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Selecting the Proper

Flare Systems
Adam Bader Flares allow for the safe, effective disposal
Charles E. Baukal, Jr., P.E.
Wes Bussman of gases and liquids, by acting as relief devices
John Zink Co. LLC when a plant must quickly dispose of
product within its system to prevent
overpressurization and potential explosions.

F
lares are used extensively in the hydrocarbon and Types of flares
petrochemical industries as a way to achieve safe Three types of flares are used in the hydrocarbon and
and reliable vapor release during a plant upset or petrochemical industries: single-point flares, multi-point
emergency situation. Flares deal with a variety of waste gas flares, and enclosed flares.
compositions, depending on the type of plant. The mate- Single-point flares can be designed without smoke sup-
rial released into a flare system is usually a hydrocarbon, pression, or with steam- or air-assisted smoke-suppression
or a mixture of constituents that can range from hydrogen equipment. They are generally oriented to fire upward, with
to heavy hydrocarbons. These gases may contain harmful the discharge point elevated above the surrounding grade
and potentially toxic vapors that must be burned completely and nearby equipment (Figure 1). This is the most common
in order to prevent damage to the environment and human type of flare for onshore refining facilities that operate at low
health. pressure (<10 psig).
The design capacity of an individual
flare can range from less than 100 to
more than 10 million lb/h. Emergency
relief flowrates can produce flames
hundreds of feet long with heat releases
of billions of Btu per hour. Flares operate
with high levels of excess air and over
a very large turndown ratio, from the
maximum emergency-release flow down
to the purge flowrate. In addition, flare
burners must operate over long periods of
time without maintenance often three
to five years.
Many factors must be considered
when designing flare systems. This article
discusses the various types of flares,
reviews some of the factors that affect
flare system design, and provides guid-
ance on selecting flares. p Figure 1. Typical elevated single-point flares fire upward.

Copyright 2011 American Institute of Chemical Engineers (AIChE) CEP July 2011 www.aiche.org/cep 45
Back to Basics

flowrate that will allow the plant to start up, shut down,
and operate on a day-to-day basis without flame exposure.
Multiple enclosed flares are sometimes used to conceal
the flames at higher waste gas flowrates. Typically, only a
fraction of an enclosed flare system is used for normal low
flowrates; at higher flowrates, additional stages open as
more flaring capacity is needed. This helps to maximize a
units efficiency at all flowrates.

Flare design
The specific design of a flare system depends on the
type of flare. The major components include the flare burner
p Figure 2. Some multi-point flare systems are located at or near grade. (with or without smoke-suppression capability), support
Image courtesy of CRC Press (7).
structure, piping, and ancillary equipment (Figure 5). The
burner often includes one or more pilots, pilot igniters, and
pilot flame detectors. Optional components, which can aid
system operation and/or reduce costs, may include a purge
reduction device, knockout drum, and liquid seal. Potential
auxiliary equipment includes smoke-suppression control,
blowers, staging equipment, monitors (e.g., for monitoring
flow, gas composition, or heating value, or for video moni-
toring), and other instrumentation.
Flare design also depends on the sources of the gas being
vented into the flare header and such gas characteristics as
flowrate, composition, and temperature, the available gas
pressure, and utility costs and availability. Safety, environ-
mental, and social requirements arising from regulatory
mandates, the owners basic operating practices, and the
p Figure 3. Other multi-point flare systems are elevated. relationship between the facility and its neighbors need to be
considered as well. Depending on the amount of informa-
Multi-point flares are used tion available and the scope of the project, additional design
to achieve improved burn- considerations may include: hydraulics; liquid removal; air
ing by routing the gas stream infiltration; smoke suppression; flame radiation, noise, and
to many burning points. The visibility; the presence of air/gas mixtures; and the need to
multiple burning points, which ensure reliable burning. Successful selection and operation
may be divided into stages, can of flare equipment require a clear understanding of these
be arranged in arrays located at design considerations.
or near grade (Figure 2) or on The success and cost-effectiveness of a flare design also
an elevated boom (Figure 3). depend on the skill and experience of the flare designer, and
For refinery or petrochemical his or her access to the latest state-of-the-art design tools
plant applications, multi-point and equipment. A key development tool is a facility that can
flares are usually designed to simulate industrial-scale process-plant flare systems and
achieve smokeless burning and conduct flare tests at the high flowrates experienced in real
typically require a minimum plant operations (1, 2) (Figure 6).
system pressure of 15 psig. Flare system sizing must take into account the number
Enclosed flares (Figure 4) of relief valves discharging into a common flare manifold
conceal the flame from direct or header. The pressure drop from each relief valve dis-
p Figure 4. Enclosed ground view, and reduce noise and charge through the flare tip must not exceed the allowable
flares shield the surrounding thermal radiation to the sur- relief valve backpressure for all system flow conditions. For
community from radiation and
rounding community. The conventional relief valves, the allowable backpressure is
noise. Here, an enclosed ground
flare is seen with an elevated flare capacity of the enclosed flare typically limited to about 10% of the minimum relief valve
in the background. system is often limited to a upstream set pressure.

46 www.aiche.org/cep July 2011 CEP Copyright 2011 American Institute of Chemical Engineers (AIChE)
 Infiltration of air into a flare system can lead to flame utilized, can provide the required momentum. In these cases,
burnback (also called flashback), which can initiate a a high-pressure flare tip, typically of a multi-point design
destructive detonation in the system. Burnback is one of (Figure 7), is often used.
the primary modes of premature failure of a flare tip, and If the waste gas pressure (momentum) is not adequate
can often be observed only at night. Air can enter the flare to provide smokeless burning, other energy sources (e.g.,
system in one or more ways: through the stack exit by steam or air), or a combination of energy sources, can be
buoyant exchange, wind action, or contraction of gases used. Steam assist tends to be more effective at achieving
due to cooling; through leaks in piping connections; or as smokeless burning than forced-air assist. This is because
a component of the waste gas. Prevention measures are high-pressure steam can supply more momentum, which
available to address each of the air infiltration mechanisms, enhances ambient air entrainment and air-fuel mixing key
such as increased purge gas or the installation of an internal factors in smokeless performance. An air-assisted flare is a
steam nozzle. good option when steam is not available or when freezing is
The quantity of purge gas required to prevent air ingres- a concern.
sion depends on the size and design of the flare, the com- At plants that produce
position of the purge gas, and the composition of any waste steam at different pressure
gas that could be present in the system following a venting levels, there is often an
Flare Tip
or relief event. In general, the lower the density of the gas operating cost advantage
in the flare stack, the more purge gas is needed to ensure to using low-pressure
Pilots
the safety of the system. Various types of auxiliary equip- steam (3050 psig). The
ment, such as a velocity seal or buoyancy seal, can be added plant designer must bal-
Steam or
to a system to reduce purge, but their implementation will ance this operating cost Air-Assist
depend on the process conditions.
u Figure 5. The major
Molecular Seal
Environmental considerations components of a flare system
are the burner, the support
As the waste gases are burned, a portion of the heat gen-
structure (stack), piping, and
erated is transferred to the surroundings by thermal radia- ancillary equipment such as a
tion. Safe design of a flare requires careful consideration of knockout drum and liquid seal.
Flare Stack
this thermal radiation (3).
It is often possible to comply with radiation limits Purge
Flare Header
by increasing the height of the flare stack or estab-
lishing a limited-access zone around the flare. The
flare height or size of the restricted area can affect the
economics of the plant. For plants with limited plot Waste Gas
area (e.g., offshore platforms), an enclosed flare may From Process Knockout Drum Liquid Seal
be needed to meet radiation restrictions. Water spray
curtains have also been used to control radiation on
offshore platforms.
Environmental regulations require many flares to
meet specific smoke opacity requirements i.e., they
must achieve smokeless operation. For many years,
these were often the only regulatory requirements
on flares. Current emission standards (4) take into
account new testing capabilities and better under-
standing of flare performance; new regulations are
expected to be released by the end of 2011.
In general, smokeless burning occurs when the
momentum produced by the waste and assist gas
streams educts and mixes sufficient air with the waste
gas. A key issue is the momentum of the waste gas
as it exits the flare burner. In some cases, the waste
gas stream is available at a pressure that, if properly p Figure 6. This facility can test flares at the high flowrates experienced during actual
plant operations.

Copyright 2011 American Institute of Chemical Engineers (AIChE) CEP July 2011 www.aiche.org/cep 47
Back to Basics

the blower requires some

time to reach full speed, the
complete effect of air injec-
tion is not seen until Figure
9d, which was taken just a
few minutes later.
In general, the blower
supplies only a fraction of the
combustion air required for
smokeless operation typi-
cally 1550% of the stoi-
chiometric air requirement is
delivered into the flame. The
remainder of the air required
for combustion is entrained
along the length of the flame.
Unassisted flares use
p Figure 7. Multipoint high-pressure p Figure 8. An advanced steam-assisted flare tip (before mounting on a only the waste gas pressure to
flare tips aid in smokeless burning. flare stack) improves smokeless performance. entrain air for combustion. The
pressure of the waste gas helps
advantage against the increased piping costs associated with to mix the gas with ambient air for combustion. High-pres-
delivering the low-pressure steam to the flare. In addition, sure (15 psig or more) waste streams typically do not require
while the flare may achieve the design smokeless rate at the any supplemental assist medium. Appropriately designed
maximum steam pressure, steam consumption at turndown systems have successfully handled high-pressure waste
conditions may be higher than expected. Because most streams and enjoy low operating costs and excellent service
flaring events involve relatively low flowrates, performance life. This type of smokeless burning is often the motive force
under turndown conditions must be carefully considered. used in multi-point flare tips (for example, Figure 7).
A steam assist can be as simple as a ring installed in the From an environmental perspective, the rate at which
upper portion of the stack that injects steam into the interior air is mixed with the waste gas plays a significant role in
of the flare tip (Figure 8), around the perimeter of the flare the overall combustion efficiency of a flare system. Many
tip, or a more-complicated design that injects steam both regulations require that flares operate with a combustion
around the perimeter of the tip and
through tubes located throughout the a b

interior of the flare tip. The selection of

steam assist technology depends on the
plant requirements.
Air-assist is appropriate for flares
where the waste gas pressure is low
and steam is not available. Air-assisted
flares use a blower to force air to the
tip, which is designed to promote air-
fuel mixing and provide stable burn- c d

ing. The supplied air adds momentum

and serves as a portion of the required
combustion air.
Figure 9 illustrates the effect of
assist air. The flare in Figure 9a is burn-
ing propylene with no assist air. The
photo in Figure 9b was taken just after
the blower was turned on. Figure 9c
shows some improvement in flame sta- p Figure 9. Air assist is effective at smoke suppression: (a) no blower air; (b) blower is started; (c) air
bility and smoke reduction, but because flow is increasing; (d) smokeless burning. Image courtesy of CRC Press (7).

48 www.aiche.org/cep July 2011 CEP Copyright 2011 American Institute of Chemical Engineers (AIChE)
efficiency of 98% or better. This involves balancing the u Figure 10. A flare pilot
meters and mixes fuel and
amount of steam or air needed against the amount of fuel air and delivers the mixture
being burned, and proper control of the system to achieve to the flare tip.
this balance is crucial to proper operation.

Ignition and detection systems affect the rest of the

Stable burning must be ensured at all flow conditions. system and hence the
Because venting of waste gases can occur at any time during operation of the pilot.
plant operation, an integrated ignition system (5) that can The key goals for
immediately initiate and maintain stable burning through- a properly designed
out the period of waste gas flow is required. An integrated pilot are to provide
ignition system includes one or more pilots, pilot igniters, reliable ignition,
pilot monitors, and a means to stabilize the flame. A reliable ensure pilot flame
ignition system is one of the single most important aspects stability, prevent
of a flare tips safe operation. the pilot flame from
In principle, flares that have a continuous pilot flame being extinguished,
perform better and are more reliable than those that do and provide a long
not. This is especially true of refinery, petrochemical, and service life. To
production-field flares because flaring events are often achieve these goals,
unplanned and unexpected. Such flares may be online for the pilot must be
weeks, months, or even years before there is an immediate able to withstand
need for reliable ignition. A notable exception is land- rain, wind, heat from
fill flares (or biogas flares) that operate continuously at the flare flame, and direct flame contact. Common pilot
substantial flowrates and include flame monitoring systems problems are failure to light and burn with a stable flame,
that automatically shut off waste gas flow in case of flame flashback, and fuel line plugging.
failure. Noncontinuous pilots should be considered only for A pilot monitor is often required to verify the existence
special applications such as these. of a pilot flame. Pilot flames produce heat, ionized gas, light,
The number of pilots required depends on the size and and sound all of which present a means of detection.
type of flare burner. Flare pilots are usually premixed burn- The most common flame-detection method involves
ers designed such that pilot gas and air are mixed together measuring the temperature at the end of a pilot tip with a
at a point remote from the flare burner exit and delivered standard thermocouple. The thermocouple is connected to
through a pipe to the pilot tip for combustion. This ensures a temperature switch or a control system that indicates pilot
that the pilot flame is not affected by conditions at the flare failure if the temperature drops below the setpoint. In most
burner exit (e.g., the presence of fluegas, inert gas, or steam). cases, a shutdown is required to replace a failed thermo-
Premixed pilots are also more resistant to wind and rain;
some designs can operate in winds of over 150 mph. Pilot Pilot Tip Windshield
shield
gas consumption varies according to the specific flaring
requirements; however, there is a practical lower limit to
the pilot gas consumption. Reference 6 provides guidance Downsteam Section Pilott T
Tip

on the proper number of pilots and the fuel flow per pilot as
determined by the recommended heat release. Windshield
The pilot (Figure 10) must meter the fuel and air, mix
the fuel with the air, mold the flame into the desired shape, Pilot Tip
and maintain flame stability. A typical pilot consists of four
parts: a mixer or venturi, a gas orifice, a downstream sec-
tion that connects the mixer and the tip, and a tip (Figure
11). The pressure energy of the pilot fuel aspirates ambi- Mixer
ent air into the mixer inlet, mixes the fuel gas and air, and Orifice
Downsteam Section
propels the mixture through the downstream section and Strainer
out the pilot tip. All components of a pilot are carefully
designed to work together as a system to achieve proper p Figure 11. Pilots consist of a mixer or venturi, a gas orifice, a down-
performance. A change in any individual component will stream section that connects the mixer and the tip, and a tip.

Copyright 2011 American Institute of Chemical Engineers (AIChE) CEP July 2011 www.aiche.org/cep 49
Back to Basics

couple. A thermocouples expected lifespan can be limited flame front generator (FFG) or direct-spark pilot ignition
depending on the conditions to which it is exposed. can be used, depending on the system requirements.
Ionized gases are typically measured with a flame rod. A flame front generator combines ignition fuel and
Ions released during combustion act as electrical conductors. compressed air at a mixing tee, and the ignition gas mixture
A flame-rod transformer located at grade produces a small flows through an ignition line to the pilot tip. After the
electrical charge. When a flame is present, the ions act as a ignition line is filled with the air-fuel mixture, an electrical
conductor and create a closed circuit, indicating the presence spark is initiated at the mixing tee. The air-fuel mixture then
of a flame. When the flame is lost, the circuit opens and the ignites, and a fireball travels through the length of the pip-
control system recognizes the failure, prompting an alarm ing until it exits at the pilot tip and ignites the pilot fuel.
for relighting. Various types of electronic ignition systems are avail-
Because a burning pilot flame emits both visible light able. Many utilize an ignition rod that is installed at the pilot
and infrared energy, the presence of a flame can be veri- and is connected to a high-voltage transformer. When the
fied by monitoring the radiant energy output. Typically, a transformer is energized, a spark is created at the pilot tip
specially designed infrared camera mounted at ground level that ignites the pilot fuel.
is used for flame monitoring. However, optical methods
may be unable to distinguish pilots from the main flame or Final thoughts
one pilot from another. In addition, the optical path can be Flare designs range from simple utility flares to enclosed
obscured by heavy rain, fog, or snow, or any other object multi-point staged systems, and from unassisted flares to
blocking the line of sight between the pilot and the camera. steam-assisted systems with multiple steam injectors to
Sound-monitoring systems consist of an ignition line air-assisted flares with multiple blowers. While evaluating
that transmits sound from the pilot to grade, where a sen- the general design considerations discussed here, the process
sor recognizes the specific frequency at which the pilot engineer must also begin the equipment selection process
operates while burning. A cable conveys the acoustic data by reviewing the available technology overall design con-
from the sensor to a signal processor, which analyzes the siderations and specific equipment features are interrelated
acoustic data and indicates the status of the pilot flame. An aspects of the system design process. The right choices will
acoustic pilot monitor can distinguish the pilot to which help to ensure that the flares prime objective is achieved:
it is connected from nearby sound sources, such as other the safe, effective disposal of gases and liquids. CEP

pilots, steam injectors, and the flares flame. An advantage

of acoustic monitoring is that weather conditions do not
adversely affect the monitor. ADAM BADER is an applications engineer for the John Zink Flare Aftermarket
Pilots must also have a means of ignition to initiate Group (11920 E. Apache, Tulsa, OK 74116; Phone: (918) 234-4780; Fax:
(918) 234-1986; Email: [email protected]). He has over six
their flames. As a precaution, pilot ignition is usually initi- years of experience in the design, application, manufacture, and opera-
ated from a position remote from the flare stack. Either a tion of process flare systems. He has given many training courses on
flare design and operation through the John Zink Institute and serves as
the training coordinator for the Flare Systems Group. He is the product
champion for various John Zink flare technologies and holds a BS in
Literature Cited mechanical engineering technology from Oklahoma State Univ.

1. Baukal, C. E., Jr., et al., Large-Scale Flare Testing, in CHARLES E. BAUKAL, Jr., PhD, P.E., is the Director of the John Zink Institute
(11920 E. Apache, Tulsa, OK 74116; Phone: (918) 234-2854; Fax: (918)
Baukal, C. E., Jr., ed., Industrial Combustion Testing, CRC
234-1939; Email: [email protected]). He has over 30 years
Press, Boca Raton, FL (2010). of experience in the field of industrial combustion in the metals, miner-
2. Hong, J., et al., Industrial-Scale Flare Testing, Chem. Eng. als, petrochemical, textile, and paper industries. He has 11 U.S. patents
Progress, 102 (5), pp. 3539 (May 2006). and has authored three books, edited five books, and written numerous
technical publications. He holds a BS and an MS from Drexel Univ. and
3. Bussman, W., and J. Hong, Flare Radiation, in Baukal, C. E., a PhD from the Univ. of Pennsylvania, all in mechanical engineering,
Jr., ed., Industrial Combustion Testing, CRC Press, Boca Raton, and an MBA from the Univ. of Tulsa. He is a Board Certified Environmen-
FL (2010). tal Engineer (BCEE) and a Qualified Environmental Professional (QEP),
4. Code of Federal Regulations, General Control Device Require- and is a member of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers, the
Air and Waste Management Association, and the Combustion Institute.
ments, 40 CFR 60.18.
5. Bellovich, J., et al., The Last Line of Defence, Hydrocarbon WES BUSSMAN, PhD, is a senior research and development engineer for
Engineering, 11 (4), pp. 4754 (2006). the John Zink Co. (11920 E. Apache, Tulsa, OK 74116; Phone: (918)
234-5757; Fax: (918) 234-1939). He has 20 years of experience in basic
6. American Petroleum Institute, Flare Details for General scientific research, industrial technology research and development,
Refinery and Petrochemical Service, 2nd ed., API Standard and combustion design engineering. He holds 10 patents, has authored
537, API, Washington, DC (Dec. 2008). several published articles and conference papers, and has been a
7. Schwartz, R., et al., Flares, in Baukal, C. E., Jr., ed., The contributing author to several combustion-related books. He has taught
engineering courses at several universities and is a member of Kappa
John Zink Combustion Handbook, CRC Press, Boca Raton, Mu Epsilon Mathematical Society and Sigma Xi Research Society. He
FL (2001). received his PhD in mechanical engineering from the Univ. of Tulsa.

50 www.aiche.org/cep July 2011 CEP Copyright 2011 American Institute of Chemical Engineers (AIChE)