þonne yldo bearn æfre gefrunon (69–70)
92
—which will involve many peoples beside Hrothgar’s own (74–
6). The hall, symbol of Hrothgar’s success and of civilization,
rises miraculously from nothing, in due time but in human eyes
quickly (76f.). The speed gives an impression of Hrothgar’s
power; he has only to command and his bidding is done. But
the poet no sooner presents the hall, ‘towering high’ (are we to
think of Babel?) than he sounds an ominous note: Heorot
heaðo-wylma bad,
laðan liges; ne wæs hit lenge þa gen,
þaet se ecg-hete aþum-swerian
æfter wæl-niðe wæcnan scolde. (83–5)
This device recurs (e.g. 1017–9); by assuring us that

something had not yet occurred the poet makes us aware of its
inevitability—a simultaneous postponement and prophecy of
doom.
From human creation, destined to crumble in time, the
perspective moves to Divine creation and the establishment
of an eternal order. The stop sings of history impregnated
with spirituality, recounting ‘frumsceaft fira | feorran’ (91),
celebrating the harmony of the cosmos and the plenitude
of the created world in which God ‘lif eac gesceop/cynna
gehwylcum, | þara ðe cwice hwyrfaþ’ (97f.). The insistence on
‘gehwylcum’ immediately introduces a problem, for the scop’s
song is sandwiched in between the first references to Grendel,
and the double nature of ‘creation’ soon becomes clear: from
the archetypal fratricide of Cain all the internecine strife in the
poem descends, and Grendel, Cain’s descendant, is the product
and embodiment of a grim anti-creation, a horrible parody
of human society, with its own kinship bonds and complex
etiquette (see e.g. 562–4, where the monsters are depicted in
a comitatus of their own, with cannibal feasts at the bottom of
the sea). Moreover, this parody can impinge on that which it
parodies—we hear of Grendel’s ‘guð-cræft’ (127) and although
he is clearly not an admirable warrior like Scyld or Hrothgar he
‘rixode’ (144) in Heorot, during the night, as not only Hrothgar
93
but God allowed him to. The fact that he acts with God’s
permission is made quite clear (e.g. 478f., 705–9). Against the
efforts of men to build a civilization—one aspect of which is
a historical understanding—is pitted an irrational principle of
instinctive animus, built in to the world by its Maker and, in a
complex way, historical too (Cain was not a legendary figure,
we suppose, for the poet or his audience).
Notes
Work on this essay was facilitated by a short period of study at Christ
Church, Oxford, in the summer of 1992. I am most grateful to the
College for its hospitality. All quotations from Beowulf refer to the
edition by C.L. Wrenn, revised by W.F. Bolton (3rd ed., revised,
Exeter, 1988). Diacritics have been omitted. Where quotations are
not displayed, the break between half-lines is indicated by a vertical
line thus: |
1. Nuttall, ‘Virgil and Shakespeare’, and Medcalf, ‘Virgil at the
Turn of Time’, in Virgil and his Influence: Bimillenial Studies, ed.
Charles Martindale (Bristol, 1984.), pp. 76, 239. Dr Medcalf also
kindly discussed his article with me.
2. Michael Hunter, ‘Germanic and Roman Antiquity and the
Sense of the Past in Anglo-Saxon England’, Anglo-Saxon England 3
(1974), pp. 46–8.
3. Adelaide Hardy, ‘Historical Perspective and the Beowulf Poet’,
Neophilologus 63 (1979), pp. 431, 441. For a more positive view,
Roberta Frank, ‘The Beowulf Poet’s Sense of History’, in The Wisdom
of Poetry, ed. Siegfried Wenzel and Larry D. Benson (Kalamazoo,
1982), pp. 53–65. I have not been able to see Leonard Tennenhouse,
‘Beowulf and the Sense of History’, Bucknell Review 19 (1971), 137–46.
4. ‘Beowulf the Monsters and the Critics’, Proceedings of the British
Academy 22 (1936): separate publication, p. 5.
5. See, for instance, Olga Fischer, ‘A Comparative Study of
Philosophical Terms in the Alfredian and Chaucerian Boethius’,
Neophilologus 6 (1979), 622–39, and Jerold C. Frakes, The Fate of
Fortune in the Early Middle Ages: the Boethian Tradition (Leiden, 1988).
I owe the latter reference to Dr Clare A. Lees.
6. W.F. Bolton, ‘Boethius and a Topos in Beowulf,’ in Margot H.
King and Wesley M. Stevens eds, Saints Scholars and Heroes: Studies in
Medieval Culture in Honour of Charles W. Jones (Minnesota, 1979), vol.
1, p. 36.
7. Ruth Morse, Truth and Convention in the Middle Ages: Rhetoric,
Representation, and Reality (Cambridge, 1991), pp. 95, 87.
8. J. Leyerle, ‘The Interlace Structure of Beowulfâ†œ’, University of
Toronto Quarterly 37 (1967), 1–17.
94
9. Tolkien, op. cit., p. 29.
10. Sisam, The Structure of ‘Beowulfâ†œ’ (Oxford, 1965), p. 22: Bolton,
ed. cit., p. 76.
11. See The Seafarer, ed. Ida L. Gordon (1960), p. 8; The Wanderer,
ed. T.P. Dunning and A.I. Bliss (1969), p. 82; W.A. Camps, An
Introduction to Virgil’s ‘Aeneid’ (Oxford, 1969), pp. 54–8.
12. I take heart from the splendidly sceptical essay by E.C. Stanley,
‘The Date of Beowulf: some Doubts and no Conclusions’, in Colin
Chase, ed., The Dating of ‘Beowulfâ†œ’ (Toronto, 1981), pp. 197–211,
reprinted in Stanley’s A Collection of Papers with Emphasis on Old English
Literature (Toronto, 1987). We can date the manuscript of the poem c.
1000 and its language is West Saxon with some Anglian elements: all
else is conjecture.
13. For some stylistic comments on the handling of time see
Håkan Ringbom, Studies in the Narrative Technique of ‘Beowulfâ†œ’ and
Lawman’s ‘Brut’ (Åbo, 1968), pp. 25–37 (a not entirely reliable study,
however), and E.G. Stanley, ‘The Narrative Art of Beowulfâ†œ’ , in
Medieval Narrative: a Symposium, ed. Hans Bekker-Nielsen et al.
(Odense, 1979), pp. 59f.
14. Stanley, ‘Narrative Art’. p. 76.
Thomas A. Prendergast on Memory and the

Idolatrous Pleasures of Heroic Poetry
Pleasure, at least earthly pleasure, was seen as a distraction
from the pleasure that one was to take in God. Certainly this
kind of concern led the fifth-century monk, John Cassian,
to lament that his didactic, divine meditations were giving
way to more seductive, secular images: “my mind is filled
with those songs of the poets so that even at the hour of
prayer it is thinking about those trifling fables, and the
stories of battles with which from its earliest infancy it was
stored by its childish lessons: and when singing Psalms or
asking forgiveness of sins either some wanton recollection
of the poems intrudes itself or the images of heroes fighting
presents itself before the eyes, and an imagination of such
phantoms is always tricking me and does not suffer my soul
to aspire to an insight into things above.”8 These images that
distract him from meditations on the divine were so troubling
and offensive to early ecclesiastics that patristic psychology
95
had categorized them as symptomatic of uncleanness
(immunditia)—(as the Abbot Nesteros tells Cassian) a form of
fornication.9 Yet, like Augustine’s more famous memories of
the tears of Dido,10 these seductive images of heroic poetry
were often deemed necessary to help develop the memory
(especially in children) precisely because they were so easily
remembered.11 What, then, facilitated the remembrance of
scriptures was also what might distract one from constructive
memories. This is why reactions to heroic poetry in the
Anglo-Saxon period are characterized by a mixture of
attraction and horror. Given this ancient acknowledgment of
and bias against the seductive powers of heroic poetry,12 it is
perhaps not surprising that at the poem’s narrative threshold,
the narrator should explicitly articulate the double bind
of remembering the heroic past as at once cleansing and
seductive; he suggests that whatever objections there might
be to remembering the “former days,” the poem’s inscribed
audience is apparently eager to hear tales about those days.13
The problem confronting the poet, as Fred Robinson and
others have pointed out, is to validate this desire to remember
(and thus validate remembering the poem itselfâ†œ) without
valorizing the kind of obsessive remembering that led to the
disastrous cycle of vengeance which plagued the Anglo-Saxon
world—a mnemonics that, in the poem, is enabled by the
seductive idolatry of violence. The Beowulf-poet attempts to
solve this cultural problem by distinguishing between two
kinds of memory—an impure, compulsive, and idolatrous
remembering that reinforces a self-destructive culture of
revenge, and a conscious remembering that constructively
remembers the past without, in the process, valorizing the
compulsion of kinstrife. By invoking and then differentiating
between these two paradigms of memory, the poet is able to
justify his own remembering of the past; for encoded within
the poem is a strategy for how to read it—a way to reform and
purify even the memory of the pagan Germanic past. Yet the
poet cannot escape the central paradox underlying his project:
his attempts to cleanse memory lead him to memorialize the
very seductions that led to “uncleanness.”
96
The problems inherent in distinguishing between conscious
and compulsive memory are initially expressed in Beowulfâ†œ’s
inability to cleanse Heorot; for if his conscious “remembering
of his own fame” enables him to rid the hall of literal
monsters,14 he cannot cleanse Heorot of the monstrous kinstrife
that pollutes the Hall because its inhabitants compulsively
remember and hence reenact past injuries.15 The poet offers
some insight into just how difficult it is to sanitize memories
when, in one of the more notorious passages of the work, the
Danes offer sacrifices to idols. These idle supplications lead
the poet (in a somewhat unusual authorial intrusion) to lament
the “hope of the heathens” (“hæþenra hyht”), who, because
they did not know of Heaven, “remembered Hell” (“helle
gemundon”) (l. 179). Using the verb “to remember” for the
first time here, the poet meditates on the more problematic
side of memory; for by remembering Hell the Danes can only
return compulsively to a past custom that, the audience knew,
perpetuated rather than eliminated evil.
The narrator’s condemnation of hellish remembering is,
of course, characteristically Christian in its disclosure of how
futile it is to try to destroy evil by participating in a kind of
compulsive and idolatrous remembering. But it also says much
about the cultural connection between aesthetics and memory,
for this Christian way of thinking about idolatry relies on
troping memory as an inscribed image. Augustine—perhaps
the medieval authority on memory—claimed that those who
worshipped idols objectified their experience of the deity: they
remembered the deity as an idolatrous object in order to assert
mastery over him.16 Hence they read the sign, which points
“to an absence or a significance yet to come,” as the thing
itself.17 John Freccero has argued that this kind of misreading
has much to do with Augustine’s famous definition of sin as
enjoying that which should be used (27). This “enjoyment”
is illicit because all things should ultimately point toward the
deity. Thus, to enjoy the sign for its own sake is to fetishize
the sign at the expense of the deity. From this perspective one
might read the Beowulf-poet’s characterization of the idols that
the Danes worshipped as fetishes, as “a desperate attempt to
97
render presence, a reified sign” that ultimately points to nothing
(28). The root of this misreading becomes clear when the poet
writes that the Danes “remembered Hell.” They compulsively
locate meaning in the physical sign (that is, the idols). As one of
the points of the poem is that the Danes are unable to control
remembering, the narrator’s exclamation, “they did not know
how to worship” (“herian ne cuþon”) (l. 182), suggests that
it was the misguided attempt to control the absent deity via
mnemonic representations that led them, ironically, to extend
the hellish violence of Grendel.
Nowhere is this pathology of idolatry more apparent than in
the interstice between the death of Grendel and his metonymic
reappearance via his mother. The idolatrous nature of this
interstice is emblematized by Grendel’s severed arm which
Beowulf enshrines inside the hall. The arm is supposedly, as
the poem says, a “clear sign” (“tacen sweotol”) that Beowulf
had “remedied all the griefâ†œ” (“ealle gebette inwidsorge”)—a
mnemonics that purportedly leads to the cleansing of the past;
yet, given the bloody events that follow, it seems, instead,
that the arm is a tacen that uncleanness now lies at the heart
of Heorot (ll. 825–36).18 Rather than point beyond itself to a
conscious transcendence of violence, the arm becomes a kind
of fetish object that makes manifest an idolatrous worship
of violence. Indeed, Grendel’s severed arm becomes a kind
of tourist attraction, as the poem tells us that people came
from near and far “to look on the wonderful thing” (“wundor
sceawian”) (l. 840). At this particular moment in the poem, this
“sign” seems to signal the triumph of heroic force over hellish
force. Yet the Danes are quickly disabused of this latter notion
when the kin of Cain once again makes its appearance in the
hall. This multiplication of monsters seems to suggest that
eliminating Grendel’s mother will not cleanse the hall either.
The impurity remains within Heorot (that is, within those who
are within Heorot); for the poem hints that even if the kin of
Cain are dead, the sin for which Cain was proscribed will be
reenacted by Hrothgar’s nephew.19
Certainly, this connection between violence, idolatry, and
compulsion is reinforced by the apparent relish with which the
98
poet describes the evisceration and consumption of Beowulfâ†œ’s
erstwhile friend Hondscioh:
Ne þæt se aglæca yldan þohte,

ac he gefeng hraðe forman siðe
slæpende rinc, slat unwearnum,
bat banlocan, blod edrum dranc,
synsnædum swealh; sona hæfde
unlyfigendes eal gefeormod,
fet ond folma.
(ll. 739–45)20
[Nor thought the monster long to delay that, but, at the

first occasion, he quickly seized a sleeping man, tore
without hindrance, bit bonelocks, drank blood in streams,
swallowed in huge morsels, at once he had consumed the
lifeless one, feet, hands and all.]
The poet’s tendency to dwell, with rhetorical excess, on the

fragmentation of the body may be said to titillate the reader
with evocative images of disembowelment—hence normalizing
a kind of sadistic pleasure.21 Georges Bataille has argued that
such conflicting impulses of revulsion and fascination in the
face of murder are primary: that is, the very idea that murder
is transgressive inspires in the spectator (or reader) a kind
of erotic frisson.22 Yet if the reader is implicated in a kind of
textual fornication here, it is because the reader or auditor is
interpellated into the position of Beowulf himself as she or he
follows the eroticized description of the death of the “slæpende
rinc”; for, as the narrator tells us immediately prior to Grendel’s
gruesome bloodsport, “The exceedingly strong one watched
. . . how the wicked ravager . . . would proceed” (“þryðswyð
beheold . . . hu se manscaða . . . gefaran wolde”) (ll. 736–38).
The poet, here, erases all distinction between audience and
fictional character, and thus implicates the audience more
closely in Beowulfâ†œ’s idolatrous and voyeuristic gaze. The
pleasure derived from this idolatry is, arguably, akin to the
fetishistic pleasure associated with the blazon, which, as Roland
99
Barthes has demonstrated, destroys or dismembers the body
in an effort to remember it idolatrously. The fragmentation
of Hondscioh’s body into “hands and feet,” then, becomes
a desperate attempt to render presence that leads only to a
compulsive pleasure in destruction.23
Notes
8. John Cassian, The Works of John Cassian, tr. Rev. Edgar C. S.
Gibson, vol. 11, The Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, 2nd ser., ser.
eds. Philip Schaft and Henry Wace (Grand Rapids, Mich., 1983),
p.â•¯441.
9. Some time earlier, Augustine had explicitly laid out how the
soul, “having found its delight in those corporeal former movements,
since it cannot have them with it within itself, . . . becomes entangled
with their images which it has fixed in its memory, and is foully
defiled by the fornication of the fantasy; and it refers all its functions
toward those ends for which it curiously seeks corporeal and temporal
things through the senses of the body.” Here, as in Cassian, the soul
is portrayed as having a kind of adulterous intercourse with idle
corporeal images, an obsessive interaction that prevents the soul
from contemplating God; for the memory, where these images were
stored, was seen as a storehouse in which the most vivid memories
were associated with inner seeing (Augustine, The Trinity, tr. Stephen
McKenna [Washington, D.C., 1963], p. 356).
10. Augustine, The Confessions of St. Augustine, tr. John K. Ryan
(Garden City, N.J., 1960), p. 56.
11. For a brief discussion of “sex and violence” as at once something
to be avoided and a “necessary component of the art of memory”
in the later Middle Ages, see Mary Carruthers, The Book of Memory
(Cambridge, 1990), p. 137.
12. As Fred Robinson has demonstrated, this particular tradition
can be traced through Ælfric and Wulfstan (Fred Robinson, “Beowulfâ†œ”
and the Appositive Style [Knoxville, Tenn., 1985], pp. 8–9).
13. Robinson has suggested that the first line of the poem hints at
the eagerness of the poet’s historical audience to learn about pagan
heroic deeds because “gefrunon (we have inquired) is a bolder word
than . . . gehyrdon (we have heard) when considered in the context of
ecclesiastical condemnation of those who” are curious about “songs
about the pagan heroes of the geardagum” (Robinson, “Beowulfâ†œ” and
the Appositive Style, p. 89). As might be apparent, I tend to see the
audience’s eagerness as a construct of the poet rather than a reflection
of a historical circumstance.
100
14. Beowulf and the Fight at Finnsburg, ed. Fr. Klaeber (Lexington,
Mass., 1950), l. 659; hereafter cited in text by line number.
Translations, unless otherwise noted, are mine.
15. The obsessive-compulsive nature of sin is biblical. See Prov.
26:11–13 and 2 Pet. 2:2.
16. Augustine, On Christian Doctrine, tr. D.W. Robertson Jr. (New
York, 1954), p. 85.
17. John Freccero, “The Fig Tree and the Laurel: Petrarch’s
Poetics,” Literary Theory/Renaissance Texts, ed. Patricia Parker and
David Quint (Baltimore, 1986), p. 27; hereafter cited in text.
18. Perhaps more problematic from an ideological point of view is
Grendel’s mother. Here the social norms affirmed by the poem are
at odds with the ethical ideals that the poet offers in his intermittent
critique of the heroic code; for the attack by Grendel’s mother
exemplifies at once “monstrous” repetition and kin-loyalty. Her
vengeance, according to the heroic code, is justified. Yet, despite
the monster-woman’s loyalty to her kin, the poet does not present
Grendel’s mother as a laudatory example of the heroic code; rather she
is, like her son, a monstrosity who deserves it when the sword “broke
her bonerings” (“banhringas bræc”) and cut completely through her
bodily flesh (ll. 1567–68).
19. For a brief discussion of Hrothulfâ†œ’s future treachery, see Howell
D. Chickering Jr., Beowulf (New York, 1977), pp. 320–22.
20. As James Rosier wryly comments, “were the morsel not a
thane, the process of eating might be that of any Anglo-Saxon
gourmet” (James Rosier, “The Uses of Association: Hands and Feasts
in Beowulf,” PMLA, 78 [1963], 9). The thane, of course, is not named
until Beowulf himself tells the tale.
21. Such drawn out imagistic representations of “death,” André
Bazin suggests, are “the negative equivalent of sexual pleasure” (André
Bazin, What is Cinema?, tr. Hugh Gray [Berkeley, 1967–71], 2:173).
22. “The sight or thought of murder can give rise to a desire for
sexual enjoyment . . . on the one hand the horror of death drives off
.â•¯.â•¯. on the other an element at once solemn and terrifying fascinates
us.” See Georges Bataille, Erotism: Death and Sensuality, tr. Mary
Dalwood (San Francisco, 1986), pp. 11–12, 45.
23. Roland Barthes, S/Z (Paris, 1970), pp. 120–21.
101
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———. Rereading Beowulf. Philadelphia: University of
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———. The Tomb of Beowulf and Other Essays on Old English.
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105
Contributors
Harold bloom is Sterling Professor of the Humanities at Yale
University. He is the author of thirty books, including Shelley’s
Mythmaking, The Visionary Company, Blake’s Apocalypse, Yeats,
A Map of Misreading, Kabbalah and Criticism, Agon: Toward
a Theory of Revisionism, The American Religion, The Western
Canon, and Omens of Millennium: The Gnosis of Angels, Dreams,
and Resurrection. The Anxiety of Influence sets forth Professor
Bloom’s provocative theory of the literary relationships between
the great writers and their predecessors. His most recent
books include Shakespeare: The Invention of the Human, a 1998
National Book Award finalist, How to Read and Why, Genius: A
Mosaic of One Hundred Exemplary Creative Minds, Hamlet: Poem
Unlimited, Where Shall Wisdom Be Found?, and Jesus and Yahweh:
The Names Divine. In 1999 Professor Bloom received the
prestigious American Academy of Arts and Letters Gold Medal
for Criticism. He has also received the International Prize of
Catalonia, the Alfonso Reyes Prize of Mexico, and the Hans
Christian Andersen Bicentennial Prize of Denmark.
J.r.r. tolkien, author of The Hobbit and The Lord of the Rings,
was professor of Anglo-Saxon at Oxford University, where
he established himself as a pre-eminent philologist and
medievalist.
Joan blomfield wrote extensively on medieval literature and

was the author of “The Style and Structure of Beowulf.”
Stanley b. Greenfield was a University of Oregon professor

of English and an internationally recognized expert in Old
English literature. His books include A Critical History of
Old English Literature, The Interpretation of Old English Poems,
A Readable Beowulf, and A New Critical Study of Old English
Literature. He also received a Guggenheim Fellowship, a
Fulbright Fellowship, and a senior fellowship from the National
Endowment for the Humanities.
106
Edward B. Irving, Jr. was a professor of English at the
University of Pennsylvania, specializing in medieval literature.
Some of his works include Reading Beowulf, An Introduction to
Beowulf, and Rereading Beowulf. He also coedited Old English
Studies in Honour of John C. Pope.
T.A. Shippey is a scholar of medieval, particularly Anglo-Saxon,

literatureâ•¯as well as of modern science fiction and fantasy. He
teaches at Saint Louis University, where he is the Walter J. Ong
Chair of Humanities, is the author of The Road to Middle-Earth,
J.R.R. Tolkien: Author of the Century, and Roots and Branches:
Selected Papers on Tolkien. He has also edited the anthologies
The Oxford Book of Fantasy Stories and The Oxford Book of Science
Fiction Stories.
James W. Earl is a professor of English at the University of

Oregon and the author of Thinking about Beowulf and coeditor
of The World of Literature.
David Williams is the author of Cain and Beowulf: A Study in

Secular Allegory.
Linda Georgianna is the author of The Solitary Self: Individuality

in the Ancrene Wisse.
Susanne Weil is a member of the department of English at

Centralia College.
Paul Dean is the author of “Beowulf and the Passing of Time.”
Thomas A. Prendergast is the coeditor of Rewriting Chaucer:

Culture, Authority, and the Idea of the Authentic Text: 1400–1602.
107
Acknowledgments
Tolkien, J.R.R. “Beowulf: The Monsters and the Critics,” Sir
Israel Gollancz Memorial Lecture, proceedings of the British
Academy, 1936.
Blomfield, Joan. “The Style and Structure of Beowulf,” The

Review of English Studies, Vol. 14, no. 56 (October 1938).
Reprinted by permission of Oxford University Press.
Greenfield, Stanley B. “Geatish History: Poetic Art and Epic

Quality,” Neophilologus, 47 (1963). Reprinted with kind
permission from Springer Science and Business Media.
Irving, Jr., Edward B. From A Reading of Beowulf. New Haven:

Yale University Press, 1968.
Shippey, T.A. From Beowulf. Southhampton, England: Edward

Arnold, 1978. Reprinted by permission of T.A. Shippey.
Earl, James W. “The Necessity of Evil in Beowulf,” South

Atlantic Bulletin, Vol. 44, no. 1 (January 1979). Used by
permission.
Williams, David. Cain and Beowulf: A Study in Secular Allegory,

University of Toronto Press, 1982. Reprinted by permission
of University of Toronto Press.
Georgianna, Linda. “King Hrethel’s Sorrow and the Limits of

Heroic Action in Beowulf,” Speculum 62 (1987): 829–834.
Weil, Susanne. “Grace Under Pressure: Hand-Words, Wyrd,

and Free Will in Beowulf,” Pacific Coast Philology, Vol. 24, no.
1/2 (November 1989). Used by permission.
108
Dean, Paul. “Beowulf and the Passing of Time: Part 1,” English
Studies 3, 1994. Reprinted by permission of Taylor and
Francis Ltd., http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals
Prendergast, Thomas A. “Wanton Recollection”: The

Idolatrous Pleasures of Beowulf. New Literary History 30:1
(1999), 130–133, 139–141. © New Literary History, University
of Virginia.
Every effort has been made to contact the owners of

copyrighted material and secure copyright permission. Articles
appearing in this volume generally appear much as they did in
their original publication with few or no editorial changes. In
some cases, foreign language text has been removed from the
original essay. Those interested in locating the original source
will find the information cited above.
109
Index
Character in literary works are indexed by first name (if any), followed by
the name of the work in parentheses.
A Contrasts, 28, 33–34, 45–46, 49–50,

Aeneid, 86–88 74–75, 93–97
Aeschere, death of, 18 Cotton, Robert, 9
Age of Bede, 10 Cotton Vitellius A.XV, 9
Aldfrith (King), 10 Courage, 13, 16, 52
Allegory, 72 Creation, Dean on, 93
Alliteration, 48 Curses, 26
Allusions, 14, 32, 88–89 D
Anger, Grendel and, 57–59 Danes. See Scyldings
Antithesis, Blomfield on, 33 Dean, Paul, 86–95
Arm, 17, 18, 98 Deaths, 27, 28, 99–100
Armor, 16, 20 Destiny, 34, 42
Arrogance, warning against, Dialect, 10
20–21 Digressions, 67–69, 71–72, 74, 89–90
Artistic form, history and, 87–88 Divisions, Tolkien on, 28
Artistry, Greenfield on, 41–42 Dragons
Author of Beowulf, 9–10 character of, 10
B Earl on treasure of, 67–69
Balance, poem as, 27, 29 fighting with, 24–25, 72–78
Bataille, Georges, 99 guarding of treasure by, 22–23
Battle of Maldon, 49–50 poetry about, 17
“Bear’s Son” tale, 9 Tolkien on, 30–31
Bede, Age of, 10 E
Beow, Beowulf vs., 13 Eadgils, 23
Beowulf, 10, 17, 23, 72–78 Eanmund, 23
Blomfield, Joan, 32–36 Earl, James W., 67–69
Bolton, W.F., 87–88 Ecgtheow, 15
Bonjour, Adrien, 38 Elegy, Tolkien on, 30
Breca, swimming match and, 16 Epic poetry, 37–43, 95–100
Brodeur, Arthur G., 38 Evil, 68, 70–72
Burials, 10 Exile, 57–58
Extremes, 45
C
Cain, 14, 61, 70–72, 98–99 F
Career, highlights of, 23 Fame, 14–15, 16, 19, 27, 34
Cassian, John, 95 Fatalism, 15, 19, 80–85
Characterization, 33, 75–77 Fate, 22, 42
Christianity, 9–10, 15, 70–72, 80–85, Feasting, celebratory, 17
95–100 Fetishism, 99–100
Circumambient structure, 35–36 Feuds, 16, 59
Collar, gold, 17–18 Fidelity, 50–52
Complemental structure, 35 Fighting, 17, 35–36, 55–56, 72–78
Context, Dean on, 89 Finn, 18
Contradictions, 40–41 Fire, dragon and, 24–25
110
Formulaic phrases. See Repetition Hrothulf, 18
Fratricide, 69 Hrunting, 19–21
Freccero, John, 97 Humanity, 59–61
Free will, 80–85 Hunter, Michael, 86–87
Friendship, 21 Hygd, 21, 23
Fulcrums, 45–46 Hygelac
Funerals, 13, 26 Beowulf as thane of, 14, 24
character of, 11
G existence of, 9
Geats, 9, 12, 14–15, 16
Frisian raid of, Swedish-Geatish
Georgianna, Linda, 72–78
wars and, 38–39
Germanic rhetoric, 43–60 golden collar and, 17–18
Glory, 62 sharing of treasure with, 21–22
Gold, 14, 17–18
Greed, 46 I
Greenfield, Stanley B., 37–43 Idolatry, 95–100
Grendel, 10, 14, 17, 30–31, 55–61 Inconsistencies, 77
Grendel’s mother, 10, 18, 19–20 Individuality, 42
Infidelity, 69
H Ingeld, 21
Haethcyn, 24 Irony, 18, 33, 57–58, 59–61
Halls, 64–66, 93 Irving, Edward B. Jr., 43–60, 73–74,
Hand-words, 84–85 76
Happiness, 66 Isolation, Grendel and, 57–58
Harmony, 29
Heardred, 22, 23 J
Heathobards, 21 Jealousy, Unferth and, 16
Heatholaf, 15 Jutes, war of with Danes, 18
Hengest, 18 K
Heorot, 11, 14 Kinsmen, vengeance for, 15–16
Heremod, 17, 20–21, 33–34, 44–45
L
Heroic code, thanes and, 13 Language, 29, 43–60, 81–85
Heroic poetry. See Epic poetry “Lay of the Last Survivor,” 67–69
Heroism Life, 14–15
fate and, 42 Loyalty, heroic code and, 13
Georgianna on, 76
Irving Jr. on, 47–52, 54 M
Prendergast on, 95–100 Medcalf, Stephen, 86
speech of Beowulf and, 73 Melting of sword, 20
Tolkien on, 30 Memory, 95–100
Hildeburh, 18 Mercia, 10
History, 42, 72, 86–95 Modthyrtho, 21
Hnaef, 18 Monsters, 30–31, 55–61, 98–99
Hoards, 67–69. See also Treasure Morality, 69–72
Honor, 14, 23–24, 64 Mother of Grendel. See Grendel’s
Hrothgar mother
character of, 10 Mythic status, 64–66
gratitude of, 17 N
as leader of Scyldings, 13 Narrative poems, Beowulf vs., 27
negative constructions and, 44–45 Negative definitions, 43–60
rule of, 14 Negative Man, Grendel as, 55–60
warning of against arrogance, Nobility, 23
20–21 Nonheroes, 43–60
111
Northumbria, 10 Style, 32–36
Nuttall, A.D., 86 Sutton Hoo, 10
O Swimming match, 16
Offa II (King), 10, 33–34 Swords, 17, 19–22, 24, 63–64
Ogres, Tolkien on, 30–31 Symbolism, 62–66, 93, 98
Onela, 23 Synonyms, 35
Ongentheow, 24 T
Oral poetic tradition, 9, 27–31 Thanes, 13, 14, 47–48, 57
P Theft of dragon’s treasure, 22–23
Pagans, 14, 81, 95–100 Themes, 14, 28, 32
Paradoxes, 33 Thorkelin, Grímur, 9
Parallelism, 34 “The Three Stolen Princesses,” 9
Patronymics, 56 Time scale, Dean on, 86–95
Peace-givers, princesses as, 18 Tolkien, J.R.R., 27–31, 87, 89–90
Pleasure, 95–100 Treasure
Plot, Tolkien on, 28 death of Beowulf and, 25
Poetic structure, Tolkien on, 27–31, Earl on, 67–69
87, 89–90 gratitude and, 17–18
Poetry, symbolism and, 62–66 guarding of by dragon, 22–23
Poison, dragon’s bite and, 25 presentation of to Hygelac, 21–22
Poverty, Shippey on, 66 Scyld Scefing and, 13
Prendergast, Thomas A., 95–100 swords as, 19
Prestige, 62–63 symbolism and, 62
Princesses as peace-givers, 18 Truth, 68
Protection, heroic code and, 13 U
Purpose, Tolkien on, 30 Unferth, 10, 16, 46–47
Q Universality, 42
Queens, hazards of, 12 V
R Vengeance. See Revenge
Recurrence-with-elaboration, 34–35 Verse, Tolkien on, 29
Repetition, 27–28, 34–36, 62, 91–93 W
Revenge, 15–16, 18, 23–24, 36, 76 Warrior-retainers. See thanes
Rhetoric, 43–60 Wealhtheow, 11, 18
S Wealth, 13, 46
Scop, poetry of, 17 Weapons, 62
Scyldings, 11, 16, 18, 28 Weil, Susan, 80–85
Sea monsters, 16 Weohstan, 10
Serpents, lake and, 19 Wiglaf, 10, 11, 24–26, 69
Shame, Unfertha and, 16 Williams, David, 69–72
Shapers, Weil on, 80–85 Worth, symbolism and, 62, 64
Shippey, T.A., 62–66 Wuffingas dynasty, 10
Sigemund, 17, 33–34 Wylfingas, 10
Status, symbolism and, 64 Wyrd, 80–85
Strength, Irving Jr. on, 52 Y
“Strong John,” 9 Youth, Tolkien on, 28
Structure, 27–31, 33–36, 72
112

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Bloom’s

The Adventures of Lord of the Flies

Edited & with an Introduction

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Bloom’s Literary Criticism books are available at special discounts when

Contributing Editor: Alison Steinlau

Grendel is a large monster who devours humans despite the

Grendel’s mother, a smaller version of Grendel, attacks Heorot

Hrothgar, the king of the Scyldings or Danes, is a wise and

the dragon is a fire-breathing, snakelike monster that

unferth, a thane in Hrothgar’s court, challenges Beowulf ’s

Hygelac is Beowulfâ†œ’s uncle and the king of the Geats. Like

Wiglaf is a young and inexperienced thane who is the only

“I’ll tell you a truth . . . :

Tonight, Beowulf declares, he will show the monster “the

“Grieve not, wise king! Better it is

Hrothgar, Beowulf, and a group of warriors set out for the

“I give thanks aloud to the Lord of all,

J.R.R. Tolkien on PoeTic STRucTuRe

Joan Blomfield on Style

þær is maðma hord

hæbbe ic mærða fela

and the emphasis on ana (425, 437).

Stanley B. Greenfield on the Epic Quality

. . . the whole elaborately investigated matter of the

That the Beowulf-poet has handled the events of Geatish

Edward B. Irving, Jr. on Negative Definitions

Ne wearð Heremod swa

Heremod was not so [helpful] to the descendants of

In such a passage we can sense the full rhetorical effect of this

In furious anger he cut down his table-companions and

Keeping two opposites alive simultaneously in the hearer’s

Deah þe hine mihtig god mægenes wynnum,

Even though mighty God had favored him and exalted

Here hwæþere serves as the rhetorical fulcrum. We are told that,

Þinceð him to lytel þæt he lange heold,

Even if we leave murder out of the picture, avarice itself

Gehwylc hiora his ferhþe treowde,

Each of them trusted his spirit, that he had a great heart,

Næs ða lang to ðon

It was not long before those slow in battle came out of

Nealles him on heape handgesteallan,

In no way did those war-comrades, those sons of

This is again rhetorical statement in terms of the polarizing of

Wæs him se man to þon leof

Swa sceal mæg don,

This is how a kinsman should behave—and not be secretly

This passage is a good example of the rhetorical effect we have

Swa bealdode bearn Ecgðeowes,

Thus Ecgtheow’s son [Beowulf], a man known in battles,

No her cuðlicor cuman ongunnon

Never have shield-bearers arrived here in a more open

How can the puzzled coastguard establish the identity

Wen ic þæt ge for wlenco, nalles for wræcsiðum,

I believe that you have come to see Hrothgar out of sheer

Ic þæt þonne forhicge . . .

I have no intention on that occasion . . . of carrying any

Other warriors in heroic poetry make much of the process of

No ðy ær feasceafte findan meahton

None the sooner could the destitute Geats prevail on