Application of gapped (EGLAs) or non-gapped (NGLAs) transmission

line surge arresters (TLSAs) offers perhaps the best opportunity for

power engineers to improve system reliability. However, as important

as this may be, the value of using them transcends this one objective

alone. There are also many additional benefits.

This article, contributed by INMRs arrester specialist, Jonathan

Woodworth, reviews a range of situations where TLSAs contribute to

improving power systems.

An NGLA is an arrester applied in parallel with transmission line

insulators to prevent insulator flashover. An EGLA operates essentially

the same way (see INMR Q2, 2015). If the phase to which these TLSAs

are attached is struck by lightning or experiences a switching surge,

the excess current and charge is conducted to ground. If the TLSA is

applied to a shielded line, it quite often conducts current from the

down ground onto the phase to avoid a back-flashover. While it is easy

to visualize when a forward flash occurs, this is not so easy in the case

of back-flashover.
 Fig. 1: Example of non-gapped transmission line arrester (NGLA).

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Fig. 2: Example of externally gapped transmission line arrester (EGLA).

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Before going into various additional applications for TLSAs, it is

important to deal with concerns some engineers express when using

them for the first time namely about long-term reliability and

potential additional maintenance.

Indeed, there was a time when gapped silicon carbide arresters had

questionable reliability. In the present MOV arrester era, however,

reputable suppliers consistently achieve low failure rates that are close

to those of insulators. In the case of manufacturers in the U.S., for

example, recent experience with failure rates are in the 200 parts per

million (ppm) range. This rate is most likely similar for reputable

suppliers worldwide. Given this, there should be no hesitation on the

part of new users toward line arresters based solely on reliability

concerns.

In regard to possible additional maintenance needs, there are in fact

typically none. If however users do wish to monitor their population of

TLSAs, thermal imaging is the recommended route. At the same time,

more versatile continuous condition monitoring of arresters is expected

to soon become available.

Lowering Clearances on Systems > 345 kV

The National Electrical Safety Code (NESC, IEEE C2-2012) specifies

horizontal and vertical clearances of unguarded parts and clearance to

live parts of extra high voltage power systems of 345 kV and above.

Basic clearances are specified, which can then be adjusted based on

switching surge amplitudes. If line clearances are found inadequate to

meet NESC criteria, TLSAs can economically control switching surge

amplitudes with only a few installations along the line. For example, on

a 500 kV system, maximum crest operating voltage (line-to-neutral) is

449 kV. If the switching surge (line-to-ground) voltage is 808 kV,

switching surge factor is 808/449.1=1.8 pu.

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In Table 124.1 Part B of the latest NESC (IEEE C2-2012), clearances

are given for switching surge factors ranging from 1.8 to 2.7 pu for a

500 kV power system. The clearance for a 1.8 pu switching surge

maximum is much less than for a 2.7 pu surge. This can make a

significant difference in required width of a right-of-way, saving huge

costs for a project. (An example was discussed in a paper presented

by James Hunt of Salt River Project at the 2013 INMR WORLD

CONGRESS in Vancouver).

Table 1 illustrates how much impact arresters can have on clearance

requirements. If a 345 kV system, for example, is insulated with high

creepage for contamination or other reasons, clearances can be

reduced by as much as 57% using arresters. EGLA designs in such a

case would need to be designed for switching and not only lightning

surges. Note that other constraints on line clearances could also affect

the minimum level attainable. ARC Flash requirements are known to

be more stringent than standard clearances at certain voltages, while

comfort level of workers under less clearance is another factor.

Mechanical considerations, such as ice, wind and sag, also need to be

considered when reducing clearances.

Substation & Transmission Line Voltage Uprating

Voltage uprating involves increasing the operating voltage while

maintaining the original insulation level. Conversion of existing

transmission lines and substations to higher voltages becomes much

more practical with application of line arresters. For example, uprating

69 to 230 kV lines using such arresters has already been implemented

with success.

Existing substations can be uprated to a higher voltage by replacing

circuit breakers, transformers and other voltage-sensitive equipment

without having to completely rebuild the facility. By installing line

arresters in specific locations, such as line entrances, clearances at the

lower voltage level will be acceptable at the uprated voltage. Voltage

uprating has been accomplished on the following systems, according to

IEEE Standard 1427:

115 kV, 550 kV BIL class substations converted to 230 kV;

69 kV, 350 kV BIL class substations converted to 138 kV;

69 kV, 350 kV BIL class substations converted to 115 kV.

Financial benefits with uprating are significant because associated

costs are far less than rebuilding the entire substation. With line
arresters and voltage uprating, substations can also use compact bus

spacing, thereby offering economic benefits where land costs are high.

Moreover, where the land necessary to build a substation with

conventional clearances is not available, the compact bus substation is

a viable alternative. Community acceptance of a substation can also be

enhanced using a compact bus design that occupies a smaller footprint

than an equivalent conventional substation.

Less clearance when uprating a system can also lead to lower bus

heights, which can lead to lower costs for aesthetic treatments such as

walls and other barriers, if required. Additions to existing substations

are in some cases difficult to make due to lack of space for installing

new equipment. Employing lower clearances through use of line

arresters at a substation makes it possible to add new equipment with

the assurance that proper electrical clearances are maintained. (See

IEEE 1427 for more information).

Temporarily Reduce Minimum Approach Distance (MAD)

At times, maintenance needs to be completed with a system energized

and workers must be aware of the minimum approach distance (MAD)

to the line. MAD is defined as the closest a worker or conductive tool

held by a worker is permitted to approach an exposed energized

conductor. Since MAD is determined by maximum switching surge

level of lines above 345 kV and lightning surges on lines below 345 kV,

this level can be affected by temporary installation of arresters.

While this is still at the experimental stage at most utilities, it seems

likely that arresters will be utilized more and more to temporarily

change the MAD. A line arrester, due to its minimal weight, is a perfect
candidate for this application and, here, an EGLA type may be more

suited for the application since lightning and switching residual voltage

can be as much as 25% lower. In both cases, however, the MAD can

be reduced to a level that can even allow access to towers without an

outage where otherwise one would be required. At the October IEEE

Surge Protective Devices Meeting, for example, a task force was

created to develop guidelines for using arresters to reduce MAD for

workers. A recommendation is due next year.

Lower Lightning-Induced Momentary Outages

A transmission line might not need TLSA protection, especially if it has

a lightning induced outage rate of zero. However, in other cases

application of TLSAs can make a big difference in transmission line

outage rates caused by back-flash. A map of the type shown in Fig. 3

offers a resource for engineers to become more acquainted with

lightning hit rates in their areas of interest.

Fig. 3: Lightning activity over 1 hr period in Oct 2016 ( from www.lightningmaps.org). Lines

are drawn between strike and sensor for most recent strikes.

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 Fig. 4: Overview of back-flashover process.

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If a transmission line has a high rate of outages due to lightning, this

is most likely due to back-flash and the most common cause is when

there is a lightning strike to the overhead shield wire and tower ground

impedance is too high. The reason for the term back-flashover is that
it is in the opposite direction of flashovers produced during a direct

strike to a phase. Back-flashover is usually followed by a standard

forward flashover of the insulator, providing a path for power

frequency current (fault) that requires breaker operation to terminate.

Fig. 4 shows an overview of the back-flash process.

There are basically two ways to reduce back-flash rate of a

transmission line: the first and more often used method is to improve

tower ground resistance and, up until 20 years ago, this was the only

option. Since then, however, installation of surge arresters has

become another means to improve lightning performance.

There are several methods employed to mitigate lightning on shielded

lines using arresters. The first is to run a study of the system and

determine whether addition of a few arresters significantly reduces

outage rate. This method uses fewer arresters and costs less than a

full protection scheme. The second and less used method is to install

surge arresters on every phase of every tower, which will essentially

make the system lightning proof. A third method, referred to

as sectionalized arrester protection, is when arresters are used to

protect certain areas prone to outages due to lightning. Here, high

outage rates can be reduced essentially to zero by installing arresters

only in affected areas, which typically include mountaintops, dry

planes and rocky soil.

Compact Lines

A compact transmission line is one that looks like common, acceptable

distribution lines running through urban areas and usually features the

following:
 Single-pole structures;

Relatively short spans (30-150 m);

Armless or single-arm construction;

Reduced separation between phases;

Suitable for narrow right-of-way or roadside installation.

Fig. 5: Compact 69 kV line has every phase on all towers protected.

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According to W. A. Chisholm, et al., These features make the compact

line designs suitable for use in congested urban areas. There are other

benefits compared to multiple distribution lines that could provide

similar power transfer. Rebuilding an existing circuit at a higher

voltage level on the same right-of-way may be the only feasible way to

increase capacity. Compact designs may have lower capital and

maintenance costs, lower line losses and may achieve important

reductions in electric and magnetic fields. Compact design also tends

to simplify some mechanical issues. When armless or single-arm

construction with post insulators is selected, conductors are fixed at

each pole. This simplifies tension stringing, thermal rating, wind

loading and other design and construction issues. The short spans of a
compact design reduce the magnitude of high-temperature sag,

galloping and large-amplitude conductor motion. In many cases, line

tension can be reduced, relaxing pole strength requirements and

concerns about aeolian vibration damage. A good example of such a

line (shown in Fig. 5) is a 69 kV compact line used in Florida for over

20 years. The main reason for this particular design was to reduce

visual impact and make the transmission line appear more like a

distribution system.
Open Breaker Protection

Station class arresters are universally applied to transformers at

substations however protection of open breakers is generally applied

less than half the time. Here, application of arresters at the

substations line entrance protects the bushings of open breakers.

Fig. 6: TLSAs used here as line entrance arresters to protect open breaker.

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During normal operation, the substation breaker is closed and both

bushings are partially protected by the arresters installed at the

transformer. But during a multi-strike event during which the breaker

opens to clear a fault, the second or third stroke of the flash can enter

the station while the beaker is still open to clear the fault. This second

stroke can flashover the line side bushing of the breaker with high risk
of long-term damage. Of course, this is a low probability scenario but,

to assess real level of risk, a study should be conducted for the specific

substation and surrounding lines.

Line arresters are not generally used for this application but certainly

can help overcome any such risk. Fig. 6, for example, shows a space-

saving installation of line entrance arresters. Here, it is important that

ground resistance of the pole where they are installed should be the

same as at the substation. If the first tower out from the station is

used instead, it should not be located too far away or it will not

effectively protect an open breaker.

Lowering Cost of New Line Construction

A potentially significant benefit of using line arresters instead of an

overhead ground wire is construction cost savings. For example, a

2014 research project on behalf of the New York State Energy

Research and Development Authority (NYSERDA), evaluated the cost

savings for several different systems. As shown in Table 2, in every

case, transmission lines with arresters in the place of OHGW cost less

initially and also going forward. The report found that construction

savings were between 1.8% and 5.8% of the total cost of the line for

various line-type studies. Moreover, installation of arresters on all

phases of every tower make a line lightning proof. If only the top

phase is equipped with arresters, then the top phase serves as the

OHGW and cost savings can be even greater.

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Extending Life of Breakers at Substations

Application of TLSAs along a transmission line reduces stress on

breakers at substations and extends their service life. Even those

transmission lines protected from lightning by shield wires still

experience single line-to-ground faults when there is back-flashover of

an insulator due to high ground resistance or an extra high current

lightning stroke. When this happens, a breaker between the fault and

power source will need to operate to interrupt current flow. However,

should a line be equipped with TLSAs, such breaker operation would

not be necessary. Breakers have a finite number of operations before

maintenance is required and therefore any reduction in this number

will extend their service life.

Reducing Cost of Emergency Standby Capacity

Some utilities must deal with significant risk of lightning outages

during summer. For example, if a power source is far from the major
demand center and transmission lines pass through high-lightning

areas, risk of momentary outages can be high. One way to mitigate

this risk is to run local generators and depend less on the lower-cost

but distant source.

If arresters are used on the transmission line in addition to existing

OHGW, the probability of any lightning induced outage is reduced to

zero. Cost to install several hundred kilometers of arrester protection

is likely much less than to run higher-cost local generation. This

application of line arresters can generate great savings both for

customers and the affected power utility.

Lowering System Losses

This application applies mainly for new construction but could also

work for older lines should the OHGW reach end-of-life. It is well

known that OHGW can generate losses on a system if they are

grounded at tower tops. Such losses are inductive in nature from load

flowing in phase conductors and become higher the closer the OHGW

is to the phase conductors. Losses depend on type of line, number of

shield wires and current load on the system. As seen from Table 3 for

the case of a single-pole, two-circuit 115 kV line, lifetime savings for

heavily loaded lines can amount to as much as US$ 4.6 million per 100

miles (160 km) of line.

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Conclusions

Application of either NGLAs or EGLAs can improve the design and

operation of power systems. These TLSAs not only render any line

lightning proof but also lower construction costs, increase system

reliability, and reduce the required width of a right-of-way. Engineers

responsible for system reliability or planning should clearly consider

the possibilities and benefits offered by this type of surge arrester.