Class 10v1

CIVL - 7904/8904
TRAFFIC FLOW THEORY
LECTURE -10
Car Following Theory
Microscopic Density Characteristics
Minimum space must be available in front of every

vehicle so that
The driver can control his/her vehicle without colliding with
the vehicle ahead
Avoid collision with fixed objects
As spacing decreases drivers are required to give
more attention to the driving task
May have to reduce operating speed
Lower speeds reduces level of service
Distance Headway (1)
The longitudinal space occupied by individual

vehicles in the traffic stream consists of space
occupied by the physical vehicles and the gaps
between vehicles
The two microscopic measures considered are:
Distance headway
Distance gap
Distance headway is defined as the distance from a

selected point on the lead vehicle to the same point
on the following vehicle
Usually the front edge or bumpers are selected since
they are often detected in the automatic detection
system.
Hence distance headway includes the length of the
lead vehicle and the gap length between the lead and
following vehicle
Distance

+1 ()
+1 ()
Point, p
+1
Time
Distance gap is defined as the gap length between the rear edge of the lead
vehicle and the front edge of the following vehicle
+1 = ++1
Where,
+1 -> Distance headway of vehicle n+1 at time t (feet)
Physical length of vehicle n (feet)
+1 -> Gap length of between vehicle n and n+1 at time t (feet)
Often distance gap is used as the primary

microscopic characteristics of density because of its
more direct relationship to time headway and
density
Time headway
+1 = +1
Where,
+1 -> Distance headway of vehicle n+1 at time t (feet)
+1 Time headway of vehicle n+1 at point p (feet)
-> Speed of vehicle n during the time period of +1 (feet/sec)
If the average distance headway is known then
density can be determined as following
5280
=

k-> Density (veh/mile/lane)
-> Average distance headway (ft/veh)
5280-> Constat, # of feet / mile
The average distance headway can be determined as
following

=1
=

-> Individual distance headway (ft/veh)
N-> Number of observed distance headways
Car Following Theories
Theories describing how one vehicle follows another

were developed primarily in 1950s and 1960s.
Theories of significant importance
Michigan State University
Pipes
Forbes
General Motors
Notations and Definitions
n+1 n
+1
+1

+1
Notations

n+1-> Following vehicle
->Length of the lead vehicle (ft)
+1 Length of the following vehicle (ft)
->Position of the lead vehicle (ft)
+1 -> Position of the following vehicle (ft)
-> Speed of the lead vehicle (ft/sec)
+1 -> Speed of the following vehicle (ft/sec)
+1 -> Acceleration/Decceleration rate of the following vehicle (ft/sec2)
T->At time t
+ -> time after t
Few points on Car Following Notations (1)
The acceleration / deceleration rate of the following

vehicle is specified as occurring at time +
refers represents a interval of time between the
time of a unique car following situation occurs and
the time driver of the following vehicle decides to
apply a specified acceleration/deceleration rate at
t+
This interval is often referred as the reaction time
Few points on Car Following Notations (2)
The distance between the lead vehicle and the

following vehicle is denoted as
The relative velocity between the lead vehicle and the
following vehicle is denoted as
If the relative velocity is +ve: Lead vehicle has higher speed
If the relative velocity is ve: Following vehicle has higher
speed
Acceleration rate can be +ve or ve
+ve indicating that the following vehicle is accelerating
-ve indicates the reverse

Pipes Theory
Pipes characterized the motion of vehicles in a traffic

stream as following rules suggested in California
Motor Vehicle Code
A good rule for following another vehicle at a safe

distance is to allow yourself at least the length of a
car between your vehicle and the vehicle ahead for
every 10mph of speed at which you are travelling
Pipes Theory (2)
+1
= () = +
(1.47)(10)
Assuming length of the vehicle as 20ft
= 1.36 + 20
Alternatively,
20
=1.36+
+1
Pipes Theory (3)
From Pipes model, minimum safe distance headway

linearly increases with speed
120
100
Distance Headway (ft)
80
60
40
20
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Speed (mph)
Pipes Theory (4)
From Pipes model, minimum safe time headway

continuously decreases with speed and theoretically
reaches an absolute minimum time headway of 1.36
sec at speed of infinity.
4.5
3.5
Time Headway (sec)
2.5
1.5
0.5
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Speed (fps)
Forbes Theory
Forbes approached car-following behavior by

considering the reaction time needed for the
following vehicle to perceive the need to decelerate
and apply the brakes.
i.e. the time gap between the rear of the lead vehicle and the
front of the following vehicle should always be equal to or
greater than the reaction time.
Therefore, the minimum time headway is equal to
The reaction time, plus
The time required for the lead vehicle to traverse a distance

equivalent to its length

= +
+1
Forbes conducted many field studies of minimum time gaps and found considerably
variability between drivers and sites.
Minimum time gaps varied from 1, 2, or 3 seconds.
Assuming a reaction time of 1.5 sec and a vehicle length of 20 ft, the equation can be
rewritten as follows:

= 1.5 +
+1
Alternatively,
= 1.5 +1 + 20
Results of Forbes theory is very similar to that of
Pipes.
120 4.5
4
100
Time Headway (sec)

3.5
Distance Headway (ft)
80 3
2.5
60
2
40 1.5
1
20
0.5
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Speed (mph) Speed (fps)
General Motors Theory (1)
Car-following theory developed at GM were very

much extensive and are of particular importance
The research bridged the gap between microscopic
and macroscopic theories of traffic flow
Large number of researchers were involved both
inside and outside GM
General Motors Theory (2)
The research team developed five generations of car-

following models, all of which took form
Response = function (sensitivity, stimuli)
The response was always represented by acceleration
(or deceleration) of the following vehicle
Stimuli was represented by the relative velocity of
the lead and following vehicle.
General Motors Theory First Model
The first model assumed that the sensitivity term

was a constant and the model formulation is
+1 ( + ) = () +1 ()
The stimuli term can be positive, negative, and zero

which could cause the response to be
Acceleration
Deceleration
Constant speed
General Motors Theory First Model
Measured Value Reaction Time Sensitivity

() ()
(sec) (sec-1)
Minimum 1.0 0.17
Average 1.55 0.37
Maximum 2.2 0.74

General Motors Theory Second Model
Significant ranges in the sensitivity value alerted the

investigators that the spacing between vehicles
should be introduced into the sensitivity term
This led to the development of the second model,
which proposed sensitivity parameter should have
two states
A high sensitivity value should be employed
If two vehicles are close to each other
A low sensitivity value should be employed
If two vehicles are far apart
+1 + = 1 2 () +1 ()
Very quickly the investigators saw the difficulty in

selecting 1 2
This led to further field experiments to determine
means of incorporating distance headway into the
sensitivity term
The experimental results provided significant
breakthrough
Vehicles Vehicles
Far Close
Apart Together

1

0
1


0 = =
1

0
= 0 =
+1
0
+1 + = () +1 ()
+1
General Motors Theory Third Model
0
The sensitivity parameter is a function of (= )

0 and d
As the vehicles come closer and closer together the
sensitivity term becomes larger and larger.
Measured Value Reaction Time Sensitivity
() (o)
(sec) (ft/sec)
GM Test Track 1.5 40.3
Holland Tunnel 1.4 26.8
Lincoln Tunnel 1.2 29.8

General Motors Theory Fourth Model
The fourth model was a further development toward

improving the sensitivity term by introducing the
speed of the vehicle.
The concept was that
as the speed of the traffic stream is increased, the

driver of the following vehicle would be more
sensitive to the relative velocity between lead and the
following vehicle
General Motors Theory Fourth Model
[+1 ( + )]
+1 + = () +1 ()
+1
General Motors Theory Fifth Model
The fifth and final model was continued effort to

improve and generalize the sensitivity term
, [+1 ( + )]
+1 + = () +1 ()
+1
First and second model were m=0, l=0

Third and fourth model were, m=0, l=1 and m=1 ;
l=1 respectively
Car-Following Theory Application
The example is based on General Motors research

The example is based on two vehicles
Lead vehicle
Following vehicle
Initial distance headway between two vehicles is 25ft

The lead vehicle is automatically controlled to
accelerate @3.3 ft/sec2 until a speed of 44ft/sec
(30mph). Constant speed is maintained for 10 sec.
Following a period of constant speed the lead vehicle
decelerates at a constant rate of 4.6ft/sec2 until it is
stopped.
The driver of the following vehicle is instructed to
follow the lead vehicle with a safe minimum distance
headway.
The objective of this example is to track the
trajectories of the vehicles over space and time
through the constant driving cycle.
Acceleration
Constant speed
Deceleration
The first task is to track the lead vehicle since its
trajectory is pre-specified.
The second task is to track the following vehicle as
the path of the following vehicle is a function of the
lead vehicle
The trajectory of the lead vehicle
Speed for each second of the lead vehicle is
1 +1 +
1 ( + ) = 1 () + T
2
If T is selected as 1 second , and

acceleration/deceleration rate is constant for the
lead vehicle then,
1 ( + 1) = 1 () + 1
The distance position can be calculated as
1 + 1 + 2
1 + = 1 + 1 +
2 2
Similarly, for T=1,
1
1 + 1 = 1 + 1 +
2

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CIVL - 7904/8904

TRAFFIC FLOW THEORY

Minimum space must be available in front of every

The longitudinal space occupied by individual

Distance headway is defined as the distance from a

Often distance gap is used as the primary

Theories describing how one vehicle follows another

The acceleration / deceleration rate of the following

The distance between the lead vehicle and the

-ve indicates the reverse

Pipes characterized the motion of vehicles in a traffic

A good rule for following another vehicle at a safe

Assuming length of the vehicle as 20ft

From Pipes model, minimum safe distance headway

From Pipes model, minimum safe time headway

Forbes approached car-following behavior by

The time required for the lead vehicle to traverse a distance

Time Headway (sec)

Car-following theory developed at GM were very

The research team developed five generations of car-

The first model assumed that the sensitivity term

The stimuli term can be positive, negative, and zero

Measured Value Reaction Time Sensitivity

Minimum 1.0 0.17

Average 1.55 0.37

Maximum 2.2 0.74

Significant ranges in the sensitivity value alerted the

Very quickly the investigators saw the difficulty in

GM Test Track 1.5 40.3

Holland Tunnel 1.4 26.8

Lincoln Tunnel 1.2 29.8

The fourth model was a further development toward

as the speed of the traffic stream is increased, the

The fifth and final model was continued effort to

First and second model were m=0, l=0

The example is based on General Motors research

Initial distance headway between two vehicles is 25ft

If T is selected as 1 second , and

Similarly, for T=1,

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