1. Q1.

List & explain various

input & output devices of a
computer
A computer is only useful when it is able to communicate with the external
environment. When you work with the computer you feed your data and
instructions through some devices to the computer. These devices are called
Input devices. Similarly, computer after processing gives output through
other devices called output devices.

I. Input Devices

Input devices are necessary to convert our information or data into a form
which can be understood by the computer. A good input device should
provide timely, accurate and useful data to the main memory of the
computer for processing followings are the most useful input devices.

1.Keyboard:
This is the standard input device attached to all computers. The layout of the
keyboard is just like the traditional typewriter of the type QWERTY. It also
contains some extra command keys and function keys. It contains a total of
101 to 104 keys. You have to press correct combination of keys to input
data. The computer can recognize the electrical signals corresponding to the
correct key combination and processing is done accordingly.

2.Mouse:
The mouse is an input device which is used with your personal computer. It
rolls on a small ball and has two or three buttons on the top. When you roll
the mouse across a flat surface the screen censors the mouse in the
direction of mouse movement. The cursor moves very fast with mouse
giving you more freedom to work in any direction. It is easier and faster to
move through a mouse.

3. Scanner:
The keyboard can input only text through keys provided in it. If we want to
input a picture the keyboard cannot do that. The Scanner is an optical device
that can input any graphical matter and display it back.

II. Output Devices

Output devices can adopt different shapes and styles, which are used to give
the output of the processing of data. The output can be in any form i.e.
typed, printed, sketched, visible, nonviable, audio, video etc. Output devices
are those peripheral devices that allow a user to retrieve information from a
computer. Any Output devices can be divided into two basic categories.
1. Hard Copy:
It is that form of output which can be read directly and immediately, stored
to be read later. This output is on paper and which is permanent.

2. Soft Copy: It is the magnetic or audio form of output which is usually

unreadable directly and which is not long-lasting.

I. Hard Copy Devices:

These are those devices, which produce a permanent record of data on
media like paper. These are relatively slow in operation when compared to
soft copy devices. Some of the popular devices are Printers, Plotters, and
Photographic output devices.
1. Printers: Printers can be categorized into

Impact Printers
Non-impact Printers
Impact Printers

These are those types of printers which have direct mechanical contact
between the head of the printers and paper. The impact printers are

a. Dot Matrix Printers:

These Printers print characters as a combination of dots arranged in a 5 x 7

matrix. The speed of these printers varies from about 30 to 600 characters
per second. The printing head of these printer contains a vertical array of
pins, which fires the selected pins against carbon ribbon or linked
surfac e while the head moves across the paper to form a pattern of dots
representing characters. These printers can print characters in draft quality,
standard quality as well near letter quality.
Non -Impact Printers:

These printers print without any direct mechanical contact between the head
of the printer and paper. These printers can be categorized into

a. Thermal Printers:

These Printers uses heat sensitive paper in dot matrix method, on which hot
needles are pressed to form characters. These printers print slow and make
a little noise. The disadvantage is that it is not possible to print multiple
copies simultaneously.

b. Inkjet Printers:

These printers use a mechanism where it sprays the ink from tiny nozzles
through an electric field that arranges charged particles ink into characters.
The paper absorbs the ink and it dries instantaneously. It is capable to print
about 500cps, expensive but faster and we can also have color printing, by
using ink various colors.

II. SOFT COPY DEVICES:

These devices output is usually not visible directly but the output can be
viewed with the help of computer where one can update, modify data etc.
Some of the softcopy output devices are.

a. Visual Display Unit:

The most popular input/output device is the Visual Display Unit (VDU). It is
also called the monitor. A Keyboard is used to input data and Monitor is used
to display the input data and to receive a message from the computer. A
monitor has its own box which is separated from the main computer system
and is connected to the computer by a cable. In some systems, it is compact
with the system unit. It can be color or monochrome.

II. Speakers:
Most computers are sold with the capability to add a pair of speakers to your
system unit. In fact, in some cases, the monitor may have speakers built
directly into the unit. This enhances the value of educational and
presentation products and can now be considered a standard PC component.
 2. Explain classification of
computer memory
Memory is major part of computers that categories into several types. Memory is best storage part to
the computer users to save information, programs and etc, The computer memory offer several
kinds of storage media some of them can store data temporarily and some them can store
permanently. Memory consists of instructions and the data saved into computer through Central
Processing Unit (CPU).

Types of Computer Memory:

Memory is the best essential element of a computer because computer cant perform simple tasks.
The performance of computer mainly based on memory and CPU. Memory is internal storage media
of computer that has several names such as majorly categorized into two types, Main memory and
Secondary memory.

1. Primary Memory / Volatile Memory.

2. Secondary Memory / Non Volatile Memory.

1. Primary Memory / Volatile Memory:

Primary Memory also called as volatile memory because the memory cant store the data
permanently. Primary memory select any part of memory when user want to save the data in
memory but that may not be store permanently on that location. It also has another name i.e. RAM.

Random Access Memory (RAM):

The primary storage is referred to as random access memory (RAM) due to the random selection of
memory locations. It performs both read and write operations on memory. If power failures
happened in systems during memory access then you will lose your data permanently. So, RAM is
volatile memory. RAM categorized into following types.

DRAM
SRAM
DRDRAM

2. Secondary Memory / Non Volatile Memory:

Secondary memory is external and permanent memory that is useful to store the external storage
media such as floppy disk, magnetic disks, magnetic tapes and etc cache devices. Secondary
memory deals with following types of components.

Read Only Memory (ROM) :

ROM is permanent memory location that offer huge types of standards to save data. But it work with
read only operation. No data lose happen whenever power failure occur during the ROM memory
work in computers.

ROM memory has several models such names are following.

1. PROM: Programmable Read Only Memory (PROM) maintains large storage media but cant offer
the erase features in ROM. This type of RO maintains PROM chips to write data once and read
many. The programs or instructions designed in PROM cant be erased by other programs.
2. EPROM : Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory designed for recover the problems of
PROM and ROM. Users can delete the data of EPROM thorough pass on ultraviolet light and it
erases chip is reprogrammed.
3. EEPROM: Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory similar to the EPROM but it
uses electrical beam for erase the data of ROM.
Cache Memory: Mina memory less than the access time of CPU so, the performance will decrease
through less access time. Speed mismatch will decrease through maintain cache memory. Main
memory can store huge amount of data but the cache memory normally kept small and low
expensive cost. All types of external media like Magnetic disks, Magnetic drives and etc store in
cache memory to provide quick access tools to the users.
3.Explain disc partition with its
benefits

if you read this just send me

the third question again.
4.Explain different types of
networks .( LAN WAN MAN)

A LAN (local area network) is a group of computers and network devices connected
together, usually within the same building. By definition, the connections must be high
speed and relatively inexpensive (e.g., token ring orEthernet). Most Indiana University
Bloomington departments are on LANs.

A LAN connection is a high-speed connection to a LAN. On the IUB campus, most

connections are either Ethernet (10 Mbps) or Fast Ethernet (100 Mbps), and a few
locations have Gigabit Ethernet (1000 Mbps) connections.

A MAN (metropolitan area network) is a larger network that usually spans several
buildings in the same city or town. The IUB network is an example of a MAN.

A WAN (wide area network), in comparison to a MAN, is not restricted to a geographical

location, although it might be confined within the bounds of a state or country. A WAN
connects several LANs, and may be limited to an enterprise (a corporation or an
organization) or accessible to the public. The technology is high speed and relatively
expensive. The Internet is an example of a worldwide public WAN.
5. Explain network topologies

Types of Network Topology

Network Topology is the schematic description of a network arrangement, connecting various
nodes(sender and receiver) through lines of connection.

BUS Topology
Bus topology is a network type in which every computer and network device is connected to single
cable. When it has exactly two endpoints, then it is called Linear Bus topology.

Features of Bus Topology

1. It transmits data only in one direction.

2. Every device is connected to a single cable

Advantages of Bus Topology

1. It is cost effective.
2. Cable required is least compared to other network topology.

3. Used in small networks.

4. It is easy to understand.

5. Easy to expand joining two cables together.

Disadvantages of Bus Topology

1. Cables fails then whole network fails.

2. If network traffic is heavy or nodes are more the performance of the network decreases.

3. Cable has a limited length.

4. It is slower than the ring topology.

RING Topology
It is called ring topology because it forms a ring as each computer is connected to another computer,
with the last one connected to the first. Exactly two neighbours for each device.
Features of Ring Topology

1. A number of repeaters are used for Ring topology with large number of nodes, because if

someone wants to send some data to the last node in the ring topology with 100 nodes, then the

data will have to pass through 99 nodes to reach the 100th node. Hence to prevent data loss

repeaters are used in the network.

2. The transmission is unidirectional, but it can be made bidirectional by having 2 connections

between each Network Node, it is called Dual Ring Topology.

3. In Dual Ring Topology, two ring networks are formed, and data flow is in opposite direction in

them. Also, if one ring fails, the second ring can act as a backup, to keep the network up.

4. Data is transferred in a sequential manner that is bit by bit. Data transmitted, has to pass

through each node of the network, till the destination node.

Advantages of Ring Topology

1. Transmitting network is not affected by high traffic or by adding more nodes, as only the nodes

having tokens can transmit data.

2. Cheap to install and expand

Disadvantages of Ring Topology

1. Troubleshooting is difficult in ring topology.

2. Adding or deleting the computers disturbs the network activity.

3. Failure of one computer disturbs the whole network.

STAR Topology
In this type of topology all the computers are connected to a single hub through a cable. This hub is
the central node and all others nodes are connected to the central node.
Features of Star Topology

1. Every node has its own dedicated connection to the hub.

2. Hub acts as a repeater for data flow.

3. Can be used with twisted pair, Optical Fibre or coaxial cable.

Advantages of Star Topology

1. Fast performance with few nodes and low network traffic.

2. Hub can be upgraded easily.

3. Easy to troubleshoot.

4. Easy to setup and modify.

5. Only that node is affected which has failed, rest of the nodes can work smoothly.

Disadvantages of Star Topology

1. Cost of installation is high.

2. Expensive to use.

3. If the hub fails then the whole network is stopped because all the nodes depend on the hub.
4. Performance is based on the hub that is it depends on its capacity

MESH Topology
It is a point-to-point connection to other nodes or devices. All the network nodes are connected to
each other. Mesh has n(n-1)/2 physical channels to link n devices.
There are two techniques to transmit data over the Mesh topology, they are :

1. Routing

2. Flooding

Routing
In routing, the nodes have a routing logic, as per the network requirements. Like routing logic to
direct the data to reach the destination using the shortest distance. Or, routing logic which has
information about the broken links, and it avoids those node etc. We can even have routing logic, to
re-configure the failed nodes.

Flooding
In flooding, the same data is transmitted to all the network nodes, hence no routing logic is required.
The network is robust, and the its very unlikely to lose the data. But it leads to unwanted load over
the network.
Types of Mesh Topology

1. Partial Mesh Topology : In this topology some of the systems are connected in the same

fashion as mesh topology but some devices are only connected to two or three devices.

2. Full Mesh Topology : Each and every nodes or devices are connected to each other.

Features of Mesh Topology

1. Fully connected.

2. Robust.

3. Not flexible.

Advantages of Mesh Topology

1. Each connection can carry its own data load.

2. It is robust.

3. Fault is diagnosed easily.

4. Provides security and privacy.

Disadvantages of Mesh Topology

1. Installation and configuration is difficult.

2. Cabling cost is more.

3. Bulk wiring is required.

6.Different types of
transmission media
arious physical media can be used to transport a stream of bits from one device to another. Each
has its own characteristics in terms of bandwidth, propagation delay, cost, and ease of installation
and maintenance. Media can be generally classified as guided (e.g. copper and fibre cable) and
unguided (wireless) media. The main categories of transmission media used in data
communications networks are listed below (please note that wireless transmission media will be
dealt with elsewhere).

Twisted pair copper cable

Coaxial copper cable

Optical fibre

Wireless transmission

Twisted pair cable

[Return to top of page]

Twisted pair copper cable is still widely used, due to its low cost and ease of installation. A twisted
pair consists of two insulated copper cables, twisted together to reduce electrical interference
between adjacent pairs of wires. This type of cable is still used in the subscriber loop of the public
telephone system (the connection between a customer and the local telephone exchange), which
can extend for several kilometres without amplification. The subscriber loop is essentially an
analogue transmission line, although twisted pair cables are also be used in computer networks
to carry digital signals over short distances.

The bandwidth of twisted pair cable depends on the diameter of wire used, and the length of the
transmission line. The type of cable currently used in local area networks has four pairs of wires.
Until recently, category 5 or category 5E cable has been used, but category 6 is now used for
most new installations. The main difference between the various categories is in the data rate
supported - category 6 cable will support gigabit Ethernet. The main disadvantage of UTP cables
in networks is that, due to the relatively high degree of attenuation and a susceptibility to
electromagnetic interference, high speed digital signals can only be reliably transmitted over cable
runs of 100 metres or less.

Unshielded twisted pair cable

Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) cable was introduced in the 1980s by IBM as the recommended
cable for their Token Ringnetwork technology. It is similar to unshielded twisted pair cable except
that each pair is individually foil shielded, and the cable has a braided drain wire that is earthed
at one end during installation. The popularity of STP has declined for the following reasons:

High cost of cable and connectors

More difficult to install than UTP

Ground loops can occur if incorrectly installed

 There is still a cable length limitation of 100 metres

Shielded twisted pair cable

Coaxial cable
[Return to top of page]

A coaxial cable has a central copper wire core, surrounded by an insulating (dielectric) material.
Braided metal shielding surrounds the dielectric and helps to absorb unwanted external signals
(noise), preventing it from interfering with the data signal travelling along the core. A plastic sheath
protects the cable from damage. A terminating resistor is used at each end of the cable to prevent
transmitted signals from being reflected back down the cable. The following diagram illustrates
the basic construction of a coaxial cable.

Construction of coaxial cable

Coaxial cable has a fairly high degree of immunity to noise, and can be used over longer distances
(up to 500 metres) than twisted pair cable. Coaxial cable has, in the past, been used to provide
network backbone cable segments. Coaxial cable has largely been replaced in computer
networks by optical fibre and twisted pair cable, with fibre used in the network backbone, and
twisted pair used to connect workstations to network hubs and switches.

Thicknet cable (also known as 10Base5) is a fairly thick cable (0.5 inches in diameter). The
10Base5 designation refers to the 10 Mbps maximum data rate , baseband signalling and 500
metre maximum segment length . Thicknet was the original transmission medium used in
Ethernet networks, and supported up to 100 nodes per network segment. An ethernet tranceiver
was connected to the cable using a vampire tap , so called because it clamps onto the cable,
forcing a spike through the outer shielding to make contact with the inner conductor, while two
smaller sets of teeth bite into the outer conductor. Transceivers could be connected to the network
cable while the network was live. A separate drop cable with anattachment unit interface (AUI)
connector at each end connected the tranceiver to the network interface card in the workstation
(or other network device). The drop cable was typically a shielded twisted pair cable, and could
be up to 50 metres in length. The minimum cable length between connections ( taps ) on a cable
segment was 2.5 meters.

Thicknet (10Base5) coaxial cable

Thinnet cable (also known as 10Base2) is thinner than Thicknet (approximately 0.25 inches in
diameter) and as a consequence is cheaper and far more flexible. The 10Base2 designation
refers to the 10 Mbps maximum data rate ,baseband signalling and 185 (nearly 200) metre
maximum segment length . A T-connector is used with two BNC connectors to connect the
network segment directly to the network adapter card. The length of cable between stations must
be at least 50 centimetres, and Thinnet can support up to 30 nodes per network segment.

Thinnet (10Base2) coaxial cable

Optical fibre
[Return to top of page]

Optical fibres are thin, solid strands of glass that transmit information as pulses of light. The fibre
has a core of high-purity glass, between 6m and 50m in diameter, down which the light pulses
travel. The core is encased in a covering layer made of a different type of glass, usually about
125 m in diameter, known as the cladding. An outer plastic covering, the primary buffer, provides
some protection, and takes the overall diameter to about 250 m. The structure of an optical fibre
is shown below.

The basic construction of an optical fibre

The cladding has a slightly lower refractive index than the core (typical values are 1.47 and 1.5
respectively), so that as the pulses of light travel along the fibre they are reflected back into the
core each time they meet the boundary between the core and the cladding. Optical fibres lose far
less of its signal energy than copper cables, and can be used to transmit signals of a much higher
frequency. More information can be carried over longer distances with fewer repeaters. The
bandwidth achievable using optical fibre is almost unlimited, but current signalling technology
limits the data rate to 1 Gbps due to time required to convert electronic digital signals to light
pulses and vice versa. Digital data is converted to light pulses by either a light emitting diode
(LED) or a laser diode. Although some light is lost at each end of the fibre, most is passed along
the fibre to the receiver, where the light pulses are converted back into electronic signals by a
photo-detector.
7.what is www, what is DNS
The Web, or World Wide Web (W3), is basically a system of Internet servers that support
specially formatted documents. The documents are formatted in a markup language called
HTML (HyperText Markup Language) that supports links to other documents, as well as
graphics, audio, and video files.
Domain Name Servers (DNS) are the Internet's equivalent of a phone book. They maintain a directory of domain
names and translate them to Internet Protocol (IP) addresses.

This is necessary because, although domain names are easy for people to remember, computers or machines,
access websites based on IP addresses.

Information from all the domain name servers across the Internet are gathered together and housed at the Central
Registry. Host companies and Internet Service Providers interact with the Central Registry on a regular schedule to
get updated DNS information.

When you type in a web address, e.g., www.jimsbikes.com, your Internet Service Provider views the DNS associated
with the domain name, translates it into a machine friendly IP address (for example 216.168.224.70 is the IP for
jimsbikes.com) and directs your Internet connection to the correct website.
8. Explain the types of websites

A website is an HTML Document. HTML is a hypertext markup language. HTML

is a basic framework of a website. HTML does not collect and store any data,
plus it is not much interactive. To enhance the functionality of HTML Website,
We use Javascript (Js, Jquery etc.), Serverside processing Languages (PHP)
and Cascading Style Sheet (CSS). According to the functionalities of a website,
we have different categories/types of website.

Different types of Websites.

According to the functionalities of a website, we have three types of websites.

Those are Static Website, Dynamic Websites and Portal websites.

What is Static Website?

Static websites is a simple HTML website. These websites contain static HTML
pages. These websites are good only for representing the information that rarely
changes.

What is Dynamic Website?

Dynamic websites is an advanced HTML website. This website uses PHP/ASP

languages to generate dynamic contains. These websites are good for
representing the information that frequently changes.

What is Portal Website?

Portal websites is an advanced Dynamic website. This website uses server-side

language and database to store and generate information. On these website user
can intract with their data, filter the informations etc.
Static Website Dynamic Website Portal Website

Static Websites are simple HTML Dynamic websites Contain Portal websites Contain
Websites. Don't Contains Server-side Processing Server-side Processing
Server-side Processing Language. Language and use
Language. database to store user
information.

Don't generate any dynamic These websites are These websites are
contents. dynamic in nature. These completely dynamic in
can generate dynamic nature. It also enables
contents, Such as my account features.
Dynamic Searching etc. So that user can login
and register.

Examples: Examples: Examples:

www.revoticengineering.com www.w3schools.com www.flipkart.com
Here users can read but cannot Here users can read Here users can read
comment or log- in or search information, Search information, Search
anything. Information, but cannot Information, post
comment or log- in. comments and log- in
to access my account.
9. What is ICT
The introduction of information communication technologies (ICTs) in the field of journalism has
transformed various aspects of the profession and as well benefited the public with the ways of
obtaining news and information. The traditional methods of spreading the message to the masses
and their transition to the new technological era

10. List the uses of Microsoft

word
DO IT BY YOURSELF

11.Mail merge
Mail merge primarily enables automating the process of sending bulk mail to customers,
subscribers or general individuals. Mail merge works when a data file is stored that
includes the information of the recipients to whom the letter will be sent. This file can be
a spreadsheet or database file containing separate fields for each different type of
information to be merged within the letter.
The second file is the word document or the letter template. The recipients information
on the letter template is kept empty. When the mail merge process is initiated, the
recipients data from spreadsheet or database is fetched and placed within the empty
field in the letter, one by one, until all letters are created.
12. Explain how to input
graphics , use spellcheck , cut ,
copy , paste

Really bruh ? need help

with copy paste n shiz?

13.Explain workspace in
coreldraw with toolbox
 Just google coreldraw &
write it down.

14.What is scratch
programming
Scratch is a free educational programming language that was developed by the Lifelong
Kindergarten Group at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) with over 15 million
registered users and 22 million shared projects.[1] The current version, 2.0, can be downloaded here (the
previous version, 1.4, can be downloaded here) or accessed with the online editor here. It is geared
towards kids ages to 8-16 and grades 3rd grade to high school.

Scratch is designed to be fun, educational, and easy to learn. It has the tools for creating interactive
stories, games, art, simulations, and more, using block-based programming. Scratch even has its
own paint editor and sound editor built-in.

In designing the language, the creators' main priority was to make the language and development
environment intuitive and easily learned by children who had no previous programming experience. There
is a strong contrast between the powerful multimedia functions and multi-threaded programming style and
the rather limited scope of the Scratch programming language.

Scratch 2.0's development environment at startup.

The user interface for the Scratch development environment divides the screen into several panes: on the
in the middle is the blocks palette, on the right the scripts area, and on the left the stage and sprite list.
The blocks palette has code fragments (called "blocks") that can be dragged onto the scripts area to
make programs. To keep the palette from displaying a lot of blocks and for ease if use, it is organized into
10 groups of blocks: motion, looks, sound, pen, control, events, sensing, operators, variables, and more
blocks.

15.Explain peer to peer

network & client server
network

Difference Between Client-Server and Peer-to-Peer network

January 9, 2017 Leave a Comment

Working on computers for long you

may have heard the terms Client-Server and Peer-to-Peer. These two are the
common network models that we use in our day-to-day life. The Client-Server
network model focuses on information sharing whereas, the Peer-to-Peer
network model focuses on connectivity to the remote computers.

The main difference between the Client-Server and Peer-to-Peer network model
is that in Client-Server model, the data management is centralised whereas,
in Peer-to-Peer each user has its own data and applications. Further, we will
discuss some more differences between Client-Server and Peer-to-Peer network
model with the help of comparison chart shown below, just have a look.

Content: Client-Server Vs Peer-to-Peer

 1. Comparison Chart
2. Definition
3. Key Differences
4. Conclusion

Comparison Chart

BASIS FOR
CLIENT-SERVER PEER-TO-PEER
COMAPAISON

Basic There is a specific server and specific Clients and server are not distinguished;

clients connected to the server. each node act as client and server.

Service The client request for service and Each node can request for services and can

server respond with the service. also provide the services.

Focus Sharing the information. Connectivity.

Data The data is stored in a centralized Each peer has its own data.

server.

Server When several clients request for the As the services are provided by several

services simultaneously, a server can servers distributed in the peer-to-peer

get bottlenecked. system, a server in not bottlenecked.

Expense The client-server are expensive to Peer-to-peer are less expensive to

implement. implement.
 BASIS FOR
CLIENT-SERVER PEER-TO-PEER
COMAPAISON

Stability Client-Server is more stable and Peer-toPeer suffers if the number of peers

scalable. increases in the system.

Definition of Client-Server

The Client-Server network model is widely used network model. Here, Server is
a powerful system that stores the data or information in it. On the other hands,
the Client is the machine which let the users access the data on the remote
server.

The system
administrator manages the data on the server. The client machines and the
server are connected through a network. It allows the clients to access data
even if the client machine and server are far apart from each other.

In Client-Server model, the client process on the client machine sends

the request to the server process on the server machine. When the server
receives the client request, it lookouts for the requested data and send it back
with the reply.

As all the services are provided by a centralized server, there may be chances
of server getting bottlenecked, slowing down the efficiency of the system.
Definition of Peer-to-Peer

Unlike Client-Server, the Peer-to-Peer model does not distinguish between client
and server instead each node can either be a client or a server depending on
the whether the node is requesting or providing the services. Each node is
considered as a peer.

To become a part of peer-to-

peer, a node must initially join the network. After joining it must start to
provide services to and must request the services from other nodes in the peer-
to-peer system. There are two ways to know which node provides which
services; they are as follow:

When a node enters the peer-to-peer system, it must register the

services it will be providing, into a centralized lookup service on the
network. When a node desires for any specific service it must contact
centralized lookup services to check out which node will provide the
desired services. Rest of the communication is done by the desiring node
and the service providing node.
A node desiring for the specific services must broadcast the request for
services to all other nodes in the peer-to-peer system. The node providing
the requested service will respond to the node making the request.

Peer-to-Peer network has the advantage over client-server that the server
is not bottlenecked as the services are provided by the several nodes
distributed in a peer-to-peer system.