9

Camshafts, Valve Trains,

Intake and Exhaust Systems

Cam lobe shape has more control over engine per-

OBJECTIVES: After studying Chapter 9, you should formance characteristics than does any other single
be able to: engine part. Engines identical in every way except
cam lobe shape may have completely different oper-
1. Prepare for the interprovincial Red Seal certification
ating characteristics and performance. See Figure
examination in Appendix I (Engine Repair) on the
91. The camshaft may also operate the following:
topics covered in this chapter.
2. Describe how camshafts and valve trains function.
Mechanical fuel pump
3. Discuss valve train noise and its causes.
Oil pump
4. Explain how a hydraulic lifter works.
Distributor
5. Discuss the operation of variable-length intake
manifolds.
See Figures 92 and 93.
6. Explain the differences between air cleaners for
wet and dry manifolds.
7. Explain the relationship of valve timing to intake CAMSHAFT LOCATION
runner length.
Pushrod engines have the cam located in the block. The
camshaft is supported in the block by camshaft bear-
ings and driven by the crankshaft with a gear or
T he cam is driven by timing gears, chains, or belts lo- sprocket and chain drive. See Figure 94. Many over-
cated at the front of the engine. The gear or sprocket on
the camshaft has twice as many teeth, or notches, as the CAMSHAFT
one on the crankshaft. This results in two crankshaft rev- BEARING
JOURNAL
olutions for each revolution of the camshaft. The
camshaft turns at one-half the crankshaft speed in all four-
stroke-cycle engines.

CAMSHAFT FUNCTION
LOBE
The camshafts major function is to operate the valve
train. Cam shape or contour is the major factor in de-
termining the operating characteristics of the engine.
The lobes on the camshaft open the valves against the
force of the valve springs. The camshaft lobe changes Figure 91 This high-performance camshaft has a lobe that
rotary motion (camshaft) to linear motion (valves). opens the valve quickly and keeps it open for a long time.
170
 Camshafts, Valve Trains, Intake and Exhaust Systems 171

Figure 94 Cutaway of a Chevrolet V-8 showing the valve

train components.

Figure 92 In many engines, the camshaft drives the T E C H T I P

distributor and the oil pump through a shaft from the end
of the distributor. The Rotating Pushrod Test
To quickly and easily test whether or not the camshaft is
okay, observe if the pushrods are rotating when the engine
is running. This test will work on any overhead valve
pushrod engine that uses a flat-bottom lifter. Due to the
slight angle on the cam lobe and lifter offset, the lifter (and
pushrod) should rotate whenever the engine is running. To
check, simply remove the rocker arm cover and observe
the pushrods when the engine is running. If one or more
pushrods is not rotating, the camshaft and/or the lifter for
that particular valve is worn and needs to be replaced.

heard if the cam lobe is worn. The ticking noise can be

intermittent, which makes it harder to determine the
cause. If the engine has an overhead camshaft (OHC),
Figure 93 The fuel pump plunger rides on the camshaft it is usually relatively easy to remove the cam cover
eccentric. and make a visual inspection of all cam lobes and the
rest of the valve train. In an overhead valve (OHV) en-
gine, the camshaft is in the block, where easy visual
head camshaft (OHC) engines do not use cam bearings;
inspection is not possible. See Figure 95 and Tech Tip
the camshaft runs directly on the aluminum cylinder
The Rotating Pushrod Test.
head. In order to salvage heads with a worn camshaft
Push rod engines with flat tappets often use the
bore, the aftermarket suppliers often provide
cam lobe taper and lifter offset to push the camshaft
camshafts with larger bearing journals. The head is
in toward the block. No cam thrust plate (retainer) is
bored (machined) to match the new, larger cam. An-
required. Camshafts designed for roller lifters have
other repair method is to bore out the head and install
no taper and must use a retainer to keep the
bearings that allow the use of the original camshaft.
camshaft from walking back and forth in the block.

CAMSHAFT PROBLEM CAMSHAFT REMOVAL

DIAGNOSIS (PUSHROD ENGINE)
A partially worn lobe on the camshaft is often difficult If the engine has an overhead valve design, the
to diagnose. Sometimes a valve tick tick tick noise is camshaft is usually located in the block above the
172 CHAPTER 9

(a)

Figure 96 The larger camshaft gear is usually made from

fibre and given a helical cut to help reduce noise. By
making the camshaft gear twice as large as the crankshaft
gear, the camshaft rotates one revolution for every two of
the crankshaft.

(b)
T E C H T I P
Figure 95 (a) Here is what can happen if a roller lifter
breaks loose from its retainer. The customer complained The Tube Trick
of a little noise from the engine. (b) All engines equipped
with roller lifters have some type of retainer for keeping Valve lifters are often difficult to remove because the
the lifters from rotating. ends of the lifters become mushroomed (enlarged)
where they have contacted the camshaft. Varnish buildup
can also prevent the lifters from being removed. Try this
crankshaft. The timing chain and gears (if the vehicle method:
is so equipped) should be removed after the timing
chain (gear) cover is removed. Loosen the rocker arms Step 1. Raise the lifters upward as far away from the
(or rocker arm shaft) and remove the pushrods. Re- camshaft as possible.
move or lift up the lifters before carefully removing
Step 2. Slide in a thin plastic or cardboard tube with
the camshaft. See Tech Tip The Tube Trick.
slots in place of the camshaft.
Step 3. Push the lifters downward into the tube. Use a
NOTE: Be sure to keep the pushrods and rocker arms long magnet to retrieve the lifters from the end of
together if they are to be reused.
the tube.

CAMSHAFT DRIVES This trick will work on almost every engine that has
the camshaft in the block. If the tube is made from plas-
The crankshaft gear or sprocket that drives the tic, it has to be thin plastic to allow it to flex slightly. The
camshaft is usually made of sintered iron. When length of the lifters is greater than the diameter of the
gears are used, the camshaft gear teeth must be cam bearings. Therefore, the lifter has to be pushed
made from a soft material to reduce noise. Usually, downward into the tube slightly to allow the lifter room
the whole gear is made of aluminum or fibre. See Fig- to fall over into the tube.
ure 96. When a chain and sprocket are used, the
 Camshafts, Valve Trains, Intake and Exhaust Systems 173

camshaft sprocket may be made of iron or it may

have an aluminum hub with nylon teeth for noise re-
duction. Two types of timing chains are used.

1. Silent chain type (also known as a flat-link

type, or Morse type for its original manufac-
turer). This type operates quietly but tends to
stretch with use. See Figures 97 and 98.

NOTE: When the timing chain stretches, the valve

timing will be retarded and the engine will lack low-
speed power. In some instances, the chain can wear
through the timing-chain cover and create an oil leak.

2. Roller chain type. This type is noisier but

operates with less friction and stretches less than
the silent type of chain. See Figure 99. Roller
chains are superior to the silent (flat link) type
and last longer. Often, the engine for a passenger
car may use a silent chain; the same engine for a
truck may come equipped with a roller chain.

Some four-cam V type engines use a two-stage Figure 98 The industry standard is to replace a timing
camshaft drive system. See Figure 910. Some four chain and sprockets when 13 mm (1/2 in.) or more of slack
cylinder, two cam engines use two chains; the pri- is measured in the sprockets. However, it is best to replace
mary chain drives one camshaft and the secondary the timing chain and sprockets anytime the camshaft is
chain connects the two camshafts. replaced or the engine is disassembled for repair or
overhaul. (Courtesy of Sealed Power Corporation)
NOTE: Beware of low cost roller chains. They often use
inferior materials and poor hardening. Saving money
with minimum quality parts will end up costing more
when the vehicle returns with a problem.

Figure 97 A replacement silent chain and sprockets. Figure 99 A replacement high-performance double
The original camshaft sprocket was aluminum with nylon roller chain. Even though a bit noisier than a flat-link
teeth to help control noise. This replacement set will not chain, a roller chain does not stretch as much and will
be noticeably louder than the original and should give the therefore be able to maintain accurate valve timing for a
owner many thousands of kilometres of useful service. longer time.
174 CHAPTER 9

Figure 910 Typical dual overhead camshaft V-type engine that uses one primary timing
chain and two secondary chains.

Figure 912 This timing belt broke because an oil leak

from one of the camshaft seals caused oil to get into and
Figure 911 Broken timing belt. Also notice the missing weaken the belt. Many experts recommend replacing all
teeth. This belt broke at 142 000 km (88 000 mi) because engine seals in the front of the engine when a timing belt is
the owner failed to replace it at the recommended replaced. If the timing belt travels over the water pump,
interval of 96 000 km (60 000 mi). the water pump should also be replaced as a precaution.

CAMSHAFT BELT DRIVES to be quieter, but it requires periodic replacement,

usually every 100 000 km (60 000 mi). Unless the en-
Many overhead camshaft engines use a timing belt gine is free wheeling, the piston can hit the valves
rather than a chain. The belt is generally considered if the belt breaks. See Figures 911 through 913.
 Camshafts, Valve Trains, Intake and Exhaust Systems 175

CAUTION: Using rocker arms with a higher ratio

than stock can also cause the valve spring to compress
too much and actually bind. Valve spring bind occurs
when the valve spring is compressed to the point where
there is no clearance at all in the spring. (It is com-
pletely compressed.) When coil bind occurs in a run-
ning engine, bent pushrods, broken rocker arms, or
other valve train damage can result.

Rocker arms may be cast, forged, or stamped. See

Figure 915.

Figure 913 Many engines are of the interference design. DIAGNOSTIC STORY
If the timing belt (or chain) breaks, the piston still moves
up and down in the cylinder while the valves remain Best to Warn the Customer
stationary. With a freewheeling design, nothing is damaged,
but in an interference engine, the valves are often bent. A technician replaced a timing chain and sprockets. The
repair was accomplished correctly, yet, after starting, the
engine burned an excessive amount of oil. Before the tim-
ing chain replacement, oil consumption was minimal. The
replacement timing chain restored proper operation of
the engine and increased engine vacuum. Increased vac-
uum can draw oil from the crankcase past worn piston
rings and through worn valve guides during the intake
stroke. Similar increased oil consumption problems occur
if a valve regrind is performed on a high-mileage engine
with worn piston rings and/or cylinders.
To satisfy the owner of the vehicle, the technician
had to disassemble and refinish the cylinders and replace
the piston rings. Therefore, all technicians should warn
customers that increased oil usage may result from al-
most any repair to a high-mileage engine.
Figure 914 A 1.5:1 ratio rocker arm means that dimension
A is 1.5 times the length of B. Therefore, if the pushrod is
moved up 10 mm (0.400 in.) by the camshaft lobe, the valve
will be pushed down (opened) 10 mm (0.400 in.)
1.5, or
DIAGNOSTIC STORY
15 mm (0.600 in.).
The Noisy Camshaft
The owner of an overhead cam four-cylinder engine com-
plained of a noisy engine. After taking the vehicle to several
technicians and getting high estimates to replace the
ROCKER ARMS camshaft and followers, the owner tried to find a less ex-
pensive solution. Finally, another technician replaced the
Rocker arms reverse the upward movement of the serpentine drive belt on the front of the engine and cured
pushrod to produce a downward movement on the the camshaft noise for a fraction of the previous estimates.
tip of the valve. They are designed to reduce the Remember, accessory drive belts can often make
travel of the cam follower or lifter and pushrod noises similar to valve or worn-bearing types of noises.
while maintaining the required valve lift. This is Many engines have been disassembled and/or overhauled
done by using a rocker arm ratio of approximately because of a noise that was later determined to be from
1.5:1, as shown in Figure 914. For a given amount one of the following:
of lift on the pushrod, the valve will open up to 1.5
times the pushrod lift distance. This ratio allows Loose or defective accessory drive belt(s)
the camshaft to be small, so the engine can be Cracks in the torque converter flex plate (drive plate)
smaller. It also results in higher lobe-to-lifter rub- Defective mechanical fuel pump
bing pressure.
176 CHAPTER 9

2. The second type uses a finger follower that

provides an opening ratio similar to that of a
rocker arm. Finger followers open the valves
by approximately 1 1/2 times the cam lift. The
pivot point of the finger follower may have a
mechanical or automatic hydraulic
adjustment.
3. A third type moves the rocker arm directly
through a hydraulic lifter.

NOTE: Some newer engines have the hydraulic ad-

justment in the rocker arm and are called hydraulic
lash adjusters (HLA). See Figure 917.

Figure 915 A high-performance aluminum roller arm.

Both the pivot and the tip that contacts the stem of the
valve are equipped with rollers to help reduce friction for T E C H T I P
more power and better fuel economy.
Varnish on Valve Stems Can Cause
Sticking Valves
As oil oxidizes, it forms a varnish. Varnish build-up is partic-
ularly common on hot upper portions of the engine, such as
valve stems. The varnish restricts clean oil from getting into
and lubricating the valve guides. The cam lobe can easily force
the valves open, but the valve springs often do not exert
enough force to fully close the valves. The result is an engine
miss, which may be intermittent. Worn valve guides and/or
weak valve springs can also cause occasional rough idle, un-
even running, or missing. See Figure 918.

HYDRAULIC
LASH
ADJUSTERS

Figure 916 Some overhead camshaft engines use a

bucket-type cam follower which uses valve lash adjusting
shims to adjust the valve lash. A special tool is usually
required to compress the valve spring so that a magnet can
remove the shim.

Figure 917 This single overhead camshaft engine has

1. One type of valve mechanism opens the valves four valves per cylinder because each pivot arm opens two
directly with a cam follower or bucket. See valves and each contains a small hydraulic lash adjuster
Figure 916. (hydraulic lifter).
 Camshafts, Valve Trains, Intake and Exhaust Systems 177

CAUTION: Some rockers are offset to the right, or

left, for correct rocker tip to valve alignment. Installing
a rocker in the wrong position could cause the rocker to
slip off the valve. Always check for correct location.

PUSHRODS

Pushrods are designed to be as light as possible and

still maintain their strength. They may be either
solid or hollow. If they are to be used as passages for
oil to lubricate rocker arms, they must be hollow.
Pushrods have a convex ball on the lower end that
seats in the lifter. The rocker arm end is also a convex
ball unless there is an adjustment screw in the
pushrod end of the rocker arm. In this case, the rocker Figure 918 Some engines today use rocker shafts to
arm end of the pushrod has a concave socket. It mates support rocker arms such as the V-6 engine with a single
with the convex ball on the adjustment screw in the overhead camshaft located in the centre of the cylinder head.
rocker arm. All pushrods should be rolled on a flat This engine uses a roller on the rocker arm.
surface to check if they are bent. See Figure 919.
Some pushrods are hardened at the upper end to
reduce wear at the point where they pass through
the cylinder head. The hardened end faces up.

Figure 919 When the timing chain broke, it caused the camshaft to go out-of-time, which allowed the pistons and valves
to collide on this interference engine. This may also bend the pushrods. Valve-to-piston contact will not occur on
freewheeling engines.

CAMSHAFT DURATION,
TIMING AND OVERLAP
1. Camshaft duration is the number of degrees of
crankshaft rotation during the time the valve
is lifted off the valve seat. See Figures 920
and 921.
If we follow the cam timing diagram (Figure
924, p. 179), we find that the intake valve opens
at 15 before top dead centre (TDC), stays open
from top dead centre to bottom dead centre
(BDC), which is a further 180, and closes 59
after BDC.
Adding the three, 15 + 180 + 59 = 254,
gives the duration. The intake valve is open for Figure 920 The lobe lift is the amount the cam lobe lifts
254 of crankshaft rotation. the lifter. Because the rocker arm adds to this amount, the
The exhaust valve opens at 59 before BDC, entire valve train has to be considered when selecting a
stays open from BDC to TDC (a further 180) camshaft that has the desired lift and duration.
and closes at 15 after TDC.
178 CHAPTER 9

T E C H T I P
Hollow Pushrod Dirt
Many engine rebuilders and remanufacturers do not
reuse old hollow pushrods. Dirt, carbon, and other debris
are difficult to thoroughly clean from inside a hollow
pushrod. When an engine is run with used pushrods, the
trapped particles can be dislodged and ruin new bearings
and other new engine parts.

Figure 922 A camshaft can be checked for straightness

as well as for lift and duration using a dial indicator on a
fixture that allows the camshaft to be rotated. This same
equipment can be used to check crankshafts.

CAMSHAFT TESTING

The camshaft should be inspected visually for wear

and measured with a dial indicator as shown in Fig-
ures 922 and 923.

CAM TIMING CHART

Figure 921 The ramps on the cam lobe allow the valves
to be opened and closed quickly yet under control to Four Strokes
avoid damaging valve train components, especially at high
During the four strokes of a four-cycle gasoline en-
engine speeds.
gine, the crankshaft rotates two complete revolu-
tions or 720 (2
360 = 720). The four strokes, of
Adding the three, 59 + 180 + 15 = 254, 180 each, are:
gives the duration of the exhaust valve. In this
case, both the intake and exhaust have the Intakean air/fuel mixture is drawn into the
same duration. This is not always the case as cylinder.
different durations are often used for intake Compressionthe piston compresses the air into
and exhaust valves. a high temperature mass.
If a hydraulic lifter is used, the valve lash is Powerthe compressed air/fuel mass is ignited
zero. If a solid lifter is used, duration begins and the expanding gases push the piston down
after the specified clearance (lash) has been the cylinder.
closed. Exhaustthe burned gases are pushed out of
Overlap is the time, in crankshaft degrees, the cylinder by the piston.
that both valves are open at the same time.
Overlap on our example would be 15 + 15 = 30.
2. Advancing the camshaft: the camshaft is moved VALVE TIMING
ahead in relation to the crankshaft. The valve
now opens earlier and also closes earlier. The The timing for these four events is expressed in degrees
duration does not change. of crankshaft rotation; camshaft specifications are also
3. Retarding the camshaft: the camshaft is moved given in crankshaft degrees.The usual method of draw-
back (behind) in relation to the crankshaft. The ing a camshaft timing diagram is a circle illustrating
valve now opens later and closes later. The two revolutions (720) of the crankshaft. See Figure
duration does not change. 924. Well use this again as an example.
 Camshafts, Valve Trains, Intake and Exhaust Systems 179

reaches BDC, it reverses direction and starts to move

up the cylinder on the compression stroke.
When do we close the intake valve? It depends.
The air rushing into the cylinder has both speed and
inertia, it doesnt want to stop. The intake valve
should close just before the pressure in the cylinder
overcomes the velocity of the air. This prevents the
air from being pushed back into the intake manifold.
We know that air speed varies with engine RPM. The
air flow at higher RPM has greater speed and force,
therefore the intake valve can be held open longer
(later) and use more duration.
Using a camshaft with more duration increases
high RPM power, but low RPM power suffers as part
of the air/fuel charge is pushed back into the intake
manifold. Engine vacuum also suffers. In general,
long duration camshafts work well at higher engine
speeds and short duration camshafts work well at
lower speeds.
Advancing the camshaft will help at low RPM be-
cause the intake valve opens earlier, but also closes
earlier. Retarding the camshaft helps at high RPM as
the intake valve opens later, but also closes later, al-
lowing more of the high velocity charge to enter.
Stretched timing chains and belts allow the valve
timing to retard, which affects low-end power. Replac-
ing the belt or chain restores the original valve timing
and the engine is much smoother at low speeds.
As the piston moves up the cylinder on the com-
Figure 923 The lift of a camshaft lobe can be quickly
pression stroke, both valves are closed, the air is be-
determined by using this dial indicator that attaches
ing compressed, and just before TDC the mixture is
directly to the camshaft.
ignited. The combustion pressure forces the piston
down the cylinder on the power stroke. When do we
open and close the exhaust valve? Again, it depends
on RPM.
The greatest mechanical leverage between the
connecting rod and crankshaft (90) occurs approxi-
mately half way down the cylinder. As the piston gets
closer to BDC, we begin to lose this mechanical ad-
vantage. Rather than using the remaining pressure
in the cylinder to push on the piston, were going to
open the exhaust valve before BDC, which lets the
cylinder pressure push the exhaust gases out into the
exhaust system. At BDC as the piston reverses direc-
tion, it continues to force the spent exhaust gases out
of the cylinder. When do we close the exhaust valve?
Our chart shows the valve closing at 15 after TDC,
as the piston begins the intake stroke. The exiting ex-
haust gas also has inertia that creates a vacuum be-
hind it. This vacuum draws out (scavenges) the last of
Figure 924 Typical cam timing diagram. the exhaust from the combustion chamber. We also
note that the intake valve started to open before the ex-
Lets begin at TDC. At the beginning of the in- haust valve closed. The period of time that both valves
take stroke, the intake valve has already started to are open together is called the overlap period. During
open and the piston is moving down the cylinder. Air the overlap period (in our example 15 + 15 = 30), the
and fuel rush into the low-pressure void (vacuum) vacuum created by the exiting exhaust is used to draw
caused by the piston movement. When the piston in some of the new intake charge.
180 CHAPTER 9

In general, long (high) overlap camshafts produce changes the timing. Oil volume is set by an
good top end power, but kill the low end because the electrical solenoid which is computer controlled.
incoming air/fuel charge flows right out the exhaust See Figure 925(a).
at low RPM. Reducing the overlap increases low speed Engines with a single camshaft advance the
power and compression, but top end power suffers. timing at low RPM and retard the timing at
The camshaft characteristics must match the op- higher speeds.
erating range of the engine; so one engine may list Dual overhead camshaft engines usually control
three or more different camshafts, each designed for the intake cam only. This allows the overlap to be
specific conditions. adjusted for operating conditions. Low speeds re-
Using the correct camshaft is a must! quires short overlap, increasing the speed requires
longer overlap. See Figures 925(b) and 925(c).
The Honda VTEC variable valve timing uses a
VARIABLE VALVE TIMING
different principle. Both short duration low lift
cam lobes and a long duration high lift lobe are
Variable valve timing was developed to improve en-
used. At low speeds, the rocker for the mild lobe is
gine performance at both low and high speeds. This
active and the high lift rocker is inactive. Around
is achieved in a number of ways.
4800 rpm, a piston located in the high lift rocker is
moved by oil pressure (computer activated) which
A moveable sprocket on the front of the camshaft
locks both the low and high speed rockers together.
allows the shaft to rotate in relation to the
The long duration, high lift cam lobe now controls
sprocket. Allowing oil pressure into the sprocket
the valve action. See Figures 925(d) and 925(e).
body moves the drive along a helical gear, which

INSTALLING THE CAMSHAFT

When the camshaft is installed, the lobes must be

coated with a special lubricant containing molydisul-
fide. This special lube helps to ensure proper initial
lubrication to the critical cam lobe sections of the
camshaft. Many manufacturers recommend multi-
viscosity engine oil such as SAE 5W-30 or SAE 10W-30.
Some camshaft manufacturers recommend using

(a)

(b)

Figure 925 Variable valve timing components. (a) Cross-section of a moveable camshaft drive sprocket. (b) Valve
timing chart for intake camshaft control. Advancing one cam only increases valve overlap. (Jaguar Canada and Ford
Motor Company trademarks and Jaguar branded products used with permission)
 Camshafts, Valve Trains, Intake and Exhaust Systems 181

Figure 925 Continued (c) A dual overhead camshaft engine with

the moveable camshaft drive sprocket (VVT-iActuator) mounted on the
intake camshaft. (Courtesy Toyota Motor Co.) (d) The Honda V-TEC
engine uses both outer short-duration cam lobes at low speed. The
centre cam and rocker are not connected to the valves. (Courtesy
Honda Motor Co.) (e) At higher speeds, a piston, controlled with oil
pressure, locks all three rockers together. The centre long-duration
cam lobe now overrides the short-duration lobes. (Courtesy Honda
Motor Co.)

(c)

(d) (e)

straight SAE 30 or SAE 40 engine oil and not a multi- 1. When installing a new camshaft, always install
viscosity oil for the first oil fill.Some manufacturers also new valve lifters (tappets).
recommend the use of an antiwear additive such as zinc 2. When installing new lifters, if the original cam is
dithiophosphate (ZDP). See Figures 926 and 927. not excessively worn and if the pushrods all
The camshaft must be broken in by maintaining rotate with the original camshaft, the camshaft
engine speed above 1500 rpm for the first 10 minutes may be reused.
of engine operation. If the engine speed is decreased 3. Never use a hydraulic camshaft with solid lifters
to idle (about 600 rpm), the lifter (tappet) or rocker or hydraulic lifters with a solid lifter camshaft.
arm will be in contact with and exerting force on the
lobe of the cam for a longer period of time than occurs
at higher engine speeds. The pressure and volume of
oil supplied to the camshaft area are also increased at NOTE: Some manufacturers recommend that a new
the higher engine speeds. Therefore, to ensure long camshaft always be installed when replacing valve lifters.
camshaft and lifter/rocker life, make certain that the
engine will start quickly after a new camshaft and
lifters have been installed to prevent long cranking
periods and subsequent low engine speeds. When re- NOTE: Some performance engine builders use a degree
pairing an engine, follow these rules regarding the wheel (Figure 928) to ensure that valve timing is correct.
camshaft and lifters:
182 CHAPTER 9

(a)

Figure 926 Special lubricant such as this one from

General Motors is required to be used on the the lobes
of the camshaft and the bottom of the flat-bottomed
lifters.

(b)

Figure 927 Care should be taken when installing a Figure 928 (a) The set-up required to degree a camshaft.
camshaft not to nick or scrape the cam bearings. (b) Closeup of the pointer and the degree wheel.
 Camshafts, Valve Trains, Intake and Exhaust Systems 183

Figure 929 General Motors assembled steel camshaft. (Courtesy

General Motors)

ASSEMBLED CAMSHAFTS

Camshafts are normally cast or machined in one

piece. Several manufacturers are now using assem-
bled camshafts which allows different materials to
be combined on a single shaft. General Motors uses
three different steel alloys and a cast-iron gear to in-
crease durability.
The manufacturing process starts with individ-
ual cam lobes being positioned on a hollow steel
shaft. A steel ball, larger than the inside diameter, is
forced through the hollow shaft which expands and
locks the lobes. See Figure 929.

LIFTERS
Figure 930 Lifters or tappets are made in two styles: flat
Valve lifters (also called tappets) follow the contour bottom and roller.
or shape of the camshaft lobe. This arrangement
changes the cam motion to a reciprocating motion in gear. Using the incorrect distributor gear will ruin
the valve train. Most older-style lifters have a both the camshaft and distributor gear.
slightly convex surface that slides on the cam. See Valve train clearance is also called valve lash.
Figure 930. Some lifters, however, are designed Valve train clearance must not be excessive, or it will
with a roller to follow the cam contour. Roller lifters cause noise or result in premature failure. Two
are used in production engines to reduce valve train methods are commonly used to make the necessary
friction (by up to 8%). This friction reduction can in- valve clearance adjustments. One involves a solid
crease fuel economy and help to offset the greater valve lifter with a mechanical adjustment, and the
manufacturing cost. All roller lifters must use a re- other involves a lifter with an automatic hydraulic
tainer to prevent lifter rotation. adjustment built into the lifter body, called a hy-
Camshaft lobes designed for roller lifters must draulic valve lifter.
have a very hard surface to match the steel rollers. A hydraulic lifter consists primarily of a hollow
Some cams are made of steel and others use heat- cylinder body enclosing a closely fitted hollow
treated iron. In some cases, the distributor gear ma- plunger, a check valve, and a pushrod cup. Lifters
terial is matched for compatibility with the camshaft that feed oil up through the pushrod have a metering
184 CHAPTER 9

HIGH PERFORMANCE TIP

Varying the Valve Timing to Vary
Engine Performance
If the camshaft is slightly ahead of the crankshaft, the
camshaft is called advanced. An advanced camshaft (max-
imum of 4) results in more low-speed torque with a
slight decrease in high-speed power. Some aftermarket
camshaft manufacturers design about a 4 advance into
their timing gears or camshaft. This permits the use of a
camshaft with more lift and duration, yet still provides the
smooth idle and low-speed responses of a milder
camshaft.
If the camshaft is slightly behind the crankshaft, the
camshaft is called retarded. A retarded camshaft (maxi-
mum of 4) results in more high-speed power at the ex-
pense of low-speed torque.
If the measured values are different from specifica-
tions, special offset pins or keys are available to relocate
the cam gear by the proper amount. Some manufactur-
ers provide adjustable cam timing sprockets for overhead
cam engines.
Be aware that changing cam timing may cause a rise
in emissions.

Figure 931 A cross-sectional view of a typical flat-

bottomed hydraulic lifter.

disk or restrictor valve located under the pushrod

cup. Engine oil under pressure is fed through an en-
INTAKE MANIFOLDS
gine passage to the exterior lifter body. An undercut
portion allows the oil under pressure to surround the
The intake manifold is designed to deliver equal
lifter body. Oil under pressure goes through holes in
amounts of air (or air and fuel) to each intake port in
the undercut section into the centre of the plunger.
the cylinder head. Older intake manifolds were
From there, it goes down through the check valve to
made of cast iron or aluminum; newer V-type mani-
a clearance space between the bottom of the plunger
folds are usually made of aluminum (bottom) and the
and the interior bottom of the lifter body. It fills this
top from a plastic composite. The latest manifolds
space with oil at engine pressure. Slight leakage al-
are often all plastic, although aluminum tubing is
lowance is designed into the lifter so that the air can
still found on some imports. See Figure 935.
bleed out and the lifter can leak down if it should be-
Manifolds are classified as wet when a carburetor,
come overfilled. See Figures 931 through 934.
or throttle-body type of fuel injection (TBI), delivers
fuel to the plenum (the open area under the carburetor)
and both air and fuel pass through the intake manifold.
The combination of the manifold passage and the cylin-
CAUTION: Using too thick (high viscosity) an engine der head intake port is known as the runner.
oil can cause the hydraulic lifters or hydraulic lash ad- Dry manifolds pass air only through the intake
justers to not bleed down as fast as they should. This runners. Fuel is injected into the cylinder head in-
slow bleed-down can cause a valve(s) to remain open, take port or directly into the combustion chamber.
which results in an engine miss. Using an SAE 10W-40
See Figure 936. Dry manifolds are more efficient
instead of the specified SAE 5W-20 could cause the
than wet because:
lifters to bleed down more slowly than normal and
cause a driveability problem, especially if the oil is not
changed at specified intervals. 1. Intake air does not require heating to vaporize
the fuel.
 Camshafts, Valve Trains, Intake and Exhaust Systems 185

Figure 934 To correctly adjust hydraulic valve lifters,

position the camshaft on the base circle of the camshaft
lobe for the valve being adjusted. Remove all clearance by
spinning the pushrod and tightening the nut until all
clearance is removed. The adjusting nut is then tightened
one complete revolution. This is what is meant by the
term zero lash plus 1 turn.

Figure 932 Hydraulic lash adjusters (HLA) are built into

the rocker arm on some OHC engines.

Figure 935 This four cylinder all-aluminum tubular

Figure 933 Hydraulic lifters are also built into bucket- intake manifold uses long runners to improve low and mid-
type lifters on many OHC engines. range torque. (Courtesy Toyota Canada Inc.)
186 CHAPTER 9

It is important to understand the manifold lay-

out when diagnosing carburetion problems.

Intake Manifold Heat Control

The airfuel mixture passing through the intake
runners requires engine heat to assist in vaporizing
the fuel, making it easier to ignite. When the engine
is cold, much of the fuel still remains in liquid form,
which makes driveability problems, such as stalling
and hesitation, common.

Warming the Mixture

Many engines heat the floor (bottom) of the intake
manifold plenum area to vaporize the fuel. V-type en-
gines have an exhaust crossover passage connected
to one cylinder head exhaust port in each bank. See
Figure 938. An exhaust manifold heat riser valve,
usually vacuum controlled, closes off one exhaust
Figure 936 Port fuel injection sprays fuel into the manifold when the engine is cold. Exhaust from that
cylinder head intake port. This type of intake manifold bank must pass through the crossover passage in or-
used is classified as dry since air only passes through the der to leave the engine: This heats the intake mani-
intake runners. (Courtesy Mitsubishi Motor Co.) fold. As the engine comes up to temperature, a vac-
uum switching valve cuts off manifold vacuum to the
2. Fuel does not drop out of suspension in the air heat riser valve and the valve opens, allowing the ex-
and stick to the walls of the intake runner. haust to leave from both exhaust manifolds. A very
3. Equal amounts of fuel are supplied to each small amount of exhaust now passes under the
cylinder by the fuel injectors. plenum and the intake manifold cools.
Heat riser valves that stick in the open position
Dual-Plane Manifolds cause cold driveability problems; engine operation is
normal after warm-up. Valves that stay closed cause
Older carburetted (and some TBI) V-8 engines have
problems with a warm engine, such as carburetor
a concern with unequal air-fuel distribution; cylin-
percolation (fuel overheating), hard starting, and
ders that are side by side and follow each other in
loss of power from the restricted exhaust.
firing order often draw mixture from the same cor-
The system is simple to testapplying vacuum
ner of the manifold. Dual-plane manifolds are es-
to the heat riser diaphragm should cause the valve
sentially two four-cylinder manifolds joined to-
to close without sticking. The vacuum should hold.
gether at the plenum area. See Figure 937.
Releasing the vacuum allows the valve to open. Place
Cylinders close to one another in firing order now
a vacuum gauge in the line at the heat riser. The vac-
draw mixture from opposite sides of the engine cor-
uum switching valve (VSV), which is threaded into
recting the problem.
the cooling system, should pass manifold vacuum
when cold and restrict vacuum when the en-
gine is warm. Vacuum lines to the VSV and
heat riser should be inspected for cracks or
blockage.
The crossover passage in the manifold may
plug with carbon, usually on high-kilometre oil-
burning engines. If the manifold below the

Figure 937 Dual plane manifold. Notice that each

side of the carburetor feeds two cylinders on the
right bank and two on the left bank, not all four on
the left and all four on the right. (Courtesy Ford
Motor Co. of Canada Ltd.)
 Camshafts, Valve Trains, Intake and Exhaust Systems 187

Figure 938 Closing one exhaust outlet (V engines) with a

heat riser valve causes hot exhaust gases to pass through the
intake manifold. (Courtesy General Motors)

carburetor base does not warm up quickly on a cold Tuning the intake manifold runner length to the
engine, suspect a plugged manifold (if the heat riser normal operating range of the engine will improve
valve is closing). Lack of power and stalling, cold, is cylinder filling (volumetric efficiency). In general,
another indication. The manifold must be removed long, small diameter runners increase air speed (ram
for cleaning. effect) at lower RPM for good low and mid-range
Older in-line engines (and some V-8s) use a torque. This type of manifold limits air flow at higher
spring-loaded damper as a heat riser valve. Exhaust RPM and top-end power suffers. See Figure 939.
heat causes the spring to unwind and the damper Long, narrow runners increase intake air speed
opens. The damper shaft should be lubricated with a at lower RPM, good for low-medium RPM power.
special heat-riser penetrating oil at every tune-up to Short, wide runners do not restrict the incoming air
prevent sticking. and rely on high RPM for increasing the air speed:
good for mid-range and top-end power.
Shorter, larger diameter runners work well at
Tuned Intake Manifolds higher RPM; however, at low speeds the air mass
The section on valve timing stated that the intake slows down and low-end power suffers.
valve should close just before cylinder pressure (pis- Many larger V engines run at lower RPM and
ton coming up on the compression stroke) overcomes utilize long, narrow runners. Four-cylinder engines
the speed and pressure of the air rushing into the usually operate at higher RPM and require short,
cylinder. Engines running at high RPM could keep wide runners. It is important to match the camshaft
the valve open later because of the increased air and the intake manifold to the usual operating range
speed in the intake runner. of the engine.
188 CHAPTER 9

Figure 939 Tuned manifolds. (Courtesy Ford Motor

Company of Canada Ltd.)

Variable Induction Systems only one is functional until the second runner is
opened.
Variable induction systems have the advantage of At higher speeds, about 4000 to 5500 rpm, the
changing the runner size or length, to match the op- powertrain control module (PCM) energizes an elec-
erating RPM of the engine. trical vacuum switching valve (VSV), which allows
The Toyota manifold in Figure 940 fits a four- vacuum to reach the actuator. This opens the air con-
cylinder engine with a four-valve (two intake, two ex- trol valves and all eight runners now function.
haust) cylinder head. Each intake valve has its own Another type of variable manifold is on the Ford
runner. At lower RPM, the four intake air control high-output V-6. See Figure 941. The short runners
valves (not to be confused with the throttle plate) are are closed at low speed with a throttling valveair
closed. All of the air must pass through a single runner enters through the long runners only. At higher
for each cylinder. This increases air speed providing a speeds (RPM), the valve opens and air now passes
ram effect for improved cylinder filling. At higher via the short runners.
RPM, the air control valves open, intake air now flows V-6 engines often use a variable tuning control
through all runners, and top end power increases. valve to change the runner length. See Figure
Closing the four intake air control valves causes 942(a). This General Motors intake manifold has a
the air speed to increase in the four open runners. Al- normally closed tuning valve (IMTV), which splits
though two intake valves are open (four-valve head), the manifold into two separate plenums. See Figure
 Camshafts, Valve Trains, Intake and Exhaust Systems 189

942(b). This effectively increases the runner length.

At higher RPM the IMTV opens and the operating
length shortens as it now begins at the common
plenum.

AIR INTAKE SYSTEMS

The air intake system has a number of functions,

including

Filtering the incoming air

Heating the air to prevent throttle-plate icing
Reducing noise levels
Holding positive crankcase ventilation (PCV)
filters
Providing a mounting for the electronic engine
Figure 940 Toyota four-cylinder variable induction system. sensors on some models, such as mass airflow
(Courtesy Toyota Canada Inc.) sensors or intake air temperature sensors

Throttle-Plate Icing
Throttle-plate icing, also known as carburetor icing,
happens when moisture from the incoming air freezes
on the throttle plate (and venturi area with carbure-
tors), blocking airflow and causing the engine to stall.
It does not usually occur when temperatures are very
low, below freezing, or above 10C (50F). It
is a major problem in areas with high hu-
miditysuch as Vancouver, Toronto, and
Halifaxwhen ambient temperatures are
in the range of 1 to 10C (34 to 50F).
Heating the air before it reaches the low-
pressure, low-temperature area around the
throttle prevents freezing. This is one func-
tion of the air cleaner.

Air Temperature Control

The air intake system supplies heated air
from around the exhaust manifold during
cold weather operation. See Figure 943. As
the engine comes up to temperature, the
damper valve gradually shuts off heated air
and opens to cool air. See Figure 944.

Figure 941 This Ford V-6 manifold uses long runners for improved
low-speed power and short runners for enhanced high-speed
performance. (Courtesy Ford Motor Co. of Canada)
190 CHAPTER 9

Figure 942 (a) General Motors uses a variable tuning valve to control
airflow in this V-6 manifold. This design is also found on some Asian
(a) vehicles. (Courtesy General Motors of Canada Ltd.)

Figure 942 (b) Runner length (long)

includes the zip tubes when the intake
manifold tuning valve (IMTV) is closed.
Opening the IMTV effectively shortens the
runner length, which now begins at the
plenum area. (Courtesy General Motors of
(b) Canada Ltd.)
Figure 943 This air cleaner, found on carbureted engines, has both hot and cold air pickups. During cold engine
operation, hot air from around the exhaust manifold mixes with fuel at the carburetor. This provides better fuel vaporization
and reduces, or eliminates throttle-plate icing. As the engine warms up, the damper door closes the hot air pickup and
opens to cold air delivery. (Courtesy Ford Motor Co. of Canada Ltd.)

Figure 944 Intake manifold vacuum passes through the temperature sensor (mounted inside the air cleaner) to the
vacuum motor at the snorkel. This raises the damper, allowing hot air into the engine. (Courtesy Ignition Manufacturers
Institute, Automotive Emission Controls and Tune-Up Procedures [Prentice Hall, 1980])
192 CHAPTER 9

(a)

Figure 945 Checking the heated air system: (a) bimetal sensor test;
(b) vacuum motor test. (Courtesy Ford Motor Co. of Canada Ltd.) (b)

The bimetal spring in the temperature sensor The bimetal sensor can also be tested by
bends from the incoming warm air; this creates an applying heat to the sensor with a heat gun
air leak at the bleed valve; vacuum is lost and the di- (normally used to collapse shrink tubing), and
aphragm spring forces the damper to gradually close checking the vacuum signal at the vacuum motor
the hot air duct. Cold air now enters. hose. See Figure 945(a).
The vacuum motor is tested by applying vacuum
from a hand-held vacuum pump to the motor.
Wet versus Dry Manifolds Vacuum should hold and the damper should
close. Releasing vacuum will allow the damper to
Heated air cleaners also play a large part in cold en-
open with no signs of dragging on the snorkel.
gine driveability. Warm incoming air helps the liquid
See Figure 945(b).
fuel to vaporize and ignite easily until the engine
temperature rises. This is not a problem with dry
manifolds, as air only passes through the manifold. Air Cleaner Filter Element
Fuel is injected, usually, at the intake valve.
These filters are usually made of pleated paper and
Throttle-plate icing is still a concern with dry
are replaced at a given number of kilometres or
manifolds; the moisture in the air freezes, not the
elapsed time. Vehicles driven on dusty roads will
fuel. These engines often have a heated grid or a hot
need more frequent replacement. If the filter looks
water pocket at the throttle body to prevent icing.
clean on a visual inspection and light from a trouble
lamp can be seen through the filter, it may be rein-
stalled after being blown out with compressed air. See
Testing the Heated Air System Figure 946. If in doubt, replace the filter element.
These systems are also simple to test.
Place a thermometer inside the air cleaner. Air Filter Restriction Indicators
Start the engine and observe the damper; it Some vehicles are equipped with filter indicators
should be closed to cold air. (sometimes called filter minders) that change colour
As the engine warms up, note when the damper when the filter becomes restricted. See Figure 947.
begins to open. Remove the thermometer from
inside the air cleaner and record the
temperature. Compare the reading to the service EXHAUST SYSTEMS
manual specification. An incorrect opening
temperature indicates a faulty bimetal sensor, The original purpose of the exhaust system was to
provided there are no leaks in the hoses or route spent gases to the rear of the vehicle and lower
vacuum motor. exhaust noise.
 Camshafts, Valve Trains, Intake and Exhaust Systems 193

Figure 946 Air cleaner filter elements may be blown out with
compressed air; replace very dirty filters or those with high kilometres.
(Courtesy Toyota Canada Ltd.)

Since the introduction of emission controls, the Exhaust Manifolds

exhaust system also
Exhaust manifolds are usually made of lightweight

stainless steel tubing. Individual tubes for each cylin-

Provides air injection mountings in the manifold

der are tuned for maximum power at the normal

May contain one to six oxygen sensors that
operating range. See Figure 949. Cast-iron mani-
monitor engine air-fuel ratios and catalytic
folds are still used on some heavy vehicles where
converter(s) condition

weight is not a major concern, or on passenger cars

Includes three-way (hydrocarbon, carbon
that require a lower noise level. Tubular header
monoxide and oxides of nitrogen) converters in
style manifolds are generally noisier than cast iron
the exhaust manifold or front pipes

iron dampens exhaust pulse noises.

May contain an adsorber to store hydrocarbons
Iron manifolds are prone to crack when mounted
or oxides of nitrogen. See Figure 948.
on inline four- and six-cylinder aluminum cylinder
heads because of differing expansion rates. Only
This section will cover the standard exhaust high quality exhaust gaskets should be used and
items found on passenger cars and light trucks. Cat- torquing is a must. Over-torquing stops the manifold
alytic converters and other emission related compo- from sliding on the head and a crack often develops.
nents are found in Chapter 30: Emission Control The Honda Insight casts the exhaust manifold
Device Operation, Diagnosis and Service. and cylinder head in one unit. This reduces weight
194 CHAPTER 9

Figure 947 Air filter restriction indicators (if

used) are located between the air cleaner and the
engine. If the air filter becomes clogged or restricted,
the increase in intake hose vacuum will cause this
indicator to change colour, from green to orange.
The indicator must be reset when a new filter is
installed. (Courtesy General Motors of Canada Ltd.)

Figure 948 A typical exhaust system with three-way catalytic converters, a hydrocarbon adsorber, and a main muffler.
(Courtesy Toyota Canada Inc.)

and allows the catalytic converter to heat up more Mufflers and Resonators
quickly. See Figure 950.
The most common original equipment muffler is the
reverse-flow type. See Figure 952. These mufflers are
Catalyst Location very quiet; however, they limit power at higher speeds
Catalytic converters require a great deal of engine because of the restrictive design (back pressure).
exhaust heat in order to function. The closer to the Straight-through mufflers reduce back pressure.
engine, the better. Some vehicles have the converter They are usually found on some factory high-
bolted directly to the exhaust manifold (see Figure performance vehicles and many aftermarket sports
951); others build the converter and manifold as exhausts. Straight-through mufflers use fibreglass
one unit. One-piece converter-manifolds are replaced or steel-wool packing for noise control; this often
as an assembly. Bolt-on or weld-on converters are burns out or compacts with carbon, increasing noise
also located in the front exhaust pipe(s). levels.
 Camshafts, Valve Trains, Intake and Exhaust Systems 195

Figure 949 Stainless steel tubular exhaust manifolds are lighter and usually more efficient than cast-iron manifolds. Note
the airfuel (oxygen) sensor mounted very close to the engine. (Courtesy Toyota Motor Co.)

Figure 950 The Honda Insight combines the exhaust manifold and cylinder head into one unit. (Courtesy Honda Motor Co.)

A newer design reverse-flow muffler uses a spring- designs are used. They mount after the muffler (most
loaded damper that opens at high exhaust pressure. common) or before, depending on space limitations.
This decreases back pressure. See Figure 953.
Resonators are smaller secondary mufflers in- Exhaust Mounting
stalled to further reduce exhaust noise and resonance. Transverse mounted engines rock front-to-rear and
They can be straight-through or reverse-flow; both longitudinal engines rock side-to-side. Each creates
196 CHAPTER 9

Figure 951 A cast-iron exhaust manifold (#6) and bolt-on catalytic converter (#10) use heat shields (#2, 3, 4) to protect
adjoining components from high temperatures. The shields also allow the converter to retain much of its internal heat
needed for proper operation. (Courtesy Toyota Canada Inc.)

Figure 952 Muffler designs: (a) reverse-flow (b) straight-through. (McCord Manufacturing)

Figure 953 Schematic of a Toyota muffler with two-way exhaust control. The control valve, a spring-loaded damper, is
closed at low engine speeds: exhaust noise is decreased. At higher engine speeds, the exhaust pressure overcomes spring
pressure and the control valve opens, reducing system back pressure. (Courtesy Toyota Canada Inc.)
 Camshafts, Valve Trains, Intake and Exhaust Systems 197

Figure 954 Two examples of a dual exhaust: (a) cat back system; (b) full length dual exhaustnote the equalizer tube
between the front pipes. (Courtesy General Motors of Canada Ltd.; Ford Motor Co. of Canada Ltd.)

different stresses on the exhaust system. Transverse with a catalytic converter; the heat from the con-
engines require ball-type joints, often spring loaded, verter keeps moisture to a minimum.
or a flexible pipe to relieve pipe loading. Longitudi- Early vehicles joined the exhaust pipes and muf-
nal engines absorb the twisting over a greater length fler with slip-joints and clamps. These are difficult to
and usually do not need flexible joints. remove and usually require heat from a welding
Exhaust systems are suspended from the chassis torch. Many recent vehicles use flanges that bolt
by high-temperature rubber straps, O-rings or dough- together (with a gasket), making removal and re-
nuts that insulate exhaust vibrations from the body. placement much easier.
These mounts should be inspected for cracks or hard-
ening whenever the vehicle is raised for service.
Single and Dual Exhausts
Exhaust Pipes Single exhaust systems are standard with most in-
Most pipes are made of aluminized steel (a coating of line and V-type engines. Dual exhausts are usually
aluminum on the inside and outside of the pipe) to found on longitudinally mounted V-8s, either factory
resist corrosion. Pipes and mufflers do not burn out, high-performance or installed aftermarket. Factory
they rust out internally from acids, water and con- installed duals often have an equalizer pipe (joining
taminants created by engine combustion. These the two head pipes) balancing the pressure between
items last much longer when the system is equipped the two sides. See Figure 954.
198 CHAPTER 9

SUMMARY 2. Valve lifters rotate during operation because of the

_____ of the camshaft.
1. The camshaft rotates at one-half the crankshaft a. Taper of the lobe
speed. b. Thrust plate
c. Chain tensioner
2. The pushrods should be rotating while the engine is d. Bearings
running if the camshaft and lifters are okay.
3. Advancing the camshaft (SOHC) will result in
3. On overhead valve pushrod engines, the camshaft is _______________.
usually placed in the block above the crankshaft. a. A rougher idle
The lobes of the camshaft are usually lubricated by b. Less low-speed torque
splash lubrication. c. Better high-speed performance
4. Silent chains are quieter than roller chains but tend to d. More low-speed torque
stretch with use. 4. Which timing chain type is also called a silent chain?
5. The lift of a cam is usually expressed in decimal inches a. Roller
and represents the distance that the valve is lifted off b. Double roller
the valve seat. c. Double belt
6. In many engines, camshaft lift is transferred to the tip d. Morse
of the valve stem to open the valve by the use of a 5. On an engine equipped with a timing belt, engine dam-
rocker arm or follower. age can occur if the engine is which design?
7. Pushrods transfer camshaft motion upward from the a. Freewheeling
camshaft to the rocker arm. b. Interference
8. Camshaft duration is the number of degrees of crank- 6. Many technicians always use new pushrods because
shaft rotation for which the valve is lifted off the seat. ______________________.
a. It is less expensive to buy than clean
9. Valve overlap is the number of crankshaft degrees for
b. All of the dirt cannot be cleaned out from the
which both valves are open.
hollow centre
10. Camshafts should be installed according to the manufac- c. Pushrods wear at both ends
turers recommended procedures. Flat lifter camshafts d. Pushrods shrink in length if removed from an
should be thoroughly lubricated with extreme pressure engine
lubricant.
7. A DOHC V-6 has how many camshafts?
11. If a new camshaft is installed, new lifters should also a. 4
be installed. b. 3
12. Wet intake manifolds require heating (during cold op- c. 2
eration) to vaporize the fuel. d. 1
13. Long intake runners improve low RPM cylinder 8. The intake valve opens at 39 BTDC and closes at 71
filling. ABDC. The exhaust valve opens at 78 BBDC and
14. Tubular stainless steel exhaust manifolds improve ex- closes at 47 ATDC. Which answer is correct?
haust flow and decrease weight. a. Intake valve duration is 110
b. Exhaust valve duration is 125
15. Some vehicles use a one-piece exhaust manifold-
c. Overlap is 86
catalytic converter; being close to the engine heats the
d. Overlap is 149
converter quickly and keeps it at a high temperature.
9. Fuel injection systems that inject fuel into the cylin-
der head intake port may require heat at the throttle
REVIEW QUESTIONS body to
a. Vaporize the incoming fuel
1. Explain why the lift and duration of the camshaft de- b. Stop throttle-plate icing
termines the power characteristics of the engine. c. Cause turbulence in the intake runner
2. Describe the operation of a hydraulic lifter. d. Stop the fuel from freezing at low
temperatures
3. Describe how to adjust hydraulic lifters.
10. Mufflers on catalytic converter equipped vehicles last
longer because
RED SEAL CERTIFICATION- a. The converter reduces the exhaust volume
TYPE QUESTIONS b. Converters require water to function
c. The heat from the converter reduces water in
1. The camshaft makes _____ for every revolution of the the muffler
crankshaft. d. They are made of high temperature steel
a. One-quarter revolution compatible with the converter
b. One-half revolution
c. One revolution
d. Two revolutions