INTRODUCTION OF FRAME

Frame building mean anything composed of parts fitted and united together; a fabric, a structure, the
constructional system whether of timber or metal, that gives to a building vessel, its model and strength
and it is the skeleton of a structure.

Building frames are a common structural system for buildings constructed of structural steel and concrete.
In building frame structures, the buildings weight is typically carried by vertical elements called columns
and horizontal elements called beams. Lateral resistance is provided either by diagonal steel members
(termed braces) that extend between the beams and columns to provide horizontal rigidity or by concrete,
masonry, or timber shear walls that provide lateral resistance but do not carry the structures weight. In
some building frame structures, the diagonal braces or walls form an inherent and evident part of the
building design as is the case for the high-rise building in San Francisco shown in

Moment-resisting frame systems are commonly used for both structural steel and reinforced concrete
construction. In this form of construction, the horizontal beams and vertical columns provide both support
for the structures weight and the strength and stiffness needed to resist lateral forces. Stiffness and
strength are achieved through the use of rigid connections between the beams and columns that prevent
these elements from rotating relative to one other. Although somewhat more expensive to construct than
bearing wall and braced frame structural systems, moment-resisting frame systems are popular because
they do not require braced frames or structural walls, therefore permitting large open spaces and facades
with many unobstructed window openings.

Frame building mean anything composed of parts fitted and united together; a fabric, a structure, the
constructional system whether of timber or metal, that gives to a building vessel, its model and strength
and it is the skeleton of a structure.

Framing, in construction known as light frame construction, is a building technique based around structural
members, usually called studs, which provide a stable frame to which interior and exterior wall coverings
are attached, and covered by a roof comprising horizontal ceiling joists and sloping rafters (together
forming a truss structure) or manufactured pre-fabricated roof trussesall of which are covered by various
sheathing materials to give weather resistance. The main components of framing are column and beam.

Function of Frame

The purpose of any framed building is to transfer the loads of the structure plus any imposed loads through
the members of the frame to a suitable foundation. This form of construction can be clad externally with
lightweight non-loadbearing walls to provide the necessary protection from the elements and give to the
required degree of comfort in terms of sound and thermal insulation. Framed building is particularly suitable
for medium-and high-rise structures and for industrialized low-rise building such as single-storey factory
building.

Column

A column in architecture and structural engineering is a vertical structural element that transmits,
through compression the weight of the structure above to other structural elements below. Other
compression members are often termed columns because of the similar stress conditions. Columns can be
either compounded of parts or made as a single piece. Columns are frequently used to support beams or
arches on which the upper parts of walls or ceilings rest. Column in architecture refers specifically to such a
structural element that also has certain proportional and decorative features.
 Column is a vertical member which carries the loads transferred by the beam to the foundations.
The column also can use in basements to support the house structure. Thus, column can help to date
buildings and understand architecture. Furthermore, column use to support or take up the load from the
floor, wall, roof.

Beam

A beam is a structural element which is usually horizontal and narrow in proportion to its depth,
whose main function is to carry loads transverse to its longitudinal axis byits internal resistance to
bending. During the erection of the frame, the beam is self-supporting and when incorporated in the final
construction, interacts with the floor and can thereby support heavy loads. The beam can be used in the
construction of office buildings, apartment houses and industrial buildings. It has a large load-bearing
capacity and excellent fire-resistance characteristics. The principal structural materials for beams are:
steel, light alloy, timber, reinforced concrete and composite materials.

Beams generally carry vertical gravitational forces but can also be used to carryhorizontal loads that are
loads due to an earthquake or wind. The loads carried by a beam are transferred to columns, walls,
or girders, which then transfer the force to adjacent structural compression members.

Main Beams: span between columns and transfer the live and imposed loads placed upon
them to the columns.

Secondary Beams: span between and transfer

their loadings to their loadings to the main beams. Primary
function is to reduce the spans of the floor or roof being
supported by the frame.

Tie Beams: internal beams spanning between

columns at right angles to the direction of the main beams
and have the same function as a main beam.

Edge Beams: as tie beam but spanning

between external columns.

TYPES OF FRAMES
A. Reinforced Concrete Frame
Reinforced concrete is one of the most widely used modern building materials. Concrete is artificial stone
obtained by mixing cement, sand, and aggregates with water. Fresh concrete can be molded into almost
any shape, which is an inherent advantage over other materials. The compressive strength of normal
structural concrete is about one-sixteenth that of steel, but its tensile strength is only about one-fourteenth
to one-eighth of its compressive strength. Its stiffness is low compared with steel and its strength or weight
ratio is low. To overcome this weakness, steel bars are embedded in concrete to form a composite material
called reinforced concrete. Unlike steel, concrete production does not require expensive manufacturing
 mills. Reinforced concrete (RC) frames consist of horizontal elements (beams) and vertical elements
(columns) connected by rigid joints.

Advantages of Reinforced Concrete Frame

1) Reinforced Value in Building Construction

After construction is complete concrete continues to reinforce its value with aesthetic quality, energy
savings, built-in-fire resistance, durability, strength and low maintenance.

2) Energy Savings
Industry studies prove that compared to steel construction, concrete buildings have decreased heating and
cooling expenses. Over a 24 hour period, heat gain calculated by btu / ft2, can be up to 50 percent less
adding up to a substantial savings.

3) Fire Resistance

Concrete is naturally fire-resistant. Concrete buildings typically qualify for reduced fire insurance ratesup
to 60 percent less on fire and extended coverage for warehouses and storage buildings.

4) Durability, Strength, Low Maintenance

Because concrete can withstand catastrophic loading and there is less movement with concrete structures,
buildings have a longer life expectancy. They also are weather-tight, require lower maintenance and have
greater resale value than other structures.

5) Aesthetic Value

Today's concrete technologies provide innovative solutions for architectural interest and versatility in
design. New coloring admixtures provide attractive, economical alternatives to exterior finishing. And
concrete is adaptable to a variety of surface treatments and shapes resulting in structures that set
graciously into any environment.

Disadvantages of Reinforced Concrete Frame

1) Buildings cannot resist the temperature and moisture effect due to the small thickness of walls.

2) It is much affected by earthquake loads.

3) Very heaving

4) Can become a time consuming process when there is an error on pouring concrete frames.
B. Timber Frame

Wood construction is common for many single-family houses throughout the world. In areas where
timber and wood materials are easily accessible, wood construction is often considered to be the cheapest
and best approach for small housing structures.

Timber varies in strength according to the species and to the presence or absence of knots and faults
in the timber and bending strength of structure soft-woods varies from about one-thirtieth to one-twenty-
second that of mild steel. Compared with other materials its stiffness is low but in relation to its own weight,
which is quite light, it is relatively very stiff. Thus, in structure application, compensation for its lack of
stiffness can be made without excessive increase in weight of structure. It has a relatively high strength or
weight ratio, and is suitable for lightly or moderately loaded low-rise building frame and for shed and rigid
frames, particularly where the span and height of these are large.

Advantages of Timber Frame

1. Timber is cheaper and less prone to world fluctuations in prices.

2. No interruptions to the flow of trades work.
3. No safety needs over and above normal carpentry needs.
4. Timber is lighter and involves simpler handling procedures.
5. Strength. Timber framing by either method is strong in real structural terms. Heavy-timber frames, with
or without infilling, are more resistant to trauma from earthquakes, wind uplift and heavy snow load than
light-frame construction.
6. Conducive to infilling. Heavy-timber framing is more appropriate than stick framing for infilling with
natural building techniques. With infilling, it is not critical that exact spacing be left between vertical studs or
posts; masonry and cob can fit any space, and straw bales can be made to fit almost any width of space.
7. Esthetical appeal. With many of the contemporary timber-frame houses, structural insulated panels
(SIPS) are fastened to the outside of the frame, and the beautiful heavy timbers are exposed on the
interior. On some cordwood homes, the heavy timbers are in evidence on the exterior, but not on the
interior. In all cases, the exposed timbers lend character, texture and an esthetical sense of strength.
8. Ease of construction. If youve never before built a timber-frame structure, you might find it easier
than conventional studding, which requires fairly exact tolerances for the application of sheetrock, plywood
and the like. With timber framing, far fewer pieces are handled, and tolerances, at least in the post-and-
beam frame, do not need to be quite so exact.

Disadvantages of Timber Frame

Because the structure is made from wood, it inherits any disadvantages wood exhibits as an engineering
material. Some possible disadvantages of wood as opposed to some other building materials include

1. The possibility of infestation by insects such as termites, cockroaches orpowder post beetles, or by
other pest animals such as mice and rats.
2. Various types of rot including dry rot.
3. Other fungi that are non-destructive to the wood, but are harmful to humans such as black mold. These
fungi may also thrive on many "modern" building materials.
 4. Wood burns more readily than some other materials, making timber-frame buildings somewhat more
susceptible to fire damage, although this idea is not universally accepted: Since the cross-sectional
dimensions of many structural members exceed 15 cm 15 cm (6" 6"), timber-frame structures benefit
from the unique properties of large timbers, which char on the outside forming an insulated layer that
protects the rest of the beam from burning.
5. Many older timber-frame buildings, especially those built before the 1950s, are more vulnerable to
damage during an earthquake. Many design improvements were made in the latter half of the 20th century
that improves the earthquake resistance of this type of structure.

C. Steel Frame

Steel is a material strong in both compression and tension and it is also a stiff material. The
physical properties of steel, such as its durability, flexibility and strength offer significant advantages in the
material efficiency of a product application. Steel is one of the most sustainable building materials with
unique characteristics that favor its use in the construction industry. A steel structure is, therefore, relatively
economic in material because a small amount can carry a relatively large load and, because it is stiff, the
structure and its members will not easy deform under load. It has a high strength or weight ratio. These
characteristics make it suitable for both low-rise and high-rise building frames and roof structures off all
spans.
Steel frame usually refers to a building technique with a "skeleton frame" of
vertical steel columns and horizontal I-beams, constructed in a rectangular grid to support the floors, roof
and walls of a building which are all attached to the frame. Steel framing also provides excellent design
flexibility due to the inherent strength of steel, which allows it to span over a longer distance than wood,
and also resist wind and earthquake loads.

Advantage of Steel Frame

1. They are usually constructed much faster than buildings using other materials and costs are
usually lower compared to traditional building methods. Moreover, steel is 66% recyclable, which makes it
an especially cost-effective and environmentally sound alternative to any other construction material.
2. They are lighter weight therefore they are easier to maintain.
3. Unlike lumber, light steel components are always straight, this allows for a flat wall every time.
4. They carry a reduced risk of fire.
5. Steel structures can withstand unfavorable weather conditions such as hurricanes, high winds,
heavy snow and even earthquakes.
6. They are also resistant to termites, creeping, cracks, splitting and rotting, thus increasing
durability.
7. Steel frame are impervious to insects, rot, mildew.
8. Even though steel framed homes are still slightly more expensive than traditional wood-based
buildings, savings from the fact that they are more energy-efficient and reduced maintenance make them
an attractive alternative.
9. Besides, they can be given a conventional look by covering them with traditional building
materials like bricks, siding or stucco.
10. There are various benefits such as lower insurance costs (since risk of fire is lower), lower
assembly and labour costs, and decreased material costs due to prefabricated designing.
11. Steel building products, including steel frames, are made of recycled steel. No less than 28% of
steel frames are recycled steel, which can then be recycled in turn. This is better for the environment than
wood, as it is estimated that a typical 2000-square-foot home uses the wood from around almost 50 trees.

Disadvantage of Steel Frame

1. Many areas it is difficult to find framing crews that are trained in light steel construction. This
disadvantage usually raises the overall project cost.Steel framing material costs are now competitive with
lumber, the labour and engineering costs tend to be higher. Several factors impact higher labour costs.
There is a lack of skilled framing labour in steel framing. This makes it difficult to find competitive steel
carpenters.

2. Probably the biggest disadvantage of steel is its thermo conductivity. Steel is over 400 times
more conductive of heat than wood. There is also, in colder climates, an added cost for applying a thermal
break. Because there are no standards in the energy codes, steel suffers a penalty in the extra insulation
costs.

3. In addition to cost problems, there is a lack of infrastructure to support the construction of a

steel-framed home. Consider code approval, design, material suppliers, and framers. There are a lot of
people working in these fields who donnot know how to inspect, design, sell and work with steel studs,
rafters and joists. Prescriptive design tables are only now being introduced in the building codes.

4. Even though steel components will not burn they will actually fail (collapse) before a wood
component in a house fire.

5. Steel components can rust if left exposed in marine climates.

D.Precast Concrete Frames

The concept of precast construction includes those buildings where the majority of structural
components are standardized and produced in plants in a location away from the building, and then
transported to the site for assembly. These components are manufactured by industrial methods based on
mass production in order to build a large number of buildings in a short time at low cost. The main features
of this construction process are as follows:
The division and specialization of the human workforce

The use of tools, machinery, and other equipment, usually automated, in the production of standard,
interchangeable parts and products.

These frames are suitable for single storey and low rise applications, the former usually in the form
of portal frames which are normally studied separately. Precast concrete frames provide the skeleton for
the building and can be clad externally and finished internally by all the traditional methods. The frames are
usually produced as part of a manufacturers standard range of designs and are therefore seldom purpose
made due mainly to the high cost of the moulds.

Advantage of Precast Concrete Frame

1. Frames are produced under factory controlled conditions resulting in a uniform product of both quality and
accuracy.

2. Repetitive casting lowers the cost of individual members.

3. Off site production releases site space for other activities.

4. Frames can be assembled in cold weather and generally by semi-skilled labour.

Disadvantage of Precast Concrete Frame

1. Although a wide choice of frames is available from various manufacturers these systems lack the design
flexibility of cast-in-situ purpose made frames.

2. Site planning can be limited by manufacturers delivery and unloading programmes and requirements.

3. Lifting plant of a type and size not normally required by traditional construction methods may be needed.

C. Cast-In-Situ Concrete Frames

The principal use of reinforced in-situ cast concrete as a structural material for building is as a
skeleton frame or columns and beams with reinforced concrete floors and roof. In this use reinforced
concrete differ little from structural steel skeleton frames cased in concrete. In those countries where unit
labour costs are low and structural steel is comparatively expensive, a reinforced concrete frame is widely
used as a frame for both single and multi-storey buildings such as the small framed building with solid end
walls and projecting balconies with upstands.

Advantage of Cast-In-Situ Concrete Frame

1. The members of a reinforced concrete frame can be mould to any required shape so that they
can be designed to use concrete where compressive strength is required and steel reinforcement where
tensile strength is required.

2. The members do not need to be uniform section along their length or height. The singular
characteristics of concrete are that it is initially a wet plastic material that can be formed to any shape
inside formwork.

3. For economy in section as a structural material or for reason of appearance, and when it is
cast-in-situ it will act monolithically as a rigid structure.

4. Reduced project time and improved cash flow. With cast-in-place concrete, materials are readily
available so project planners can count on just-in-time delivery from local suppliers. Since preordering and
lengthy delivery time is the norm with steel construction, the ready availability of concrete can save up to
20 weeks or more from the time management receives notice to proceed to actual construction start.
 Disadvantage of Cast-In-Situ Concrete Frame

1. Economically in the complication of formwork and falsework necessary to form irregular shapes.

2. Frames are no produced under factory so cannot controlled conditions resulting in a different product of
both quality and accuracy.

3. Need a lot of labor in the site.