1.
SQL Commands
1.1. SQL (Structured Query Language)
• SQL is used to make a request to retrieve data from a Database.
• The DBMS processes the SQL request, retrieves the requested data from the
Database, and returns it.
• This process of requesting data from a Database and receiving back the results is
called a Database Query and hence the name Structured Query Language.
• SQL is a language that all commercial RDBMS implementations understand.
• SQL is a non-procedural language
• 1979 Oracle Corporation introduces the first commercial RDBMS
• 1982 ANSI (American National Standards Institute) forms SQL Standards
Committee
• 1983 IBM (International Business Machine) announces DB2 (a Database)
• 1986 ANSI (American National Standards Institute) SQL1 standard is approved
• 1987 ISO (International Organization for Standardization) SQL1 standard is
approved
• 1992 ANSI (American National Standards Institute) SQL2 standard is approved
• 2000 Microsoft Corporation introduces SQL Server 2000, aimed at enterprise
applications
• 2004 SQL: 2003 standard is published
1.2. Statements
1.2.1. DDL (Data Definition Language)
• Create
• Alter
• Drop
• Truncate
1.2.2. DML (Data Manipulation Language)
• Insert
• Update
• Delete
• Select
1.2.3. DCL (Data Control Language)
• Grant
• Revoke
• Commit
• Rollback
1.3. Data types
• Number
• Char
• Varchar2
• Long
• date
1.4. NULL
• Missing/unknown/inapplicable data represented as a null value
• NULL is not a data value. It is just an indicator that the value is unknown
1.5. Operators
• Arithmetic operators like +, -, *, /
• Logical operators: AND, OR, NOT
• Relational operators: =, <=, >=, < >, < , >
1.6. SQL-Data Definition Language
1.6.1. Types Of Constraints
• Column Level
• Table
• Primary Key Constraint
• Foreign Key Constraint
• Unique Constraint
• Check Constraint
1.6.2. SQL - CREATE TABLE
Syntax:
CREATE TABLE tablename ( column_name data_ type constraints, …)
Implementing NOT NULL and Primary Key
CREATE TABLE Customer_Details(
Cust_ID Number(5) CONSTRAINT Nnull1 NOT NULL,
Cust_Last_Name VarChar2(20) CONSTRAINT Nnull2 NOT NULL,
Cust_Mid_Name VarChar2(4),
Cust_First_Name VarChar2(20),
Account_No Number(5) CONSTRAINT Pkey1 PRIMARY KEY,
Account_Type VarChar2(10) CONSTRAINT Nnull3 NOT NULL,
Bank_Branch VarChar2(25) CONSTRAINT Nnull4 NOT NULL,
Cust_Email VarChar2(30)
);
Implementing Composite Primary Key
CREATE TABLE Customer_Details(
Cust_ID Number(5) CONSTRAINT Nnull7 NOT NULL,
Cust_Last_Name VarChar2(20) CONSTRAINT Nnull8 NOT NULL,
Cust_Mid_Name VarChar2(4),
Cust_First_Name VarChar2(20),
Account_No Number(5) CONSTRAINT Nnull9 NOT NULL,
Account_Type VarChar2(10) CONSTRAINT Nnull10 NOT NULL,
Bank_Branch VarChar2(25) CONSTRAINT Nnull11 NOT NULL,
Cust_Email VarChar2(30),
CONSTRAINT PKey3 PRIMARY KEY(Cust_ID,Account_No)
);
Implementation of Unique Constraint
Create Table UnqTable(
ECode Number(6) Constraint PK11 Primary Key,
EName Varchar2(25) Constraint NNull18 NOT NULL,
EEmail Varchar2(25) Constraint Unq1 Unique
);
Implementation of Primary Key and Foreign Key Constraints
CREATE TABLE EMPLOYEE_MANAGER(
Employee_ID Number(6) CONSTRAINT Pkey2 PRIMARY KEY,
Employee_Last_Name VarChar2(25),
Employee_Mid_Name VarChar2(5),
Employee_First_Name VarChar2(25),
Employee_Email VarChar2(35),
Department VarChar2(10),
Grade Number(2),
MANAGER_ID Number(6) CONSTRAINT Fkey2
REFERENCES EMPLOYEE_MANAGER(Employee_ID)
);
Implementation of Check Constraint
CREATE TABLE EMPLOYEE(
EmpNo NUMBER(5) CONSTRAINT PKey4 Primary Key,
EmpName Varchar(25) NOT NULL,
EmpSalary Number(7)
Constraint chk Check (EmpSalary > 0 and EmpSalary < 1000000)
)
Implementation of Default
CREATE TABLE TABDEF(
Ecode Number(4) Not Null,
Ename Varchar2(25) Not Null,
ECity char(10) DEFAULT ‘Mysore’
)
1.6.3. SQL - ALTER TABLE
Add/Drop Column
Syntax:
ALTER TABLE tablename (ADD/MODIFY/DROP column_name)
ALTER TABLE Customer_Details
ADD Contact_Phone Char(10);
ALTER TABLE Customer_Details
MODIFY Contact_Phone Char(12);
ALTER TABLE Customer_Details
DROP (Contact_Phone);
Add/Drop Primary key
ALTER TABLE Customer_Details
ADD CONSTRAINT Pkey1 PRIMARY KEY (Account_No);
ALTER TABLE Customer_Details
ADD CONSTRAINT Pkey2 PRIMARY KEY (Account_No, Cust_ID);
ALTER TABLE Customer_Details
DROP PRIMARY KEY;
Or
ALTER TABLE Customer_Details
DROP CONSTRAINT Pkey1;
Add/Drop Foreign key
ALTER TABLE Customer_Transaction
ADD CONSTRAINT Fkey1 FOREIGN KEY (Account_No)
REFERENCES Customer_Details (Account_No);
ALTER TABLE Customer_Transaction
DROP CONSTRAINT Fkey1
1.6.4. DROP TABLE
• Deletes table structure
• Cannot be recovered
• Use with caution
DROP TABLE UnqTable;
1.6.5. Truncate Table
• Deleting All Rows of a table
TRUNCATE TABLE Customer_Details
1.7. Index
• Indexing involves forming a two dimensional matrix completely independent of the
table on which index is created.
• Here one column will hold the sorted data of the column which is been indexed
• Another column called the address field identifies the location of the record i.e. Row
ID.
• Row Id indicates exactly where the record is stored in the table.
Syntax
Index on a single column
CREATE UNIQUE INDEX Cust_Idx ON Customer_Details (Cust_ID);
Index on Multiple Column
CREATE UNIQUE INDEX ID_AccountNo_Idx ON
Customer_Details (Cust_ID, Account_No);
Drop a Index
DROP INDEX ID_AccountNo_Idx;
1.7.1. Advantages of having an INDEX:
• Greatly speeds the execution of SQL statements with search conditions that refer to
the indexed column(s)
• It is most appropriate when retrieval of data from tables are more frequent than inserts
and updates
1.7.2. Disadvantages of having an INDEX:
• It consumes additional disk space
• Additional Overhead on DML Statements
1.8. SQL-DML
1.8.1 SQL - INSERT INTO
Syntax:
INSERT INTO tablename (Columnlist) VALUES (value list)
Single-row insert with values for all Columns
INSERT INTO Customer_Details VALUES (106, 'Costner', 'A.', 'Kevin', 3350,
'Savings', 'Indus Bank', '
[email protected]')
Inserting one row, few columns at a time
INSERT INTO Customer_Details (Cust_ID, Cust_Last_Name, Cust_Mid_Name,
Cust_First_Name, Account_No, Account_Type, Bank_Branch)
VALUES (107, 'Robert', 'B.', 'Dan', 3351, 'Savings', 'Indus Bank')
Inserting NULL Value into a Column
INSERT INTO Customer_Details (Cust_ID, Cust_Last_Name, Cust_Mid_Name,
Cust_First_Name, Account_No, Account_Type, Bank_Branch)
VALUES (108, 'Robert', 'B.', 'Dan', 3352, 'Savings', 'Indus Bank')
Or
INSERT INTO Customer_Details (Cust_ID, Cust_Last_Name, Cust_Mid_Name,
Cust_First_Name, Account_No, Account_Type, Bank_Branch,Cust_Email)
VALUES (108, 'Robert', 'B.', 'Dan', 3352, 'Savings', 'Indus Bank‘,NULL)
Inserting Many rows from a Different Table
INSERT INTO OldCust_details (Account_No, Transaction_Date,
Total_Available_Balance_in_Dollars)
SELECT Account_No,
Transaction_Date,Total_Available_Balance_in_Dollars
From Customer_Transaction
WHERE Total_Available_Balance_in_Dollars > 10000.00
1.8.2. SQL - DELETE FROM
With or without WHERE clause
Syntax:
DELETE FROM tablename WHERE condition;
Deleting All Rows
DELETE FROM Customer_Details
Deleting Specific Rows
DELETE FROM Customer_Details WHERE Cust_ID = 102
1.8.3. Difference Between Delete and Truncate
DELETE TRUNCATE
Data can be recovered Data cannot be recovered.
DML statement DDL statement
TRUNCATE releases the memory
DELETE does not do so
occupied by the records of the table
1.8.4. SQL – UPDATE
Syntax:
UPDATE tablename SET column_name =value [ WHERE condition]
Updating All Rows
UPDATE Customer_Fixed_Deposit SET Rate_of_Interest_in_Percent = NULL;
Updating Particular rows
UPDATE Customer_Fixed_Deposit SET Rate_of_Interest_in_Percent = 7.3
WHERE Amount_in_Dollars > 3000;
UPDATE Customer_Fixed_Deposit SET
Cust_Email = ‘
[email protected]’ ,
Rate_of_Interest_in_Percent = 7.3
WHERE Cust_ID = 104
Retrieving All columns from a table
To select set of column names,
SELECT column1, column2,… FROM TableName
Example
SELECT * FROM Customer_Details;
Or
SELECT Cust_ID, Cust_Last_Name, Cust_Mid_Name, Cust_First_Name,
Account_No, Account_Type, Bank_Branch, Cust_Email
FROM Customer_Details;
Retrieving Few Columns
SELECT Cust_ID, Account_No FROM Customer_Details;
Implementing Customized Columns Names
SELECT Account_No AS “Customer Account No.”,
Total_Available_Balance_in_Dollars AS “Total Balance”
FROM Customer_Transaction;
SQL - ALL, DISTINCT
Get all Customers Name:
SELECT ALL Cust_Last_Name FROM Customer_Details;
Or
SELECT Cust_Last_Name FROM Customer_Details;
Get all distinct Customer Name
SELECT DISTINCT Cust_Last_Name FROM Customer_Details;
Retrieving a subset of rows
For retrieval of rows based on some condition, the syntax is
SELECT COL1,COL2,......... FROM TABLE NAME
WHERE < SEARCH CONDITION>
Retrieving a subset of rows (Working of WHERE Clause)
Problem Statement:
To select rows which have 102 in the Manager column.
Row selection with the WHERE clause
1.9. Relational operators
List all customers with an account balance > $10000
SELECT Account_No, Total_Available_Balance_in_Dollars
FROM Customer_Transaction
WHERE Total_Available_Balance_in_Dollars > 10000.00;
List the Cust_ID, Account_No of ‘Graham’
SELECT Cust_ID, Account_No FROM Customer_Details
WHERE Cust_First_Name = ‘Graham’;
Relational operators
= , < , > , <= , >= , != or < >
List all Account_No where Total_Available_Balance_in_Dollars is atleast
$10000.00
SELECT Account_No FROM Customer_Transaction WHERE
Total_Available_Balance_in_Dollars >= 10000.00;
1.10. Logical operators
List all Cust_ID, Cust_Last_Name where Account_type is ‘Savings’ and Bank_Branch
is ‘Capital Bank’.
SELECT Cust_ID, Cust_Last_Name FROM Customer_Details
WHERE Account_Type = ‘Savings’ AND Bank_Branch = ‘Capital Bank’;
List all Cust_ID, Cust_Last_Name where neither Account_type is ‘Savings’ and nor
Bank_Branch is ‘Capital Bank’
SELECT Cust_ID, Cust_Last_Name FROM Customer_Details
WHERE NOT Account_Type = ‘Savings’
AND NOT Bank_Branch = ‘Capital Bank’;
List all Cust_ID, Cust_Last_Name where either Account_type is ‘Savings’ or
Bank_Branch is ‘Capital Bank’.
SELECT Cust_ID, Cust_Last_Name FROM Customer_Details
WHERE Account_Type = ‘Savings’ OR Bank_Branch = ‘Capital Bank’;
Logical operator: AND, OR, and NOT
1.11. Retrieval using BETWEEN
List all Account_Nos with balance in the range $10000.00 to $20000.00.
SELECT Account_No FROM Customer_Transaction
WHERE Total_Available_Balance_in_Dollars >= 10000.00
AND Total_Available_Balance_in_Dollars <= 20000.00;
Or
SELECT Account_No FROM Customer_Transaction
WHERE Total_Available_Balance_in_Dollars
BETWEEN 10000.00 AND 20000.00;
1.12. Retrieval using IN
List all customers who have account in Capital Bank or Indus Bank.
SELECT Cust_ID FROM Customer_Details
WHERE Bank_Branch = ‘Capital Bank’
OR Bank_Branch = ‘Indus Bank’;
Or
SELECT Cust_ID FROM Customer_Details
WHERE Bank_Branch IN (‘Capital Bank’, ‘Indus Bank’);
1.13. Retrieval using LIKE
List all Accounts where the Bank_Branch begins with a ‘C’ and has ‘a’ as the second
character
SELECT Cust_ID, Cust_Last_Name, Account_No FROM Customer_Details
WHERE Bank_Branch LIKE ‘Ca%’;
List all Accounts where the Bank_Branch column has ‘a’ as the second character.
SELECT Cust_ID, Cust_Last_Name, Account_No FROM Customer_Details
WHERE Bank_Branch LIKE ‘_a%’;
1.14. SQL - Retrieval using IS NULL
List employees who have not been assigned a Manager yet.
SELECT Employee_ID FROM Employee_Manager
WHERE Manager_ID IS NULL;
List employees who have been assigned to some Manager.
SELECT Employee_ID FROM Employee_Manager
WHERE Manager_ID IS NOT NULL;
1.15. SQL - Sorting your results (ORDER BY)
List the customers account numbers and their account balances, in the increasing
order of the balance
SELECT Account_No, Total_Available_Balance_in_Dollars
FROM Customer_Transaction
ORDER BY Total_Available_Balance_in_Dollars;
by default the order is ASCENDING
List the customers and their account numbers in the decreasing order of the account
numbers.
SELECT Cust_Last_Name, Cust_First_Name, Account_No
FROM Customer_Details ORDER BY 3 DESC;
List the customers and their account numbers in the decreasing order of the Customer
Last Name and increasing order of account numbers.
SELECT Cust_Last_Name, Cust_First_Name, Account_No
FROM Customer_Details
ORDER BY Cust_Last_Name DESC, Account_No;
Or
SELECT Cust_Last_Name, Cust_First_Name, Account_No
FROM Customer_Details ORDER BY 1 DESC, 3;
1.16. Aggregate Functions
1.16.1. SQL - Aggregate functions
• Used when information you want to extract from a table has to do with the data in
the entire table taken as a set.
• Aggregate functions are used in place of column names in the SELECT statement
• The aggregate functions in SQL are :
SUM( ) , AVG( ) , MAX( ) , MIN( ), COUNT( )
• SUM ( [ DISTINCT ] column-name / expression )
• AVG ( [ DISTINCT ] column-name / expression )
• MIN ( expression )
• MAX ( expression )
• COUNT ( [ DISTINCT ] column-name)
• COUNT ( * )
1.16.2. Aggregate function – MIN
• Returns the smallest value that occurs in the specified column
• Column need not be numeric type
Example:
List the minimum account balance.
SELECT MIN (Total_Available_Balance_in_Dollars)
FROM Customer_Transaction;
1.16.3. Aggregate function – MAX
• Returns the largest value that occurs in the specified column
• Column need not be numeric type
Example:
List the maximum account balance.
SELECT MAX (Total_Available_Balance_in_Dollars)
FROM Customer_Transaction;
1.16.4. Aggregate function - AVG
• Returns the average of all the values in the specified column
• Column must be numeric data type
Example:
List the average account balance of customers.
SELECT AVG (Total_Available_Balance_in_Dollars)
FROM Customer_Transaction;
1.16.5. Aggregate function – SUM
• Adds up the values in the specified column
• Column must be numeric data type
• Value of the sum must be within the range of that data type
Example:
List the minimum and Sum of all account balance.
SELECT MIN (Total_Available_Balance_in_Dollars),
SUM (Total_Available_Balance_in_Dollars)
FROM Customer_Transaction;
1.16.6. Aggregate function – COUNT
• Returns the number of rows in the table
Example:
List total number of Employees.
SELECT COUNT (*) FROM Employee_Manager;
List total number of Employees who have been assigned a Manager.
SELECT COUNT (Manager_ID) FROM Employee_Manager;
List total number of account holders in the ‘Capital Bank’ Branch.
SELECT COUNT (*) FROM Customer_Details
WHERE Bank_Branch = ‘Capital Bank’;
List total number of unique Customer Last Names.
SELECT COUNT (DISTINCT Cust_Last_Name) FROM Customer_Details;
Count(*) = No of rows
Count(ColumnName) = No. of rows that do not have NULL Value
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