Computer

Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Ref Page Chapter 1: Introduction to Computers Slide 1/17

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Learning Objectives

In this chapter you will learn about:

Computer
Data processing
Characteristic features of computers
Computers evolution to their present form
Computer generations
Characteristic features of each computer generation

Ref Page 01 Chapter 1: Introduction to Computers Slide 2/17

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Computer

The word computer comes from the word compute,

which means, to calculate

Thereby, a computer is an electronic device that can

perform arithmetic operations at high speed

A computer is also called a data processor because it can

store, process, and retrieve data whenever desired

Ref Page 01 Chapter 1: Introduction to Computers Slide 3/17

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Data Processing

The activity of processing data using a computer is called

data processing
Data

Capture Data

Manipulate Data

Output Results

Information
Data is raw material used as input and information is
processed data obtained as output of data processing

Ref Page 01 Chapter 1: Introduction to Computers Slide 4/17

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Characteristics of Computers

1) Automatic: Given a job, computer can work on it

automatically without human interventions

2) Speed: Computer can perform data processing jobs

very fast, usually measured in microseconds (10-6),
nanoseconds (10-9), and picoseconds (10-12)

3) Accuracy: Accuracy of a computer is consistently high

and the degree of its accuracy depends upon its design.
Computer errors caused due to incorrect input data or
unreliable programs are often referred to as Garbage-
In-Garbage-Out (GIGO)

(Continued on next slide)

Ref Page 02 Chapter 1: Introduction to Computers Slide 5/17

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Characteristics of Computers
(Continued from previous slide..)

4) Diligence: Computer is free from monotony, tiredness,

and lack of concentration. It can continuously work for
hours without creating any error and without grumbling

5) Versatility: Computer is capable of performing almost

any task, if the task can be reduced to a finite series of
logical steps

6) Power of Remembering: Computer can store and

recall any amount of information because of its
secondary storage capability. It forgets or looses certain
information only when it is asked to do so

(Continued on next slide)

Ref Page 02 Chapter 1: Introduction to Computers Slide 6/17

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Characteristics of Computers
(Continued from previous slide..)

7) No I.Q.: A computer does only what it is programmed

to do. It cannot take its own decision in this regard

8) No Feelings: Computers are devoid of emotions. Their

judgement is based on the instructions given to them in
the form of programs that are written by us (human
beings)

(Continued on next slide)

Ref Page 03 Chapter 1: Introduction to Computers Slide 7/17

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Evolution of Computers

Blaise Pascal invented the first mechanical adding

machine in 1642
Baron Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz invented the first
calculator for multiplication in 1671
Keyboard machines originated in the United States
around 1880
Around 1880, Herman Hollerith came up with the concept
of punched cards that were extensively used as input
media until late 1970s

Ref Page 03 Chapter 1: Introduction to Computers Slide 8/17

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Evolution of Computers
(Continued from previous slide..)

Charles Babbage is considered to be the father of

modern digital computers

He designed Difference Engine in 1822

He designed a fully automatic analytical engine in

1842 for performing basic arithmetic functions

His efforts established a number of principles that

are fundamental to the design of any digital
computer

(Continued on next slide)

Ref Page 03 Chapter 1: Introduction to Computers Slide 9/17

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Some Well Known Early Computers

The Mark I Computer (1937-44)

The Atanasoff-Berry Computer (1939-42)
The ENIAC (1943-46)
The EDVAC (1946-52)
The EDSAC (1947-49)
Manchester Mark I (1948)
The UNIVAC I (1951)

Ref Page 03 Chapter 1: Introduction to Computers Slide 10/17

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Computer Generations

Generation in computer talk is a step in technology. It

provides a framework for the growth of computer industry

Originally it was used to distinguish between various

hardware technologies, but now it has been extended to
include both hardware and software

Till today, there are five computer generations

(Continued on next slide)

Ref Page 05 Chapter 1: Introduction to Computers Slide 11/17

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Computer Generations
(Continued from previous slide..)

Key hardware Key software Key Some

Generation
representative
(Period) technologies technologies characteristics systems

First Vacuum tubes Machine and Bulky in size ENIAC

(1942-1955) Electromagnetic assembly Highly unreliable EDVAC
relay memory languages Limited commercial EDSAC
Punched cards Stored program use and costly UNIVAC I
secondary storage concept Difficult commercial IBM 701
Mostly scientific production
applications Difficult to use
Second Transistors Batch operating Faster, smaller, more Honeywell 400
(1955-1964) Magnetic cores system reliable and easier to IBM 7030
memory High-level program than previous CDC 1604
Magnetic tapes programming generation systems
UNIVAC LARC
Disks for secondary languages Commercial production
storage Scientific and was still difficult and
commercial costly
applications

(Continued on next slide)

Ref Page 13 Chapter 1: Introduction to Computers Slide 12/17

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Computer Generations
(Continued from previous slide..)

Generation Key hardware Key software Key Some rep.

(Period) technologies technologies characteristics systems

Third ICs with SSI and Timesharing Faster, smaller, more IBM 360/370
(1964-1975) MSI technologies operating reliable, easier and PDP-8
Larger magnetic system cheaper to produce PDP-11
cores memory Standardization Commercially, easier CDC 6600
Larger capacity of high-level to use, and easier to
disks and programming upgrade than
magnetic tapes languages previous generation
secondary Unbundling of systems
storage software from Scientific, commercial
Minicomputers; hardware and interactive on-
upward line applications
compatible family
of computers

(Continued on next slide)

Ref Page 13 Chapter 1: Introduction to Computers Slide 13/17

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Computer Generations
(Continued from previous slide..)

Generation Key hardware Key software Key Some rep.

(Period) Technologies technologies characteristics systems

Fourth ICs with VLSI Operating systems for Small, affordable, IBM PC and
(1975-1989) technology PCs with GUI and reliable, and easy its clones
Microprocessors; multiple windows on a to use PCs Apple II
semiconductor memory single terminal screen More powerful TRS-80
Larger capacity hard Multiprocessing OS and reliable VAX 9000
disks as in-built with concurrent mainframe
programming systems and CRAY-1
secondary storage
languages supercomputers CRAY-2
Magnetic tapes and
floppy disks as portable UNIX operating system Totally general CRAY-X/MP
storage media with C programming purpose machines
Personal computers language Easier to produce
Supercomputers based Object-oriented design commercially
on parallel vector and programming Easier to upgrade
processing and PC, Network-based, Rapid software
symmetric and supercomputing development
multiprocessing applications possible
technologies
Spread of high-speed
computer networks

(Continued on next slide)

Ref Page 13 Chapter 1: Introduction to Computers Slide 14/17

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Computer Generations
(Continued from previous slide..)

Generation Key hardware Key software Key Some rep.

(Period) technologies technologies characteristics systems

Fifth ICs with ULSI Micro-kernel based, Portable computers IBM notebooks
(1989- technology multithreading, Powerful, cheaper, Pentium PCs
Present) Larger capacity distributed OS reliable, and easier SUN
main memory, Parallel to use desktop Workstations
hard disks with programming machines IBM SP/2
RAID support libraries like MPI & Powerful
PVM SGI Origin 2000
Optical disks as supercomputers
portable read-only JAVA PARAM 10000
High uptime due to
storage media World Wide Web hot-pluggable
Notebooks, Multimedia, components
powerful desktop Internet Totally general
PCs and applications purpose machines
workstations More complex Easier to produce
Powerful servers, supercomputing commercially,
supercomputers applications easier to upgrade
Internet Rapid software
Cluster computing development
possible

Ref Page 13 Chapter 1: Introduction to Computers Slide 15/17

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Electronic
Electronic Devices
Devices Used
Used in
in Computers
Computers of
of Different
Different Generations
Generations

(a) A Vacuum Tube (b) A Transistor (c) An IC Chip

Ref Page 07 Chapter 1: Introduction to Computers Slide 16/17

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Key Words/Phrases

Computer Integrated Circuit (IC)

Computer generations Large Scale Integration (VLSI)
Computer Supported Cooperative Medium Scale Integration (MSI)
Working (CSCW) Microprocessor
Data Personal Computer (PC)
Data processing Second-generation computers
Data processor Small Scale Integration (SSI)
First-generation computers Stored program concept
Fourth-generation computers Third-generation computers
Garbage-in-garbage-out (GIGO) Transistor
Graphical User Interface (GUI) Ultra Large Scale Integration
Groupware (ULSI)
Information Vacuum tubes

Ref Page 12 Chapter 1: Introduction to Computers Slide 17/17

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Ref. Page Chapter 2: Basic Computer Organization Slide 1/16

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Learning Objectives

In this chapter you will learn about:

Basic operations performed by all types of computer
systems
Basic organization of a computer system
Input unit and its functions
Output unit and its functions
Storage unit and its functions
Types of storage used in a computer system

(Continued on next slide)

Ref. Page 15 Chapter 2: Basic Computer Organization Slide 2/16

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Learning Objectives
(Continued from previous slide..)

Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)

Control Unit (CU)

Central Processing Unit (CPU)

Computer as a system

Ref. Page 15 Chapter 2: Basic Computer Organization Slide 3/16

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

The Five Basic Operations of a Computer System

Inputting. The process of entering data and instructions

into the computer system

Storing. Saving data and instructions to make them

readily available for initial or additional processing
whenever required

Processing. Performing arithmetic operations (add,

subtract, multiply, divide, etc.) or logical operations
(comparisons like equal to, less than, greater than, etc.)
on data to convert them into useful information

(Continued on next slide)

Ref. Page 15 Chapter 2: Basic Computer Organization Slide 4/16

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

The Five Basic Operations of a Computer System

Outputting. The process of producing useful information

or results for the user such as a printed report or visual
display

Controlling. Directing the manner and sequence in which

all of the above operations are performed

Ref. Page 15 Chapter 2: Basic Computer Organization Slide 5/16

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Basic Organization of a Computer System

Storage Unit

Secondary
Storage

Program Input Output Information

and Unit Unit (Results)
Data Primary
Storage

Control
Unit
Indicates flow of
instructions and data
Arithmetic Indicates the control
Logic Unit exercised by the
control unit
Central Processing Unit (CPU)

Ref. Page 16 Chapter 2: Basic Computer Organization Slide 6/16

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Input Unit

An input unit of a computer system performs the

following functions:

1. It accepts (or reads) instructions and data from outside

world
2. It converts these instructions and data in computer
acceptable form
3. It supplies the converted instructions and data to the
computer system for further processing

Ref. Page 16 Chapter 2: Basic Computer Organization Slide 7/16

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Output Unit

An output unit of a computer system performs the

following functions:

1. It accepts the results produced by the computer, which

are in coded form and hence, cannot be easily
understood by us
2. It converts these coded results to human acceptable
(readable) form
3. It supplies the converted results to outside world

Ref. Page 16 Chapter 2: Basic Computer Organization Slide 8/16

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Storage Unit

The storage unit of a computer system holds (or stores)

the following :

1. Data and instructions required for processing (received

from input devices)
2. Intermediate results of processing
3. Final results of processing, before they are released to
an output device

Ref. Page 17 Chapter 2: Basic Computer Organization Slide 9/16

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Two Types of Storage

Primary storage

Used to hold running program instructions

Used to hold data, intermediate results, and
results of ongoing processing of job(s)
Fast in operation
Small Capacity
Expensive
Volatile (looses data on power dissipation)

(Continued on next slide)

Ref. Page 17 Chapter 2: Basic Computer Organization Slide 10/16

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Two Types of Storage

(Continued from previous slide..)

Secondary storage

Used to hold stored program instructions

Used to hold data and information of stored jobs
Slower than primary storage
Large Capacity
Lot cheaper that primary storage
Retains data even without power

Ref. Page 17 Chapter 2: Basic Computer Organization Slide 11/16

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)

Arithmetic Logic Unit of a computer system is the place

where the actual executions of instructions takes place during
processing operation

Ref. Page 18 Chapter 2: Basic Computer Organization Slide 12/16

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Control Unit (CU)

Control Unit of a computer system manages and coordinates

the operations of all other components of the computer
system

Ref. Page 18 Chapter 2: Basic Computer Organization Slide 13/16

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Central Processing Unit (CPU)

Arithmetic Central
Logic Unit Control Unit = Processing
+ (CU)
(ALU) Unit (CPU)

It is the brain of a computer system

It is responsible for controlling the operations of

all other units of a computer system

Ref. Page 18 Chapter 2: Basic Computer Organization Slide 14/16

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

The System Concept

A system has following three characteristics:

1. A system has more than one element

2. All elements of a system are logically related
3. All elements of a system are controlled in a manner to
achieve the system goal

A computer is a system as it comprises of integrated

components (input unit, output unit, storage unit, and CPU)
that work together to perform the steps called for in the
executing program

Ref. Page 18 Chapter 2: Basic Computer Organization Slide 15/16

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Key Words/Phrases

Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) Output interface

Auxiliary storage Output unit
Central Processing Unit (CPU) Outputting
Computer system Primate storage
Control Unit (CU) Processing
Controlling Secondary storage
Input interface Storage unit
Input unit Storing
Inputting System
Main memory

Ref. Page 19 Chapter 2: Basic Computer Organization Slide 16/16

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Ref Page Chapter 3: Number Systems Slide 1/40

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Learning Objectives

In this chapter you will learn about:

Non-positional number system

Positional number system
Decimal number system
Binary number system
Octal number system
Hexadecimal number system

(Continued on next slide)

Ref Page 20 Chapter 3: Number Systems Slide 2/40

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Learning Objectives
(Continued from previous slide..)

Convert a numbers base

Another base to decimal base
Decimal base to another base
Some base to another base
Shortcut methods for converting
Binary to octal number
Octal to binary number
Binary to hexadecimal number
Hexadecimal to binary number
Fractional numbers in binary number system

Ref Page 20 Chapter 3: Number Systems Slide 3/40

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Number Systems

Two types of number systems are:

Non-positional number systems

Positional number systems

Ref Page 20 Chapter 3: Number Systems Slide 4/40

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Non-positional Number Systems

Characteristics
Use symbols such as I for 1, II for 2, III for 3, IIII
for 4, IIIII for 5, etc
Each symbol represents the same value regardless
of its position in the number
The symbols are simply added to find out the value
of a particular number

Difficulty
It is difficult to perform arithmetic with such a
number system

Ref Page 20 Chapter 3: Number Systems Slide 5/40

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Positional Number Systems

Characteristics

Use only a few symbols called digits

These symbols represent different values depending

on the position they occupy in the number

(Continued on next slide)

Ref Page 20 Chapter 3: Number Systems Slide 6/40

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Positional Number Systems

(Continued from previous slide..)

The value of each digit is determined by:

1. The digit itself
2. The position of the digit in the number
3. The base of the number system

(base = total number of digits in the number

system)

The maximum value of a single digit is

always equal to one less than the value of
the base

Ref Page 21 Chapter 3: Number Systems Slide 7/40

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Decimal Number System

Characteristics
A positional number system
Has 10 symbols or digits (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7,
8, 9). Hence, its base = 10
The maximum value of a single digit is 9 (one
less than the value of the base)
Each position of a digit represents a specific
power of the base (10)
We use this number system in our day-to-day
life

(Continued on next slide)

Ref Page 21 Chapter 3: Number Systems Slide 8/40

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Decimal Number System

(Continued from previous slide..)

Example

258610 = (2 x 103) + (5 x 102) + (8 x 101) + (6 x 100)

= 2000 + 500 + 80 + 6

Ref Page 21 Chapter 3: Number Systems Slide 9/40

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Binary Number System

Characteristics
A positional number system
Has only 2 symbols or digits (0 and 1). Hence its
base = 2
The maximum value of a single digit is 1 (one less
than the value of the base)
Each position of a digit represents a specific power
of the base (2)
This number system is used in computers

(Continued on next slide)

Ref Page 21 Chapter 3: Number Systems Slide 10/40

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Binary Number System

(Continued from previous slide..)

Example

101012 = (1 x 24) + (0 x 23) + (1 x 22) + (0 x 21) x (1 x 20)

= 16 + 0 + 4 + 0 + 1

= 2110

Ref Page 21 Chapter 3: Number Systems Slide 11/40

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Representing Numbers in Different Number
Systems

In order to be specific about which number system we

are referring to, it is a common practice to indicate the
base as a subscript. Thus, we write:

101012 = 2110

Ref Page 21 Chapter 3: Number Systems Slide 12/40

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Bit

Bit stands for binary digit

A bit in computer terminology means either a 0 or a 1

A binary number consisting of n bits is called an n-bit

number

Ref Page 22 Chapter 3: Number Systems Slide 13/40

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Octal Number System

Characteristics
A positional number system
Has total 8 symbols or digits (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7).
Hence, its base = 8
The maximum value of a single digit is 7 (one less
than the value of the base
Each position of a digit represents a specific power of
the base (8)

(Continued on next slide)

Ref Page 22 Chapter 3: Number Systems Slide 14/40

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Octal Number System

(Continued from previous slide..)

Since there are only 8 digits, 3 bits (23 = 8) are

sufficient to represent any octal number in binary

Example

20578 = (2 x 83) + (0 x 82) + (5 x 81) + (7 x 80)

= 1024 + 0 + 40 + 7

= 107110

Ref Page 22 Chapter 3: Number Systems Slide 15/40

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Hexadecimal Number System

Characteristics
A positional number system
Has total 16 symbols or digits (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7,
8, 9, A, B, C, D, E, F). Hence its base = 16
The symbols A, B, C, D, E and F represent the
decimal values 10, 11, 12, 13, 14 and 15
respectively
The maximum value of a single digit is 15 (one less
than the value of the base)

(Continued on next slide)

Ref Page 22 Chapter 3: Number Systems Slide 16/40

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Hexadecimal Number System

(Continued from previous slide..)

Each position of a digit represents a specific power

of the base (16)
Since there are only 16 digits, 4 bits (24 = 16) are
sufficient to represent any hexadecimal number in
binary

Example
1AF16 = (1 x 162) + (A x 161) + (F x 160)
= 1 x 256 + 10 x 16 + 15 x 1
= 256 + 160 + 15
= 43110

Ref Page 22 Chapter 3: Number Systems Slide 17/40

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Converting a Number of Another Base to a

Decimal Number

Method

Step 1: Determine the column (positional) value of

each digit

Step 2: Multiply the obtained column values by the

digits in the corresponding columns

Step 3: Calculate the sum of these products

(Continued on next slide)

Ref Page 23 Chapter 3: Number Systems Slide 18/40

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Converting a Number of Another Base to a

Decimal Number
(Continued from previous slide..)

Example
47068 = ?10
Common
values
multiplied
47068 = 4 x 83 + 7 x 82 + 0 x 81 + 6 x 80 by the
corresponding
= 4 x 512 + 7 x 64 + 0 + 6 x 1 digits
= 2048 + 448 + 0 + 6 Sum of these
products
= 250210

Ref Page 23 Chapter 3: Number Systems Slide 19/40

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Converting a Decimal Number to a Number of

Another Base

Division-Remainder Method
Step 1: Divide the decimal number to be converted by
the value of the new base

Step 2: Record the remainder from Step 1 as the

rightmost digit (least significant digit) of the
new base number

Step 3: Divide the quotient of the previous divide by the

new base

(Continued on next slide)

Ref Page 25 Chapter 3: Number Systems Slide 20/40

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Converting a Decimal Number to a Number of

Another Base
(Continued from previous slide..)

Step 4: Record the remainder from Step 3 as the next

digit (to the left) of the new base number

Repeat Steps 3 and 4, recording remainders from right to

left, until the quotient becomes zero in Step 3

Note that the last remainder thus obtained will be the most
significant digit (MSD) of the new base number

(Continued on next slide)

Ref Page 25 Chapter 3: Number Systems Slide 21/40

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Converting a Decimal Number to a Number of

Another Base
(Continued from previous slide..)

Example
95210 = ?8

Solution:
8 952 Remainder
119 s 0
14 7
1 6
0 1

Hence, 95210 = 16708

Ref Page 26 Chapter 3: Number Systems Slide 22/40

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Converting a Number of Some Base to a Number

of Another Base

Method

Step 1: Convert the original number to a decimal

number (base 10)

Step 2: Convert the decimal number so obtained to

the new base number

(Continued on next slide)

Ref Page 27 Chapter 3: Number Systems Slide 23/40

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Converting a Number of Some Base to a Number

of Another Base
(Continued from previous slide..)

Example
5456 = ?4

Solution:
Step 1: Convert from base 6 to base 10

5456 = 5 x 62 + 4 x 61 + 5 x 60
= 5 x 36 + 4 x 6 + 5 x 1
= 180 + 24 + 5
= 20910

(Continued on next slide)

Ref Page 27 Chapter 3: Number Systems Slide 24/40

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Converting a Number of Some Base to a Number

of Another Base
(Continued from previous slide..)

Step 2: Convert 20910 to base 4

4 209 Remainders
52 1
13 0
3 1
0 3

Hence, 20910 = 31014

So, 5456 = 20910 = 31014

Thus, 5456 = 31014

Ref Page 28 Chapter 3: Number Systems Slide 25/40

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Shortcut Method for Converting a Binary Number

to its Equivalent Octal Number

Method
Step 1: Divide the digits into groups of three starting
from the right

Step 2: Convert each group of three binary digits to

one octal digit using the method of binary to
decimal conversion

(Continued on next slide)

Ref Page 29 Chapter 3: Number Systems Slide 26/40

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Shortcut Method for Converting a Binary Number

to its Equivalent Octal Number
(Continued from previous slide..)

Example
11010102 = ?8

Step 1: Divide the binary digits into groups of 3 starting

from right

001 101 010

Step 2: Convert each group into one octal digit

0012 = 0 x 22 + 0 x 21 + 1 x 20 = 1
1012 = 1 x 22 + 0 x 21 + 1 x 20 = 5
0102 = 0 x 22 + 1 x 21 + 0 x 20 = 2

Hence, 11010102 = 1528

Ref Page 29 Chapter 3: Number Systems Slide 27/40

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Shortcut Method for Converting an Octal

Number to Its Equivalent Binary Number

Method
Step 1: Convert each octal digit to a 3 digit binary
number (the octal digits may be treated as
decimal for this conversion)

Step 2: Combine all the resulting binary groups

(of 3 digits each) into a single binary
number

(Continued on next slide)

Ref Page 30 Chapter 3: Number Systems Slide 28/40

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Shortcut Method for Converting an Octal

Number to Its Equivalent Binary Number
(Continued from previous slide..)

Example
5628 = ?2

Step 1: Convert each octal digit to 3 binary digits

58 = 1012, 68 = 1102, 28 = 0102

Step 2: Combine the binary groups

5628 = 101 110 010
5 6 2

Hence, 5628 = 1011100102

Ref Page 30 Chapter 3: Number Systems Slide 29/40

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Shortcut Method for Converting a Binary

Number to its Equivalent Hexadecimal Number

Method

Step 1: Divide the binary digits into groups of four

starting from the right

Step 2: Combine each group of four binary digits to

one hexadecimal digit

(Continued on next slide)

Ref Page 30 Chapter 3: Number Systems Slide 30/40

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Shortcut Method for Converting a Binary

Number to its Equivalent Hexadecimal Number
(Continued from previous slide..)

Example

1111012 = ?16

Step 1: Divide the binary digits into groups of four

starting from the right

0011 1101

Step 2: Convert each group into a hexadecimal digit

00112 = 0 x 23 + 0 x 22 + 1 x 21 + 1 x 20 = 310 = 316
11012 = 1 x 23 + 1 x 22 + 0 x 21 + 1 x 20 = 310 = D16

Hence, 1111012 = 3D16

Ref Page 31 Chapter 3: Number Systems Slide 31/40

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Shortcut Method for Converting a Hexadecimal

Number to its Equivalent Binary Number

Method

Step 1: Convert the decimal equivalent of each

hexadecimal digit to a 4 digit binary
number

Step 2: Combine all the resulting binary groups

(of 4 digits each) in a single binary number

(Continued on next slide)

Ref Page 31 Chapter 3: Number Systems Slide 32/40

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Shortcut Method for Converting a Hexadecimal

Number to its Equivalent Binary Number
(Continued from previous slide..)

Example

2AB16 = ?2

Step 1: Convert each hexadecimal digit to a 4 digit

binary number

216 = 210 = 00102

A16 = 1010 = 10102
B16 = 1110 = 10112

Ref Page 32 Chapter 3: Number Systems Slide 33/40

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Shortcut Method for Converting a Hexadecimal

Number to its Equivalent Binary Number
(Continued from previous slide..)

Step 2: Combine the binary groups

2AB16 = 0010 1010 1011
2 A B

Hence, 2AB16 = 0010101010112

Ref Page 32 Chapter 3: Number Systems Slide 34/40

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Fractional Numbers

Fractional numbers are formed same way as decimal

number system
In general, a number in a number system with base b
would be written as:
an an-1 a0 . a-1 a-2 a-m

And would be interpreted to mean:

an x bn + an-1 x bn-1 + + a0 x b0 + a-1 x b-1 + a-2 x b-2 +
+ a-m x b-m

The symbols an, an-1, , a-m in above representation

should be one of the b symbols allowed in the number
system

Ref Page 33 Chapter 3: Number Systems Slide 35/40

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Formation of Fractional Numbers in

Binary Number System (Example)

Binary Point

Position 4 3 2 1 0 . -1 -2 -3 -4

Position Value 24 23 22 21 20 2-1 2-2 2-3 2-4

Quantity 16 8 4 2 1 1/
2
1/
4
1/
8
1/
16
Represented

(Continued on next slide)

Ref Page 33 Chapter 3: Number Systems Slide 36/40

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Formation of Fractional Numbers in

Binary Number System (Example)
(Continued from previous slide..)

Example

110.1012 = 1 x 22 + 1 x 21 + 0 x 20 + 1 x 2-1 + 0 x 2-2 + 1 x 2-3

= 4 + 2 + 0 + 0.5 + 0 + 0.125
= 6.62510

Ref Page 33 Chapter 3: Number Systems Slide 37/40

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Formation of Fractional Numbers in

Octal Number System (Example)

Octal Point

Position 3 2 1 0 . -1 -2 -3

Position Value 83 82 81 80 8-1 8-2 8-3

Quantity 512 64 8 1 1/
8
1/
64
1/
512
Represented

(Continued on next slide)

Ref Page 33 Chapter 3: Number Systems Slide 38/40

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Formation of Fractional Numbers in

Octal Number System (Example)
(Continued from previous slide..)

Example

127.548 = 1 x 82 + 2 x 81 + 7 x 80 + 5 x 8-1 + 4 x 8-2

= 64 + 16 + 7 + 5/8 + 4/64
= 87 + 0.625 + 0.0625
= 87.687510

Ref Page 33 Chapter 3: Number Systems Slide 39/40

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Key Words/Phrases

Base Least Significant Digit (LSD)

Binary number system Memory dump
Binary point Most Significant Digit (MSD)
Bit Non-positional number
Decimal number system system
Division-Remainder technique Number system
Fractional numbers Octal number system
Hexadecimal number system Positional number system

Ref Page 34 Chapter 3: Number Systems Slide 40/40

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Ref. Page Chapter 4: Computer Codes Slide 1/30

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Learning Objectives

In this chapter you will learn about:

Computer data
Computer codes: representation of data in binary
Most commonly used computer codes
Collating sequence

Ref. Page 36 Chapter 4: Computer Codes Slide 2/30

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Data Types

Numeric Data consists of only numbers 0, 1, 2, , 9

Alphabetic Data consists of only the letters A, B, C,
, Z, in both uppercase and lowercase, and blank
character
Alphanumeric Data is a string of symbols where a
symbol may be one of the letters A, B, C, , Z, in
either uppercase or lowercase, or one of the digits 0,
1, 2, , 9, or a special character, such as + - * / , . (
) = etc.

Ref. Page 36 Chapter 4: Computer Codes Slide 3/30

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Computer Codes

Computer codes are used for internal representation of

data in computers
As computers use binary numbers for internal data
representation, computer codes use binary coding
schemes
In binary coding, every symbol that appears in the data
is represented by a group of bits
The group of bits used to represent a symbol is called a
byte

(Continued on next slide)

Ref. Page 36 Chapter 4: Computer Codes Slide 4/30

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Computer Codes
(Continued from previous slide..)

As most modern coding schemes use 8 bits to represent

a symbol, the term byte is often used to mean a group
of 8 bits
Commonly used computer codes are BCD, EBCDIC, and
ASCII

Ref. Page 36 Chapter 4: Computer Codes Slide 5/30

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

BCD

BCD stands for Binary Coded Decimal

It is one of the early computer codes
It uses 6 bits to represent a symbol
It can represent 64 (26) different characters

Ref. Page 36 Chapter 4: Computer Codes Slide 6/30

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Coding of Alphabetic and Numeric

Characters in BCD
BCD Code Octal BCD Code Octal
Char Char Zone Digit
Zone Digit
A 11 0001 61 N 10 0101 45
B 11 0010 62 O 10 0110 46
C 11 0011 63 P 10 0111 47
D 11 0100 64 Q 10 1000 50
E 11 0101 65 R 10 1001 51
F 11 0110 66 S 01 0010 22
G 11 0111 67 T 01 0011 23
H 11 1000 70 U 01 0100 24
I 11 1001 71 V 01 0101 25
J 10 0001 41 W 01 0110 26
K 10 0010 42 X 01 0111 27
L 10 0011 43 Y 01 1000 30
M 10 0100 44 Z 01 1001 31
(Continued on next slide)

Ref. Page 37 Chapter 4: Computer Codes Slide 7/30

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Coding of Alphabetic and Numeric

Characters in BCD
(Continued from previous slide..)

BCD Code Octal

Character Equivalent
Zone Digit
1 00 0001 01
2 00 0010 02
3 00 0011 03
4 00 0100 04
5 00 0101 05
6 00 0110 06
7 00 0111 07
8 00 1000 10
9 00 1001 11
0 00 1010 12

Ref. Page 37 Chapter 4: Computer Codes Slide 8/30

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

BCD Coding Scheme (Example 1)

Example
Show the binary digits used to record the word BASE in BCD

Solution:
B = 110010 in BCD binary notation
A = 110001 in BCD binary notation
S = 010010 in BCD binary notation
E = 110101 in BCD binary notation

So the binary digits

110010 110001 010010 110101

B A S E

will record the word BASE in BCD

Ref. Page 38 Chapter 4: Computer Codes Slide 9/30

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

BCD Coding Scheme (Example 2)

Example

Using octal notation, show BCD coding for the word DIGIT

Solution:
D = 64 in BCD octal notation
I = 71 in BCD octal notation
G = 67 in BCD octal notation
I = 71 in BCD octal notation
T = 23 in BCD octal notation

Hence, BCD coding for the word DIGIT in octal notation will be

64 71 67 71 23
D I G I T

Ref. Page 38 Chapter 4: Computer Codes Slide 10/30

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

EBCDIC

EBCDIC stands for Extended Binary Coded Decimal

Interchange Code
It uses 8 bits to represent a symbol
It can represent 256 (28) different characters

Ref. Page 38 Chapter 4: Computer Codes Slide 11/30

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Coding of Alphabetic and Numeric

Characters in EBCDIC
EBCDIC Code EBCDIC Code
Hex Hex
Char Digit Zone Char
Digit Zone
A 1100 0001 C1
N 1101 0101 D5
B 1100 0010 C2 O 1101 0110 D6
C 1100 0011 C3 P 1101 0111 D7
D 1100 0100 C4 Q 1101 1000 D8
E 1100 0101 C5 R 1101 1001 D9
F 1100 0110 C6 S 1110 0010 E2
G 1100 0111 C7 T 1110 0011 E3
H 1100 1000 C8 U 1110 0100 E4
I 1100 1001 C9 V 1110 0101 E5

J 1101 0001 D1 W 1110 0110 E6

K 1101 0010 D2 X 1110 0111 E7

L 1101 0011 D3 Y 1110 1000 E8

Z 1110 1001 E9
M 1101 0100 D4
(Continued on next slide)

Ref. Page 39 Chapter 4: Computer Codes Slide 12/30

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Coding of Alphabetic and Numeric

Characters in EBCDIC
(Continued from previous slide..)

EBCDIC Code Hexadecima

Character Digit Zone l Equivalent
0 1111 0000 F0
1 1111 0001 F1
2 1111 0010 F2
3 1111 0011 F3
4 1111 0100 F4
5 1111 0101 F5
6 1111 0110 F6
7 1111 0111 F7
8 1111 1000 F8
9 1111 1001 F9

Ref. Page 39 Chapter 4: Computer Codes Slide 13/30

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Zoned Decimal Numbers

Zoned decimal numbers are used to represent numeric

values (positive, negative, or unsigned) in EBCDIC
A sign indicator (C for plus, D for minus, and F for
unsigned) is used in the zone position of the rightmost
digit
Zones for all other digits remain as F, the zone value
for numeric characters in EBCDIC
In zoned format, there is only one digit per byte

Ref. Page 39 Chapter 4: Computer Codes Slide 14/30

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Examples Zoned Decimal Numbers

Numeric Value EBCDIC Sign Indicator

345 F3F4F5 F for unsigned

+345 F3F4C5 C for positive

-345 F3F4D5 D for negative

Ref. Page 40 Chapter 4: Computer Codes Slide 15/30

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Packed Decimal Numbers

Packed decimal numbers are formed from zoned decimal

numbers in the following manner:

Step 1: The zone half and the digit half of

the rightmost byte are reversed

Step 2: All remaining zones are dropped out

Packed decimal format requires fewer number of bytes

than zoned decimal format for representing a number

Numbers represented in packed decimal format can be

used for arithmetic operations

Ref. Page 39 Chapter 4: Computer Codes Slide 16/30

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Examples of Conversion of Zoned

Decimal Numbers to Packed Decimal Format

Numeric Value EBCDIC Sign Indicator

345 F3F4F5 345F
+345 F3F4C5 345C
-345 F3F4D5 345D
3456 F3F4F5F6 03456F

Ref. Page 40 Chapter 4: Computer Codes Slide 17/30

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

EBCDIC Coding Scheme

Example

Using binary notation, write EBCDIC coding for the word BIT. How
many bytes are required for this representation?

Solution:
B = 1100 0010 in EBCDIC binary notation
I = 1100 1001 in EBCDIC binary notation
T = 1110 0011 in EBCDIC binary notation

Hence, EBCDIC coding for the word BIT in binary notation will be

11000010 11001001 11100011

B I T

3 bytes will be required for this representation because each letter

requires 1 byte (or 8 bits)

Ref. Page 40 Chapter 4: Computer Codes Slide 18/30

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

ASCII

ASCII stands for American Standard Code for

Information Interchange.

ASCII is of two types ASCII-7 and ASCII-8

ASCII-7 uses 7 bits to represent a symbol and can

represent 128 (27) different characters

ASCII-8 uses 8 bits to represent a symbol and can

represent 256 (28) different characters

First 128 characters in ASCII-7 and ASCII-8 are same

Ref. Page 40 Chapter 4: Computer Codes Slide 19/30

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Coding of Numeric and

Alphabetic Characters in ASCII

ASCII-7 / ASCII-8 Hexadecimal

Character
Zone Digit Equivalent
0 0011 0000 30
1 0011 0001 31
2 0011 0010 32
3 0011 0011 33
4 0011 0100 34
5 0011 0101 35
6 0011 0110 36
7 0011 0111 37
8 0011 1000 38
9 0011 1001 39

(Continued on next slide)

Ref. Page 42 Chapter 4: Computer Codes Slide 20/30

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Coding of Numeric and

Alphabetic Characters in ASCII
(Continued from previous slide..)

ASCII-7 / ASCII-8 Hexadecimal

Character
Zone Digit Equivalent

A 0100 0001 41
B 0100 0010 42
C 0100 0011 43
D 0100 0100 44
E 0100 0101 45
F 0100 0110 46
G 0100 0111 47
H 0100 1000 48
I 0100 1001 49
J 0100 1010 4A
K 0100 1011 4B
L 0100 1100 4C
M 0100 1101 4D
(Continued on next slide)

Ref. Page 42 Chapter 4: Computer Codes Slide 21/30

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Coding of Numeric and

Alphabetic Characters in ASCII
(Continued from previous slide..)

ASCII-7 / ASCII-8 Hexadecimal

Character
Zone Digit Equivalent
N 0100 1110 4E
O 0100 1111 4F
P 0101 0000 50
Q 0101 0001 51
R 0101 0010 52
S 0101 0011 53
T 0101 0100 54
U 0101 0101 55
V 0101 0110 56
W 0101 0111 57
X 0101 1000 58
Y 0101 1001 59
Z 0101 1010 5A

Ref. Page 42 Chapter 4: Computer Codes Slide 22/30

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

ASCII-7 Coding Scheme

Example

Write binary coding for the word BOY in ASCII-7. How many bytes are required
for this representation?

Solution:

B = 1000010 in ASCII-7 binary notation

O = 1001111 in ASCII-7 binary notation
Y = 1011001 in ASCII-7 binary notation

Hence, binary coding for the word BOY in ASCII-7 will be

1000010 1001111 1011001

B O Y

Since each character in ASCII-7 requires one byte for its representation and
there are 3 characters in the word BOY, 3 bytes will be required for this
representation

Ref. Page 43 Chapter 4: Computer Codes Slide 23/30

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

ASCII-8 Coding Scheme

Example

Write binary coding for the word SKY in ASCII-8. How many bytes are
required for this representation?

Solution:

S = 01010011 in ASCII-8 binary notation

K = 01001011 in ASCII-8 binary notation
Y = 01011001 in ASCII-8 binary notation

Hence, binary coding for the word SKY in ASCII-8 will be

01010011 01001011 01011001

S K Y

Since each character in ASCII-8 requires one byte for its representation
and there are 3 characters in the word SKY, 3 bytes will be required for
this representation

Ref. Page 43 Chapter 4: Computer Codes Slide 24/30

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Unicode

Why Unicode:
No single encoding system supports all languages
Different encoding systems conflict

Unicode features:
Provides a consistent way of encoding multilingual
plain text
Defines codes for characters used in all major
languages of the world
Defines codes for special characters, mathematical
symbols, technical symbols, and diacritics

Ref. Page 44 Chapter 4: Computer Codes Slide 25/30

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
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Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Unicode

Unicode features (continued):

Capacity to encode as many as a million characters
Assigns each character a unique numeric value and
name
Reserves a part of the code space for private use
Affords simplicity and consistency of ASCII, even
corresponding characters have same code
Specifies an algorithm for the presentation of text
with bi-directional behavior
Encoding Forms
UTF-8, UTF-16, UTF-32

Ref. Page 44 Chapter 4: Computer Codes Slide 26/30

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
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Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Collating Sequence

Collating sequence defines the assigned ordering

among the characters used by a computer

Collating sequence may vary, depending on the

type of computer code used by a particular
computer

In most computers, collating sequences follow the

following rules:

1. Letters are considered in alphabetic order

(A < B < C < Z)

2. Digits are considered in numeric order

(0 < 1 < 2 < 9)

Ref. Page 46 Chapter 4: Computer Codes Slide 27/30

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
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Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Sorting in EBCDIC

Example

Suppose a computer uses EBCDIC as its internal

representation of characters. In which order will this
computer sort the strings 23, A1, 1A?

Solution:

In EBCDIC, numeric characters are treated to be greater

than alphabetic characters. Hence, in the said computer,
numeric characters will be placed after alphabetic
characters and the given string will be treated as:

A1 < 1A < 23

Therefore, the sorted sequence will be: A1, 1A, 23.

Ref. Page 46 Chapter 4: Computer Codes Slide 28/30

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Sorting in ASCII

Example

Suppose a computer uses ASCII for its internal representation of

characters. In which order will this computer sort the strings 23, A1,
1A, a2, 2a, aA, and Aa?

Solution:

In ASCII, numeric characters are treated to be less than alphabetic

characters. Hence, in the said computer, numeric characters will be
placed before alphabetic characters and the given string will be
treated as:

1A < 23 < 2a < A1 < Aa < a2 < aA

Therefore, the sorted sequence will be: 1A, 23, 2a, A1, Aa, a2, and
aA

Ref. Page 47 Chapter 4: Computer Codes Slide 29/30

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
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Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Key Words/Phrases

Alphabetic data
Alphanumeric data
American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII)
Binary Coded Decimal (BCD) code
Byte
Collating sequence
Computer codes
Control characters
Extended Binary-Coded Decimal Interchange Code (EBCDIC)
Hexadecimal equivalent
Numeric data
Octal equivalent
Packed decimal numbers
Unicode
Zoned decimal numbers

Ref. Page 47 Chapter 4: Computer Codes Slide 30/30

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Ref Page Chapter 5: Computer Arithmetic Slide 1/29

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Learning Objectives

In this chapter you will learn about:

Reasons for using binary instead of decimal

numbers
Basic arithmetic operations using binary numbers
Addition (+)
Subtraction (-)
Multiplication (*)
Division (/)

Ref Page 49 Chapter 5: Computer Arithmetic Slide 2/29

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
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Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Binary over Decimal

Information is handled in a computer by electronic/

electrical components
Electronic components operate in binary mode (can
only indicate two states on (1) or off (0)
Binary number system has only two digits (0 and 1),
and is suitable for expressing two possible states
In binary system, computer circuits only have to handle
two binary digits rather than ten decimal digits causing:
Simpler internal circuit design
Less expensive
More reliable circuits
Arithmetic rules/processes possible with binary
numbers

Ref Page 49 Chapter 5: Computer Arithmetic Slide 3/29

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
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Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Examples of a Few Devices that work in

Binary Mode

Binary On (1) Off (0)

State

Bulb

Switch

Circuit
Pulse

Ref Page 50 Chapter 5: Computer Arithmetic Slide 4/29

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
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Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Binary Arithmetic

Binary arithmetic is simple to learn as binary number

system has only two digits 0 and 1

Following slides show rules and example for the four

basic arithmetic operations using binary numbers

Ref Page 50 Chapter 5: Computer Arithmetic Slide 5/29

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
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Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Binary Addition

Rule for binary addition is as follows:

0 + 0 = 0
0 + 1 = 1
1 + 0 = 1
1 + 1 = 0 plus a carry of 1 to next higher column

Ref Page 50 Chapter 5: Computer Arithmetic Slide 6/29

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
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Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Binary Addition (Example 1)

Example
Add binary numbers 10011 and 1001 in both decimal and
binary form

Solution

Binary Decimal

carry 11 carry 1
10011 19
+1001 +9

11100 28

In this example, carry are generated for first and second columns

Ref Page 51 Chapter 5: Computer Arithmetic Slide 7/29

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
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Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Binary Addition (Example 2)

Example

Add binary numbers 100111 and 11011 in both decimal

and binary form

Solution
The addition of three 1s
Binary Decimal can be broken up into two
steps. First, we add only
carry 11111 carry 1 two 1s giving 10 (1 + 1 =
10). The third 1 is now
100111 39
added to this result to
+11011 +27 obtain 11 (a 1 sum with a 1
carry). Hence, 1 + 1 + 1 =
1000010 66 1, plus a carry of 1 to next
higher column.

Ref Page 51 Chapter 5: Computer Arithmetic Slide 8/29

 Computer
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Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Binary Subtraction

Rule for binary subtraction is as follows:

0 - 0 = 0
0 - 1 = 1 with a borrow from the next column
1 - 0 = 1
1 - 1 = 0

Ref Page 51 Chapter 5: Computer Arithmetic Slide 9/29

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
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Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Binary Subtraction (Example)

Example

Subtract 011102 from 101012

Solution

12
0202
10101
-01110

00111

Note: Go through explanation given in the book

Ref Page 52 Chapter 5: Computer Arithmetic Slide 10/29

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
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Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Complement of a Number

Number of digits
in the number

C = Bn - 1 - N

Complement Base of the The number

of the number number

Ref Page 52 Chapter 5: Computer Arithmetic Slide 11/29

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
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Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Complement of a Number (Example 1)

Example

Find the complement of 3710

Solution

Since the number has 2 digits and the value of

base is 10,
(Base)n - 1 = 102 - 1 = 99
Now 99 - 37 = 62

Hence, complement of 3710 = 6210

Ref Page 53 Chapter 5: Computer Arithmetic Slide 12/29

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
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Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Complement of a Number (Example 2)

Example
Find the complement of 68

Solution
Since the number has 1 digit and the value of
base is 8,
(Base)n - 1 = 81 - 1 = 710 = 78
Now 78 - 68 = 18

Hence, complement of 68 = 18

Ref Page 53 Chapter 5: Computer Arithmetic Slide 13/29

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
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Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Complement of a Binary Number

Complement of a binary number can be obtained by

transforming all its 0s to 1s and all its 1s to 0s

Example
Complement of 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 is

0 1 0 0 1 0 1

Note: Verify by conventional complement

Ref Page 53 Chapter 5: Computer Arithmetic Slide 14/29

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
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Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Complementary Method of Subtraction

Involves following 3 steps:

Step 1: Find the complement of the number you

are subtracting (subtrahend)

Step 2: Add this to the number from which you

are taking away (minuend)

Step 3: If there is a carry of 1, add it to obtain

the result; if there is no carry, recomplement the
sum and attach a negative sign

Complementary subtraction is an additive approach of subtraction

Ref Page 53 Chapter 5: Computer Arithmetic Slide 15/29

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
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Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Complementary Subtraction (Example 1)

Example:
Subtract 5610 from 9210 using complementary method.

Solution
Step 1: Complement of 5610
= 102 - 1 - 56 = 99 56 = 4310 The result may be
verified using the
Step 2: 92 + 43 (complement of 56) method of normal
= 135 (note 1 as carry) subtraction:

Step 3: 35 + 1 (add 1 carry to sum) 92 - 56 = 36

Result = 36

Ref Page 53 Chapter 5: Computer Arithmetic Slide 16/29

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
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Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Complementary Subtraction (Example 2)

Example
Subtract 3510 from 1810 using complementary method.
Solution

Step 1: Complement of 3510 Step 3: Since there is no carry,

= 102 - 1 - 35 re-complement the sum and
= 99 - 35 attach a negative sign to
= 6410 obtain the result.

Result = -(99 - 82)

Step 2: 18 = -17
+ 64 (complement
of 35) The result may be verified using normal
82 subtraction:

18 - 35 = -17

Ref Page 53 Chapter 5: Computer Arithmetic Slide 17/29

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
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Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Binary Subtraction Using Complementary Method
(Example 1)

Example
Subtract 01110002 (5610) from 10111002 (9210) using
complementary method.

Solution
1011100
+1000111 (complement of 0111000)

10100011

1 (add the carry of 1)

0100100

Result = 01001002 = 3610

Ref Page 53 Chapter 5: Computer Arithmetic Slide 18/29

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
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Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Binary Subtraction Using Complementary Method
(Example 2)

Example
Subtract 1000112 (3510) from 0100102 (1810) using
complementary method.

Solution
010010
+011100 (complement of 100011)

101110

Since there is no carry, we have to complement the sum and

attach a negative sign to it. Hence,

Result = -0100012 (complement of 1011102)

= -1710

Ref Page 54 Chapter 5: Computer Arithmetic Slide 19/29

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
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Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Binary Multiplication

Table for binary multiplication is as follows:

0x0=0
0x1=0
1x0=0
1x1=1

Ref Page 55 Chapter 5: Computer Arithmetic Slide 20/29

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
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Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Binary Multiplication (Example 1)

Example

Multiply the binary numbers 1010 and 1001

Solution
1010 Multiplicand
x1001 Multiplier

1010 Partial Product

0000 Partial Product
0000 Partial Product
1010 Partial Product

1011010 Final Product

(Continued on next slide)

Ref Page 55 Chapter 5: Computer Arithmetic Slide 21/29

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
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Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Binary Multiplication (Example 2)

(Continued from previous slide..)

Whenever a 0 appears in the multiplier, a separate partial

product consisting of a string of zeros need not be generated
(only a shift will do). Hence,

1010
x1001

1010
1010SS (S = left shift)

1011010

Ref Page 55 Chapter 5: Computer Arithmetic Slide 22/29

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
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Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Binary Division

Table for binary division is as follows:

0 0 = Divide by zero error

0 1 = 0
1 0 = Divide by zero error
1 1 = 1

As in the decimal number system (or in any other number

system), division by zero is meaningless

The computer deals with this problem by raising an error

condition called Divide by zero error

Ref Page 57 Chapter 5: Computer Arithmetic Slide 23/29

 Computer
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Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Rules for Binary Division

1. Start from the left of the dividend

2. Perform a series of subtractions in which the divisor is
subtracted from the dividend
3. If subtraction is possible, put a 1 in the quotient and
subtract the divisor from the corresponding digits of
dividend
4. If subtraction is not possible (divisor greater than
remainder), record a 0 in the quotient
5. Bring down the next digit to add to the remainder
digits. Proceed as before in a manner similar to long
division

Ref Page 57 Chapter 5: Computer Arithmetic Slide 24/29

 Computer
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Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Binary Division (Example 1)

Example

Divide 1000012 by 1102

Solution 0101 (Quotient)

110 100001 (Dividend)

110 1 Divisor greater than 100, so put 0 in quotient
1000 2 Add digit from dividend to group used above
110 3 Subtraction possible, so put 1 in quotient
100 4 Remainder from subtraction plus digit from dividend
110 5 Divisor greater, so put 0 in quotient
1001 6 Add digit from dividend to group
110 7 Subtraction possible, so put 1 in quotient
11 Remainder

Ref Page 57 Chapter 5: Computer Arithmetic Slide 25/29

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
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Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Additive Method of Multiplication and Division

Most computers use the additive method for performing

multiplication and division operations because it simplifies
the internal circuit design of computer systems

Example
4 x 8 = 8 + 8 + 8 + 8 = 32

Ref Page 56 Chapter 5: Computer Arithmetic Slide 26/29

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
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Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Rules for Additive Method of Division

Subtract the divisor repeatedly from the dividend until

the result of subtraction becomes less than or equal to
zero
If result of subtraction is zero, then:
quotient = total number of times subtraction was
performed
remainder = 0
If result of subtraction is less than zero, then:
quotient = total number of times subtraction was
performed minus 1
remainder = result of the subtraction previous to
the last subtraction

Ref Page 58 Chapter 5: Computer Arithmetic Slide 27/29

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
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Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Additive Method of Division (Example)

Example
Divide 3310 by 610 using the method of addition

Solution:
33 - 6 = 27
27 - 6 = 21 Since the result of the last
21 - 6 = 15 subtraction is less than zero,
15 - 6 = 9
9-6= 3 Quotient = 6 - 1 (ignore last
3 - 6 = -3 subtraction) = 5

Total subtractions = 6 Remainder = 3 (result of previous

subtraction)

Ref Page 58 Chapter 5: Computer Arithmetic Slide 28/29

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
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Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Key Words/Phrases

Additive method of division

Additive method of multiplication
Additive method of subtraction
Binary addition
Binary arithmetic
Binary division
Binary multiplication
Binary subtraction
Complement
Complementary subtraction
Computer arithmetic

Ref Page 58 Chapter 5: Computer Arithmetic Slide 29/29

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Ref. Page Chapter 6: Boolean Algebra and Logic Circuits Slide 1/78
 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Learning Objectives

In this chapter you will learn about:

Boolean algebra
Fundamental concepts and basic laws of Boolean
algebra
Boolean function and minimization
Logic gates
Logic circuits and Boolean expressions
Combinational circuits and design

Ref. Page 60 Chapter 6: Boolean Algebra and Logic Circuits Slide 2/78
 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
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Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Boolean Algebra

An algebra that deals with binary number system

George Boole (1815-1864), an English mathematician, developed
it for:
Simplifying representation
Manipulation of propositional logic
In 1938, Claude E. Shannon proposed using Boolean algebra in
design of relay switching circuits
Provides economical and straightforward approach
Used extensively in designing electronic circuits used in computers

Ref. Page 60 Chapter 6: Boolean Algebra and Logic Circuits Slide 3/78
 Computer
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Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Fundamental Concepts of Boolean Algebra

Use of Binary Digit

Boolean equations can have either of two possible
values, 0 and 1
Logical Addition
Symbol +, also known as OR operator, used for
logical addition. Follows law of binary addition
Logical Multiplication
Symbol ., also known as AND operator, used for
logical multiplication. Follows law of binary
multiplication
Complementation
Symbol -, also known as NOT operator, used for
complementation. Follows law of binary compliment

Ref. Page 61 Chapter 6: Boolean Algebra and Logic Circuits Slide 4/78
 Computer
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Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
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& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Operator Precedence

Each operator has a precedence level

Higher the operators precedence level, earlier it is evaluated
Expression is scanned from left to right
First, expressions enclosed within parentheses are evaluated
Then, all complement (NOT) operations are performed
Then, all (AND) operations are performed
Finally, all + (OR) operations are performed

(Continued on next slide)

Ref. Page 62 Chapter 6: Boolean Algebra and Logic Circuits Slide 5/78
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Pradeep K.
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Operator Precedence
(Continued from previous slide..)

X + Y Z

1st 2nd 3rd

Ref. Page 62 Chapter 6: Boolean Algebra and Logic Circuits Slide 6/78
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Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
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& Priti
Priti Sinha
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Postulates of Boolean Algebra

Postulate 1:
(a) A = 0, if and only if, A is not equal to 1
(b) A = 1, if and only if, A is not equal to 0

Postulate 2:
(a) x + 0 = x
(b) x 1 = x

Postulate 3: Commutative Law

(a) x + y = y + x
(b) x y = y x

(Continued on next slide)

Ref. Page 62 Chapter 6: Boolean Algebra and Logic Circuits Slide 7/78
 Computer
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Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
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& Priti
Priti Sinha
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Postulates of Boolean Algebra

(Continued from previous slide..)

Postulate 4: Associative Law

(a) x + (y + z) = (x + y) + z
(b) x (y z) = (x y) z

Postulate 5: Distributive Law

(a) x (y + z) = (x y) + (x z)
(b) x + (y z) = (x + y) (x + z)

Postulate 6:
(a) x + x = 1
(b) x x = 0

Ref. Page 62 Chapter 6: Boolean Algebra and Logic Circuits Slide 8/78
 Computer
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Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
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Priti Sinha
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The Principle of Duality

There is a precise duality between the operators . (AND) and +

(OR), and the digits 0 and 1.

For example, in the table below, the second row is obtained from
the first row and vice versa simply by interchanging + with .
and 0 with 1

Column 1 Column 2 Column 3

Row 1 1+1=1 1+0=0+1=1 0+0=0
Row 2 00=0 01=10=0 11=1

Therefore, if a particular theorem is proved, its dual theorem

automatically holds and need not be proved separately

Ref. Page 63 Chapter 6: Boolean Algebra and Logic Circuits Slide 9/78
 Computer
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Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
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Priti Sinha
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Some Important Theorems of Boolean Algebra

Sr. Theorems/ Dual Theorems/ Name

No. Identities Identities (if any)

1 x+x=x xx=x Idempotent Law

2 x+1=1 x0=0

3 x+xy=x xx+y=x Absorption Law

4 x =x Involution Law
5 xx +y=xy x +x y = x + y

6 x+y = x y xy = x y+ De Morgans
Law

Ref. Page 63 Chapter 6: Boolean Algebra and Logic Circuits Slide 10/78
 Computer
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Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
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Priti Sinha
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Methods of Proving Theorems

The theorems of Boolean algebra may be proved by using

one of the following methods:

1. By using postulates to show that L.H.S. = R.H.S

2. By Perfect Induction or Exhaustive Enumeration method

where all possible combinations of variables involved in
L.H.S. and R.H.S. are checked to yield identical results

3. By the Principle of Duality where the dual of an already

proved theorem is derived from the proof of its
corresponding pair

Ref. Page 63 Chapter 6: Boolean Algebra and Logic Circuits Slide 11/78
 Computer
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Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
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Priti Sinha
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Proving a Theorem by Using Postulates
(Example)

Theorem:

x+xy=x

Proof:
L.H.S.
= x+xy
= x1+xy by postulate 2(b)
= x (1 + y) by postulate 5(a)
= x (y + 1) by postulate 3(a)
= x1 by theorem 2(a)
= x by postulate 2(b)
= R.H.S.

Ref. Page 64 Chapter 6: Boolean Algebra and Logic Circuits Slide 12/78
 Computer
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Pradeep K.
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Priti Sinha
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Proving a Theorem by Perfect Induction
(Example)
Theorem:

x + x y = x
=

x y xy x+xy

0 0 0 0

0 1 0 0

1 0 0 1

1 1 1 1

Ref. Page 64 Chapter 6: Boolean Algebra and Logic Circuits Slide 13/78
 Computer
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Priti Sinha
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Proving a Theorem by the

Principle of Duality (Example)
Theorem:

x+x=x

Proof:

L.H.S.
=x+x
= (x + x) 1 by postulate 2(b)
= (x + x) (x + X) by postulate 6(a)
= x + x X by postulate 5(b)
=x+0 by postulate 6(b)
=x by postulate 2(a)
= R.H.S.

(Continued on next slide)

Ref. Page 63 Chapter 6: Boolean Algebra and Logic Circuits Slide 14/78
 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
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Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
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Priti Sinha
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Proving a Theorem by the

Principle of Duality (Example)
(Continued from previous slide..)

Dual Theorem:

xx=x

Proof:

L.H.S.
=xx
=xx+0 by postulate 2(a) Notice that each step of
the proof of the dual
= x x+ xX by postulate 6(b)
theorem is derived from
= x (x + X ) by postulate 5(a) the proof of its
=x1 by postulate 6(a) corresponding pair in
=x by postulate 2(b) the original theorem
= R.H.S.

Ref. Page 63 Chapter 6: Boolean Algebra and Logic Circuits Slide 15/78
 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Boolean Functions

A Boolean function is an expression formed with:

Binary variables

Operators (OR, AND, and NOT)

Parentheses, and equal sign

The value of a Boolean function can be either 0 or 1

A Boolean function may be represented as:

An algebraic expression, or

A truth table

Ref. Page 67 Chapter 6: Boolean Algebra and Logic Circuits Slide 16/78
 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Representation as an
Algebraic Expression

W = X + Y Z
Variable W is a function of X, Y, and Z, can also be
written as W = f (X, Y, Z)

The RHS of the equation is called an expression

The symbols X, Y, Z are the literals of the function

For a given Boolean function, there may be more than

one algebraic expressions

Ref. Page 67 Chapter 6: Boolean Algebra and Logic Circuits Slide 17/78
 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
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Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Representation as a Truth Table

X Y Z W

0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1
0 1 0 0
0 1 1 0
1 0 0 1
1 0 1 1
1 1 0 1
1 1 1 1

(Continued on next slide)

Ref. Page 67 Chapter 6: Boolean Algebra and Logic Circuits Slide 18/78
 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Representation as a Truth Table

(Continued from previous slide..)

The number of rows in the table is equal to 2n, where

n is the number of literals in the function

The combinations of 0s and 1s for rows of this table

are obtained from the binary numbers by counting
from 0 to 2n - 1

Ref. Page 67 Chapter 6: Boolean Algebra and Logic Circuits Slide 19/78
 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Minimization of Boolean Functions

Minimization of Boolean functions deals with

Reduction in number of literals
Reduction in number of terms

Minimization is achieved through manipulating

expression to obtain equal and simpler expression(s)
(having fewer literals and/or terms)

(Continued on next slide)

Ref. Page 68 Chapter 6: Boolean Algebra and Logic Circuits Slide 20/78
 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Minimization of Boolean Functions

(Continued from previous slide..)

F1 = x y z + x y z + x y
F1 has 3 literals (x, y, z) and 3 terms

F2 = x y + x z
F2 has 3 literals (x, y, z) and 2 terms

F2 can be realized with fewer electronic components,

resulting in a cheaper circuit

(Continued on next slide)

Ref. Page 68 Chapter 6: Boolean Algebra and Logic Circuits Slide 21/78
 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Minimization of Boolean Functions

(Continued from previous slide..)

x y z F1 F2
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1 1
0 1 0 0 0
0 1 1 1 1
1 0 0 1 1
1 0 1 1 1
1 1 0 0 0
1 1 1 0 0

Both F1 and F2 produce the same result

Ref. Page 68 Chapter 6: Boolean Algebra and Logic Circuits Slide 22/78
 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Try out some Boolean Function

Minimization

(a ) x + x y
(
(b ) x x + y )
(c) x y z + x y z + x y
(d ) x y + x z + y z
(e) ( x + y ) ( x + z ) ( y +z )

Ref. Page 69 Chapter 6: Boolean Algebra and Logic Circuits Slide 23/78
 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Complement of a Boolean Function

The complement of a Boolean function is obtained by

interchanging:

Operators OR and AND

Complementing each literal

This is based on De Morgans theorems, whose

general form is:

A +A +A +...+A = A A A ... A
1 2 3 n 1 2 3 n

A A A ... A = A +A +A +...+A
1 2 3 n 1 2 3 n

Ref. Page 70 Chapter 6: Boolean Algebra and Logic Circuits Slide 24/78
 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Complementing a Boolean Function (Example)

F = x y z+ x y z
1

To obtain F1 , we first interchange the OR and the AND

operators giving

( x + y +z ) ( x + y + z )
Now we complement each literal giving

F = ( x+ y +z) ( x+ y+ z )
1

Ref. Page 71 Chapter 6: Boolean Algebra and Logic Circuits Slide 25/78
 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Canonical Forms of Boolean Functions

Minterms : n variables forming an AND term, with

each variable being primed or unprimed,
provide 2n possible combinations called
minterms or standard products

Maxterms : n variables forming an OR term, with

each variable being primed or unprimed,
provide 2n possible combinations called
maxterms or standard sums

Ref. Page 71 Chapter 6: Boolean Algebra and Logic Circuits Slide 26/78
 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Minterms and Maxterms for three Variables

Variables Minterms Maxterms

x y z Term Designation Term Designation

0 0 0
x y z m 0 x+y+z M 0

0 0 1
x y z m 1 x+y+z M 1

0 1 0
x y z m 2 x+y+z M 2

0 1 1
x y z m 3 x+y+z M 3

1 0 0
x y z m 4 x+y+z M 4

1 0 1
x y z m 5 x+y+z M 5

1 1 0
x y z m 6 x+ y+z M 6

1 1 1
x y z m 7 x+y+z M 7

Note that each minterm is the complement of its corresponding maxterm and vice-versa

Ref. Page 71 Chapter 6: Boolean Algebra and Logic Circuits Slide 27/78
 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Sum-of-Products (SOP) Expression

A sum-of-products (SOP) expression is a product term

(minterm) or several product terms (minterms)
logically added (ORed) together. Examples are:

x x+ y
x+ y z x y+z
xy + xy xy + x yz

Ref. Page 72 Chapter 6: Boolean Algebra and Logic Circuits Slide 28/78
 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Steps to Express a Boolean Function
in its Sum-of-Products Form

1. Construct a truth table for the given Boolean

function

2. Form a minterm for each combination of the

variables, which produces a 1 in the function

3. The desired expression is the sum (OR) of all the

minterms obtained in Step 2

Ref. Page 72 Chapter 6: Boolean Algebra and Logic Circuits Slide 29/78
 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Expressing a Function in its
Sum-of-Products Form (Example)

x y z F1
0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1
0 1 0 0
0 1 1 0
1 0 0 1
1 0 1 0
1 1 0 0
1 1 1 1

The following 3 combinations of the variables produce a 1:

001, 100, and 111
(Continued on next slide)

Ref. Page 73 Chapter 6: Boolean Algebra and Logic Circuits Slide 30/78
 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Expressing a Function in its
Sum-of-Products Form (Example)
(Continued from previous slide..)

Their corresponding minterms are:

x y z, x y z, and x y z
Taking the OR of these minterms, we get

F1 =x y z+ x y z+ x y z=m1+m 4 + m7
F1 ( x y z ) = (1,4,7 )

Ref. Page 72 Chapter 6: Boolean Algebra and Logic Circuits Slide 31/78
 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Product-of Sums (POS) Expression

A product-of-sums (POS) expression is a sum term

(maxterm) or several sum terms (maxterms) logically
multiplied (ANDed) together. Examples are:

x ( x+ y )( x+ y )( x+ y )
x+ y ( x + y )( x+ y+z )
( x+ y ) z ( x+ y )( x+ y )

Ref. Page 74 Chapter 6: Boolean Algebra and Logic Circuits Slide 32/78
 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Steps to Express a Boolean Function

in its Product-of-Sums Form

1. Construct a truth table for the given Boolean function

2. Form a maxterm for each combination of the variables,

which produces a 0 in the function

3. The desired expression is the product (AND) of all the

maxterms obtained in Step 2

Ref. Page 74 Chapter 6: Boolean Algebra and Logic Circuits Slide 33/78
 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Expressing a Function in its
Product-of-Sums Form

x y z F1
0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1
0 1 0 0
0 1 1 0
1 0 0 1
1 0 1 0
1 1 0 0
1 1 1 1

The following 5 combinations of variables produce a 0:

000, 010, 011, 101, and 110
(Continued on next slide)

Ref. Page 73 Chapter 6: Boolean Algebra and Logic Circuits Slide 34/78
 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Expressing a Function in its
Product-of-Sums Form
(Continued from previous slide..)

Their corresponding maxterms are:

( x+y+ z ) , ( x+ y+ z ), ( x+ y+ z ) ,
( x+y+ z ) and ( x+ y+ z )
Taking the AND of these maxterms, we get:

F1 = ( x+y+z ) ( x+ y+z ) ( x+y+z ) ( x+ y+z )

( x+ y+z ) =M M M M M0 2 3 5 6

F1 ( x,y,z ) = ( 0,2,3,5,6 )
Ref. Page 74 Chapter 6: Boolean Algebra and Logic Circuits Slide 35/78
 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Conversion Between Canonical Forms (Sum-of-
Products and Product-of-Sums)

To convert from one canonical form to another,

interchange the symbol and list those numbers missing
from the original form.

Example:

( ) ( ) (
F x,y,z = 0,2,4,5 = 1,3,6,7 )
F( x,y,z ) = (1,4,7 ) = ( 0,2,3,5,6 )

Ref. Page 76 Chapter 6: Boolean Algebra and Logic Circuits Slide 36/78
 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Logic Gates

Logic gates are electronic circuits that operate on

one or more input signals to produce standard output
signal

Are the building blocks of all the circuits in a

computer

Some of the most basic and useful logic gates are

AND, OR, NOT, NAND and NOR gates

Ref. Page 77 Chapter 6: Boolean Algebra and Logic Circuits Slide 37/78
 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

AND Gate

Physical realization of logical multiplication (AND)

operation

Generates an output signal of 1 only if all input

signals are also 1

Ref. Page 77 Chapter 6: Boolean Algebra and Logic Circuits Slide 38/78
 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

AND Gate (Block Diagram Symbol

and Truth Table)

A
C= AB
B

Inputs Output
A B C=AB
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1

Ref. Page 77 Chapter 6: Boolean Algebra and Logic Circuits Slide 39/78
 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

OR Gate

Physical realization of logical addition (OR) operation

Generates an output signal of 1 if at least one of the

input signals is also 1

Ref. Page 77 Chapter 6: Boolean Algebra and Logic Circuits Slide 40/78
 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

OR Gate (Block Diagram Symbol

and Truth Table)

A
C=A+B
B

Inputs Output

A B C=A +B

0 0 0

0 1 1

1 0 1

1 1 1

Ref. Page 78 Chapter 6: Boolean Algebra and Logic Circuits Slide 41/78
 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

NOT Gate

Physical realization of complementation operation

Generates an output signal, which is the reverse of

the input signal

Ref. Page 78 Chapter 6: Boolean Algebra and Logic Circuits Slide 42/78
 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

NOT Gate (Block Diagram Symbol

and Truth Table)

A A

Input Output

A A

0 1

1 0

Ref. Page 79 Chapter 6: Boolean Algebra and Logic Circuits Slide 43/78
 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

NAND Gate

Complemented AND gate

Generates an output signal of:

1 if any one of the inputs is a 0

0 when all the inputs are 1

Ref. Page 79 Chapter 6: Boolean Algebra and Logic Circuits Slide 44/78
 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

NAND Gate (Block Diagram Symbol

and Truth Table)

A
B C= A B= A B=A +B

Inputs Output

A B C = A +B
0 0 1

0 1 1

1 0 1

1 1 0

Ref. Page 79 Chapter 6: Boolean Algebra and Logic Circuits Slide 45/78
 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

NOR Gate

Complemented OR gate

Generates an output signal of:

1 only when all inputs are 0

0 if any one of inputs is a 1

Ref. Page 79 Chapter 6: Boolean Algebra and Logic Circuits Slide 46/78
 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

NOR Gate (Block Diagram Symbol

and Truth Table)

A
B C= A B=A + B=A B

Inputs Output

A B C =A B
0 0 1

0 1 0

1 0 0

1 1 0

Ref. Page 80 Chapter 6: Boolean Algebra and Logic Circuits Slide 47/78
 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Logic Circuits

When logic gates are interconnected to form a gating /

logic network, it is known as a combinational logic circuit

The Boolean algebra expression for a given logic circuit

can be derived by systematically progressing from input
to output on the gates

The three logic gates (AND, OR, and NOT) are logically
complete because any Boolean expression can be
realized as a logic circuit using only these three gates

Ref. Page 80 Chapter 6: Boolean Algebra and Logic Circuits Slide 48/78
 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Finding Boolean Expression

of a Logic Circuit (Example 1)

A
A

NOT D= A (B + C )

B B+C AND
C
OR

Ref. Page 80 Chapter 6: Boolean Algebra and Logic Circuits Slide 49/78
 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Finding Boolean Expression
of a Logic Circuit (Example 2)

OR
A A +B
B

(
C= ( A +B ) A B )
A B A B AND

AND NOT

Ref. Page 81 Chapter 6: Boolean Algebra and Logic Circuits Slide 50/78
 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Constructing a Logic Circuit from a Boolean

Expression (Example 1)

Boolean Expression = A B + C

AND
A A B
B
A B + C
C
OR

Ref. Page 83 Chapter 6: Boolean Algebra and Logic Circuits Slide 51/78
 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Constructing a Logic Circuit from a Boolean

Expression (Example 2)

Boolean Expression = A B + C D + E F

AND NOT
A A B A B
B
AND AND
C C D
D A B + C D + E F
AND
E E F E F
F NOT

Ref. Page 83 Chapter 6: Boolean Algebra and Logic Circuits Slide 52/78
 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Universal NAND Gate

NAND gate is an universal gate, it is alone

sufficient to implement any Boolean
expression

To understand this, consider:

Basic logic gates (AND, OR, and NOT) are

logically complete

Sufficient to show that AND, OR, and NOT

gates can be implemented with NAND
gates

Ref. Page 84 Chapter 6: Boolean Algebra and Logic Circuits Slide 53/78
 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Implementation of NOT, AND and OR Gates by

NAND Gates

A A = A + A = A
A
(a) NOT gate implementation.

A A B A B = A B
B
(b) AND gate implementation.

(Continued on next slide)

Ref. Page 85 Chapter 6: Boolean Algebra and Logic Circuits Slide 54/78
 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Implementation of NOT, AND and OR Gates by

NAND Gates
(Continued from previous slide..)

A A = A
A
A B = A + B = A + B
B B = B
B
(c) OR gate implementation.

Ref. Page 85 Chapter 6: Boolean Algebra and Logic Circuits Slide 55/78
 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Method of Implementing a Boolean Expression

with Only NAND Gates

Step 1: From the given algebraic expression, draw the logic

diagram with AND, OR, and NOT gates. Assume that
both the normal (A) and complement (A) inputs are
available

Step 2: Draw a second logic diagram with the equivalent NAND

logic substituted for each AND, OR, and NOT gate

Step 3: Remove all pairs of cascaded inverters from the

diagram as double inversion does not perform any
logical function. Also remove inverters connected to
single external inputs and complement the
corresponding input variable

Ref. Page 85 Chapter 6: Boolean Algebra and Logic Circuits Slide 56/78
 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Implementing a Boolean Expression with Only

NAND Gates (Example)

Boolean Expression = A B + C ( A + B D )

A A B
A B + C ( A + B D )
B

B B D
D A +B D
A
C C ( A +B D )

(a) Step 1: AND/OR implementation

(Continued on next slide)

Ref. Page 87 Chapter 6: Boolean Algebra and Logic Circuits Slide 57/78
 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Implementing a Boolean Expression with Only

NAND Gates (Example)
(Continued from previous slide..)

AND
A A B OR
1
B
5

AND OR
B B D
2
D A+B D
A B + C ( A+B D)
3

AND

C ( A+B D)
4
C

(b) Step 2: Substituting equivalent NAND functions

(Continued on next slide)

Ref. Page 87 Chapter 6: Boolean Algebra and Logic Circuits Slide 58/78
 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Implementing a Boolean Expression with Only

NAND Gates (Example)
(Continued from previous slide..)

A
1
B A B + C ( A +B D )
5
B
2
D
3
A
4
C

(c) Step 3: NAND implementation.

Ref. Page 87 Chapter 6: Boolean Algebra and Logic Circuits Slide 59/78
 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Universal NOR Gate

NOR gate is an universal gate, it is alone sufficient to

implement any Boolean expression

To understand this, consider:

Basic logic gates (AND, OR, and NOT) are logically

complete

Sufficient to show that AND, OR, and NOT gates can

be implemented with NOR gates

Ref. Page 89 Chapter 6: Boolean Algebra and Logic Circuits Slide 60/78
 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Implementation of NOT, OR and AND Gates by

NOR Gates

A + A = A A = A
A

(a) NOT gate implementation.

A A +B A + B = A +B
B

(b) OR gate implementation.

(Continued on next slide)

Ref. Page 89 Chapter 6: Boolean Algebra and Logic Circuits Slide 61/78
 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Implementation of NOT, OR and AND Gates by

NOR Gates
(Continued from previous slide..)

A A +A=A
A + B = A B = A B

B + B =B
B
(c) AND gate implementation.

Ref. Page 89 Chapter 6: Boolean Algebra and Logic Circuits Slide 62/78
 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Method of Implementing a Boolean Expression

with Only NOR Gates

Step 1: For the given algebraic expression, draw the logic

diagram with AND, OR, and NOT gates. Assume that
both the normal ( A ) and complement A inputs are
available
( )
Step 2: Draw a second logic diagram with equivalent NOR logic
substituted for each AND, OR, and NOT gate

Step 3: Remove all parts of cascaded inverters from the

diagram as double inversion does not perform any
logical function. Also remove inverters connected to
single external inputs and complement the
corresponding input variable

Ref. Page 89 Chapter 6: Boolean Algebra and Logic Circuits Slide 63/78
 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Implementing a Boolean Expression with Only

NOR Gates (Examples)
(Continued from previous slide..)

Boolean Expression A B + C ( A +B D )
=
A A B
B A B + C ( A +B D )
B B D
D A +B D
A
C C ( A +B D )
(a) Step 1: AND/OR implementation.

(Continued on next slide)

Ref. Page 90 Chapter 6: Boolean Algebra and Logic Circuits Slide 64/78
 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Implementing a Boolean Expression with Only

NOR Gates (Examples)
(Continued from previous slide..)

AN
A D
A B
1
OR
A B + C ( A +B D )
B
5 6
AN
B D
B D
2

D OR
AN
3 D
A
C ( A +B D )
4

C
A +B D
(b) Step 2: Substituting equivalent NOR functions.
(Continued on next slide)

Ref. Page 90 Chapter 6: Boolean Algebra and Logic Circuits Slide 65/78
 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Implementing a Boolean Expression with Only

NOR Gates (Examples)
(Continued from previous slide..)

A 1
B A B + C ( A +B D )
5 6

B 2
D
3
A
4
C
(c) Step 3: NOR implementation.

Ref. Page 91 Chapter 6: Boolean Algebra and Logic Circuits Slide 66/78
 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Exclusive-OR Function

A B =A B + A B

A C = A B = A B+ A B
B

A C = A B = A B+ A B
B

Also, ( A B ) C = A (B C ) = A B C

(Continued on next slide)

Ref. Page 91 Chapter 6: Boolean Algebra and Logic Circuits Slide 67/78
 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Exclusive-OR Function (Truth Table)

(Continued from previous slide..)

Inputs Output

A B C =A B
0 0 0

0 1 1

1 0 1

1 1 0

Ref. Page 92 Chapter 6: Boolean Algebra and Logic Circuits Slide 68/78
 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Equivalence Function with Block Diagram

Symbol

A B = A B+ A B

A C = A B = A B+ A B
B

Also, (A B) = A (B C) = A B C

(Continued on next slide)

Ref. Page 91 Chapter 6: Boolean Algebra and Logic Circuits Slide 69/78
 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Equivalence Function (Truth Table)

Inputs Output

A B C=AB

0 0 1

0 1 0

1 0 0

1 1 1

Ref. Page 92 Chapter 6: Boolean Algebra and Logic Circuits Slide 70/78
 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Steps in Designing Combinational Circuits

1. State the given problem completely and exactly

2. Interpret the problem and determine the available input

variables and required output variables

3. Assign a letter symbol to each input and output variables

4. Design the truth table that defines the required relations

between inputs and outputs

5. Obtain the simplified Boolean function for each output

6. Draw the logic circuit diagram to implement the Boolean

function

Ref. Page 93 Chapter 6: Boolean Algebra and Logic Circuits Slide 71/78
 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Designing a Combinational Circuit

Example 1 Half-Adder Design

Inputs Outputs
A B C S
0 0 0 0
0 1 0 1
1 0 0 1
1 1 1 0

S = A B+ A B
Boolean functions for the two outputs.
C = A B

Ref. Page 93 Chapter 6: Boolean Algebra and Logic Circuits Slide 72/78
 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Designing a Combinational Circuit

Example 1 Half-Adder Design
(Continued from previous slide..)

A A B
A

S = A B+ A B

B
B A B

A
B C = A B

Logic circuit diagram to implement the Boolean functions

Ref. Page 94 Chapter 6: Boolean Algebra and Logic Circuits Slide 73/78
 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Designing a Combinational Circuit

Example 2 Full-Adder Design
Inputs Outputs
A B D C S
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 1
0 1 0 0 1
0 1 1 1 0
1 0 0 0 1
1 0 1 1 0
1 1 0 1 0
1 1 1 1 1
Truth table for a full adder
(Continued on next slide)

Ref. Page 94 Chapter 6: Boolean Algebra and Logic Circuits Slide 74/78
 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Designing a Combinational Circuit

Example 2 Full-Adder Design
(Continued from previous slide..)

Boolean functions for the two outputs:

S = A B D+ A B D+ A B D+ A B D
C = A B D+ A B D+ A B D+ A B D
= A B+ A D+B D (when simplified)

(Continued on next slide)

Ref. Page 95 Chapter 6: Boolean Algebra and Logic Circuits Slide 75/78
 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Designing a Combinational Circuit

Example 2 Full-Adder Design
(Continued from previous slide..)

A A B D
B
D

A A B D
B
D
S
A
B A B D
D

A A B D
B
D

(a) Logic circuit diagram for sums

(Continued on next slide)

Ref. Page 95 Chapter 6: Boolean Algebra and Logic Circuits Slide 76/78
 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Designing a Combinational Circuit

Example 2 Full-Adder Design
(Continued from previous slide..)

A A B
B

A A D C
D

B BD
D
(b) Logic circuit diagram for carry

Ref. Page 95 Chapter 6: Boolean Algebra and Logic Circuits Slide 77/78
 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Key Words/Phrases
Absorption law Equivalence function NOT gate
AND gate Exclusive-OR function Operator precedence
Associative law Exhaustive enumeration OR gate
Boolean algebra method Parallel Binary Adder
Boolean expression Half-adder Perfect induction
Boolean functions Idempotent law method
Boolean identities Involution law Postulates of Boolean
Canonical forms for Literal algebra
Boolean functions Logic circuits Principle of duality
Combination logic Logic gates Product-of-Sums
circuits Logical addition expression
Cumulative law Logical multiplication Standard forms
Complement of a Maxterms Sum-of Products
function Minimization of Boolean expression
Complementation functions Truth table
De Morgans law Minterms Universal NAND gate
Distributive law NAND gate Universal NOR gate
Dual identities

Ref. Page 97 Chapter 6: Boolean Algebra and Logic Circuits Slide 78/78
 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Ref Page Chapter 7: Processor and Memory Slide 1/27

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Learning Objectives

In this chapter you will learn about:

Internal structure of processor

Memory structure
Determining the speed of a processor
Different types of processors available
Determining the capacity of a memory
Different types of memory available
Several other terms related to the processor and
main memory of a computer system

Ref Page 101 Chapter 7: Processor and Memory Slide 2/27

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Basic Processor & Memory Architecture

of a Computer System
ROM PROM Flash
Main Memory (RAM)

Cache
Memory

Accumulato
Decode r register
r I/
Program General- O
control register purpose register
D
Instruction General- E
register purpose V
register I
Memory
address register C
E
Memory buffer
S
register
Input/Output
register
General- General-purpose
purpose register register

Control Unit Arithmetic Logic Unit

Central Processing Unit

Ref Page 102 Chapter 7: Processor and Memory Slide 3/27

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Central Processing Unit (CPU)

The brain of a computer system

Performs all major calculations and comparisons
Activates and controls the operations of other units of a
computer system
Two basic components are
Control Unit (CU)
Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)

No other single component of a computer determines

its overall performance as much as the CPU

Ref Page 101 Chapter 7: Processor and Memory Slide 4/27

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Control Unit (CU)

One of the two basic components of CPU

Acts as the central nervous system of a computer
system
Selects and interprets program instructions, and
coordinates execution
Has some special purpose registers and a decoder to
perform these activities

Ref Page 101 Chapter 7: Processor and Memory Slide 5/27

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)

One of the two basic components of CPU.

Actual execution of instructions takes place in ALU
Has some special purpose registers
Has necessary circuitry to carry out all the
arithmetic and logic operations included in the CPU
instruction set

Ref Page 103 Chapter 7: Processor and Memory Slide 6/27

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Instruction Set

CPU has built-in ability to execute a particular set of machine

instructions, called its instruction set
Most CPUs have 200 or more instructions (such as add,
subtract, compare, etc.) in their instruction set
CPUs made by different manufacturers have different
instruction sets
Manufacturers tend to group their CPUs into families having
similar instruction sets
New CPU whose instruction set includes instruction set of its
predecessor CPU is said to be backward compatible with its
predecessor

Ref Page 103 Chapter 7: Processor and Memory Slide 7/27

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Registers

Special memory units, called registers, are used to

hold information on a temporary basis as the
instructions are interpreted and executed by the CPU
Registers are part of the CPU (not main memory) of a
computer
The length of a register, sometimes called its word
size, equals the number of bits it can store
With all other parameters being the same, a CPU with
32-bit registers can process data twice larger than
one with 16-bit registers

Ref Page 103 Chapter 7: Processor and Memory Slide 8/27

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Functions of Commonly Used Registers

Sr.
Name of Register Function
No.
Holds address of the active memory
1 Memory Address (MAR)
location
Holds contents of the accessed
2 Memory Buffer (MBR)
(read/written) memory word
Holds address of the next instruction to
3 Program Control (PC)
be executed
Holds data to be operated upon,
4 Accumulator (A)
intermediate results, and the results
Holds an instruction while it is being
5 Instruction (I)
executed
Used to communicate with the I/O
6 Input/Output (I/O)
devices

Ref Page 104 Chapter 7: Processor and Memory Slide 9/27

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Processor Speed

Computer has a built-in system clock that emits millions of

regularly spaced electric pulses per second (known as
clock cycles)
It takes one cycle to perform a basic operation, such as
moving a byte of data from one memory location to
another
Normally, several clock cycles are required to fetch,
decode, and execute a single program instruction
Hence, shorter the clock cycle, faster the processor
Clock speed (number of clock cycles per second) is
measured in Megahertz (106 cycles/sec) or Gigahertz (109
cycles/sec)

Ref Page 105 Chapter 7: Processor and Memory Slide 10/27

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Types of Processor

Type of
Features Usage
Architecture
Large instruction set
CISC (Complex Variable-length instructions Mostly used in
Instruction Set Variety of addressing modes personal
Computer) Complex & expensive to computers
produce
Small instruction set
RISC (Reduced
Fixed-length instructions Mostly used in
Instruction Set
Reduced references to workstations
Computer)
memory to retrieve operands

(Continued on next slide)

Ref Page 105 Chapter 7: Processor and Memory Slide 11/27

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Types of Processor
(Continued from previous slide..)

Type of
Features Usage
Architecture
Allows software to
communicate explicitly to the
processor when operations
are parallel
EPIC (Explicitly
Uses tighter coupling Mostly used in
Parallel
between the compiler and the high-end servers
Instruction
processor and workstations
Computing)
Enables compiler to extract
maximum parallelism in the
original code, and explicitly
describe it to the processor

(Continued on next slide)

Ref Page 106 Chapter 7: Processor and Memory Slide 12/27

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Types of Processor
(Continued from previous slide..)

Type of
Features Usage
Architecture
Processor chip has multiple
cooler-running, more energy-
efficient processing cores
Improve overall performance
Mostly used in
Multi-Core by handling more work in
high-end servers
Processor parallel
and workstations
can share architectural
components, such as memory
elements and memory
management

Ref Page 106 Chapter 7: Processor and Memory Slide 13/27

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Main Memory

Every computer has a temporary storage built into

the computer hardware
It stores instructions and data of a program mainly
when the program is being executed by the CPU.
This temporary storage is known as main memory,
primary storage, or simply memory.
Physically, it consists of some chips either on the
motherboard or on a small circuit board attached to
the motherboard of a computer
It has random access property.
It is volatile.

Ref Page 108 Chapter 7: Processor and Memory Slide 14/27

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Storage Evaluation Criteria

Primary Secondary
Property Desirable
storage storage
Storage
Large storage capacity Small Large
capacity

Access Time Fast access time Fast Slow

Cost per bit of
Lower cost per bit High Low
storage
Volatility Non-volatile Volatile Non-volatile
Pseudo-
random
Random
Access Random access access or
access
sequential
access

Ref Page 108 Chapter 7: Processor and Memory Slide 15/27

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Main Memory Organization

0
1
2
3
4
Addresses of The words
a memory 5
of a memory
(total N words)

N-2
N-1 Each word
contains the same
number of bits =
Bit 1 Bit 2 word length
(Continued on next slide)

Ref Page 109 Chapter 7: Processor and Memory Slide 16/27

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Main Memory Organization

(Continued from previous slide..)

Machines having smaller word-length are slower in

operation than machines having larger word-length
A write to a memory location is destructive to its previous
contents
A read from a memory location is non-destructive to its
previous contents

Ref Page 110 Chapter 7: Processor and Memory Slide 17/27

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Fixed Word-length Memory

Word
0501 B O M B A Y
0502 D E L H I
Address 0503
Numbers

1024

Storage space is always allocated in multiples of word-length

Faster in speed of calculation than variable word-length memory
Normally used in large scientific computers for gaining speed of
calculation

Ref Page 110 Chapter 7: Processor and Memory Slide 18/27

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Variable Word-length Memory

0025 B 0051 D Each memory location

0026 O can store only a single
0052 E character
0027 M L
0053 Slower in speed of
0028 B 0054 H calculation than fixed
Address Address world-length memory
0029 A 0055 I
Numbers Numbers
0030 Y Used in small business
0056
computers for
0031 optimizing the use of
storage space

4096 4096

Note: With memory becoming cheaper and larger day-by-day, most

modern computers employ fixed-word-length memory organization

Ref Page 110 Chapter 7: Processor and Memory Slide 19/27

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Memory Capacity

Memory capacity of a computer is equal to the number

of bytes that can be stored in its primary storage

Its units are:

Kilobytes (KB) : 1024 (210) bytes

Megabytes (MB) : 1,048,576 (220) bytes

Gigabytes (GB) : 1,073,741824 (230) bytes

Ref Page 111 Chapter 7: Processor and Memory Slide 20/27

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Random Access Memory (RAM)

Primary storage of a computer is often referred to as RAM

because of its random access capability
RAM chips are volatile memory
A computers motherboard is designed in a manner that
the memory capacity can be enhanced by adding more
memory chips
The additional RAM chips, which plug into special sockets
on the motherboard, are known as single-in-line memory
modules (SIMMs)

Ref Page 112 Chapter 7: Processor and Memory Slide 21/27

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Read Only Memory (ROM)

ROM a non-volatile memory chip

Data stored in a ROM can only be read and used they
cannot be changed
ROMs are mainly used to store programs and data, which
do not change and are frequently used. For example,
system boot program

Ref Page 112 Chapter 7: Processor and Memory Slide 22/27

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Types of ROMs
Type Usage
Data is burnt by the manufacturer
Manufacturer-programmed
of the electronic equipment in
ROM
which it is used.

User-programmed ROM
or The user can load and store
read-only programs and data in
Programmable ROM it
(PROM)

The user can erase information

stored in it and the chip can be
Erasable PROM (EPROM)
reprogrammed to store new
information

(Continued on next slide)

Ref Page 112 Chapter 7: Processor and Memory Slide 23/27

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Types of ROMs
(Continued from previous slide..)

Type Usage

A type of EPROM chip in which the

Ultra Violet EPROM stored information is erased by
(UVEPROM) exposing the chip for some time
to ultra-violet light

Electrically EPROM
(EEPROM) A type of EPROM chip in which the
or stored information is erased by
using high voltage electric pulses
Flash memory

Ref Page 113 Chapter 7: Processor and Memory Slide 24/27

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Cache Memory

It is commonly used for minimizing the memory-

processor speed mismatch.
It is an extremely fast, small memory between CPU
and main memory whose access time is closer to the
processing speed of the CPU.
It is used to temporarily store very active data and
instructions during processing.

Cache is pronounced as cash

Ref Page 113 Chapter 7: Processor and Memory Slide 25/27

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Key Words/Phrases

Accumulator Register (AR) Flash Memory

Address Input/Output Register (I/O)
Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) Instruction Register (I)
Branch Instruction Instruction set
Cache Memory Kilobytes (KB)
Central Processing Unit (CPU) Main Memory
CISC (Complex Instruction Set Manufacturer-Programmed ROM
Computer) architecture Megabytes (MB)
Clock cycles Memory
Clock speed Memory Address Register (MAR)
Control Unit Memory Buffer Register (MBR)
Electrically EPROM (EEPROM) Microprogram
Erasable Programmable Read- Multi-core processor
Only Memory (EPROM) Non-Volatile storage Processor
Explicitly Parallel Instruction Program Control Register (PC)
Computing (EPIC) Programmable Read-Only Memory
Fixed-word-length memory (PROM)
Random Access Memory (RAM)
(Continued on next slide)

Ref Page 114 Chapter 7: Processor and Memory Slide 26/27

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Key Words/Phrases
(Continued from previous slide..)

Read-Only Memory (ROM)

Register
RISC (Reduced Instruction Set Computer)
architecture
Single In-line Memory Module (SIMM)
Ultra Violet EPROM (UVEPROM)
Upward compatible
User-Programmed ROM
Variable-word-length memory
Volatile Storage
Word length
Word size

Ref Page 114 Chapter 7: Processor and Memory Slide 27/27

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Ref Page Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 1/98

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Learning Objectives

In this chapter you will learn about:

Secondary storage devices and their need

Classification of commonly used secondary storage
devices
Difference between sequential and direct access
storage devices
Basic principles of operation, types, and uses of
popular secondary storage devices such as magnetic
tape, magnetic disk, and optical disk

(Continued on next slide)

Ref Page 117 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 2/98

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Learning Objectives
(Continued from previous slide..)

Commonly used mass storage devices

Introduction to other related concepts such as RAID,
Jukebox, storage hierarchy, etc.

Ref Page 117 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 3/98

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Limitations of Primary Storage

Limited capacity because the cost per bit of storage

is high
Volatile - data stored in it is lost when the electric
power is turned off or interrupted

Ref Page 117 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 4/98

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Secondary Storage

Used in a computer system to overcome the limitations

of primary storage
Has virtually unlimited capacity because the cost per bit
of storage is very low
Has an operating speed far slower than that of the
primary storage
Used to store large volumes of data on a permanent
basis
Also known as auxiliary memory

Ref Page 117 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 5/98

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Classification of Commonly Used Secondary

Storage Devices
Secondary Storage
Devices

Sequential Access Direct Access Devices

Device

Magnetic Tape

Magnetic Optical Disks Memory Storage

Disks Devices

Flash Memory
Floppy Hard CD-ROM Card
WORM CD-RW DVD Drive
Disk Disks
(CD-R)

Zip Disk Disk Pack Winchester Disk

Ref Page 118 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 6/98

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Sequential-access Storage Devices

Arrival at the desired storage location may be preceded

by sequencing through other locations
Data can only be retrieved in the same sequence in which
it is stored
Access time varies according to the storage location of
the information being accessed
Suitable for sequential processing applications where
most, if not all, of the data records need to be processed
one after another
Magnetic tape is a typical example of such a storage
device

Ref Page 118 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 7/98

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Direct-access Storage Devices

Devices where any storage location may be selected

and accessed at random
Permits access to individual information in a more
direct or immediate manner
Approximately equal access time is required for
accessing information from any storage location
Suitable for direct processing applications such as on-
line ticket booking systems, on-line banking systems
Magnetic, optical, and magneto-optical disks are
typical examples of such a storage device

Ref Page 118 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 8/98

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Magnetic Tape Basics

Commonly used sequential-access secondary storage

device
Physically, the tape medium is a plastic ribbon, which
is usually inch or inch wide and 50 to 2400 feet
long
Plastic ribbon is coated with a magnetizable recording
material such as iron-oxide or chromium dioxide
Data are recorded on the tape in the form of tiny
invisible magnetized and non-magnetized spots
(representing 1s and 0s) on its coated surface
Tape ribbon is stored in reels or a small cartridge or
cassette

Ref Page 119 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 9/98

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Magnetic Tape - Storage Organization

(Example 1)
A frame Characters for
Track/Channel
numbers corresponding codes

0 12 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 A B C D E F G
Parity bit 7

6 Each vertical
Zone
line represents
5
a binary 1 bit
4

Numeric 3

Illustrates the concepts of frames, tracks, parity bit, and character-by-character data
storage

Ref Page 119 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 10/98

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Magnetic Tape - Storage Organization (Example 2)

Track/ channel Characters for

numbers A frame for each corresponding codes
character

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 A B Each vertical
8s digit line represents
9
a binary
Track 2s digit 8
1 bit
representation Added zone 7
Added zone 6
Zone 5
Parity bit 4
Zone 3
Units digit 2
4s digit 1

Illustrates the concepts of frames, tracks, parity bit, and character-by-character data
storage

Ref Page 120 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 11/98

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Magnetic Tape - Storage Organization (Example 3)

Tape motion

IBG R1 IBG R2 IBG R3 IBG R4 IBG R5 IBG R6

(a) An unblocked tape. There is an IBG after each record.

Tape motion

IBG R1 R2 IBG R3 R4 IBG R5 R6 IBG R7 R8 IBG

(b) A tape which uses a blocking factor of two. There is an IBG after every two records.

Tape motion

IBG R1 R2 R3 IBG R4 R5 R6 IBG R7 R8 R9 IBG

(c) A tape which uses a blocking factor of three. There is an IBG after every three records.

Illustrates the concepts of blocking of records, inter-block gap (IBG), and blocking factor

Ref Page 120 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 12/98

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Magnetic Tape - Storage Organization (Example 4)

File header
File header File trailer label of next
label label file

Tape motion

Block of Block of
IBG IBG IBG IBG
records records

Illustrates the concepts of multiple blocks of records forming a file that is

separated from other files by a file header label in the beginning and a file trailer
label at the end of the file

Ref Page 120 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 13/98

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Magnetic Tape-Storage Organization (Example 5)

Tape header
label File trailer
label of
BOT File header File trailer
label last file
marker label

unused IBG IB Blocks of records of IBG IBG IB unused

the file separated by
tape G G tape
IBGs

Tape motion
EOT marker

Illustrates the concepts of Beginning of Tape (BoT) and End of Tape

(EoT) markers, and tape header label

Ref Page 120 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 14/98

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Magnetic Tape Storage Capacity

Storage capacity of a tape =

Data recording density x Length
Data recording density is the amount of data that can be
stored on a given length of tape. It is measured in bytes
per inch (bpi)
Tape density varies from 800 bpi in older systems to
77,000 bpi in some of the modern systems
Actual storage capacity of a tape may be anywhere from
35% to 70% of its total storage capacity, depending on
the storage organization used

Ref Page 120 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 15/98

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Magnetic Tape Data Transfer Rate

Refers to characters/second that can be transmitted to

the memory from the tape
Transfer rate measurement unit is bytes/second (bps)
Value depends on the data recording density and the
speed with which the tape travels under the read/write
head
A typical value of data transfer rate is 7.7 MB/second

Ref Page 121 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 16/98

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Magnetic Tape Tape Drive

Used for writing/reading of data to/from a magnetic

tape ribbon
Different for tape reels, cartridges, and cassettes
Has read/write heads for reading/writing of data on
tape
A magnetic tape reel/cartridge/cassette has to be first
loaded on a tape drive for reading/writing of data on it
When processing is complete, the tape is removed
from the tape drive for off-line storage

Ref Page 121 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 17/98

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Magnetic Tape Tape Controller

Tape drive is connected to and controlled by a tape

controller that interprets the commands for operating the
tape drive

A typical set of commands supported by a tape controller

are:
Read reads one block of data

Write writes one block of data

Write tape header label used to update the contents of tape header label

Erase tape erases the data recorded on a tape

Back space one block rewinds the tape to the beginning of previous block

(Continued on next slide)

Ref Page 121 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 18/98

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Magnetic Tape Tape Controller

(Continued from previous slide..)

Forward space one block forwards the tape to the beginning

of next block

Forward space one file forwards the tape to the beginning

of next file

Rewind fully rewinds the tape

Unload releases the tape drives grip so

that the tape spool can be
unmountedfrom the tape drive

Ref Page 121 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 19/98

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Types of Magnetic Tape

-inch tape reel

-inch tape cartridge

-inch streamer tape

4-mm digital audio tape (DAT)

Ref Page 121 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 20/98

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Half-inch Tape Reel

Uses inch wide tape ribbon stored on a tape reel

Uses parallel representation method of storing data, in
which data are read/written a byte at a time
Uses a read/write head assembly that has one
read/write head for each track
Commonly used as archival storage for off-line storage
of data and for exchange of data and programs
between organizations
Fast getting replaced by tape cartridge, streamer tape,
and digital audio tape they are more compact, cheaper
and easier to handle

Ref Page 122 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 21/98

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Half-inch Tape Reel

Ref Page 122 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 22/98

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Tape Drive of Half-inch Tape Reel

Supply Take-up
reel Magnetic tape reel

Read/write
head assembly

Vacuum
columns

Tape loops
varying in
length

Ref Page 122 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 23/98

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Half-inch Tape Cartridge

Uses inch wide tape ribbon sealed in a cartridge

Has 36 tracks, as opposed to 9 tracks for most half-inch
tape reels
Stores data using parallel representation. Hence, 4 bytes
of data are stored across the width of the tape. This
enables more bytes of data to be stored on the same
length of tape
Tape drive reads/writes on the top half of the tape in
one direction and on the bottom half in the other
direction

Ref Page 122 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 24/98

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Half-inch Tape Cartridge

Ref Page 122 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 25/98

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Quarter-inch Streamer Tape

Uses inch wide tape ribbon sealed in a cartridge

Uses serial representation of data recording (data bits
are aligned in a row one after another in tracks)
Can have from 4 to 30 tracks, depending on the tape
drive
Depending on the tape drive, the read/write head
reads/writes data on one/two/four tracks at a time
Eliminates the need for the start/stop operation of
traditional tape drives

(Continued on next slide)

Ref Page 123 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 26/98

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Quarter-inch Streamer Tape

(Continued from previous slide..)

Can read/write data more efficiently than the

traditional tape drives because there is no start/stop
mechanism
Make more efficient utilization of tape storage area
than traditional tape drives because IBGs are not
needed
The standard data formats used in these tapes is
known as the QIC standard

Ref Page 123 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 27/98

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Quarter-inch Streamer Tape (Example)

Recording area Recording area

begins here ends here
Tracks
1 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 0.
2 ..
0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 1...
3 Unused Unused
4 portion portion
of the of the
5 tape tape
6

7
8

Ref Page 123 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 28/98

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

4mm Digital Audio Tape (DAT)

Uses 4mm wide tape ribbon sealed in a cartridge

Has very high data recording density
Uses a tape drive that uses helical scan technique for
data recording, in which two read heads and two write
heads are built into a small wheel
DAT drives use a data recording format called Digital
Data Storage (DDS), which provides three levels of
error-correcting code
Typical capacity of DAT cartridges varies from
4 GB to 14 GB

Ref Page 123 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 29/98

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

The Helical Scan Techniques

Used in DAT Drives

Write head B
Read head A
Spinning
Read head B
helical
scan

Write head A

Moving tape

Shaft

Ref Page 123 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 30/98

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Advantages of Magnetic Tapes

Storage capacity is virtually unlimited because as many

tapes as required can be used for storing very large
data sets
Cost per bit of storage is very low for magnetic tapes.
Tapes can be erased and reused many times
Tape reels and cartridges are compact and light in
weight
Easy to handle and store.
Very large amount of data can be stored in a small
storage space

(Continued on next slide)

Ref Page 123 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 31/98

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Advantages of Magnetic Tapes

(Continued from previous slide..)

Compact size and light weight

Magnetic tape reels and cartridges are also easily
portable from one place to another
Often used for transferring data and programs from
one computer to another that are not linked together

Ref Page 123 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 32/98

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Limitations of Magnetic Tapes

Due to their sequential access nature, they are not

suitable for storage of those data that frequently
require to be accessed randomly
Must be stored in a dust-free environment because
specks of dust can cause tape-reading errors
Must be stored in an environment with properly
controlled temperature and humidity levels
Tape ribbon may get twisted due to warping, resulting
in loss of stored data
Should be properly labeled so that some useful data
stored on a particular tape is not erased by mistake

Ref Page 123 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 33/98

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Uses of Magnetic Tapes

For applications that are based on sequential data

processing
Backing up of data for off-line storage
Archiving of infrequently used data
Transferring of data from one computer to another that
are not linked together
As a distribution media for software by vendors

Ref Page 124 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 34/98

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Magnetic Disk - Basics

Commonly used direct-access secondary storage device.

Physically, a magnetic disk is a thin, circular
plate/platter made of metal or plastic that is usually
coated on both sides with a magnetizable recording
material such as iron-oxide
Data are recorded on the disk in the form of tiny
invisible magnetized and non-magnetized spots
(representing 1s and 0s) on the coated surfaces of the
disk
The disk is stored in a specially designed protective
envelope or cartridge, or several of them are stacked
together in a sealed, contamination-free container

Ref Page 124 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 35/98

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Magnetic Disk Storage Organization

Illustrates the Concept of Tracks

200 Track 000

A disks surface is divided into
Tracks
a number of invisible
concentric circles called tracks

The tracks are numbered

consecutively from outermost
to innermost starting from
zero

Track
The number of tracks on a

199 disk may be as few as 40 on
small, low-capacity disks, to
several thousand on large,
high-capacity disks

Ref Page 125 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 36/98

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Magnetic Disk Storage Organization

Illustrates the Concept of Sectors

A sector

Each track of a disk is

subdivided into sectors

There are 8 or more

sectors per track

A sector typically contains

512 bytes

Disk drives are designed to

read/write only whole
sectors at a time

Ref Page 125 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 37/98

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Magnetic Disk Storage Organization

Illustrates Grouping of Tracks and Use of Different

Number of Sectors in Tracks of Different Groups for
Increased Storage Capacity

Innermost group of tracks

has 8 sectors/track

Next groups of tracks has

9 sectors/track

Outermost group of tracks

has 10 sectors/track

Ref Page 125 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 38/98

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Magnetic Disk Disk Address or

Address of a Record on a Disk

Disk address represents the physical location of the

record on the disk
It is comprised of the sector number, track number,
and surface number (when double-sided disks are
used)
This scheme is called the CHS addressing or Cylinder-
Head-Sector addressing. The same is also referred to
as disk geometry

Ref Page 126 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 39/98

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Magnetic Disk Storage Organization

(Illustrates the Concept of Cylinder)
Central shaft
Upper surface
not used
Read/Write head
Surface - 0 Direction of
Surface - 1 movement of
access arms
Surface - 2 assembly
Cylinder
Surface - 3

Access arms
Surface - 4
assembly
Surface - 5

Lower surface
not used

No. of disk platters = 4, No. of usable surfaces = 6. A set of corresponding

tracks on all the 6 surfaces is called a cylinder.

Ref Page 127 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 40/98

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Magnetic Disk Storage Capacity

Storage capacity of a disk system = Number of recording surfaces

Number of tracks per surface
Number of sectors per track
Number of bytes per sector

Ref Page 126 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 41/98

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Magnetic Disk Pack Access Mechanism

One read/write
head per surface Central shaft

Direction of
movement of
access arms
assembly

Access arms
assembly
Vertical cross section of a disk system. There is one read/write head per
recording surface

Ref Page 127 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 42/98

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Magnetic Disk Access Time

Disk access time is the interval between the instant a

computer makes a request for transfer of data from a
disk system to the primary storage and the instant this
operation is completed

Disk access time depends on the following three

parameters:

Seek Time: It is the time required to position the

read/write head over the desired track, as soon as
a read/write command is received by the disk unit

Latency: It is the time required to spin the desired

sector under the read/write head, once the
read/write head is positioned on the desired track

Ref Page 128 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 43/98

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Magnetic Disk Access Time

Transfer Rate: It is the rate at which data are

read/written to the disk, once the read/write head
is positioned over the desired sector

As the transfer rate is negligible as compared to seek

time and latency,

Average access time

= Average seek time + Average latency

Ref Page 128 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 44/98

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Disk Formatting

Process of preparing a new disk by the computer

system in which the disk is to be used.
For this, a new (unformatted) disk is inserted in the disk
drive of the computer system and the disk formatting
command is initiated
Low-level disk formatting
Disk drives read/write head lays down a magnetic
pattern on the disks surface
Enables the disk drive to organize and store the
data in the data organization defined for the disk
drive of the computer

(Continued on next slide)

Ref Page 129 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 45/98

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Disk Formatting
(Continued from previous slide..)

OS-level disk formatting

Creates the File Allocation Table (FAT) that is a
table with the sector and track locations of data
Leaves sufficient space for FAT to grow
Scans and marks bad sectors
One of the basic tasks handled by the computers
operating system
Enables the use of disks manufactured by third party
vendors into ones own computer system

Ref Page 129 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 46/98

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Magnetic Disk Disk Drive

Unit used for reading/writing of data on/from a

magnetic disk

Contains all the mechanical, electrical and

electronic components for holding one or more
disks and for reading or writing of information on
to it

(Continued on next slide)

Ref Page 129 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 47/98

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Magnetic Disk Disk Drive

(Continued from previous slide..)

Although disk drives vary greatly in their shape, size

and disk formatting pattern, they can be broadly
classified into two types:

Those with interchangeable magnetic disks,

which allow the loading and unloading of
magnetic disks as and when they are needed for
reading/writing of data on to them

Those with fixed magnetic disks, which come

along with a set of permanently fixed disks. The
disks are not removable from their disk drives

Ref Page 129 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 48/98

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Magnetic Disk Disk Controller

Disk drive is connected to and controlled by a disk

controller, which interprets the commands for
operating the disk drive
Typically supports only read and write commands,
which need disk address (surface number,
cylinder/track number, and sector number) as
parameters
Connected to and controls more than one disk drive, in
which case the disk drive number is also needed as a
parameters of read and write commands

Ref Page 130 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 49/98

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Types of Magnetic Disks

Magnetic Disks

Floppy Disks Hard Disks

Zip/Bernoulli Disks Disk Packs Winchester

Disks

Ref Page 130 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 50/98

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Floppy Disks

Round, flat piece of flexible plastic disks coated with

magnetic oxide
So called because they are made of flexible plastic
plates which can bend
Also known as floppies or diskettes
Plastic disk is encased in a square plastic or vinyl jacket
cover that gives handling protection to the disk surface

(Continued on next slide)

Ref Page 130 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 51/98

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Floppy Disks
(Continued from previous slide..)

The two types of floppy disks in use today are:

5-inch diskette, whose diameter is 5-inch.

It is encased in a square, flexible vinyl jacket

3-inch diskette, whose diameter is 3-inch.

It is encased in a square, hard plastic jacket

Most popular and inexpensive secondary storage

medium used in small computers

Ref Page 131 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 52/98

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

A 5-inch Floppy Disk

Users label for
Manufacturers
identification purpose
label

Write protect notch

Drive spindle
hole in disk
5 - inch

Drive access opening

in jacket

Aperture in the jacket

through which the
read/write head makes
direct contact with the
disk surface

5 - inch

A 5-inch floppy disk enclosed within jacket. The drive mechanism clamps
on to a portion of the disk exposed by the drive access opening in the jacket

Ref Page 131 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 53/98

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

A 3-inch Floppy Disk

Opening for inserting the
Light indicator disk inside the drive
(blinks when
read/write
operation takes Floppy disk
place) (a) Front view of a floppy disk eject button
drive.

Sliding metal
piece cover

3 - inch
Users label for
identification
Write-protect
plastic tab
3 - inch
(b) A 3 - inch floppy disk.

Ref Page 131 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 54/98

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Storage Capacities of Various Types of Floppy

Disks

Size No. of Approximate

(Diameter No. of No. of No. of Capacity
surfaces tracks sectors/track bytes/sector in bytes capacity
in inches)

5 2 40 9 512 3,68,640 360 KB

5 2 80 15 512 12,28,800 1.2 MB

3 2 40 18 512 7,37,280 720 KB

3 2 80 18 512 14,74,560 1.4 MB

3 2 80 36 512 29,49,120 2.88 MB

Ref Page 131 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 55/98

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Hard Disks

Round, flat piece of rigid metal (frequently aluminium)

disks coated with magnetic oxide
Come in many sizes, ranging from 1 to 14-inch
diameter.
Depending on how they are packaged, hard disks are of
three types:
Zip/Bernoulli disks
Disk packs
Winchester disks
Primary on-line secondary storage device for most
computer systems today

Ref Page 132 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 56/98

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Zip/Bernoulli Disks

Uses a single hard disk platter encased in a plastic

cartridge
Disk drives may be portable or fixed type
Fixed type is part of the computer system, permanently
connected to it
Portable type can be carried to a computer system,
connected to it for the duration of use, and then can be
disconnected and taken away when the work is done
Zip disks can be easily inserted/removed from a zip drive
just as we insert/remove floppy disks in a floppy disk
drive

Ref Page 132 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 57/98

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Disk Packs

Uses multiple (two or more) hard disk platters

mounted on a single central shaft
Disk drives have a separate read/write head for each
usable disk surface (the upper surface of the top-most
disk and the lower surface of the bottom most disk is
not used)
Disks are of removable/interchangeable type in the
sense that they have to be mounted on the disk drive
before they can be used, and can be removed and
kept off-line when not in use

Ref Page 132 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 58/98

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Computer Fundamentals:
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Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Winchester Disks

Uses multiple (two or more) hard disk platters

mounted on a single central shaft

Hard disk platters and the disk drive are sealed

together in a contamination-free container and cannot
be separated from each other

(Continued on next slide)

Ref Page 132 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 59/98

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Winchester Disks
(Continued from previous slide..)

For the same number of disks, Winchester disks have

larger storage capacity than disk packs because:

All the surfaces of all disks are used for data

recording

They employ much greater precision of data recording,

resulting in greater data recording density

Named after the .30-30 Winchester rifle because the

early Winchester disk systems had two 30-MB disks
sealed together with the disk drive

Ref Page 132 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 60/98

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Advantages of Magnetic Disks

More suitable than magnetic tapes for a wider range of

applications because they support direct access of data
Random access property enables them to be used
simultaneously by multiple users as a shared device. A
tape is not suitable for such type of usage due to its
sequential-access property
Suitable for both on-line and off-line storage of data

(Continued on next slide)

Ref Page 133 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 61/98

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Advantages of Magnetic Disks

(Continued from previous slide..)

Except for the fixed type Winchester disks, the storage

capacity of other magnetic disks is virtually unlimited
as many disks can be used for storing very large data
sets
Due to their low cost and high data recording densities,
the cost per bit of storage is low for magnetic disks.
An additional cost benefit is that magnetic disks can be
erased and reused many times
Floppy disks and zip disks are compact and light in
weight. Hence they are easy to handle and store.
Very large amount of data can be stored in a small
storage space

(Continued on next slide)

Ref Page 133 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 62/98

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Advantages of Magnetic Disks

Due to their compact size and light weight, floppy disks

and zip disks are also easily portable from one place to
another
They are often used for transferring data and programs
from one computer to another, which are not linked
together
Any information desired from a disk storage can be
accessed in a few milliseconds because it is a direct
access storage device

(Continued on next slide)

Ref Page 133 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 63/98

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Advantages of Magnetic Disks

(Continued from previous slide..)

Data transfer rate for a magnetic disk system is

normally higher than a tape system
Magnetic disks are less vulnerable to data corruption
due to careless handling or unfavorable temperature
and humidity conditions than magnetic tapes

Ref Page 133 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 64/98

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Limitations of Magnetic Disks

Although used for both random processing and

sequential processing of data, for applications of the
latter type, it may be less efficient than magnetic
tapes
More difficult to maintain the security of information
stored on shared, on-line secondary storage devices,
as compared to magnetic tapes or other types of
magnetic disks

(Continued on next slide)

Ref Page 134 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 65/98

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Limitations of Magnetic Disks

(Continued from previous slide..)

For Winchester disks, a disk crash or drive failure often

results in loss of entire stored data. It is not easy to
recover the lost data. Suitable backup procedures are
suggested for data stored on Winchester disks
Some types of magnetic disks, such as disk packs and
Winchester disks, are not so easily portable like
magnetic tapes
On a cost-per-bit basis, the cost of magnetic disks is
low, but the cost of magnetic tapes is even lower

(Continued on next slide)

Ref Page 134 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 66/98

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Limitations of Magnetic Disks

(Continued from previous slide..)

Must be stored in a dust-free environment

Floppy disks, zip disks and disk packs should be
labeled properly to prevent erasure of useful data by
mistake

Ref Page 134 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 67/98

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Uses of Magnetic Disks

For applications that are based on random data

processing
As a shared on-line secondary storage device.
Winchester disks and disk packs are often used for
this purpose
As a backup device for off-line storage of data. Floppy
disks, zip disks, and disk packs are often used for this
purpose

(Continued on next slide)

Ref Page 134 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 68/98

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Uses of Magnetic Disks

(Continued from previous slide..)

Archiving of data not used frequently, but may be

used once in a while. Floppy disks, zip disks, and
disk packs are often used for this purpose
Transferring of data and programs from one
computer to another that are not linked together.
Floppy disks and zip disks are often used for this
purpose
Distribution of software by vendors. Originally sold
software or software updates are often distributed by
vendors on floppy disks and zip disks

Ref Page 134 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 69/98

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Optical Disk Basics

Consists of a circular disk, which is coated with a thin

metal or some other material that is highly reflective
Laser beam technology is used for recording/reading
of data on the disk
Also known as laser disk / optical laser disk, due to
the use of laser beam technology
Proved to be a promising random access medium for
high capacity secondary storage because it can store
extremely large amounts of data in a limited space

Ref Page 134 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 70/98

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Optical Disk Storage Organization

Has one long spiral track, which starts at the outer edge
and spirals inward to the center
Track is divided into equal size sectors

(a) Track pattern on an optical disk (b) Track pattern on a magnetic disk

Difference in track patterns on optical and magnetic disks.

Ref Page 135 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 71/98

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Optical Disk Storage Capacity

Storage capacity of an optical disk

= Number of sectors
Number of bytes per sector

The most popular optical disk uses a disk of 5.25 inch

diameter with storage capacity of around 650 Megabytes

Ref Page 135 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 72/98

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Optical Disk Access Mechanism

Laser Laser
beam beam
source source

Prism Prism

Sensor Sensor
Laser beam gets Laser beam gets
scattered by a pit reflect by a land
(represents 0) (represents1)

Land Land
Pit Land
Pit Pit

Ref Page 136 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 73/98

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Optical Disk Access Time

With optical disks, each sector has the same length

regardless of whether it is located near or away from
the disks center
Rotation speed of the disk must vary inversely with
the radius. Hence, optical disk drives use a constant
linear velocity (CLV) encoding scheme
Leads to slower data access time (larger access time)
for optical disks than magnetic disks
Access times for optical disks are typically in the
range of 100 to 300 milliseconds and that of hard
disks are in the range of 10 to 30 milliseconds

Ref Page 137 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 74/98

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Optical Disk Drive

Uses laser beam technology for reading/writing of data

Has no mechanical read/write access arm
Uses a constant linear velocity (CLV) encoding scheme,
in which the rotational speed of the disk varies inversely
with the radius

Ref Page 136 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 75/98

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Optical Disk Drive

Volume control button used

Light
when the drive is used to Optical disk
indicator
play a music CD

A headphone socket Is placed on

enables the user to top of this
plug-in head-phones groove
and listen to recorded Tray eject Direction of
sound when the drive button movement of
is used to play music the tray
CDs. Optical disk tray

Ref Page 137 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 76/98

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Types of Optical Disks

The types of optical disks in use today are:

CD-ROM

Stands for Compact Disk-Read Only Memory

Packaged as shiny, silver color metal disk of 5
inch (12cm) diameter, having a storage capacity of
about 650 Megabytes
Disks come pre-recorded and the information
stored on them cannot be altered
Pre-stamped (pre-recorded) by their suppliers, by a
process called mastering

(Continued on next slide)

Ref Page 138 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 77/98

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Types of Optical Disks

(Continued from previous slide..)

Provide an excellent medium to distribute large

amounts of data in electronic dorm at low cost.
A single CD-ROM disk can hold a complete
encyclopedia, or a dictionary, or a world atlas, or
biographies of great people, etc
Used for distribution of electronic version of
conference proceedings, journals, magazines,
books, and multimedia applications such as video
games
Used by software vendors for distribution of
software to their customers

Ref Page 138 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 78/98

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Types of Optical Disks

WORM Disk / CD-Recordable (CD-R)

Stands for Write Once Read Many. Data can be written

only once on them, but can be read many times
Same as CD-ROM and has same storage capacity
Allow users to create their own CD-ROM disks by using
a CD-recordable (CD-R) drive that can be attached to
a computer as a regular peripheral device
Data to be recorded can be written on its surface in
multiple recording sessions

(Continued on next slide)

Ref Page 138 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 79/98

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Types of Optical Disks

(Continued from previous slide..)

Sessions after the first one are always additive

and cannot alter the etched/burned information of
earlier sessions
Information recorded on them can be read by any
ordinary CD-ROM drive
They are used for data archiving and for making a
permanent record of data. For example, many
banks use them for storing their daily transactions

Ref Page 138 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 80/98

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Types of Optical Disks

CD-Read/Write (CD-RW)

Same as CD-R and has same storage capacity

Allow users to create their own CD-ROM disks by
using a CD-recordable (CD-R) drive that can be
attached to a computer as a regular peripheral
device
Data to be recorded can be written on its surface in
multiple recording sessions
Made of metallic alloy layer whose chemical
properties are changed during burn and erase
Can be erased and written afresh

Ref Page 138 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 81/98

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Types of Optical Disks

Digital Video / Versatile Disk (DVD)

Looks same as CD-ROM but has capacity of 4.7 GB or

8.5 GB
Designed primarily to store and distribute movies
Can be used for storage of large data
Allows storage of video in 4:3 or 16:9 aspect-ratios in
MPEG-2 video format using NTSC or PAL resolution
Audio is usually Dolby Digital (AC-3) or Digital
Theater System (DTS) and can be either monaural or
5.1 Surround Sound

Ref Page 138 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 82/98

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Advantages of Optical Disks

The cost-per-bit of storage for optical disks is very low

because of their low cost and enormous storage density.
The use of a single spiral track makes optical disks an ideal
storage medium for reading large blocks of sequential data,
such as music.
Optical disk drives do not have any mechanical read/write
heads to rub against or crash into the disk surface. This
makes optical disks a more reliable storage medium than
magnetic tapes or magnetic disks.
Optical disks have a data storage life in excess of 30 years.
This makes them a better storage medium for data
archiving as compared to magnetic tapes or magnetic disks.

Ref Page 139 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 83/98

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Advantages of Optical Disks

As data once stored on an optical disk becomes

permanent, danger of stored data getting
inadvertently erased/overwritten is removed
Due to their compact size and light weight, optical
disks are easy to handle, store, and port from one
place to another
Music CDs can be played on a computer having a CD-
ROM drive along with a sound board and speakers.
This allows computer systems to be also used as
music systems

Ref Page 139 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 84/98

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Limitations of Optical Disks

It is largely read-only (permanent) storage medium.

Data once recorded, cannot be erased and hence the
optical disks cannot be reused
The data access speed for optical disks is slower than
magnetic disks
Optical disks require a complicated drive mechanism

Ref Page 139 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 85/98

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Uses of Optical Disks

For distributing large amounts of data at low cost

For distribution of electronic version of conference
proceedings, journals, magazines, books, product
catalogs, etc
For distribution of new or upgraded versions of
software products by software vendors

(Continued on next slide)

Ref Page 140 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 86/98

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Uses of Optical Disks

(Continued from previous slide..)

For storage and distribution of a wide variety of

multimedia applications
For archiving of data, which are not used frequently,
but which may be used once in a while
WORM disks are often used by end-user companies to
make permanent storage of their own proprietary
information

Ref Page 140 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 87/98

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Memory Storage Devices

Flash Drive (Pen Drive)

Relatively new secondary storage device based on

flash memory, enabling easy transport of data from
one computer to another
Compact device of the size of a pen, comes in
various shapes and stylish designs and may have
different added features
Plug-and-play device that simply plugs into a USB
(Universal Serial Bus) port of a computer, treated as
removable drive
Available storage capacities are 8MB, 16MB, 64MB,
128MB, 256MB, 512MB, 1GB, 2GB, 4GB, and 8GB

Ref Page 140 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 88/98

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Memory Storage Devices

Memory Card (SD/MMC)

Similar to Flash Drive but in card shape

Plug-and-play device that simply plugs into a port
of a computer, treated as removable drive
Useful in electronic devices like Camera, music
player
Available storage capacities are 8MB, 16MB, 64MB,
128MB, 256MB, 512MB, 1GB, 2GB, 4GB, and 8GB

Ref Page 141 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 89/98

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Mass Storage Devices

As the name implies, these are storage systems

having several trillions of bytes of data storage
capacity
They use multiple units of a storage media as a single
secondary storage device
The three commonly used types are:
1. Disk array, which uses a set of magnetic disks
2. Automated tape library, which uses a set of
magnetic tapes
3. CD-ROM Jukebox, which uses a set of CD-ROMs
They are relatively slow having average access times
in seconds

Ref Page 142 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 90/98

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Disk Array

Set of hard disks and hard disk drives with a

controller mounted in a single box, forming a single
large storage unit
It is commonly known as a RAID (Redundant Array
of Inexpensive Disks)
As a secondary storage device, provides enhanced
storage capacity, enhanced performance, and
enhanced reliability

Ref Page 142 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 91/98

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Disk Array

Enhanced storage capacity is achieved by using

multiple disks
Enhanced performance is achieved by using parallel
data transfer technique from multiple disks
Enhanced reliability is achieved by using techniques
such as mirroring or striping
In mirroring, the system makes exact copies of files
on two hard disks
In striping, a file is partitioned into smaller parts and
different parts of the file are stored on different disks

Ref Page 142 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 92/98

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

A RAID Unit

Multiple
disks

RAID Controller

Computer

Ref Page 142 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 93/98

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Automated Tape Library

Set of magnetic tapes and magnetic tape drives with

a controller mounted in a single box, forming a
single large storage unit
Large tape library can accommodate up to several
hundred high capacity magnetic tapes bringing the
storage capacity of the storage unit to several
terabytes
Typically used for data archiving and as on-line data
backup devices for automated backup in large
computer centers

Ref Page 142 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 94/98

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

CD-ROM Jukebox

Set of CD-ROMs and CD-ROM drives with a

controller mounted in a single box, forming a single
large storage unit
Large CD-ROM jukebox can accommodate up to
several hundred CD-ROM disks bringing the storage
capacity of the storage unit to several terabytes
Used for archiving read-only data in such
applications as on-line museums, on-line digital
libraries, on-line encyclopedia, etc

Ref Page 143 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 95/98

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Storage Hierarchy
As a single type of storage is not superior in speed of access, capacity, and
cost, most computer systems make use of a hierarchy of storage
technologies as shown below.

Smaller capacity, faster Cache Larger capacity,

access time, and higher memory slower access time,
cost per bit stored Main and lower cost per
memory bit stored
On-line, direct-access and
sequential-access secondary
storage device such as hard disk
Off-line, direct-access and sequential-access
secondary storage devices such as magnetic
tape, floppy disk, zip disk, WORM disk, etc.
Mass storage devices such as tape library, CD juke box, etc.

Ref Page 144 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 96/98

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Key Words/Phrases

Automated tape library Floppy disk

Auxiliary memory Hard disk
Block Inter-block gap (IBG)
Blocking Inter-record gap (IRG)
Blocking factory Land
CD-ROM Latency
CD-ROM jukebox Magnetic disk
Check bit Magnetic tape
Cylinder Magnetic tape drive
Data transfer rate Mass storage devices
Direct access device Master file
Disk array Odd parity
Disk controller Off-line storage
Disk drive On-line storage
Disk formatting Optical disk
Disk pack Parallel representation
DVD Parity bit
Even parity Pit
File Allocation Tube (FAT)

(Continued on next slide)

Ref Page 144 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 97/98

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Key Words/Phrases
(Continued from previous slide..)

QIC Standard
Record
Redundant Array of Inexpensive Disks (RAID)
Secondary storage
Sector
Seek time
Sequential access device
Storage hierarchy
Tape controller
Track
Transaction file
Winchester disk
WORM disk
Zip disk

Ref Page 144 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 98/98

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
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Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Ref Page Chapter 9: Input-Output Devices Slide 1/58

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Learning Objectives

In this chapter you will learn about:

Input/Output (I/O) devices

Commonly used input devices
Commonly used output devices
Other concepts related to I/O devices

Ref Page 148 Chapter 9: Input-Output Devices Slide 2/58

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

I/O Devices

Provide means of communication between a computer

and outer world
Also known as peripheral devices because they
surround the CPU and memory of a computer system
Input devices are used to enter data from the outside
world into primary storage
Output devices supply results of processing from
primary storage to users

Ref Page 148 Chapter 9: Input-Output Devices Slide 3/58

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
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Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Role of I/O Devices

Input Results of
data CPU processing
Input Output
from and in human
Devices Devices
external Memory acceptable
world form

Input data coded Processed data

in internal form in internal form

Ref Page 148 Chapter 9: Input-Output Devices Slide 4/58

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
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Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Commonly Used Input Devices

Keyboard devices
Point-and-draw devices
Data scanning devices
Digitizer
Electronic cards based devices
Speech recognition devices
Vision based devices

Ref Page 149 Chapter 9: Input-Output Devices Slide 5/58

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
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Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Keyboard Devices

Allow data entry into a computer system by pressing a

set of keys (labeled buttons) neatly mounted on a
keyboard connected to a computer system
101-keys QWERTY keyboard is most popular

Ref Page 149 Chapter 9: Input-Output Devices Slide 6/58

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
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Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
The Layout of Keys on a
QWERTY Keyboard

Print Screen Scroll Screen Pause

Esc F1 F2 F3 F4 F5 F6 F7 F8 F9 F10 F11 F12 Num Lock Caps Lock Scroll Lock

! @ # 3 $ % ^ & * ( ) _ + Page Up Num Lock

~
- Backspace Insert Home / * -
` 1 2 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 =

Q W E R T Y U I O P { } |
Delete
Page Down 7 8 9

Tab [ ] \ End Pg Up
Home

A S : 4 6
Caps Lock D F G H J K L Enter 5
;

< > ? ? 1 2 3
Z X C V B N M Shift
Shift , . / / End Pg Dn
Enter
0 .
Ctrl Alt Alt Ctrl Ins
Del

Ref Page 149 Chapter 9: Input-Output Devices Slide 7/58

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
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Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Point-and-Draw Devices

Used to rapidly point to and select a graphic icon or

menu item from multiple options displayed on the
Graphical User Interface (GUI) of a screen
Used to create graphic elements on the screen such as
lines, curves, and freehand shapes
Some commonly used point-and-draw devices are
mouse, track ball, joy stick, light pen, and touch screen

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Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Mouse

Commonly used in personal computers and workstations

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Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Trackball

Click buttons

Ball to be
rolled with
fingers

Commonly used in laptop (notebook) computers

Ref Page 151 Chapter 9: Input-Output Devices Slide 10/58

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Computer Fundamentals:
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Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Joystick

Click button

Stick

Light
Ball
indicator Socket

Commonly used for video games, flight simulators,

training simulators, and for controlling industrial robots

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Computer Fundamentals:
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Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Electronic Pen

Pen-based point-and-draw device

Used to directly point with it on the screen to select
menu items or icons or directly draw graphics on the
screen
Can write with it on a special pad for direct input of
written information to a system
Pressure on tip of a side button is used to cause same
action as right-button-click of a mouse

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Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Touch Screen

Most simple, intuitive, and easiest to learn of all input

devices
Enables users to choose from available options by simply
touching with their finger the desired icon or menu item
displayed on the screen
Most preferred human-computer interface used in
information kiosks (unattended interactive information
systems such as automatic teller machine or ATM)

Ref Page 152 Chapter 9: Input-Output Devices Slide 13/58

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Computer Fundamentals:
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Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Data Scanning Devices

Input devices that enable direct data entry into a computer

system from source documents
Eliminate the need to key in text data into the computer
Due to reduced human effort in data entry, they improve
data accuracy and also increase the timeliness of the
information processed
Demand high quality of input documents
Some data scanning devices are also capable of recognizing
marks or characters
Form design and ink specification usually becomes more
critical for accuracy

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Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Image Scanner

Input device that translates paper documents into an

electronic format for storage in a computer
Electronic format of a scanned image is its bit map
representation
Stored image can be altered or manipulated with an
image-processing software

Ref Page 153 Chapter 9: Input-Output Devices Slide 15/58

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Computer Fundamentals:
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Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Two Common Types of Image Scanners

A flat-bed scanner A hand-held scanner

Ref Page 153 Chapter 9: Input-Output Devices Slide 16/58

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Computer Fundamentals:
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Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Optical Character
Recognition (OCR) Device

Scanner equipped with a character recognition software

(called OCR software) that converts the bit map images
of characters to equivalent ASCII codes
Enables word processing of input text and also requires
less storage for storing the document as text rather than
an image
OCR software is extremely complex because it is difficult
to make a computer recognize an unlimited number of
typefaces and fonts
Two standard OCR fonts are OCR-A (American standard)
and OCR-B (European standard)

Ref Page 154 Chapter 9: Input-Output Devices Slide 17/58

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Computer Fundamentals:
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Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Optical Mark Reader (OMR)

Scanner capable of recognizing a pre-specified type of

mark by pencil or pen
Very useful for grading tests with objective type
questions, or for any input data that is of a choice or
selection nature
Technique used for recognition of marks involves focusing
a light on the page being scanned and detecting the
reflected light pattern from the marks

Ref Page 155 Chapter 9: Input-Output Devices Slide 18/58

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Computer Fundamentals:
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Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Sample Use of OMR

For each question, four options are given out of which only one is
correct. Choose the correct option and mark your choice against
the corresponding question number in the given answer sheet by
darkening the corresponding circle with a lead pencil.

1. The binary equivalent of decimal 4 is:

a) 101
b) 111
c) 001
d) 100
Indicates direction in which the
2. The full form of CPU is: sheet should be fed to the OMR
a) Cursor Positioning Unit
b) Central Power Unit 1.
c) Central Processing Unit a b c d
d) None of the above 2.
a b c d
3. Which is the largest unit of storage among the following:
a) Terabyte 3.
b) Kilobyte a b c d
c) Megabyte
d) Gigabyte (b) Pre-printed answer sheet

(a) Question sheet

A sample use of OMR for grading tests with objective type questions

Ref Page 155 Chapter 9: Input-Output Devices Slide 19/58

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Computer Fundamentals:
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Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Bar-code Reader

Scanner used for reading (decoding) bar-coded

data
Bar codes represent alphanumeric data by a
combination of adjacent vertical lines (bars) by
varying their width and the spacing between them
Scanner uses laser-beam to stroke across pattern
of bar code. Different patterns of bars reflect the
beam in different ways sensed by a light-sensitive
detector
Universal Product Code (UPC) is the most widely
known bar coding system

Ref Page 155 Chapter 9: Input-Output Devices Slide 20/58

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Computer Fundamentals:
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Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

An Example of UPC Bar Code

Product category character

0 grocery products
3 drugs and health related 0
products, etc.

21000 67520

Manufacturer/supplier
identification number Specific product code
number

Ref Page 156 Chapter 9: Input-Output Devices Slide 21/58

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
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Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Magnetic-Ink Character Recognition (MICR)

MICR is used by banking industry for faster processing

of large volume of cheques
Banks identification code (name, branch, etc.), account
number and cheque number are pre-printed (encoded)
using characters from a special character set on all
cheques
Special ink is used that contains magnetizable particles
of iron oxide
MICR reader-sorter reads data on cheques and sorts
them for distribution to other banks or for further
processing

Ref Page 156 Chapter 9: Input-Output Devices Slide 22/58

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Computer Fundamentals:
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Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

MICR Character Set (E13B Font)

It consists of numerals 0 to 9 and four special characters

MICR is not adopted by other industries because it supports only
14 symbols

Ref Page 157 Chapter 9: Input-Output Devices Slide 23/58

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Computer Fundamentals:
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Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Digitizer

Input device used for converting (digitizing) pictures,

maps and drawings into digital form for storage in
computers
Commonly used in the area of Computer Aided
Design (CAD) by architects and engineers to design
cars, buildings medical devices, robots, mechanical
parts, etc.
Used in the area of Geographical Information System
(GIS) for digitizing maps available in paper form

Ref Page 157 Chapter 9: Input-Output Devices Slide 24/58

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Computer Fundamentals:
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Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

A Digitizer
Digitizing tablet
Stylus in the form
of cross-hair cursor

Table top

Ref Page 158 Chapter 9: Input-Output Devices Slide 25/58

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Computer Fundamentals:
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Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Electronic-card Reader

Electronic cards are small plastic cards having encoded

data appropriate for the application for which they are
used
Electronic-card reader (normally connected to a
computer) is used to read data encoded on an
electronic card and transfer it to the computer for
further processing
Used together as a means of direct data entry into a
computer system
Used by banks for use in automatic teller machines
(ATMs) and by organizations for controlling access of
employees to physically secured areas

Ref Page 158 Chapter 9: Input-Output Devices Slide 26/58

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Computer Fundamentals:
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Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Speech Recognition Devices

Input device that allows a person to input data to a

computer system by speaking to it
Todays speech recognition systems are limited to
accepting few words within a relatively small
domain and can be used to enter only limited kinds
and quantities of data

Ref Page 158 Chapter 9: Input-Output Devices Slide 27/58

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
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Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Types of Speech Recognition Systems

(Continued from previous slide..)

Single word recognition systems can recognize only a

single spoken words, such as YES, NO, MOVE, STOP, at
a time. Speaker-independent systems are mostly of
this type
Continuous speech recognition systems can recognize
spoken sentences, such as MOVE TO THE NEXT
BLOCK. Such systems are normally speaker-
dependent

Ref Page 158 Chapter 9: Input-Output Devices Slide 28/58

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Computer Fundamentals:
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Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Uses of Speech Recognition Systems

For inputting data to a computer system by a person in

situations where his/her hands are busy, or his/her eyes
must be fixed on a measuring instrument or some other
object
For data input by dictation of long text or passage for
later editing and review
For authentication of a user by a computer system based
on voice input
For limited use of computers by individuals with physical
disabilities

Ref Page 159 Chapter 9: Input-Output Devices Slide 29/58

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Computer Fundamentals:
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Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Vision-Input Systems

Allow computer to accept input just by seeing an object.

Input data is normally an objects shape and features in
the form of an image
Mainly used today in factories for designing industrial
robots that are used for quality-control and assembly
processes

Ref Page 159 Chapter 9: Input-Output Devices Slide 30/58

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Computer Fundamentals:
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Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Commonly Used Output Devices

Monitors
Printers
Plotters
Screen image projector
Voice response systems

Ref Page 160 Chapter 9: Input-Output Devices Slide 31/58

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Computer Fundamentals:
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Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Types of Output

Soft-copy output
Not produced on a paper or some material that can be touched
and carried for being shown to others
Temporary in nature and vanish after use
Examples are output displayed on a terminal screen or spoken out
by a voice response system
Hard-copy output
Produced on a paper or some material that can be touched and
carried for being shown to others
Permanent in nature and can be kept in paper files or can be
looked at a later time when the person is not using the computer
Examples are output produced by printers or plotters on paper

Ref Page 160 Chapter 9: Input-Output Devices Slide 32/58

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
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Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Monitors

Monitors are the most popular output devices used for

producing soft-copy output
Display the output on a television like screen
Monitor associated with a keyboard is called a video
display terminal (VDT). It is the most popular I/O
device

Ref Page 160 Chapter 9: Input-Output Devices Slide 33/58

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
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Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Monitors

Monitor

Keyboard

A video display terminal consists of a monitor and a keyboard

Ref Page 160 Chapter 9: Input-Output Devices Slide 34/58

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
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Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Types of Monitors

Cathode-ray-tube (CRT) monitors look like a television

and are normally used with non-portable computer
systems
Flat-panel monitors are thinner and lighter and are
commonly used with portable computer systems like
notebook computers. Now they are also used with non-
portable desktop computer systems because they
occupy less table space.

Ref Page 160 Chapter 9: Input-Output Devices Slide 35/58

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Computer Fundamentals:
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Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Printers

Most common output devices for producing hard-copy

output

Ref Page 160 Chapter 9: Input-Output Devices Slide 36/58

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Dot-Matrix Printers

Character printers that form characters and all kinds of

images as a pattern of dots
Print many special characters, different sizes of print and
graphics such as charts and graphs
Impact printers can be used for generating multiple copies
by using carbon paper or its equivalent
Slow, with speeds usually ranging between 30 to 600
characters per second
Cheap in both initial cost and cost of operation

Ref Page 161 Chapter 9: Input-Output Devices Slide 37/58

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Formation of Characters as a pattern of dots

ABCDEFGHIJKLMNO
PQRSTUVWXYZ
0123456789-.,
&/$*#%@=(+)

Ref Page 161 Chapter 9: Input-Output Devices Slide 38/58

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
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Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

A Dot Matrix Printer

Ref Page 161 Chapter 9: Input-Output Devices Slide 39/58

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Inkjet Printers

Character printers that form characters and all kinds of

images by spraying small drops of ink on to the paper
Print head contains up to 64 tiny nozzles that can be
selectively heated up in a few micro seconds by an
integrated circuit register
To print a character, the printer selectively heats the
appropriate set of nozzles as the print head moves
horizontally
Can print many special characters, different sizes of print,
and graphics such as charts and graphs

(Continued on next slide)

Ref Page 161 Chapter 9: Input-Output Devices Slide 40/58

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Inkjet Printers
(Continued from previous slide..)

Non-impact printers. Hence, they cannot produce

multiple copies of a document in a single printing
Can be both monochrome and color
Slower than dot-matrix printers with speeds usually
ranging between 40 to 300 characters per second
More expensive than a dot-matrix printer

Ref Page 162 Chapter 9: Input-Output Devices Slide 41/58

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Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

An Inkjet Printers

Ref Page 162 Chapter 9: Input-Output Devices Slide 42/58

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Drum Printers

Line printers that print one line at a time

Have a solid cylindrical drum with characters embossed
on its surface in the form of circular bands
Set of hammers mounted in front of the drum in such a
manner that an inked ribbon and paper can be placed
between the hammers and the drum
Can only print a pre-defined set of characters in a pre-
defined style that is embossed on the drum
Impact printers and usually monochrome
Typical speeds are in the range of 300 to 2000 lines per
minute

Ref Page 162 Chapter 9: Input-Output Devices Slide 43/58

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Printing Mechanism of a Drum Printer

Hammers (one for each band)

Paper
Ribbon

WW W WWWWWWWWWWW
V V V V V V V V V V VV V V
Solid U U U U U U U U U U U U U U

cylindrical T T T T T T T T T T T T T T
S S S S S S S S S S S S S S
drum with R R R R R R R R R R R R R R
embossed QQ Q Q Q Q Q Q Q Q Q Q Q Q
characters P P P P P P P P P P P P P P
O O O O O O O O O O O O O O
N N N N N N N N N N NN N N

Total number of bands is equal to the maximum

number of characters (print positions) on a line

Ref Page 163 Chapter 9: Input-Output Devices Slide 44/58

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Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Chain/Band Printers

Line printers that print one line at a time

Consist of a metallic chain/band on which all
characters of the character set supported by the
printer are embossed
Also have a set of hammers mounted in front of
the chain/band in such a manner that an inked
ribbon and paper can be placed between the
hammers and the chain/band

Ref Page 163 Chapter 9: Input-Output Devices Slide 45/58

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Chain/Band Printers

Can only print pre-defined sets of characters that

are embossed on the chain/band used with the
printer
Cannot print any shape of characters, different
sizes of print, and graphics such as charts and
graphs
Are impact printers and can be used for generating
multiple copies by using carbon paper or its
equivalent
Are usually monochrome
Typical speeds are in the range of 400 to 3000
lines per minute

Ref Page 164 Chapter 9: Input-Output Devices Slide 46/58

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Laser Printers

Page printers that print one page at a time

Consist of a laser beam source, a multi-sided mirror, a
photoconductive drum and toner (tiny particles of oppositely
charged ink)
To print a page, the laser beam is focused on the electro
statically charged drum by the spinning multi-sided mirror
Toner sticks to the drum in the places the laser beam has
charged the drums surface.
Toner is then permanently fused on the paper with heat and
pressure to generate the printer output
Laser printers produce very high quality output having
resolutions in the range of 600 to 1200 dpi

(Continued on next slide)

Ref Page 164 Chapter 9: Input-Output Devices Slide 47/58

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Laser Printers
(Continued from previous slide..)

Can print many special characters, different sizes of

print, and graphics such as charts and graphs
Are non-impact printers
Most laser printers are monochrome, but color laser
printers are also available
Low speed laser printers can print 4 to 12 pages per
minute. Very high-speed laser printers can print 500
to 1000 pages per minute
More expensive than other printers

Ref Page 165 Chapter 9: Input-Output Devices Slide 48/58

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
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Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

A Laser Printers

Ref Page 164 Chapter 9: Input-Output Devices Slide 49/58

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Plotters

Plotters are an ideal output device for architects,

engineers, city planners, and others who need to
routinely generate high-precision, hard-copy graphic
output of widely varying sizes
Two commonly used types of plotters are:
Drum plotter, in which the paper on which the
design has to be made is placed over a drum that
can rotate in both clockwise and anti-clockwise
directions
Flatbed plotter, in which the paper on which the
design has to be made is spread and fixed over a
rectangular flatbed table

Ref Page 165 Chapter 9: Input-Output Devices Slide 50/58

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
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Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

A Drum Plotter

Paper

Design drawn
on the paper

Ref Page 166 Chapter 9: Input-Output Devices Slide 51/58

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

A Flatbed Plotter

Design
drawn on
the paper

Paper

Ref Page 166 Chapter 9: Input-Output Devices Slide 52/58

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
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Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Screen Image Projector

An output device that can be directly plugged to a

computer system for projecting information from a
computer on to a large screen
Useful for making presentations to a group of people
with direct use of a computer
Full-fledged multimedia presentation with audio,
video, image, and animation can be prepared and
made using this facility

Ref Page 166 Chapter 9: Input-Output Devices Slide 53/58

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Computer Fundamentals:
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Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Voice Response Systems

Voice response system enables a computer to talk to

a user
Has an audio-response device that produces audio
output
Such systems are of two types:
Voice reproduction systems
Speech synthesizers

(Continued on next slide)

Ref Page 167 Chapter 9: Input-Output Devices Slide 54/58

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Voice Reproduction Systems

(Continued from previous slide..)

Produce audio output by selecting an appropriate

audio output from a set of pre-recorded audio
responses
Applications include audio help for guiding how
to operate a system, automatic answering
machines, video games, etc.

Ref Page 167 Chapter 9: Input-Output Devices Slide 55/58

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
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Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Speech Synthesizers

Converts text information into spoken sentences

Used for applications such as:
Reading out text information to blind persons
Allowing those persons who cannot speak to
communicate effectively
Translating an entered text into spoken words in
a selected language

Ref Page 168 Chapter 9: Input-Output Devices Slide 56/58

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
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Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Key Words/Phrases

Bard code reader Information Kiosk

Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) Inkjet printer
Chain/Band printer Input/Output device
Data scanning device Joystick
Digitizer Keyboard device
Digitizing tablet Laser printer
Dot-Matrix printer Magnetic-Ink Character Recognition (MICR)
Drum plotter Monitor
Drum printer Mouse
Electronic card reader Optical Character Recognition (OCR)
Electronic Pen Optical Mark Reader (OMR)
Flatbed plotter Peripheral device
Flatbed Scanner Phonemes
Graphical User Interface Plotter
Hand-held scanner Point-and-draw device
Hard-copy output Printer
Image Scanner QWERTY keyboard
Screen Image Projector

(Continued on next slide)

Ref Page 168 Chapter 9: Input-Output Devices Slide 57/58

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Computer Fundamentals:
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Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Key Words/Phrases
(Continued from previous slide..)

Soft-copy output
Speech synthesizer
Stylus
Touch Screen
Trackball
Universal Product Code (UPC)
Video Display Terminal (VDT)
Vision-input system
Voice recognition device
Voice reproduction system
Voice response system

Ref Page 168 Chapter 9: Input-Output Devices Slide 58/58

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
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Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Ref Page Chapter 10: Computer Software Slide 1/17

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Learning Objectives

In this chapter you will learn about:

Term Software and its relationship with Hardware

Various types of software and their examples
Relationship among hardware, system software,
application software, and users of a computer system
Different ways of acquiring software
Various steps involved in software development
Firmware
Middleware

Ref Page 172 Chapter 10: Computer Software Slide 2/17

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
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Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Software

Hardware refers to the physical devices of a

computer system.
Software refers to a collection of programs
Program is a sequence of instructions written in a
language that can be understood by a computer
Software package is a group of programs that solve
a specific problem or perform a specific type of job

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 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Relationship Between Hardware and

Software

Both hardware and software are necessary for a

computer to do useful job. They are complementary
to each other
Same hardware can be loaded with different software
to make a computer system perform different types
of jobs
Except for upgrades, hardware is normally a one-
time expense, whereas software is a continuing
expense
Upgrades refer to renewing or changing components
like increasing the main memory, or hard disk
capacities, or adding speakers, modems, etc.

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Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Types of Software

Most software can be divided into two major categories:

System software are designed to control the
operation and extend the processing capability of a
computer system
Application software are designed to solve a
specific problem or to do a specific task

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 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

System Software

Make the operation of a computer system more effective

and efficient

Help hardware components work together and provide

support for the development and execution of application
software

Programs included in a system software package are

called system programs and programmers who
prepare them are called system programmers

Examples of system software are operating systems,

programming language translators, utility programs, and
communications software

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Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Application Software

Solve a specific problem or do a specific task

Programs included in an application software
package are called application programs and the
programmers who prepare them are called
application programmers
Examples of application software are word
processing, inventory management, preparation of
tax returns, banking, etc.

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 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Logical System Architecture

HARDWARE
(Physical devices/components
of the computer system)

SYSTEM SOFTWARE
(Software that constitute the operating and
programming environment of the computer system)

APPLICATION SOFTWARE
(Software that do a specific task or solve a specific problem)

USERS
(Normally interact with the system via the user
interface provided by the application software)

Relationship among hardware, system software, application software, and users of a

computer system.

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Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Ways of Acquiring Software

Buying pre-written software

Ordering customized software
Developing customized software
Downloading public-domain software

Each of these ways of acquiring software has its own

advantages and limitations

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 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Advantages and Limitations of
Buying Pre-written Software

Usually costs less

Planned activity can be stared almost immediately
Often, operating efficiency and the capability to meet
specific needs of user more effectively in not as good
for pre-written software packages as for in-house
developed software packages

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Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Advantages & Limitations of Ordering

Customized Software

User need not maintain its own software development team,

which is an expensive affair
User needs to always depend on the vendor for carrying out
the changes and the vendor may separately charge for
every request for change

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 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Advantages & Limitations of Developing

Customized Software

Easier to carry out changes in the software, if it is

developed in-house
Developing software in-house means a major
commitment of time, money, and resources
In-house software development team needs to be
maintained and managed

Ref Page 177 Chapter 10: Computer Software Slide 12/17

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Advantage & Limitations of Downloading

Public-domain Software

Available for free or as shareware, and are usually accompanied

with source code
Usually community-supported as author does not support users
directly
Can be downloaded and used immediately
They may not be properly tested before release
Open Source Software (OSS) are becoming popular due to:
Allows any user to download, view, modify, and redistribute
User can fix bugs or change software to suit needs
Copyright is protected for both original and subsequent
authors
Not all open source software are free and vise-verse

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 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Software Development Steps

Developing a software and putting it to use is a complex

process and involves following steps:
Analyzing the problem at hand and planning the
program(s) to solve the problem
Coding the program(s)
Testing, debugging, and documenting the program(s)
Implementing the program(s)
Evaluating and maintaining the program(s)

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 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Firmware

Firmware is software substituted for hardware and stored

in read-only memory
Firmware technology has enabled production of various
types of smart machines having microprocessor chips
with embedded software

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 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Middleware

Basic idea is to have a separate software layer to:

Act as glue between client and server parts of
application
Provide programming abstraction
Mask heterogeneity of underlying network, hardware,
and OS
Encourages three-tier software architecture against two-
tier popularized by Server-Client architecture

Ref Page 179 Chapter 10: Computer Software Slide 16/17

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Key Words/Phrases

Application programmers Pre-written software

Application programs Public-domain software
Application software Shareware
Computer program Software
Customized software Software package
Database Spreadsheet
Education software System programmers
End-to-end solution System programs
Entertainment software System software
Firmware Turnkey solution
Graphics software User-supported
Hardware software
Middleware Utilities
Open Source Software Word-processing
Personal assistance software

Ref Page 181 Chapter 10: Computer Software Slide 17/17

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Ref Page Chapter 11: Planning the Computer Program Slide 1/44
 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Learning Objectives

In this chapter you will learn about:

Programs must be planned before they are written

Algorithm
Flowchart
Pseudocode
Plan the logic of a computer program
Commonly used tools for program planning and
their use

Ref Page 183 Chapter 11: Planning the Computer Program Slide 2/44
 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Purpose of Program Planning

To write a correct program, a programmer must write

each and every instruction in the correct sequence
Logic (instruction sequence) of a program can be very
complex
Hence, programs must be planned before they are
written to ensure program instructions are:
Appropriate for the problem
In the correct sequence

Ref Page 183 Chapter 11: Planning the Computer Program Slide 3/44
 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Algorithm

Refers to the logic of a program and a step-by-step

description of how to arrive at the solution of a given
problem
In order to qualify as an algorithm, a sequence of
instructions must have following characteristics:
Each and every instruction should be precise and
unambiguous
Each instruction should be such that it can be performed in
a finite time
One or more instructions should not be repeated infinitely.
This ensures that the algorithm will ultimately terminate
After performing the instructions, that is after the algorithm
terminates, the desired results must be obtained

Ref Page 184 Chapter 11: Planning the Computer Program Slide 4/44
 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Sample Algorithm (Example 1)

There are 50 students in a class who appeared in their

final examination. Their mark sheets have been given to
you.

The division column of the mark sheet contains the

division (FIRST, SECOND, THIRD or FAIL) obtained by the
student.

Write an algorithm to calculate and print the total number

of students who passed in FIRST division.

Ref Page 184 Chapter 11: Planning the Computer Program Slide 5/44
 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Sample Algorithm (Example 1)

(contd)
Step 1: Initialize Total_First_Division and
Total_Marksheets_Checked to zero.

Step 2: Take the mark sheet of the next student.

Step 3: Check the division column of the mark sheet to see if it is

FIRST, if no, go to Step 5.

Step 4: Add 1 to Total_First_Division.

Step 5: Add 1 to Total_Marksheets_Checked.

Step 6: Is Total_Marksheets_Checked = 50, if no, go to Step 2.

Step 7: Print Total_First_Division.

Step 8: Stop.

Ref Page 184 Chapter 11: Planning the Computer Program Slide 6/44
 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Sample Algorithm (Example 2)

There are 100 employees in an organization. The organization

wants to distribute annual bonus to the employees based on their
performance. The performance of the employees is recorded in
their annual appraisal forms.
Every employees appraisal form contains his/her basic salary and
the grade for his/her performance during the year. The grade is of
three categories A for outstanding performance, B for good
performance, and C for average performance.
It has been decided that the bonus of an employee will be 100% of
the basic salary for outstanding performance, 70% of the basic
salary for good performance, 40% of the basic salary for average
performance, and zero for all other cases.
Write an algorithm to calculate and print the total bonus amount to
be distributed by the organization.

Ref Page 185 Chapter 11: Planning the Computer Program Slide 7/44
 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Sample Algorithm (Example 2)

Step 1: Initialize Total_Bonus and Total_Employees_Checked to zero. (contd)

Step 2: Initialize Bonus and Basic_Salary to zero.

Step 3: Take the appraisal form of the next employee.

Step 4: Read the employees Basic_Salary and Grade.

Step 5: If Grade = A, then Bonus = Basic_Salary. Go to Step 8.

Step 6: If Grade = B, then Bonus = Basic_Salary x 0.7. Go to Step 8.

Step 7: If Grade = C, then Bonus = Basic_Salary x 0.4.

Step 8: Add Bonus to Total_Bonus.

Step 9: Add 1 to Total_Employees_Checked.

Step 10: If Total_Employees_Checked < 100, then go to Step 2.

Step 11: Print Total_Bonus.

Step 12: Stop.

Ref Page 185 Chapter 11: Planning the Computer Program Slide 8/44
 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Representation of Algorithms

As programs
As flowcharts
As pseudocodes

When an algorithm is represented in the form of a

programming language, it becomes a program

Thus, any program is an algorithm, although the

reverse is not true

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 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Flowchart

Flowchart is a pictorial representation of an algorithm

Uses symbols (boxes of different shapes) that have
standardized meanings to denote different types of
instructions
Actual instructions are written within the boxes
Boxes are connected by solid lines having arrow marks to
indicate the exact sequence in which the instructions are
to be executed
Process of drawing a flowchart for an algorithm is called
flowcharting

Ref Page 186 Chapter 11: Planning the Computer Program Slide 10/44
 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Basic Flowchart Symbols

Terminal Input/Output Processing

Decision Flow lines Connectors

Ref Page 187 Chapter 11: Planning the Computer Program Slide 11/44
 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Examples of Decision Symbol

No A<B Compare A>B

Is I = 10?
A&B

Yes A=B

(a) A two-way branch decision. (b) A three-way branch decision.

Ref Page 188 Chapter 11: Planning the Computer Program Slide 12/44
 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Examples of Decision Symbol

(contd)

I=?

=0 =1 =2 =3 =4 =5 = Other

(c) A multiple-way branch decision.

Ref Page 188 Chapter 11: Planning the Computer Program Slide 13/44
 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Sample Flowchart (Example 3)

A student appears in an examination, which consists of

total 10 subjects, each subject having maximum marks
of 100.
The roll number of the student, his/her name, and the
marks obtained by him/her in various subjects are
supplied as input data.
Such a collection of related data items, which is treated
as a unit is known as a record.
Draw a flowchart for the algorithm to calculate the
percentage marks obtained by the student in this
examination and then to print it along with his/her roll
number and name.

Ref Page 188 Chapter 11: Planning the Computer Program Slide 14/44
 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Sample Flowchart (Example 3)

Start (contd)

Read input data

Add marks of all

subjects giving Total

Percentage = Total / 10

Write output data

Stop

Ref Page 189 Chapter 11: Planning the Computer Program Slide 15/44
 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Sample Flowchart (Example 4)

50 students of a class appear in the examination of

Example 3.
Draw a flowchart for the algorithm to calculate and print
the percentage marks obtained by each student along
with his/her roll number and name.

Ref Page 189 Chapter 11: Planning the Computer Program Slide 16/44
 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Sample Flowchart (Example 4)

Start (contd)

Read input data

Flowchart for the solution

Add marks of all
of Example 4 with an
subjects giving Total
infinite (endless) process
loop.

Percentage = Total / 10

Write output data

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 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Sample Flowchart (Example 4)

Start (contd)

Count = 0

Read input data

Add marks of all subjects giving Total

Percentage = Total/10

Write output data

Flowchart for the solution
Add 1 to Count
of Example 4.
No
Is Count = 50?

Yes
Stop

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 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Sample Flowchart (Example 4)

Start (contd)

Read input data

Yes
Is Rollno = 0000000?
Generalized flowchart
No for the solution of
Add marks of all subjects Example 4 using the
Stop
giving Total concept of trailer
record. Here the
process loop is
Percentage = Total / 10 terminated by detecting
a special non-data
record.
Write output data

Ref Page 191 Chapter 11: Planning the Computer Program Slide 19/44
 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Sample Flowchart (Example 5)

For the examination of Example 3, we want to make a

list of only those students who have passed (obtained
30% or more marks) in the examination.
In the end, we also want to print out the total number of
students who have passed.
Assuming that the input data of all the students is
terminated by a trailer record, which has sentinel value
of 9999999 for Rollno, draw a flowchart for the
algorithm to do this.

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 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Sample Flowchart (Example 5)

Start (contd)
Count = 0

Read input data

Yes
Is Rollno = 9999999?
No Write Count
Add marks of all subjects giving Total Stop

Percentage = Total/10

Is Percentage = > 30?

No

Yes
Write output data

Add 1 to Count

Ref Page 193 Chapter 11: Planning the Computer Program Slide 21/44
 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Sample Flowchart (Example 6)

Suppose the input data of each student for the examination of

Example 3 also contains information regarding the sex of the
candidate in the field named Sexcode having values M (for
male) or F (for female).
We want to make a list of only those female students who have
passed in second division (obtained 45% or more but less than
60% marks).
In the end, we also want to print out the total number of such
students.
Assuming that the input data of all the students is terminated
by a trailer record, which has a sentinel value of Z for Sexcode,
draw a flowchart for the algorithm to do this.

Ref Page 193 Chapter 11: Planning the Computer Program Slide 22/44
 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Sample Flowchart (Example 6)

Start

Count = 0

1 Read input data

Yes 2
Is Sexcode = Z?

No

1 No Is Sexcode = F?

Yes
Add marks of all subjects giving Total

Percentage = Total / 10

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 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Sample Flowchart (Example 4)

(contd)
3

No
1 Is Percentage = > 45?

Yes
2
No
1 Is Percentage < 60?

Write Count
Yes
Write output data
Stop

Add 1 to Count

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 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Levels of Flowchart

Flowchart that outlines the main segments of a program

or that shows less details is a macro flowchart

Flowchart with more details is a micro flowchart, or

detailed flowchart

There are no set standards on the amount of details that

should be provided in a flowchart

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 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Example of Micro Flowchart

Part of a macro 1
flowchart
I=1 A micro
Flowchart
Total = 0

Total = Total + Marks (I)

Add marks of all
subjects giving Total
I=I+1

No
Is I > 10?
Yes
1

Ref Page 196 Chapter 11: Planning the Computer Program Slide 26/44
 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Flowcharting Rules

First chart the main line of logic, then incorporate detail

Maintain a consistent level of detail for a given flowchart

Do not chart every detail of the program. A reader who is

interested in greater details can refer to the program itself

Words in the flowchart symbols should be common

statements and easy to understand

Ref Page 196 Chapter 11: Planning the Computer Program Slide 27/44
 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Flowcharting Rules
(contd)
Be consistent in using names and variables in the
flowchart

Go from left to right and top to bottom in

constructing flowcharts

Keep the flowchart as simple as possible. Crossing of

flow lines should be avoided as far as practicable

If a new flowcharting page is needed, it is

recommended that the flowchart be broken at an
input or output point.

Properly labeled connectors should be used to link

the portions of the flowchart on different pages

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 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Advantages of Flowchart

Better Communication
Proper program documentation
Efficient coding
Systematic debugging
Systematic testing

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 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Limitations of Flowchart

Flowcharts are very time consuming and laborious to

draw (especially for large complex programs)
Redrawing a flowchart for incorporating changes/
modifications is a tedious task
There are no standards determining the amount of detail
that should be included in a flowchart

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 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Pseudocode

A program planning tool where program logic is written in

an ordinary natural language using a structure that
resembles computer instructions

Pseudo means imitation or false and Code refers to

the instructions written in a programming language.
Hence, pseudocode is an imitation of actual computer
instructions

Because it emphasizes the design of the program,

pseudocode is also called Program Design Language
(PDL)

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 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Basic Logic (Control) Structures

Any program logic can be expressed by using only

following three simple logic structures:

1. Sequence logic,
2. Selection logic, and
3. Iteration (or looping) logic

Programs structured by using only these three logic

structures are called structured programs, and the
technique of writing such programs is known as
structured programming

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 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Sequence Logic

It is used for performing instructions one after another

in sequence.

Process 1

Process 1
Process 2
Process 2

(a) Flowchart (b) Pseudocode

Ref Page 199 Chapter 11: Planning the Computer Program Slide 33/44
 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Selection Logic

Also known as decision logic, it is used for making

decisions

Three popularly used selection logic structures are

1. IFTHENELSE
2. IFTHEN
3. CASE

Ref Page 200 Chapter 11: Planning the Computer Program Slide 34/44
 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Selection Logic (IFTHENELSE Structure)

Yes No IF Condition
IF (condition)
THEN Process 1
THEN ELSE ELSE Process 2

Process 1 Process 2
ENDIF

(a) Flowchart (b) Pseudocode

Ref Page 200 Chapter 11: Planning the Computer Program Slide 35/44
 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Selection Logic (IFTHEN Structure)

Yes No
IF (condition)
IF Condition

THEN
THEN Process 1
Process 1
ENDIF

(a) Flowchart (b) Pseudocode

Ref Page 200 Chapter 11: Planning the Computer Program Slide 36/44
 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Selection Logic (CASE Structure)

Yes
Type 1 Process 1

No
Yes
Type 2 Process 2 CASE Type

Case Type 1: Process 1

No
Case Type 2: Process 2

Yes
Type n Process n
Case Type n: Process n
No
ENDCASE

(a) Flowchart
(b) Pseudocode

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 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Iteration (or Looping) Logic

Used to produce loops in program logic when one or

more instructions may be executed several times
depending on some conditions

Two popularly used iteration logic structures are

1. DOWHILE
2. REPEATUNTIL

Ref Page 201 Chapter 11: Planning the Computer Program Slide 38/44
 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Iteration (or Looping) Logic
(DOWHILE Structure)

False
Condition?

True
Process 1 DO WHILE Condition
Process 1
Block
Process n
Process n ENDDO

(a) Flowchart (b) Pseudocode

Ref Page 202 Chapter 11: Planning the Computer Program Slide 39/44
 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Iteration (or Looping) Logic

(REPEATUNTIL Structure)

Process 1

REPEAT
Process 1
Process n

Process n
False
Condition? UNTIL Condition

True
(a) Flowchart (b) Pseudocode

Ref Page 202 Chapter 11: Planning the Computer Program Slide 40/44
 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Sample Pseudocode (for Example 6)

Set Count to zero

Read first student record
DO WHILE Sexcode is not equal to Z
IF Sexcode = F THEN
Calculate Percentage
IF Percentage = > 45 THEN
IF Percentage < 60 THEN
Write output data
Add 1 to Count
ENDIF
ENDIF
ENDIF
Read next student record
ENDDO
Write Count
Stop

Ref Page 203 Chapter 11: Planning the Computer Program Slide 41/44
 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Advantages of Pseudocode

Converting a pseudocode to a programming language

is much more easier than converting a flowchart to a
programming language

As compared to a flowchart, it is easier to modify the

pseudocode of a program logic when program
modifications are necessary

Writing of pseudocode involves much less time and

effort than drawing an equivalent flowchart as it has
only a few rules to follow

Ref Page 204 Chapter 11: Planning the Computer Program Slide 42/44
 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Limitations of Pseudocode

In case of pseudocode, a graphic representation of

program logic is not available

There are no standard rules to follow in using

pseudocode

Different programmers use their own style of writing

pseudocode and hence communication problem
occurs due to lack of standardization

For a beginner, it is more difficult to follow the logic

of or write pseudocode, as compared to flowcharting

Ref Page 204 Chapter 11: Planning the Computer Program Slide 43/44
 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Key Words/Phrases

Algorithm
Basic logic structures
Control structures
Flowchart
Iteration logic
Looping logic
Micro flowchart
Macro flowchart
Pseudocode
Program Design Language (PDL)
Sequence logic
Selection logic
Sentinel value
Structured programming
Trailer record

Ref Page 204 Chapter 11: Planning the Computer Program Slide 44/44
 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Ref Page Chapter 12: Computer Languages Slide 1/59

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Learning Objectives

In this chapter you will learn about:

Computer languages or programming languages
Three broad categories of programming languages
machine, assembly, and high-level languages
Commonly used programming language tools such as
assembler, compiler, linker, and interpreter
Concepts of object-oriented programming languages
Some popular programming languages such as
FORTRAN, COBOL, BASIC, Pascal, C, C++, C#, Java,
RPG, LISP and SNOBOL
Related concepts such as Subprogram, Characteristics of
a good programming language, and factors to consider
while selecting a language for coding an application

Ref Page 208 Chapter 12: Computer Languages Slide 2/59

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Broad Classification of
Computer Languages

Machine language
Assembly language
High-level language

Ref Page 209 Chapter 12: Computer Languages Slide 3/59

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Machine Language

Only language of a computer understood by it

without using a translation program
Normally written as strings of binary 1s and 0s
Written using decimal digits if the circuitry of
the computer being used permits this

Ref Page 209 Chapter 12: Computer Languages Slide 4/59

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
A Typical Machine Language
Instruction Format

OPCODE OPERAND
(operation code) (Address/Location)

OPCODE tells the computer which operation to perform

from the instruction set of the computer
OPERAND tells the address of the data on which the
operation is to be performed

Ref Page 210 Chapter 12: Computer Languages Slide 5/59

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

A Sample Machine Language Program

001000000000001100111001 10001471
001100000000010000100001 14002041
011000000000011100101110 30003456
101000111111011100101110 50773456
000000000000000000000000 00000000

In Binary In Decimal
(Difficult to read and understand) (Easier to read and understand)

Ref Page 210 Chapter 12: Computer Languages Slide 6/59

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Advantages & Limitations of

Machine Language

Advantage

Can be executed very fast

Limitations

Machine Dependent
Difficult to program
Error prone
Difficult to modify

Ref Page 210 Chapter 12: Computer Languages Slide 7/59

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Assembly/Symbolic Language

Programming language that overcomes the limitations of machine

language programming by:

Using alphanumeric mnemonic codes instead of numeric codes for

the instructions in the instruction set
e.g. using ADD instead of 1110 (binary) or 14 (decimal) for
instruction to add
Allowing storage locations to be represented in form of alphanumeric
addresses instead of numeric addresses
e.g. representing memory locations 1000, 1001, and 1002 as FRST,
SCND, and ANSR respectively
Providing pseudo-instructions that are used for instructing the
system how we want the program to be assembled inside the
computers memory
e.g. START PROGRAM AT 0000; SET ASIDE AN ADRESS FOR FRST

Ref Page 211 Chapter 12: Computer Languages Slide 8/59

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Assembler

Software that translates as assembly language

program into an equivalent machine language program
of a computer

Assembly Input Output Machine

language language
Assembler program
program

One-to-one correspondence
(Source Program) (Object Program)

Ref Page 212 Chapter 12: Computer Languages Slide 9/59

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
An Example of Assembly
Language Program

Mnemonic Opcode Meaning

HLT 00 Halt, used at the end of program to stop

CLA 10 Clear and add into A register
ADD 14 Add to the contents of A register
SUB 15 Subtract from the contents of A register
STA 30 Store A register

A subset of the set of instructions supported by a computer

Ref Page 213 Chapter 12: Computer Languages Slide 10/59

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
An Example of Assembly
Language Program

START PROGRAM AT 0000

START DATA AT 1000
SET ASIDE AN ADDRESS FOR FRST
SET ASIDE AN ADDRESS FOR SCND
SET ASIDE AN ADDRESS FOR ANSR
CLA FRST
ADD SCND
STA ANSR
HLT

Sample assembly language program for adding two numbers and

storing the result

Ref Page 213 Chapter 12: Computer Languages Slide 11/59

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
An Example of Assembly
Language Program

Symbolic name Memory location

FRST 1000
SCND 1001
ANSR 1002

Mapping table set up by the assembler for the data items

of the assembly language program

Ref Page 213 Chapter 12: Computer Languages Slide 12/59

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
An Example of Assembly
Language Program

Memory Contents Comments

location
Opcode Address
0000 10 1000 Clear and add the number stored at FRST to A register
0001 14 1001 Add the number stored at SCND to the contents of A
register
0002 30 1002 Store the contents of A register into ANSR
0003 00 Halt
-
-
-
1000 Reserved for FRST
1001 Reserved for SCND
1002 Reserved for ANSR

Equivalent machine language program for the assembly language program

Ref Page 214 Chapter 12: Computer Languages Slide 13/59

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Advantages of Assembly Language

Over Machine Language

Easier to understand and use

Easier to locate and correct errors
Easier to modify
No worry about addresses
Easily relocatable
Efficiency of machine language

Ref Page 214 Chapter 12: Computer Languages Slide 14/59

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Limitations of Assembly Language

Machine dependent
Knowledge of hardware required
Machine level coding

Ref Page 215 Chapter 12: Computer Languages Slide 15/59

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Typical Uses of Assembly Language

Mainly used today to fine-tune important parts of

programs written in a high-level language to improve
the programs execution efficiency

Ref Page 215 Chapter 12: Computer Languages Slide 16/59

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Assembly Languages with
Macro Instructions

Any assembly language instruction that gets translated

into several machine language instructions is called a
macro instruction
Several assembly languages support such macro
instructions to speed up the coding process
Assemblers of such assembly languages are designed to
produce multiple machine language instructions for each
macro instruction of the assembly language

Ref Page 215 Chapter 12: Computer Languages Slide 17/59

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

High-Level Languages

Machine independent
Do not require programmers to know anything about the
internal structure of computer on which high-level
language programs will be executed
Deal with high-level coding, enabling the programmers
to write instructions using English words and familiar
mathematical symbols and expressions

Ref Page 216 Chapter 12: Computer Languages Slide 18/59

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Compiler

Translator program (software) that translates a high-

level language program into its equivalent machine
language program
Compiles a set of machine language instructions for
every program instruction in a high-level language

Ref Page 217 Chapter 12: Computer Languages Slide 19/59

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Compiler

High-level Input Output Machine

language Compiler language
program program

One-to-many correspondence
(Source (Object
Program) Program)

Ref Page 217 Chapter 12: Computer Languages Slide 20/59

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Compiler

Program P1 in
Compiler for
high-level Machine code
language L1
language L1 for P1

Program P2 in Compiler for

high-level language L2 Machine code
language L2 for P2

A computer supporting languages L1 and L2

Illustrating the requirement of a separate compiler for each

high-level language supported by a computer

(Continued on next slide)

Ref Page 218 Chapter 12: Computer Languages Slide 21/59

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Compiler
(Continued from previous slide..)

Compiler for
language L1 Machine code for Executed on
on computer A P1 that will run computer A
on computer A

Program P1 in high-
level language L1 Same results
obtained

Compiler for Machine code for

language L1 Executed on
P1 that will run on
on computer B computer B
computer B

Illustrating the machine independence characteristic of a

high-level language. Separate compilers are required for the
same language on different computers

Ref Page 218 Chapter 12: Computer Languages Slide 22/59

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Syntax Errors

In addition to doing translation job, compilers also

automatically detect and indicate syntax errors

Syntax errors are typically of following types:

Illegal characters
Illegal combination of characters
Improper sequencing of instructions in a program
Use of undefined variable names

Note : A compiler cannot detect logic errors in a program

Ref Page 219 Chapter 12: Computer Languages Slide 23/59

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

The Process of Removing Syntax Errors

From A Source Program
START

Edit
source program
Source program
Compile
source program

Syntax
errors No Generate
detected? object program

Yes Object program

Generate list of coded STOP
error messages

Ref Page 219 Chapter 12: Computer Languages Slide 24/59

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Linker

For a large software, storing all the lines of program

code in a single source file will be:

Difficult to work with

Difficult to deploy multiple programmers to
concurrently work towards its development
Any change in the source program would require the
entire source program to be recompiled

Hence, a modular approach is generally adapted to

develop large software where the software consists of
multiple source program files
No need to write programs for some modules as it might
be available in library offering the same functionality
(Continued on next slide)

Ref Page 219 Chapter 12: Computer Languages Slide 25/59

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Linker
(Continued from previous slide..)

Each source program file can be independently

modified and compiled to create a corresponding
object program file
Linker program (software) is used to properly
combine all the object program files (modules)
Creates the final executable program (load module)

Ref Page 220 Chapter 12: Computer Languages Slide 26/59

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Interpreter

Interpreter is a high-level language translator

Takes one statement of a high-level language
program, translates it into machine language
instructions
Immediately executes the resulting machine language
instructions
Compiler simply translates the entire source program
into an object program and is not involved in its
execution

Ref Page 220 Chapter 12: Computer Languages Slide 27/59

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Role of an Interpreter

Interpreter
(translates and
High-level language executes
program Input Output Result of
statement-by-
(Source Program) program
statement)
execution

Ref Page 220 Chapter 12: Computer Languages Slide 28/59

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Intermediate Language Compiler &
Interpreter

New type of compiler and interpreter combines the

speed, ease, and control of both compiler and
interpreter
Compiler first compiles the source program to an
intermediate object program
Intermediate object program is not a machine
language code but written in an intermediate
language that is virtually machine independent
Interpreter takes intermediate object program,
converts it into machine language program and
executes it

Ref Page 221 Chapter 12: Computer Languages Slide 29/59

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Benefits of Intermediate Language
Compiler & Interpreter

Intermediate object program is in compiled form and thus is

not original source code, so safer and easier to share
Intermediate object program is based on a standard
Intermediate Definition Language (IDL)
Interpreter can be written for any computer architecture and
operating system providing virtual machine environment to the
executing program
Newer Interpreter compiles intermediate program, in memory,
into final host machine language program and executes it
This technique is called Just-In-Time (JIT) Compilation

Ref Page 221 Chapter 12: Computer Languages Slide 30/59

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Advantages of High-Level Languages

Machine independent
Easier to learn and use
Fewer errors during program development
Lower program preparation cost
Better documentation
Easier to maintain

Ref Page 222 Chapter 12: Computer Languages Slide 31/59

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Limitations of High-Level Languages

Lower execution efficiency

Less flexibility to control the computers CPU, memory
and registers

Ref Page 222 Chapter 12: Computer Languages Slide 32/59

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Object-Oriented Programming Languages

Programming languages are used for simulating real-

world problems on computers
Much of the real world is made up of objects
Essence of OOP is to solve a problem by:
Identifying the real-world objects of the problem
Identifying processing required of them
Creating simulations of objects, processes, and their
communications

Ref Page 223 Chapter 12: Computer Languages Slide 33/59

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

FORTRAN

Stands for FORmula TRANslation

Originally developed by John Backus and his team at
IBM followed by several revisions
Standardized by ANSI as FORTRAN-77 and FORTRAN-90
Designed for solving scientific & engineering problems
Oriented towards solving problems of a mathematical
nature
Popular language amongst scientists and engineers

Ref Page 223 Chapter 12: Computer Languages Slide 34/59

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

A Sample FORTRAN Program

C FORTRAN PROGRAM TO COMPUTE

C THE SUM OF 10 NUMBERS
SUM = 0
DO 50 I = 1, 10
READ (5, 10) N
SUM = SUM + N
50 CONTINUE
WRITE (6, 20) SUM
10 FORMAT (F6.2)
20 FORMAT (1X, THE SUM OF GIVEN NUMBERS = ,
F10.2)
STOP
END

Ref Page 224 Chapter 12: Computer Languages Slide 35/59

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

COBOL

Stands for COmmon Business Oriented Language

Originally developed started under Grace Hopper
followed by COnference on DAta SYstems Languages
(CODASYL)
Standardized by ANSI as COBOL-74, COBOL-85, and
COBOL-2002
Designed for programming business data processing
applications
Designed to have the appearance and structure of a
business report written in English, hence often referred
to as a self-documenting language

Ref Page 224 Chapter 12: Computer Languages Slide 36/59

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

A Sample COBOL Program

IDENTIFICATION DIVISION.
PROGRAM_ID. SUMUP.
AUTHOR. P K SINHA.
* THIS PROGRAM COMPUTES AND PRINTS
* THE SUM OF GIVEN NUMBERS.

ENVIROMENT DIVISION.
CONFIGURATION SECTION.
SOURCE_COMPUTER. BURROUGHS_6700.
OBJECT_COMPUTER. BURROUGHS_6700.
INPUT_OUTPUT SECTION.
FILE_CONTROL.
SELECT DATA_FILE ASSIGN TO DISK.
SELECT OUTPUT_FILE ASSIGN TO PRINTER.

DATA DIVISION.
FILE SECTION.

(Continued on next slide)

Ref Page 226 Chapter 12: Computer Languages Slide 37/59

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

A Sample COBOL Program

(Continued from previous slide..)

FD DATA_FILE
RECORD CONTAINS 80 CHARACTERS
LABEL RECORD IS OMITTED
DATA RECORD IS INPUT_DATA_
RECORD.

01 INPUT_DATA_RECORD.
05 NPICTURE 9(6)V99.
05 FILLER PICTURE X(72).

FD OUTPUT_FILE
RECORD CONTAINS 132 CHARACTERS
LABEL RECORD IS OMITTED
DATA RECORD IS OUTPUT_RECORD.

(Continued on next slide)

Ref Page 226 Chapter 12: Computer Languages Slide 38/59

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

A Sample COBOL Program

(Continued from previous slide..)

01 OUTPUT_RECORD.
05 FILLER PICTURE X.
05TITLE PICTURE X(25).
05 SUM PICTURE 9(10)V99.
05 FILLER PICTURE X(94).
WORKING_STORAGE SECTION.
77MESSAGE PICTURE X(25)
VALUE IS THE SUM OF GIVEN NUMBERS=.

PROCEDURE DIVISION.
OPEN_FILES.
OPEN INPUT DATA_FILE.
OPEN OUTPUT OUTPUT_FILE.

INITIALIZATION.
MOVE SPACES TO OUTPUT_RECORD.
MOVE ZERO TO SUM.

(Continued on next slide)

Ref Page 226 Chapter 12: Computer Languages Slide 39/59

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

A Sample COBOL Program

(Continued from previous slide..)

PROCESS_LOOP.
READ DATA_FILE AT END GO TO
PRINT_PARA.
ADD N TO SUM.
GO TO PROCESS_LOOP.

PRINT_PARA.
MOVE MESSAGE TO TITLE.
WRITE OUTPUT_RECORD.

END_OF_JOB.
CLOSE DATA_FILE.
CLOSE OUTPUT_FILE.
STOP RUN.

Ref Page 226 Chapter 12: Computer Languages Slide 40/59

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

BASIC

Stands for Beginners All-purpose Symbolic Instruction

Code
Developed by Professor John Kemeny and Thomas Kurtz
at Darmouth College in the United States
Standardized by ANSI as BASIC-78
Designed to be an interactive language and to use an
interpreter instead of a compiler
Simple to implement, learn and use language. Hence, it
is a widely used language on personal computers
Flexible and reasonably powerful language and can be
used for both business and scientific applications

Ref Page 227 Chapter 12: Computer Languages Slide 41/59

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

A Sample BASIC Program

5 REM PROGRAM TO COMPUTE

6 REM THE SUM OF 10 NUMBERS
10 LET S = 0
20 FOR I = 1 TO 10
30 READ N
40 LET S = S + N
50 NEXT I
60 PRINT THE SUM OF GIVEN NUMBERS = ; S
70 DATA 4, 20, 15, 32, 48
80 DATA 12, 3, 9, 14, 44
90 END;

Ref Page 227 Chapter 12: Computer Languages Slide 42/59

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Pascal

Named after the famous seventeenth-century French

mathematician Blaise Pascal
Developed by Professor Nicklaus Wirth of Federal Institute of
Technology in Zurich
Encourages programmers to write well-structured, modular
programs, instills good program practices
Recognized as an educational language and is used to teach
programming to beginners
Suitable for both scientific & business applications
Has features to manipulate numbers, vectors, matrices,
strings, sets, records, files, and lists

Ref Page 228 Chapter 12: Computer Languages Slide 43/59

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

A Sample Pascal Program

PROGRAM SUMNUMS (INPUT, OUTPUT);
(* PROGRAM TO COMPUTE THE SUM OF 10 NUMBERS *)

(* DECLARATION OF VARIABLES *)
VAR SUM, N : REAL;
VAR I : INTEGER;

(* MAIN PROGRAM LOGIC STARTS HERE *)

BEGIN
SUM := 0;
FOR I := 1 TO 10 DO
BEGIN
READ (N);
SUM := SUM + N;
END;
WRITELN (THE SUM OF GIVEN NUMBERS=, SUM);
END;

Ref Page 228 Chapter 12: Computer Languages Slide 44/59

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Developed in 1972 at AT&Ts Bell laboratories, USA

by Dennis Ritchie and Brian Kernighan
Standardized by ANSI and ISO as C89, C90, C99
High-level programming languages (mainly machine
independence) with the efficiency of an assembly
language
Language of choice of programmers for portable
systems software and commercial software packages
like OS, compiler, spreadsheet, word processor, and
database management systems

Ref Page 229 Chapter 12: Computer Languages Slide 45/59

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

A Sample C Program

/* PROGRAM TO COMPUTE THE SUM OF 10 NUMBERS */

/* Directives to include standard library and header */
#include <stdlib.h>
#include <stdio.h>
/* Main function starts here */
void main ( )
{
/* Declaration of variables */
float Sum = 0.0, N = 0.0;
int Count = 0;
for (Count = 0; Count < 10; Count++)
{
printf(\nGive a number:);
scanf(%f, N);
Sum += N;
}
printf(THE SUM OF GIVEN NUMBERS = %f, &Sum);
}

Ref Page 230 Chapter 12: Computer Languages Slide 46/59

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

C++

Named C++ as ++ is increment operator and C

language is incremented to its next level with C++
Developed by Bjarne Stroustrup at Bell Labs in the
early 1980s
Contains all elements of the basic C language
Expanded to include numerous object-oriented
programming features
Provides a collection of predefined classes, along with
the capability of user-defined classes

Ref Page 229 Chapter 12: Computer Languages Slide 47/59

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Java

Development started at Sun Microsystems in 1991 by a

team led by James Gosling
Developed to be similar to C++ with fewer features to
keep it simple and easy to use
Compiled code is machine-independent and developed
programs are simple to implement and use
Uses just-in-time compilation
Used in embedded systems such as hand-held devices,
telephones and VCRs
Comes in two variants Java Runtime Engine (JRE) and
Java Software Development Kit (SDK)

Ref Page 231 Chapter 12: Computer Languages Slide 48/59

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

C# (C Sharp)

Object-oriented programming language developed by

Anders Hejlsberg and released by Microsoft as part of
Microsofts .NET technology initiative
Standardized by ECMA and ISO
Syntactically and semantically very close to C++ and
adopts various object-oriented features from both C++
and Java
Compilers target the Common Language Infrastructure
(CLI) implemented by Common Language Runtime (CLR)
of .NET Framework
CLR provides important services such as, memory
management, exception handling, and security

Ref Page 232 Chapter 12: Computer Languages Slide 49/59

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

RPG

Stands for Report Program Generator

Developed by IBM to meet customer requests for an
easy and economic mechanism for producing reports
Designed to generate the output reports resulting from
the processing of common business applications
Easier to learn and use as compared to COBOL
Programmers use very detailed coding sheets to write
specifications about input, calculations, and output

Ref Page 232 Chapter 12: Computer Languages Slide 50/59

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

LISP

Stands for LISt Processing

Developed in 1959 by John McCarthy of MIT
Designed to have features for manipulating non-
numeric data, such as symbols and strings of text
Due to its powerful list processing capability, it is
extensively used in the areas of pattern recognition,
artificial intelligence, and for simulation of games
Functional programming language in which all
computation is accomplished by applying functions to
arguments

Ref Page 232 Chapter 12: Computer Languages Slide 51/59

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

SNOBOL

Stands for StriNg Oriented symBOlic Language

Used for non-numeric applications
Powerful string manipulation features
Widely used for applications in the area of text
processing

Ref Page 233 Chapter 12: Computer Languages Slide 52/59

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Characteristics of a Good
Programming Language

Simplicity
Naturalness
Abstraction
Efficiency
Structured Programming Support
Compactness
Locality
Extensibility
Suitability to its environment

Ref Page 233 Chapter 12: Computer Languages Slide 53/59

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Factors for Selecting a Language for

Coding an Application

Nature of the application

Familiarity with the language
Ease of learning the language
Availability of program development tools
Execution efficiency
Features of a good programming language

Ref Page 234 Chapter 12: Computer Languages Slide 54/59

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Subprogram

Program written in a manner that it can be brought into

use in other programs and used whenever needed
without rewriting
Also referred to as subroutine, sub-procedure, or function
Subprogram call statement contains the name of the
subprogram followed by a list of parameters enclosed
within a pair of parentheses
Intrinsic subprograms (also called built-in-functions) are
those provided with the programming language
Programmer-written subprograms are written and used
as and when they are needed

Ref Page 235 Chapter 12: Computer Languages Slide 55/59

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Structure of a Subprogram

Subprogram name Parameter

Subprogram header
sqrt (x)

Set of instructions that perform Subprogram body

the intended task

Ref Page 235 Chapter 12: Computer Languages Slide 56/59

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Flow of Control in Case of Subprogram Calls

subprogram header 2 1
subprogram call statement
3
6 4 next statement
subprogram body 7
5

subprogram call statement

8 next statement
9

A subprogram Flow of control A program that calls

the subprogram twice

Ref Page 236 Chapter 12: Computer Languages Slide 57/59

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Key Words/Phrases

Assembler Just-in-time compilation

Assembly language Language processor
BASIC Linker
Built-in function LISP
C Load module
C++ Logic error
C# Low-level language
COBOL Machine language
Coding Macro instructions
Compiler Object program
Computer language Object-oriented programming
FORTRAN Opcode
Function Operand
High-level language Pascal
HotJava Interpreter Programmer
Intrinsic subprogram Programming
Intermediate compiler and Programming language
Interpreter Pseudo instruction
Java RPG
Self-documenting language

(Continued on next slide)

Ref Page 236 Chapter 12: Computer Languages Slide 58/59

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Key Words/Phrases
(Continued from previous slide..)

SNOBOL
Source program
Sub-procedure
Subprogram
Subroutine
Symbolic language
Syntax error
Syntax rules
Written subprograms

Ref Page 236 Chapter 12: Computer Languages Slide 59/59

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
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Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Ref Page Chapter 13: System Implementation and Operation Slide 1/17
 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Learning Objectives

In this chapter you will learn about:

Main activities of implementation and operation

phase
Testing and debugging of programs
Complete documentation of the system
Change over to the new system
System evaluation and
System maintenance

Ref Page 239 Chapter 13: System Implementation and Operation Slide 2/17
 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Testing and Debugging

Program errors are known as bugs

Process of detecting and correcting these errors is called
debugging
Testing is the process of making sure that the program
performs the intended task
Debugging is the process of locating and eliminating
program errors

Ref Page 239 Chapter 13: System Implementation and Operation Slide 3/17
 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Types of Program Errors

Syntax errors
Occurs when the rules or syntax of the programming
language are not followed
For example, incorrect punctuation, incorrect word
sequence, undefined terms, and misuse of terms
Syntax errors are detected by a language processor
Logic errors
Occurs due to errors in planning a programs logic
Such errors cause the program to produce incorrect
output.
These errors cannot be detected by a language
processor

Ref Page 240 Chapter 13: System Implementation and Operation Slide 4/17
 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Testing of a Program

Testing procedure involves running program to

process input test data, and comparing obtained
results with correct results
Test data must test each logical function of the
program, and should include all types of possible
valid and invalid data
Program internally released for testing is known as
alpha version and the test conducted on it is called
alpha testing
Program released for additional testing to a selected
set of external users is beta version and test
conducted on it called is beta testing

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 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Debugging a Program for Syntax Errors

Relatively easier to detect and correct syntax errors

than logic errors in a program
Language processors are designed to automatically
detect syntax errors
Single syntax error often causes multiple error
messages to be generated by the language processor
Removal of the syntax error will result in the removal
of all associated error messages

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 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Debugging a Program for Logic Errors

Logic errors are more difficult to detect than syntax

errors as computer does not produce any error
message for such errors
One or more of following methods are commonly used
for locating logic errors:
Doing hand simulation of the program code
Putting print statements in the program code
Using a debugger (a software tool that assists a
programmer in following the programs execution
step-by-step)
Using memory dump (printout of the contents of
main memory and registers)

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 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
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Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Difference Between Testing and
Debugging

Sr. No. Testing Debugging

Testing is the process of

validating the Debugging is the process of
correctness of a program eliminating errors in a program
1 Its objective is to Its objective is to detect the exact
demonstrate that the cause and remove known errors
program meets its in the program
design specifications

Testing is complete Debugging is complete when all

when all desired known errors in the program have
verifications against been fixed
2 specifications have been Note that debugging process ends
performed only temporarily as it must be
restarted whenever a new error is
found in the program

(Continued on next slide)

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 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Difference Between Testing and

Debugging
(Continued from previous slide..)

Sr. No. Testing Debugging

Testing is a definable process Debugging being a reactive process cannot

which can and should be be planned ahead of time
3 planned and scheduled It must be carried out as and when errors
properly are found in a program

Testing can begin in the Debugging can begin only after the program
early stages of software is coded
development. The approach used for debugging largely
Although the test runs of a depends on the personal choice of the
program can be done only programmer and the type of problem in the
4 after the program is coded, program
but the decision of what to
test, how to test, and with
what kind of data to test, can
and should be done before
the coding is started

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 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Documentation

Process of collecting, organizing, storing, and otherwise

maintaining a complete historical record of programs
and other documents used or prepared during the
different phases of the life cycle of a software
Three commonly used forms of documentation are:

Program comments

System manual

User manual

Ref Page 243 Chapter 13: System Implementation and Operation Slide 10/17
 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Changeover to the New System

When a software is ready for use, it is deployed at site for use

by the intended users
At this stage, a changeover from the old system of operation
to the new system takes place
Three normally followed methods to carry out the changeover
process are:
Immediate changeover
Parallel run
Phased conversion

Ref Page 245 Chapter 13: System Implementation and Operation Slide 11/17
 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Changeover to the New System

Old system in New system in

operation operation

Old system New system

Cut-off date

Time

(a) Immediate changeover

Ref Page 247 Chapter 13: System Implementation and Operation Slide 12/17
 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Changeover to the New System

Old system
in operation
New
system in
operation

Overlapping period of
complete operation of
Old system
both the old and the new
systems

New system

Time
(b) Parallel run

Ref Page 247 Chapter 13: System Implementation and Operation Slide 13/17
 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Changeover to the New System

Old system Old and new systems New system

completely in operation in parts completely
operational operational

Old system

New system

Time

(c) Phased conversion

Ref Page 247 Chapter 13: System Implementation and Operation Slide 14/17
 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

System Evaluation

Process of evaluating a system (after it is put in

operation) to verify whether or not it is meeting its
objectives
Points normally considered for evaluating a system are:
Performance evaluation
Cost analysis
Time analysis
User satisfaction
Ease of modification
Failure rate

Ref Page 248 Chapter 13: System Implementation and Operation Slide 15/17
 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

System Maintenance

Process of incorporating changes in an existing system to

enhance, update, or upgrade its features
On an average, maintenance cost of a computerized
system is two to four times more than the initial
development cost

Ref Page 248 Chapter 13: System Implementation and Operation Slide 16/17
 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Key Words/Phrases

Beta testing
Bugs
Comments
Debugger
Debugging
Documentation
Immediate changeover
Logic errors
Memory dump
Parallel run
Phased conversion
Syntax errors
System evaluation
System maintenance
System manual
Testing
User manual

Ref Page 249 Chapter 13: System Implementation and Operation Slide 17/17
 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Chapter 14
Operating Systems

Ref Page Chapter 14: Operating Systems Slide 1/54

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Learning Objectives

In this chapter you will learn about:

Definition and need for operating system
Main functions of an operating system
Commonly used mechanisms for:
Process management
Memory management
File management
Security
Command interpretation module
Some commonly used OS capability enhancement software
Some popular operating systems

Ref Page 251 Chapter 14: Operating Systems Slide 2/54

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Definition and Need for OS

Integrated set of programs that controls the resources

(the CPU, memory, I/O devices, etc.) of a computer
system
Provides its users with an interface or virtual machine
that is more convenient to use than the bare machine
Two primary objectives of an OS are:
Making a computer system convenient to use
Managing the resources of a computer system

Ref Page 251 Chapter 14: Operating Systems Slide 3/54

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Logical
Logical Architecture
Architecture of
of a
a Computer
Computer System
System

Users

Other
System Software and
Application Programs

Operating System

The operating system

Computer layer hides the details of
Hardware
the hardware from the
programmer and
provides the programmer
with convenient interface
for using the system

Ref Page 252 Chapter 14: Operating Systems Slide 4/54

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Main Functions of an OS

Process management
Memory management
File management
Security
Command interpretation

Ref Page 252 Chapter 14: Operating Systems Slide 5/54

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Parameters
Parameters for
for Measuring
Measuring System
System
Performance
Performance

Throughput: Amount of work that the system is able to

do per unit time
Turnaround time: Interval from the time of submission
of a job to the system for processing to the time of
completion of the job
Response time: Interval from the time of submission of a
job to the system for processing to the time the first
response for the job is produced by the system

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 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Process Management

A process (also called job) is a program in execution

Process management manages the processes
submitted to a system in a manner to minimize idle time
of processors (CPUs, I/O processors, etc.) of the system

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 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Process
Process Management
Management Mechanisms
Mechanisms in
in
Early
Early Systems
Systems

Manual loading mechanism: Jobs were manually

loaded one after another in a computer by the
computer operator
Batch processing mechanism: Batch of jobs was
submitted together to the computer and job-to-job
transition was done automatically by the operating
system
Job Control Language (JCL): Control statements
were used to facilitate job loading and unloading

Ref Page 253 Chapter 14: Operating Systems Slide 8/54

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Use
Use of
of Job
Job Control
Control Statements
Statements in
in Batch
Batch
Processing
Processing (An
(An Example)
Example)

$END
Data for program

$RUN
$LOAD
COBOL program

$COBOL
$JOB, ONGC05839,
USER=SINHA

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 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Multiprogramming

Uniprogramming: Only one job is processed at a

time and all system resources are available exclusively
for the job until its completion
Multiprogramming: Interleaved execution of two or
more different and independent programs by a
computer
Types of Multiprogramming:
Multiprogramming with fixed tasks (MFT): Fixed
number of jobs can be processed concurrently
Multiprogramming with variable tasks (MVT):
Number of jobs can vary
Area occupied by each job residing simultaneously in
the main memory is known as a memory partition

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 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Job

CPU bound: Mostly perform computations with little

I/O operations. Scientific and engineering
computations usually fall in this category
I/O bound: Mostly perform I/O operations with little
computation. Commercial data processing applications
usually fall in this category

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 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
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Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Uniprogramming System
Main memory

Operating OS area
system

User job User program area

Execution in
progress

CPU

Only one job is processed by the system at a time and all

the system resources are exclusively available for the job
until it completes

Ref Page 255 Chapter 14: Operating Systems Slide 12/54

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Multiprogramming System

Main memory

Operating system

Writing output data Job A

Job B

Job C
Secondary disk storage (Waiting for CPU)

Execution in
progress
CPU

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Computer Fundamentals:
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Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Process
Process States
States in
in Multiprogramming
Multiprogramming

Job is allocated the

New CPU for execution Job
job Ready Running processing
completed

I/O completed Job must wait for I/O

Blocked completion

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 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
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Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Requirements
Requirements of
of Multiprogramming
Multiprogramming Systems
Systems

Large memory
Memory protection
Job status preservation
Proper job mix (CPU and I/O bound jobs)
CPU scheduling

Ref Page 257 Chapter 14: Operating Systems Slide 15/54

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Process
Process Control
Control Block
Block (PCB)
(PCB)

process identifier
process state
program counter
values of various CPU
registers
accounting and scheduling
information
I/O status information

PCB is used to preserve the job status of each loaded

process in a multiprogramming system

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 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Multitasking

Interleaved execution of multiple jobs (often referred

to as tasks of same user) in a single-user system
Computer systems used for multitasking are
uniprocessor systems (having only one CPU)
Treated differently from multiprogramming that refers
to interleaved execution of multiple jobs in a multi-
user system

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Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Multithreading

Thread is basic unit of CPU utilization. Threads

share a CPU in the same way as processes do
All threads of a process also share the same set of
operating system resources
All threads of a process inherit parents address
space and security parameters
Each thread of a process has its own program
counter, its own register states, and its own stack
Referred as mini-process or lightweight process

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 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Multithreading System

Address space
Address space
Thread
Thread Thread Thread

(a) Single-threaded and (b) multithreaded processes. A

single-threaded process corresponds to a process of a
traditional operating system. [Reproduced with
permission, from the book titled Distributed Operating
Systems: Concepts and Design by Pradeep K. Sinha.
1997 IEEE, USA].

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Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Multiprocessing

System with two or more CPUs having ability to execute

multiple processes concurrently
Multiple CPUs are used to process either instructions from
different and independent programs or different
instructions from the same program simultaneously
Types of multiprocessing:
Tightly-coupled: Single system-wide primary memory
shared by all processors
Loosely-coupled: Each processor has its own local
memory

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Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
CPU,
CPU, Memory,
Memory, and
and I/O
I/O Processors
Processors of
of a
a
Computer
Computer System
System

Main
memory

I/O Units I/O

CPU
Processors

Ref Page 260 Chapter 14: Operating Systems Slide 21/54

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
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Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Multiprocessing
Multiprocessing System
System

Main
CPU-1 CPU-2
memory

I/O I/O
processors processors

I/O units I/O units

Ref Page 260 Chapter 14: Operating Systems Slide 22/54

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Time-sharing
Time-sharing

Simultaneous interactive use of a computer system by

many users in such a way that each one feels that
he/she is the sole user of the system
User terminals connected to the same computer
simultaneously
Uses multiprogramming with a special CPU scheduling
algorithm
Short period during which a user process gets to use
CPU is known as time slice, time slot, or quantum
CPU is taken away from a running process when the
allotted time slice expires

Ref Page 261 Chapter 14: Operating Systems Slide 23/54

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
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Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Process
Process State
State Diagram
Diagram for
for a
a Time-Sharing
Time-Sharing
System
System

Job is allocated to
Job
New CPU for execution Running
Ready processing
Job
completed
Allotted time slice is over
I/O completed Job must wait
for I/O
completion
Blocked

Ref Page 261 Chapter 14: Operating Systems Slide 24/54

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Advantages
Advantages of
of Time-sharing
Time-sharing Systems
Systems

Reduces CPU idle time

Provides advantages of quick response time
Offers good computing facility to small users

Ref Page 262 Chapter 14: Operating Systems Slide 25/54

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Memory
Memory Management
Management

Memory is important resource of a computer system

that must be properly managed for the overall system
performance
Memory management module:
Keeps track of parts of memory in use and parts not
in use
Allocates memory to processes as needed and
deallocates when no longer needed

Ref Page 262 Chapter 14: Operating Systems Slide 26/54

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Uniprogramming
Uniprogramming Memory
Memory Model
Model

Used in systems that process one job only at a time, and

all system resources are available exclusively for the job
until it completes
Simple and easy to implement
Does not lead to proper utilization of the main memory as
unoccupied memory space by the currently active user
process remains unused
Used only on very small or dedicated computer systems

Ref Page 262 Chapter 14: Operating Systems Slide 27/54

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Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Uniprogramming
Uniprogramming Memory
Memory Model
Model

Operating system area Operating system

User process

User area

Unused

Ref Page 263 Chapter 14: Operating Systems Slide 28/54

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Multiprogramming
Multiprogramming Memory
Memory Models
Models

Two memory management schemes used to facilitate this

are:

Multiprogramming with fixed number of memory

partitions: User area of the memory is divided into a
number of fixed-sized partitions
Multiprogramming with variable number of memory
partitions: Number, size and location of the partitions
vary dynamically as processes come and go

Ref Page 263 Chapter 14: Operating Systems Slide 29/54

 Computer
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Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Multiprogramming
Multiprogramming with
with Fixed
Fixed Number
Number of
of Memory
Memory
Partition
Partition

Operating system Operating

area system

Partition 1

Partition 2

User area divided

into n equal-sized Partition 3
partitions

Partition n

Ref Page 263 Chapter 14: Operating Systems Slide 30/54

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Multiprogramming
Multiprogramming with
with Variable
Variable Number
Number of
of
Memory
Memory Partitions
Partitions
Time
Operating Operating Operating Operating
system system system system
P1 P1 P1
P1 P2 P3
comes comes comes
P2 P2
User
Free
area Free
P3
Free
Free

(a) (b) (c) (d)

The number, size, and location of the partitions vary
dynamically as processes come and go. (contd)

Ref Page 264 Chapter 14: Operating Systems Slide 31/54

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Multiprogramming
Multiprogramming with
with Variable
Variable Number
Number of
of
Memory
Memory Partitions
Partitions

Operating Operating Operating Operating

system system system system
P5
P1 P1 Free 3
P4 Free 3
P2 P1 P5
P2
Comes which P4
terminates terminates P4 comes P4
cannot fit in
Free 2 which can
Free 1 so is
allocated fit in
Free 2 Free 2 Free 3 Free 2
space from
Free 2
P3 P3 P3 P3

Free 1 Free 1 Free 1 Free 1

(e) (f) (g) (h)

The number, size, and location of the partitions vary dynamically as processes come and go.

Ref Page 264 Chapter 14: Operating Systems Slide 32/54

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Virtual Memory

Memory management scheme that allows execution of

processes that might not be completely loaded in the main
memory.

It does not require the entire process to be in memory

before the process can execute

Ref Page 265 Chapter 14: Operating Systems Slide 33/54

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Virtual Memory Realization

Three basic concepts used for its realization are:

On-line secondary storage: Used to keep a processs
address space ready to be loaded into the memory
Swapping: Process of transferring a block of data from
the on-line secondary storage to main memory
(swapping in) or vice-versa (swapping out)
Demand paging: Scheme of swapping in of pages of a
process as and when needed during execution of the
process, rather than loading all the pages before
starting the processs execution

Ref Page 265 Chapter 14: Operating Systems Slide 34/54

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Advantages of Virtual Memory

Provides a large virtual memory to programmers on a

system having smaller physical memory
Enables execution of a process on a system whose main
memory size is less than the total memory required by the
process
Enables a processs execution to be started even when
sufficient free memory for loading the entire process is not
available
Makes programming easier there no longer need to worry
about the memory size limitations
Often leads to less I/O activity resulting in better
throughput, turnaround time, and response time

Ref Page 266 Chapter 14: Operating Systems Slide 35/54

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Disadvantages
Disadvantages of
of Virtual
Virtual Memory
Memory

Difficult to implement because it requires algorithms to

support demand paging
If used carelessly, it may substantially decrease
performance due to high page fault rate

Ref Page 266 Chapter 14: Operating Systems Slide 36/54

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

File Management

A file is a collection of related information

Every file has a name, its data and attributes
Files name uniquely identifies it in the system and is used
by its users to access it
Files data is its contents
Files attributes contain information such as date & time of
its creation, date & time of last access, date & time of last
update, its current size, its protection features, etc.
File management module of an operating system takes
care of file-related activities such as structuring,
accessing, naming, sharing, and protection of files

Ref Page 266 Chapter 14: Operating Systems Slide 37/54

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

File Access Methods

Two commonly supported file access methods are:

Sequential access: Information stored in a file can be
accessed sequentially (in the order in which they are
stored, starting at the beginning)
Random access: Information stored in a file can be
accessed randomly irrespective of the order in which
the bytes or records are stored

Ref Page 267 Chapter 14: Operating Systems Slide 38/54

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Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

File Operations

Set of commands provided by an operating system to

deal with files and their contents
Typical file operations include create, delete, open,
close, read, write, seek, get attributes, set attributes,
rename, and copy

Ref Page 267 Chapter 14: Operating Systems Slide 39/54

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

File Naming

File naming deals with the rules for naming files in an

operating system. This may include such rules as:
Maximum number of characters that a file name may
have
Special characters allowed in a file name
Distinction between upper case and lower case letters
Multi-part file names allow file extensions to be part of a
file name. File extensions indicate something about the
file and its content
Used by applications to check for the intended type of
file before operating on it

Ref Page 268 Chapter 14: Operating Systems Slide 40/54

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

File
File Extensions
Extensions (Example)
(Example)

File extension Its meaning

.bas Basic source program file

.c C source program file

.ftn Fortran source program file
.pas Pascal source program file
.obj Object file (compiler output, not yet linked)

.bin Executable binary program file

.lib Library of .obj files used by the linker
.dat Data file

.hlp Text file for HELP command

.man Online manual page file

(Continued on next slide)

Ref Page 268 Chapter 14: Operating Systems Slide 41/54

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

File
File Extensions
Extensions (Example)
(Example)
(Continued from previous slide)

File extension Its meaning

.man Online manual page file

.txt General text file

.bak Backup file

.doc Microsoft word document file

.wav Microsoft windows sound file

.wk4 Lotus 1-2-3 spreadsheet file

.xls Microsoft Excel spreadsheet file

.jpg JPEG graphics file

.gif GIF graphics file

Ref Page 268 Chapter 14: Operating Systems Slide 42/54

 Computer
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Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Security

Deals with protecting the various resources and information

of a computer system against destruction and unauthorized
access

External security: Deals with securing computer against

external factors such as fires, floods, earthquakes, stolen
disks/tapes, etc. by maintaining adequate backup, using
security guards, allowing access to sensitive information to
only trusted employees/users, etc.
Internal security: Deals with user authentication, access
control, and cryptography mechanisms

Ref Page 269 Chapter 14: Operating Systems Slide 43/54

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Security

User authentication: Deals with the problem of

verifying the identity of a user (person or program)
before permitting access to the requested resource
Access Control: Once authenticated, access control
mechanisms prohibit a user/process from accessing those
resources/information that he/she/it is not authorized to
access
Cryptography: Means of encrypting private information
so that unauthorized access cannot use information

Ref Page 269 Chapter 14: Operating Systems Slide 44/54

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Command Interpretation

Provides a set of commands using which the user can give

instructions to the computer for getting some job done by
it
Commands supported by the command interpretation
module are known as system calls

(Continued on next slide)

Ref Page 269 Chapter 14: Operating Systems Slide 45/54

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Command Interpretation
(Continued from previous slide)

Two types of user interfaces supported by various operating

systems are:
Command-line interface: User gives instructions to
the computer by typing the commands
Graphical User Interface (GUI): User gives
commands to the system by selecting icon or menu
item displayed on the screen with the use of a point-
and-draw device

Ref Page 269 Chapter 14: Operating Systems Slide 46/54

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

OS
OS Capability
Capability Enhancement
Enhancement Software
Software

Perform several tasks of routine nature, frequently

needed by users but are not provided as part of the OS

They are primarily grouped into three categories:

Translating programs: Translate a source program
into an object program
Library programs: Consist of frequently used
functions and operations
Utility programs: Assist users with system
maintenance tasks such as disk formatting, data
compression, data backups, antivirus utilities

Ref Page 270 Chapter 14: Operating Systems Slide 47/54

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

UNIX
UNIX OS
OS

Developed in the early 1970s at Bell Laboratories by Ken

Thompson and Dennis Ritchie
Written in C high-level language, hence, highly portable
Multi-user, time-sharing OS
Used on a wide variety of computers ranging from
notebook computers to super computers
Especially prevalent on RISC workstations such as those
from Sun Microsystems, Hewlett-Packard, IBM, and
Silicon Graphics
Structured in three layers kernel, shell, and utilities

Ref Page 272 Chapter 14: Operating Systems Slide 48/54

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

MS-DOS

Stands for Microsoft Disk Operating System.

Single-user OS for IBM and IBM-compatible personal
computers (PC)
Structured in three layers BIOS (Basic Input Output
System), kernel, and shell
Very popular in the 1980s, now not in much use and
development with the launch of Microsoft Windows OS in
1990s

Ref Page 272 Chapter 14: Operating Systems Slide 49/54

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Microsoft Windows

Developed by Microsoft to overcome limitations of MS-

DOS operating system
Single-user, multitasking OS
Native interface is a GUI
Designed to be not just an OS but also a complete
operating environment
OS of choice for most PCs after 1990

Ref Page 272 Chapter 14: Operating Systems Slide 50/54

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Microsoft Windows NT

Multi-user, time-sharing OS developed by Microsoft

Designed to have UNIX-like features so that it can be
used for powerful workstations, network, and database
servers
Supports multiprogramming and is designed to take
advantage of multiprocessing on systems having
multiple processors
Native interface is a GUI
Built-in networking and communications features
Provides strict system security
Rich set of tools for software development

Ref Page 273 Chapter 14: Operating Systems Slide 51/54

 Computer
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Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Linux

Open-source OS enhanced and backed by thousands of

programmers world-wide
Multi-tasking, multiprocessing OS, originally designed to
be used in PCs
Name Linux is derived from its inventor Linus Torvalds
Several Linux distributions available (Red Hat, SuSE).
Difference in distribution is mostly set of tools, number
and quality of applications, documentation, support, and
service

Ref Page 273 Chapter 14: Operating Systems Slide 52/54

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
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Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Keywords/Phrases
Access control Memory management
Batch processing Memory partition
Command interpretation Microsoft Windows
Command-line interface (CLI) Microsoft Windows NT
CPU-bound jobs MS-DOS
Cryptography Multiprocessing
Demand paging Multiprogramming
External security Multiprogramming with fixed tasks (MFT)
File Multiprogramming with variable tasks
File attributes (MVT)
File extensions Operating systems
File management Multithreading
Graphical User Interface (GUI) Process
I/O-bound jobs Process Control Block (PCB) Multitasking
Internal security Process management
Job control language (JCL) Random access files
Library programs Response time
Linux Security
Loosely coupled system Sequential access files
Swapping

(Continued on next slide)

Ref Page 274 Chapter 14: Operating Systems Slide 53/54
 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Keywords/Phrases
(Continued from previous slide)

Throughput
Tightly coupled system
Time-sharing
Time slice
Time slot
Translating programs
Turnaround time
Unix
User authentication
Utility programs
Virtual machine
Virtual memory

Ref Page 274 Chapter 14: Operating Systems Slide 54/54

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
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Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Ref. Page Chapter 15: Application Software Packages Slide 1/22

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Learning Objectives

In this chapter you will learn about :

Word-processing package
Spreadsheet package
Graphics package
Personal assistance package

Ref. Page 278 Chapter 15: Application Software Packages Slide 2/22
 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Word-Processing Package

Word-processing describes use of hardware and software to

create, edit, view, format, store, retrieve, and print documents
(written material such as letters, reports, books, etc.)
Word-processing package enables us to do all these on a
computer system

Ref. Page 278 Chapter 15: Application Software Packages Slide 3/22
 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Commonly Supported Features in a

Word-Processing Package

Entering text Printing documents

Editing text Importing text, graphics and

images
Formatting page style
Searching and replacing text
Formatting text string
Entering mathematical Checking spelling
symbols
Checking grammar and style
Displaying documents
Saving, retrieving and
deleting documents

Ref. Page 279 Chapter 15: Application Software Packages Slide 4/22
 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Word-Processing (Few Terminologies)

Style sheet: Pre-stored page format that can be used

while creating a new document or can be applied to an
existing document
Font: Complete set of characters with the same style
and size. A word-processing package comes with
several standard fonts
Points: A point is 1/72 of an inch, and the size refers to
the distance from the top of the tallest character to the
bottom of the character that extends the lowest. Font
size is measured in points

(Continued on next slide)

Ref. Page 280 Chapter 15: Application Software Packages Slide 5/22
 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Word-Processing (Few Terminologies)

Three commonly used font styles are italic, bold and

underline.
Justification: Alignment of text on the left or the
right margin, or on both margins. Four types of
justification are:
Left-justification
Right-justification
Center-justification
Full-justification

Ref. Page 280 Chapter 15: Application Software Packages Slide 6/22
 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Different Font Types

This sentence is written in Times New Roman font.

This sentence is written in Helvetica font.

This sentence is written in Palatino font.

This sentence is written in Courier New font.

This sentence is written in Antique Olive font.

Ref. Page 280 Chapter 15: Application Software Packages Slide 7/22
 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Different Font Sizes

This sentence is written in 10 point Times New Roman font.

This sentence is written in 12 point Times New Roman font.

This sentence is written in 16 point Times New Roman font.

This sentence is written in 24 point Times New Roman font.

This sentence is written in 36 point Times

New Roman font.

Ref. Page 281 Chapter 15: Application Software Packages Slide 8/22
 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Different Font Styles

This sentence is written in italic style.

This sentence is written in bold style.

This sentence is written in underline style.

You can even make individual words italic, bold,

or underline.

Ref. Page 281 Chapter 15: Application Software Packages Slide 9/22
 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Different Justification Styles

The term hardware refers to the physical devices of a

computer system. Thus, the input, storage, processing,
control, and output devices are hardware.
(a) Left Justified text

The term hardware refers to the physical devices of a

computer system. Thus, the input, storage, processing,
control, and output devices are hardware.
(b) Right Justified text

The term hardware refers to the physical devices of a

computer system. Thus, the input, storage, processing,
control, and output devices are hardware.
(c) Centered text

Ref. Page 282 Chapter 15: Application Software Packages Slide 10/22
 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Mathematical Symbols

(2)
(S (u ) u [1 ] = u [2 ])
(u)
t R (t ) u

{< a, b, c > < a, b > (< a, b > r < a, c > s)}

Ref. Page 283 Chapter 15: Application Software Packages Slide 11/22
 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
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Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Spreadsheet Package

Spreadsheet package is a numeric data analysis tool

that allows us to create a computerized ledger
Useful for any numerical analysis problem whose data
can be organized as rows and columns

Ref. Page 285 Chapter 15: Application Software Packages Slide 12/22
 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Uses of Spreadsheet Package

Maintaining and analyzing inventory, payroll, and other

accounting records by accountants
Preparing budgets and bid comparisons by business analysts
Recording grades of students and carrying out various types
of analysis of the grades by educators
Analyzing experimental results by scientists and researchers
Tracking stocks and keeping records of investor accounts by
stockbrokers
Creating and tracking personal budgets, loan payments, etc.
by individuals

Ref. Page 286 Chapter 15: Application Software Packages Slide 13/22
 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Common Features of Spreadsheet
Package

Support for a large number of cells

Support for addressing a range of cells by the addresses of
the endpoint cells
Support for different types of cell data (such as label,
numeric value, formula, and date & time)
Support for use of relative and absolute cell addresses in
formula
Support for a wide range of commands
Support for displaying numeric data in the form of graphs
and charts

Ref. Page 286 Chapter 15: Application Software Packages Slide 14/22
 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Sample Spreadsheet
A label running across
Row numbers
multiple columns
Column
letters A B C E E F
1 FINAL EXAM MARKS SHEET(CLASS-X: 2001)
2
3 NAME PHYS CHEM MATHS TOTAL PERCE A label
4 T
Cell F4
5 P. Davis 92 95 88 275 91.66

6 A. Raje 86 82 94 262 87.33

7 D. Rana 75 83 85 243 81.00
8 M. Ray 77 75 72 224 74.66
9 J. Smith 94 92 96 282 94.00
10
11
Result of the
Alphabetic Value Numeric Cell C11 Result of the function formula +
in a Cell Value in a @SUM(B9..D9) E9/3
Cell

Ref. Page 288 Chapter 15: Application Software Packages Slide 15/22
 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Examples of a Line Graph, a Bar Chart

and a Pie Chart

15% 40%

35% 10%
(a) A line graph (b) A bar chart (c) A pie chart

Ref. Page 289 Chapter 15: Application Software Packages Slide 16/22
 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Graphics Package

Graphics package enables us to use a computer system

for creating, editing, viewing, storing, retrieving and
printing designs, drawings, pictures, graphs and anything
else that can be drawn in the traditional manner

Ref. Page 289 Chapter 15: Application Software Packages Slide 17/22
 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Common Features of Graphics Package

Drawing designs
Painting drawings and pictures
Presenting graphs and charts
Dragging-and-dropping graphic objects
Importing graphic objects
Capturing screen snapshots

Ref. Page 289 Chapter 15: Application Software Packages Slide 18/22
 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Computer Graphics (Few Terminologies)

Computer-aided-design (CAD): Integration of

computers and graphics design packages for the purpose
of automating the design and drafting process
Vector graphics: Graphic object composed of patterns of
lines, points, circles, arcs and other geometric shapes
that can be easily represented by few geometric
parameters
Raster graphics: Graphic object composed of patterns of
dots called pixels

Ref. Page 290 Chapter 15: Application Software Packages Slide 19/22
 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Personal-assistance Package

Personal-assistance package allows individuals to:

Use personal computers for storing and retrieving their
personal information
Planning and managing their schedules, contacts,
finances and inventory of important items

Ref. Page 291 Chapter 15: Application Software Packages Slide 20/22
 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Common Features of Personal
Assistance Package

Calendar
To-do list
Address book
Investments book
Inventory bookf

Ref. Page 291 Chapter 15: Application Software Packages Slide 21/22
 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Key Words/Phrases

Bit-mapped image Style sheet

Bold Underline
Cell Vector graphics
Center justification What You See Is What you Get
Clip art library (WYSIWYG)
Computer Aided Design Word-processing
(CAD) Word-processing package
Font
Full justification
Graphics package
Italic
Justification
Landscape mode
Left justification
Personal assistance package
Portrait mode
Raster graphics
Right justification
Spreadsheet package

Ref. Page 292 Chapter 15: Application Software Packages Slide 22/22
 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Ref. Page Chapter 16: Business Data Processing Slide 1/32

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Learning Objectives

In this chapter you will learn about:

Difference between data and information
Data processing converts raw data into useful information
Data storage hierarchy commonly used to facilitate data
processing
Standard methods of organizing data
Basic concepts of database systems

Ref. Page 295 Chapter 16: Business Data Processing Slide 2/32
 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Data
Data Processing
Processing

Data is a collection of facts unorganized but able to

be organized into useful information
Information is data arranged in an order and form that
is useful to the people who receive it
Data processing is a series of actions or operations
that converts data into useful information
A data processing system includes resources such as
people, procedures, and devices used to process input
data for producing desirable output

Ref. Page 295 Chapter 16: Business Data Processing Slide 3/32
 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Data
Data Storage
Storage Hierarchy
Hierarchy

Level 0 Bit A single binary digit (0 or 1)

Multiple related bits are combined to

Level 1 Character form a character (byte)

Level 2 Multiple related characters are combined to

Field form a field

Level 3 Record Multiple related fields are combined to

form a record

Level 4 File Multiple related records are combined to

form a file

Level 5 Database Multiple related files are integrated to

form a database

Ref. Page 296 Chapter 16: Business Data Processing Slide 4/32
 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Relationship
Relationship Among
Among
Character,
Character, Field,
Field, Record,
Record, and
and File
File

A field having Employee CodeFirst Name Last NameHours workedHourly rateTax rate
4 characters 0004 Kumar Rana 40 14.00 0.09
Employee CodeFirst Name Last NameHours workedHourly rateTax rate
0003 Pratap Singh 43 15.00 0.10
Employee CodeFirst Name Last NameHours workedHourly rateTax rate
0002 Ravi Patel 42 10.00 0.07

Employee CodeFirst Name Last NameHours workedHourly rateTax rate

0001 Pradeep Sinha 45 12.00 0.08
A record

Records
Fields
of a file

Ref. Page 297 Chapter 16: Business Data Processing Slide 5/32
 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Standard
Standard Methods
Methods of
of Organizing
Organizing Data
Data

File-oriented approach: Applications data is organized

into one or more files and application program processes
them to generate the desired output
Database-oriented approach: Data from multiple
related files are integrated together to form a database:
Provides greater query flexibility
Reduces data redundancy
Solves data integrity (inconsistency) problem
Makes data independent of the application programs
Includes data security features at database level,
record level, and field level

(Continued on next slide)

Ref. Page 297 Chapter 16: Business Data Processing Slide 6/32
 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

File
File Management
Management System
System

In file-oriented approach of organizing data, an

applications data is organized into one or more files
Application program processes the data stored in these
files to generate the desired output
Set of programs is provided to facilitate the users in
organizing, creating, deleting, updating, and
manipulating their files
All these programs together form a File Management
System (FMS)

Ref. Page 299 Chapter 16: Business Data Processing Slide 7/32
 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

File
File Types
Types

A file management system supports following file types:

Transaction file: Stores input data until it can be
processed
Master file: Contains all current data relevant to an
application
Output file: Stores output produced by one program
that is used as input to another program
Report file: Holds a copy of a report generated by an
application
Backup file: Copy of a file, created as a safety
precaution against loss of data

Ref. Page 299 Chapter 16: Business Data Processing Slide 8/32
 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

File
File Organizations
Organizations

File organization is the physical organization of the

records of a file for convenience of storage and retrieval
of data records
Three commonly used file organizations are:
Sequential: Records are stored one after another in
ascending or descending order determined by the
value of the key field of the records
Direct/random: Desired record pertaining to current
transaction can be directly located by its key field
value without having to navigate through sequence of
other records

(Continued on next slide)

Ref. Page 300 Chapter 16: Business Data Processing Slide 9/32
 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

File
File Organizations
Organizations

(Continued from previous slide)

Indexed sequential: There are two files for every

data file the data file which contains the records
stored in the file, and the smaller index file which
contains the key and disk address of each record
stored in the data file

Ref. Page 300 Chapter 16: Business Data Processing Slide 10/32
 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Organization
Organization of
of An
An Indexed
Indexed
Sequential
Sequential File
File

Employee Address Address

Code (key) Location Employee Record
Location
0001 1003 1001 0002 R. S. Patel

0002 1001 1002 0004 R. K. Rana

0003 1004 1003 0001 K. P. Sinha

0004 1002 1004 0003 N. P. Singh

Index file Data file

Ref. Page 302 Chapter 16: Business Data Processing Slide 11/32
 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

File
File Utilities
Utilities

Routines to perform a variety of generalized operations

on data files
Operations performed by some commonly used file
utilities are Sorting, Searching, Merging, Copying,
Printing, and Maintenance

Ref. Page 303 Chapter 16: Business Data Processing Slide 12/32
 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Sorting
Sorting On
On One
One Key
Key

Employee Department Other fields (Name,

Code Code Address, Qualification,
Basic Salary, etc.)
101 2 ---
123 3 ---
124 1 ---
176 2 ---
178 1 ---
202 3 ---
213 1 ---

Sorting on ascending employee code sequence

Ref. Page 303 Chapter 16: Business Data Processing Slide 13/32
 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Sorting
Sorting On
On Two
Two Key
Key

Employee Department Other fields (Name, Address,

Code Code Qualification, Basic Salary,
etc.)
124 1 ---
178 1 ---
213 1 ---
101 2 ---
176 2 ---
123 3 ---
202 3 ---

Sorting on a ascending employee code (secondary

key) within ascending department code (primary key)

Ref. Page 303 Chapter 16: Business Data Processing Slide 14/32
 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Merging
Merging of
of Two
Two Files
Files
Input file Output file Input file
Employee Other Employee Other Employee Other
code fields code fields code fields

125 112 112

127 119 119

137 125 129

146 127 139

159 129 150

File A 137 152

139
File B

146

150

152

159

File C
Merging of files A and B to produce file C

Ref. Page 304 Chapter 16: Business Data Processing Slide 15/32
 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Database
Database Management
Management System
System

In database-oriented approach of organizing data, a

set of programs is provided to facilitate users in
organizing, creating, deleting, updating, and
manipulating data in a database
All these programs together form a Database
Management System (DBMS)

Ref. Page 305 Chapter 16: Business Data Processing Slide 16/32
 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Database
Database Models
Models

Database model defines the manner in which the

various files of a database are linked together.
Four commonly used database models are:
Hierarchical
Network
Relational
Object-oriented

Ref. Page 305 Chapter 16: Business Data Processing Slide 17/32
 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Hierarchical
Hierarchical Database
Database

Organization A parent element

Personnel Finance Technical

Department Department Department

Managers Support Support Support

Managers Managers Engineers Technicians
Staff Staff Staff

A child element

Ref. Page 306 Chapter 16: Business Data Processing Slide 18/32
 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Network
Network Database
Database

College

English Hindi Maths Computer

Science

Seeta Geeta Ram Mohan Sohan Raju

A child element can have more This child element has no

than one parent element parent element

Ref. Page 307 Chapter 16: Business Data Processing Slide 19/32
 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Relational
Relational Database
Database
Membership Members Members Address Borrower Book No. Due Date
No. name (Membership No.) (ISBN) (DD-MM-YYYY)
83569 K. N. Raina C-15, Sarita Vihar, Pune-7 12859 27-21675-2 10-12-2007
62853 D. P. Singh A-22, Anand Park, Pune-5 11348 89303-530-0 08-11-2007
12859 R. Pandey D-18, Vrindavan, Pune-7 32228 13-201702-5 10-11-2007
32228 R. S. Gupta A-12, Nandanvan, Pune-2 16185 22-68111-7 05-12-2007
23466 S. K. Ray B-05, Royal Villa, Pune-3 12859 71606-214-0 06-11-2007
11348 P. K. Sen B-16, Anand Park, Pune-5 62853 13-48049-8 15-11-2007
16185 T. N. Murli A-11, Vrindavan, Pune-7 11348 18-23614-1 12-11-2007
(a) Members data table. (b) Borrowed books data table

Book No. (ISBN) Book Title Author

13-201702-5 Concepts of Physics H. C. Verma
13-48049-8 Concepts of Chemistry S. S. Dubey
18-23614-1 Astrology for You N. K. Sharma
(c) Books data table
22-68111-7 Fundamentals of Computers K. Ramesh
27-21675-2 C++ Programming R. P. Rajan
71606-214-0 Computer Networks A. N. Rai
89303-530-0 Database Systems P. N. Dixit

Ref. Page 308 Chapter 16: Business Data Processing Slide 20/32
 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Sample
Sample Report
Report

List of overdue books as on 10-11-2007

Membership Members Members Due Book No. Book Title Book
No. Name Address Date Author
11348 P. K. Sen B-16, 08-11 89303-530-0 Database P. N. Dixit
Anand Park, Systems
Pune-5
32228 R. S. Gupta A-12, 10-11 13-201702-5 Concepts of H. C. Verma
Nandanvan, Physics
Pune-2
12859 R. Pandey D-18, 06-11 71606-214-0 Computer A. N. Rai
Vrindavan, Networks
Pune-7

A report of overdue books as of 10-11-2007 from the

sample database of previous slide

Ref. Page 308 Chapter 16: Business Data Processing Slide 21/32
 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Object-Oriented
Object-Oriented Database
Database
Vehicle VehicleSpecs
Id Length
Color Width
Specifications Height
Manufacturer Engine Type
Fuel Type
Fuel Tank Capacity
No. of Wheels
TwoWheeler FourWheeler

Other details Other details

of the vehicle of the vehicle Company Employee
like with/ like no. of
without gear, doors, seating Name Id
seating capacity, etc. Location Name
capacity, etc. President Age

DomesticCompany ForeignCompany

Class/subclass link Other details of Other details of

Attribute/domain link the company the company

Ref. Page 309 Chapter 16: Business Data Processing Slide 22/32
 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Main
Main Components
Components of
of a
a DBMS
DBMS

DBMS allows users to organize, process and retrieve

selected data from a database without knowing about
the underlying database structure
Four major components of a DBMS that enable this
are:
Data Definition Language (DDL): Used to define the
structure (schema) of a database
Data Manipulation Language (DML): Provides
commands to enable the users to enter and
manipulate the data

(Continued on next slide)

Ref. Page 310 Chapter 16: Business Data Processing Slide 23/32
 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Main
Main Components
Components of
of a
a DBMS
DBMS
(Continued from previous slide)

Query Language: Enables users to define their

requirements for extracting the desired information
from the database in the form of queries
Report generator: Enables the users of a database
to design the layout of a report so that it can be
presented in the desired format

Ref. Page 310 Chapter 16: Business Data Processing Slide 24/32
 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Creating
Creating a
a Database
Database

Creation of a database is a three step process:

Defining its structure (schema)
Designing forms (custom screens) for displaying and
entering data
Entering the data into it

Ref. Page 312 Chapter 16: Business Data Processing Slide 25/32
 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Sample
Sample Database
Database Form
Form
EMPLOYEE DATABASE DATA ENTRY FORM

EMPLOYEE ID: 856392 SEX: M AGE: 42

EMPLOYEE NAME: LAST NAME: SINHA

FIRST NAME: PRADEEP

MIDDLE NAME: KUMAR

CONTACT ADDRESS: ADDRESS 1: F/8, ANAND PARK

ADDRESS 2: SOCIETY, AUNDH

CITY: PUNE

STATE: MH
POSTAL CODE: 411007

TELEPHONE NO.: (020) 5680-489

ANY OTHER INFORMATION: IS FLUENT IN JAPANESE LANGUAGE

Ref. Page 313 Chapter 16: Business Data Processing Slide 26/32
 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Viewing,
Viewing, Modifying,
Modifying, Deleting,
Deleting, and
and
Adding
Adding Records
Records

All database systems provide commands to view,

modify, delete, or add records of an already
established database
Many database systems also provide a facility to set up
a filter allowing user to browse through and view only
those records that meet some criterion

Ref. Page 314 Chapter 16: Business Data Processing Slide 27/32
 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Searching
Searching a
a Database
Database

Commonly supported features for enabling a user to

search for desired information in a database are:

Find command: Used for simple database queries

Query language: Used for more complex database
queries
Query By Example (QBE): Provides a simple user
interface for specifying search criteria

Ref. Page 315 Chapter 16: Business Data Processing Slide 28/32
 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Creating
Creating Reports
Reports

Reports are generated by using report generator of a

database system to assemble the output of a database
query in desired format
Report generator enables user to specify layout of the
report, titles & subtitles for the report, column
headings for various fields, and other elements to
make the report appear more presentable

Ref. Page 316 Chapter 16: Business Data Processing Slide 29/32
 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Sample
Sample Output
Output of
of Report
Report

LIST OF EMPLOYEES WHO BELONG TO PUNE

DATE: DECEMBER 15, 2007

LAST FIRST ADDRESS-1 ADDRESS-2 TELEPHONE

NAME NAME NUMBER
Gupta Rajiv A-12, Nandanvan M. G. Road 4623-4892
Murli Tapan A-11, Vrindavan Pashan Road 5863-4905
Pandey Rupa D-18, Vrindana Pashan Road 5865-3236
Raina Pushpa C-15, Sarita Vihar Aundh Road 5755-8328
Ray Suhas B-05, Royal Villa M. G. Road 4685-6356

Sen Prakash B-16, Anand Park Aundh Road 5762-3333

Singh Deepak A-22, Anand Park Aundh Road 5728-6287

The report is sorted to present the list in alphabetical order of their last
name

Ref. Page 316 Chapter 16: Business Data Processing Slide 30/32
 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Key
Key Words/Phrases
Words/Phrases

Activity ratio Database model

Backup file Direct file
Collision Field
Copying File
Data File Management System (FMS)
Data Definition Language (DDL) File utilities
Data dependence Filter
Data dictionary Hashing
Data file Hashing algorithm
Data integrity Hierarchical database
Data Manipulation Language Index file
(DML) Indexed sequential file
Data processing Information
Data redundancy Master file
Data storage hierarchy Merging
Database Network database
Database administrator Output file
Database Management System Peripheral Interchange Program
(DBMS) Primary key

(Continued on next slide)

Ref. Page 317 Chapter 16: Business Data Processing Slide 31/32
 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Key
Key Words/Phrases
Words/Phrases

(Continued from previous slide)

Query By Example
Query language
Record
Relational database
Report file
Report Generator
Schema
Searching
Secondary key
Secondary key
Sequential file
Sorting
Transaction file
Tuple

Ref. Page 317 Chapter 16: Business Data Processing Slide 32/32
 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Ref. Page Chapter 17: Data Communications and Computer Networks Slide 1/57
 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Learning Objectives

In this chapter you will learn about:

Basic elements of a communication system
Techniques, channels, and devices used to transmit
data between distant locations
Types of computer networks
Communication protocols and their use in computer
networks
Internetworking tools and their use in building large
computer networks
Characteristics and advantages of distributed data
processing

Ref. Page 320 Chapter 17: Data Communications and Computer Networks Slide 2/57
 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Basic Elements of a Communication

System

Sender Medium Receiver

(source) Carries the message (sink)

Creates and sends Receives the

a message message

Ref. Page 321 Chapter 17: Data Communications and Computer Networks Slide 3/57
 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Data Transmission Modes

Sender Receiver
(a) Simplex

Sender OR Receiver
(or Receiver) (or Sender)
(b) Half-duplex

Sender Receiver
AND
(and Receiver) (and Sender)
(c) Full-duplex

Ref. Page 321 Chapter 17: Data Communications and Computer Networks Slide 4/57
 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Data Transmission Speed

Bandwidth: Range of frequencies available for data

transmission. It refers to data transmission rate. Higher
the bandwidth, the more data it can transmit
Baud: Unit of measurement of data transfer rate.
Measured in bits per second (bps)

Ref. Page 322 Chapter 17: Data Communications and Computer Networks Slide 5/57
 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Data Transmission Speed Category

Narrowband: Sub-voice grade channels in range from

45 to 300 baud. Mainly used for telegraph lines and
low-speed terminals
Voiceband: Voice grade channels with speed up to
9600 baud. Mainly used for ordinary telephone voice
communication and slow I/O devices
Broadband: High speed channels with speed up to 1
million baud or more. Mainly used for high-speed
computer-to-computer communication or for
simultaneous transmission of data

Ref. Page 322 Chapter 17: Data Communications and Computer Networks Slide 6/57
 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Data Transmission Media

The most commonly used ones are:

Twisted-pair wire (UTP cable)
Coaxial cable
Microwave system
Communications satellite
Optical fibers

Ref. Page 323 Chapter 17: Data Communications and Computer Networks Slide 7/57
 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Unshielded Twisted-Pair (UTP)
Cable

Ref. Page 323 Chapter 17: Data Communications and Computer Networks Slide 8/57
 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Coaxial Cable

Central copper wire

PVC insulation

Copper mesh

Outer PVC shield

Ref. Page 323 Chapter 17: Data Communications and Computer Networks Slide 9/57
 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Microwave Communication System

Transmitting antennas Receiving

antennas

In between
Transmitting repeaters Receiving
station station

Line of sight Line of sight Line of sight

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Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Satellite Communication System

Satellite in space

6 GHz 4 GHz

Uplink Downlink

Transmitting Receiving
station on earth station on earth

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Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Optical Fiber Communication System

Electrical Optical fiber Electrical

Electrical to Light to signal
signal
light wave electrical wave
converter converter
Amplifier
Sender Receiver
Light waves

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Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Digital and Analog Data Transmission

Analog signal: Transmitted power varies over a

continuous range. Example: sound, light, and radio
waves
Digital signal: Sequence of voltage pulses represented
in binary form
Computer generated data signal is digital, whereas
telephone lines carry analog signals

(Continued on next slide)

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Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Digital and Analog Data Transmission

(Continued from previous slide)

When digital data is to be sent over an analog facility,
digital signals must be converted to analog form
Conversion of digital signal to analog form is known as
modulation
Conversion of analog signal to digital form is known as
demodulation
Digital transmission of data is preferred over analog
transmission of data due to lower cost, higher
transmission speeds, and lower error rate

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Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Analog and Digital Signals

Voltage
+v

0 t
1/f 2/f
-v
(a) Analog signal

v
1 1 1 1
0 0 0 0
t
(b) Digital signal

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Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Modulation Techniques

Amplitude Modulation (AM): Two binary values (0 and

1) of digital data are represented by two different
amplitudes of the carrier signal, keeping frequency and
phase constant
Frequency Modulation (FM): Two binary values of
digital data are represented by two different frequencies,
while amplitude and phase are kept constant
Phase Modulation (PM): Two binary values of digital
data are represented by shift in phase of carrier signal

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Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Modems

Modem is short for MOdulator/DEModulator

Special device used for conversion of digital data to
analog form (modulation) and vice-versa (demodulation)
Essential piece of hardware where two digital devices
(say two computers) want to communicate over an
analog transmission channel (say a telephone line)

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Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Use of Modems in Data Communications

Analog signals on
Digital signals Digital signals
telephone line

01 1 0 Modulator Demodulator 0 1 1 0

Sender Receiver
Computer Modulator Computer
Demodulator
0 100 0 1 00

modem at modem at
sender receiver
computer end computer end

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Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Factors for Modem Selection

Transmission speed
Internal versus external
Facsimile facility

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Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Data Transmission Services

Data transmission service providers are popularly

known as common carriers
Various types of services offered by common carriers
are:
Dial-up line: Operates in a manner similar to a
telephone line
Leased line: Special conditioned telephone line
that directly and permanently connects two
computers
Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN):
Telephone system that provides digital (not analog)
telephone and data services

(Continued on next slide)

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Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Data Transmission Services

(Continued from previous slide)

Value Added Network (VAN): Provides value-added

data transmission service. Value added over and
above the standard services of common carriers may
include e-mail, data encryption/decryption, access to
commercial databases, and code conversion for
communication between computers

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Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Multiplexing

Method of dividing physical channel into many logical

channels so that a number of independent signals may
be simultaneously transmitted
Electronic device that performs multiplexing is known
as a multiplexer
Multiplexing enables a single transmission medium to
concurrently transmit data between several
transmitters and receivers

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Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Two Basic Methods of Multiplexing

Frequency-Division Multiplexing (FDM): Available

bandwidth of a physical medium is divided into several
smaller, disjoint logical bandwidths. Each component
bandwidth is used as a separate communication line
Time-Division Multiplexing (TDM): Total time
available in a channel is divided among several users,
and each user of the channel is allotted a time slice
during which he/she may transmit a message

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Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Frequency-Division Multiplexing

Modulator Demodulator

Signal-1 40 KHz 40 KHz Signal-1

Sending end Receiving end

Signal-2 50 KHz 50 KHz Signal-2

Signal-3 60 KHz Channel 60 KHz Signal-3

Signal-4 70 KHz 70 KHz Signal-4

Signal-5 80 KHz 80 KHz Signal-5

Frequency-Division Multiplexing

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Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Time-Division Multiplexing

Time sliced Reassembled

signals signals

Signal A3 A2 A1 A3 A2 A1
A
Sending Receiving
end end
Demulti-
Signal B3 B2 B1 Channel plexer B3 B2 B1
B
C2 B2 A2 C1 B1 A1
Signal C3 C2 C1 C3 C2 C1
C

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Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Asynchronous and Synchronous

Transmission

Two modes of data transmission on a communication

line are asynchronous and synchronous
Asynchronous transmission
Sender can send data at any convenient time and
the receiver will accept it
Data is transmitted character by character at
irregular intervals
Well suited to many keyboard type terminals

(Continued on next slide)

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Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Asynchronous and Synchronous

Transmission
(Continued from previous slide)
Synchronous transmission
Sender and receiver must synchronize with each
other to get ready for data transmission before it
takes place
Entire blocks of characters are framed and
transmitted together
Well suited to remote communication between a
computer and such devices as buffered terminals
and printers

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Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Data Transmission

Irregular time intervals Each character framed by

between two characters start and stop bits

Character Character Character

(a) Asynchronous transmission

A block of characters may

Indefinite time interval consist of hundreds of
between two blocks of data characters

Char Char Char Char Char Char

Trailer containing end of block Header containing synchronizing

indication and other information

(b) Synchronous transmission

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Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Switching Techniques

Data is often transmitted from source to destination

through a network of intermediate nodes
Switching techniques deal with the methods of
establishing communication links between the sender
and receiver in a communication network
Three commonly used switching techniques are:
Circuit switching: Dedicated physical path is
established between sending and receiving stations
through nodes of the network for the duration of
communication

(Continued on next slide)

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Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Switching Techniques

(Continued from previous slide)

Message switching: Sender appends receivers

destination address to the message and it is
transmitted from source to destination either by
store-and-forward method or broadcast method
Packet switching: Message is split up into fixed size
packets and each packet is transmitted independently
from source to destination node. Either store-and-
forward or broadcast method is used for transmitting
the packets. All the packets of a message are re-
assembled into original message at the destination
node

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 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Circuit Switching Method

Switching
nodes
Dotted line
indicates
establishment of
physical path

Source
node Destination
node

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 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Store-and-Forward Method of
Message Switching

4 B
A 1
3
2

C
C

Either path 1-2-3-4 or 1-5-4 may be used to

transmit a message from A to B.

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 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Broadcast Method of Message
Switching

Nodes 1 2 3 n

Message

Broadcast Channel

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Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Routing Techniques

In a WAN, when multiple paths exist between the source

and destination nodes of a packet, any one of the paths
may be used to transfer the packet
Selection of path to be used for transmitting a packet is
determined by the routing technique used
Two popularly used routing algorithms are:
Source routing: Source node selects the entire path
before sending the packet
Hop-by-hop routing: Each node along the path
decides only the next node for the path

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Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Network Topologies

Term network topology refers to the way in which

the nodes of a network are linked together
Although number network topologies are possible,
four major ones are:
Star network
Ring network
Completely connected network
Multi-access bus network

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Computer Fundamentals:
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Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Star Network

Host
Node

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Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Ring Network

Ref. Page 339 Chapter 17: Data Communications and Computer Networks Slide 37/57
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Computer Fundamentals:
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Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Completely Connected Network

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Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Multi-Access Bus Network

Computers (nodes)

Single communication line shared by all nodes

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Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Hybrid Network

Ring Completely
Star connected

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Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Network Types

Networks are broadly classified into two types: Local

Area Network (LAN) and Wide Area Network (WAN)
Local Area Network (LAN) as compared to WAN:
Limited to a small geographic coverage
Has much higher data transmission rate
Experiences fewer data transmission errors
Has lower data communication cost
Typically owned by a single organization
Networks that share some of the characteristics of both
LANs and WANs are referred to as Metropolitan Area
Network (MAN)

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Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Communication Protocols

Protocol is a set of formal operating rules, procedures,

or conventions that govern a given process
Communication protocol describes rules that govern
transmission of data over communication networks
Roles of communication protocol:
Data sequencing
Data routing
Data formatting
Flow control
Error control

(Continued on next slide)

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Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Communication Protocols

(Continued from previous slide)

Precedence and order of transmission

Connection establishment and termination
Data security
Log information.
Communication protocols are normally split up into a
series of modules logically composed of a succession of
layers.
Terms protocol suite, protocol family, or protocol stack
are used to refer to the collection of protocols (of all
layers) of a network system

Ref. Page 343 Chapter 17: Data Communications and Computer Networks Slide 43/57
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Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Network Interface Card (NIC)

Hardware device that allows a computer to be

connected to a network, both functionally and
physically
Printed circuit board installed on to one of the
expansion slots of computer
Provides a port on the back to which network cable is
attached

Ref. Page 344 Chapter 17: Data Communications and Computer Networks Slide 44/57
 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

The OSI Model

The Open System Interconnection (OSI) model is

framework for defining standards for linking
heterogeneous computers in a packet switched
network
Standardized OSI protocol makes it possible for any
two heterogeneous computer systems, located
anywhere in the world, to easily communicate with
each other
Separate set of protocols is defined for each layer in its
seven-layer architecture. Each layer has an
independent function

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 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Layers, Interfaces, and Protocols

in the OSI Model
Node 1 Node 2
Process A Process B

Layer 7 Application protocol Layer 7

(application) (application)
Interface Interface
Layer 6 Presentation protocol Layer 6
(presentation) (presentation)
Interface Interface
Layer 5 Session protocol Layer 5
(session) (session)
Interface Interface
Layer 4 Transport protocol Layer 4
(transport) (transport)
Interface Interface
Layer 3 Network protocol Layer 3
(network) (network)
Interface Interface
Layer 2 Data-link protocol Layer 2
(data link) (data link)
Interface Interface
Layer 1 Physical protocol Layer 1
(physical) (physical)

Network

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 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
An
An example
example illustrating
illustrating transfer
transfer of
of message
message M M from
from sending
sending node
node to to the
the
receiving
receiving node
node in
in the
the OSI
OSI model:
model: H
Hnn,, header
header added
added by
by layer
layer n:T
n:Tnn,, trailer
trailer
added
added by
by layer
layer n.
n.
Sending node Receiving node

Process A Process B

H7 M H7 M

H6 H M H6 H7 M
7

H5 H6 H7 M H5 H6 H7 M

H 4 H 5 H 6 H 7 M1 H 4 H 5 H 6 H 7 M2 H 4 H 5 H 6 H 7 M1 H 4 H 5 H 6 H 7 M2

H 3 H 4 H 5 H 6 H 7 M1 H 3 H 4 H 5 H 6 H 7 M2 H 3 H 4 H 5 H 6 H 7 M1 H 3 H 4 H 5 H 6 H 7 M2

H2 H3 H4 H5 H6 H7 M1 T2 H2 H3 H4 H5 H6 H7 M2 T2 H2 H3 H4 H5 H6 H7 M1 T2 H2 H3 H4 H5 H6 H7 M2 T2

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 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Internetworking

Interconnecting two or more networks to form a single

network is called internetworking, and the resulting
network is called an internetwork
Goal of internetworking is to hide details of different
physical networks, so that resulting internetwork
functions as a single coordinated unit
Tools such as bridges, routers, brouters, and gateways
are used for internetworking
The Internet is the best example of an internetwork

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 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Bridges

Operate at bottom two layers of the OSI model

Connect networks that use the same communication
protocols above data-link layer but may use different
protocols at physical and data-link layers

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Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Routers

Operates at network layer of the OSI model

Used to interconnect those networks that use the same
high-level protocols above network layer
Smarter than bridges as they not only copy data from
one network segment to another, but also choose the
best route for the data by using routing table

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Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Gateways

Operates at the top three layers of the OSI model

(session, presentation and application)
Used for interconnecting dissimilar networks that use
different communication protocols
Since gateways interconnect dissimilar networks,
protocol conversion is the major job performed by
them

Ref. Page 349 Chapter 17: Data Communications and Computer Networks Slide 51/57
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Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Wireless Computing Systems

Wireless computing system uses wireless communication

technologies for interconnecting computer systems
Enhances functionality of computing equipment by freeing
communication from location constraints of wired
computing systems
Wireless computing systems are of two types:
Fixed wireless systems: Support little or no
mobility of the computing equipment associated with
the wireless network
Mobile wireless systems: Support mobility of the
computing equipment to access resources associated
with the wireless network

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Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Wireless Technologies

2G and 3G
Wireless LAN
WiMAX
Wireless Local Loop (WLL)
Radio-router
Multihop Wireless Network
Wireless Application Protocol (WAP)

Ref. Page 351 Chapter 17: Data Communications and Computer Networks Slide 53/57
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Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Distributed Computing Systems

Configuration where many independent computer

systems are connected, and messages, processing task,
programs, data, and other resources are transmitted
between cooperating computer systems
Such an arrangement enables sharing of many
hardware and software resources as well as information
among several users who may be sitting far away from
each other

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Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Main Advantages of Distributed
Computing Systems

Inherently distributed applications

Information sharing among distributed users
Resource sharing
Shorter response times and higher throughput
Higher reliability
Extensibility and incremental growth
Better flexibility in meeting users needs

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Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Keywords/Phrases

Amplifier Dial-up line

Amplitude Modulation (AM) Distributed Computing System
Application layer Ethernet
ARPANET Fax modem
Asynchronous transmission File Transfer Protocol (FTP)
Bandwidth Font-End Processors (FEP)
Baud Frequency Modulation (FM)
Bridge Frequency-Division Multiplexing (FDM)
Broadband Full duplex
Broadcast Gateway
C-band transmission Half duplex
Circuit switching Hop-by-hop routing
Coaxial cable Hybrid network
Common Carriers Internet Protocol (IP)
Communication protocol Internetworking
Communications satellite ISDN (Integrated Services Digital Network)
Completely connected network Ku-band transmission
Computer network Leased line
Concentrators Local Area Network (LAN)
Data-link layer Message switching
Demodulation
(Continued on next slide)

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Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Keywords/Phrases

Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) Protocol suite (Continued from previous slide)
Microwave system Repeater
Mobile computing Ring network
Modem Router
Modulation Session layer
Multi-access Bus network Simplex
Multiplexer Source routing
Narrowband Star network
Network Interface Card (NIC) Store-and-forward
Network layer Synchronous transmission
Network topology Time-Division Multiplexing (TDM)
Nomadic computing Transport Control Protocol (TCP)
Optical fibers Transport layer
OSI Model Twisted-pair
Packet switching Unshielded twisted-pair (UTP)
Phase Modulation (PM) User Datagram Protocol (UDP)
Physical layer Value Added Network (VAN)
POTS (Plain Old Telephone Service) Voiceband
Presentation layer VSAT (Very Small Aperture Terminals)
Protocol family Wide Area Network (WAN)
Protocol stack Wireless network

Ref. Page 354 Chapter 17: Data Communications and Computer Networks Slide 57/57
 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
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Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Ref. Page Chapter 18: The Internet Slide 1/16

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Learning Objectives

In this chapter you will learn about:

The Internet
Evolution and basic services on Internet
World Wide Web (WWW)
WWW browsers
Uses of the Internet

Ref. Page 358 Chapter 18: The Internet Slide 2/16

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

The Internet

The Internet is a network of computers that links many

different types of computers all over the world
Network of networks sharing a common mechanism for
addressing (identifying) computers, and a common set of
communication protocols
Evolved from the basic ideas of ARPANET (the first WAN
that had only four sites in 1969) for interconnecting
computers
Initially used only by research organizations and
universities to share and exchange information

(Continued on next slide)

Ref. Page 358 Chapter 18: The Internet Slide 3/16

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

The Internet
(Continued from previous slide..)

In 1989, the US Government lifted restrictions on the use

of the Internet and allowed it to be used for commercial
purposes as well
Internet has rapidly grown and continues to grow at a
rapid pace
Interconnects more than 30,000 networks, allowing more
than 10 million computers and more than 50 million
computer users in more than 150 countries to
communicate with each other

Ref. Page 358 Chapter 18: The Internet Slide 4/16

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Basic Services of the Internet

Electronic Mail (e-mail): Allows user to send a mail

(message) to another Internet user in any part of the
world in a near-real-time manner
File Transfer Protocol (FTP): Allows user to move a
file from one computer to another on the Internet
Telnet: Allows user to log in to another computer
somewhere on the Internet
Usenet News: Allows group of users to exchange their
views/ideas/information

Ref. Page 359 Chapter 18: The Internet Slide 5/16

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Electronic Mail

E-mail is a rapid and productive communication tool

because:
Faster than paper mail
Unlike telephone, the persons communicating with
each other need not be available at the same time
Unlike fax documents, e-mail documents can be
stored in a computer and be easily edited using
editing programs

Ref. Page 359 Chapter 18: The Internet Slide 6/16

 Computer
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Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

File Transfer Protocol

Moving a file from a remote computer to ones own

computer is known as downloading
Moving a file from ones own computer to a remote
computer is known as uploading
Anonymous ftp site is a computer allowing a user to log in
with a username of anonymous and password that is
users e-mail address.
Anonymous ftp sites are called publicly accessible sites
because they can be accessed by any user on the
Internet

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 Computer
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Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Telnet

Some common uses of telnet service are:

Using the computing power of the remote computer
Using a software on the remote computer
Accessing remote computers database or archive
Logging in to ones own computer from another computer

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 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Usenet News

Several usenet news groups exist on the Internet and are

called newsgroups
In a moderated newsgroup only selected members have the
right to directly post (write) a message to the virtual notice
board. Other members can only read the posted messages
In a nonmoderated newsgroup any member can directly post a
message to the virtual notice board
Netiquette (network etiquette) deals with rules of framing
messages that will not hurt others

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 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
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Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

World Wide Web (WWW or W3)

Hypertext documents on the Internet are known as

web pages
Web pages are created by using a special language
called HyperText Markup Language (HTML)
WWW uses the client-server model and an Internet
Protocol called HyperText Transport Protocol (HTTP) for
interaction among the computers on the Internet
Any computer on the Internet that uses the HTTP
protocol is called a web server and any computer that
can access that server is called a web client

(Continued on next slide)

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 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

World Wide Web (WWW or W3)

(Continued from previous slide..)

It uses the concept of hypertext for information

storage and retrieval on the Internet
Hypertext documents enable this by using a series
of links
Link is a special type of item in a hypertext
document that connects the document to another
document providing more information about the
linked item

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 Computer
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Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Example of Hypertext Document

Pradeep K. Sinha has been involved in the research and

development of distributed systems for almost a decade.
At present Dr. Sinha is working at the Centre for Links
Development of Advanced Computing (C-DAC),
Pune, India. Before joining C-DAC, Dr. Sinha worked
with the Multimedia Systems Research Laboratory
(MSRL) of Panasonic in Tokyo, Japan.

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 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

WWW Browsers

WWW browser is a special software loaded on a web client

computer that normally provides following navigation
facilities to users:
Does not require a user to remotely log in to a web
server computer or to log out again when done
Allows user to visit the server computers web site and
to access information stored on it by specifying its URL
(Uniform Resource Locator) address

(Continued on next slide)

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 Computer
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Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

WWW Browsers
(Continued from previous slide..)

Allows user to create and maintain a personal

hotlist of favorite URL addresses of server
computers that user is likely to frequently visit in
future
Allows user to download information in various
formats from server computers to users own
computer

Ref. Page 362 Chapter 18: The Internet Slide 14/16

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Uses of the Internet

Some important current strategic uses of the Internet

are:
On-line communication
Software sharing
Exchange of views on topics of common interest
Posting of information of general interest
Product promotion
Feedback about products
Customer support service
On-line journals and magazines
On-line shopping
World-wide video conferencing

Ref. Page 363 Chapter 18: The Internet Slide 15/16

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
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Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Keywords/Phrases

Anonymous ftp site

Browser
Download
Electronic mail (e-mail)
File Transfer Protocol (FTP)
Hypertext
Hypertext Transport Protocol (HTTP)
Internet
Newsgroup
Publicly accessible sites
Standard Generalized Markup Language (SGML)
Telnet
Uniform Resource Locator (URL)
Upload
Usenet
Web client
Web Server
World Wide Web (WWW)

Ref. Page 364 Chapter 18: The Internet Slide 16/16

 Computer
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Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Ref. Page Chapter 19: Multimedia Slide 1/16

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Learning Objectives

In this chapter you will learn about:

Multimedia
Multimedia computer system
Main components of multimedia and their associated
technologies
Common multimedia applications

Ref. Page 366 Chapter 19: Multimedia Slide 2/16

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Multimedia

Media is something that can be used for presentation of

information.
Two basic ways to present some information are:
Unimedia presentation: Single media is used to
present information
Multimedia presentation: More than one media is
used to present information
Multimedia presentation of any information greatly
enhances the comprehension capability of the user as it
involves use of more of our senses

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 Computer
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Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Common Media

Common media for storage, access, and transmission of

information are:
Text (alphanumeric characters)
Graphics (line drawings and images)
Animation (moving images)
Audio (sound)
Video (Videographed real-life events)
Multimedia in information technology refers to use of more
than one of these media for information presentation to
users

Ref. Page 367 Chapter 19: Multimedia Slide 4/16

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
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Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Multimedia Computer System

Multimedia computer system is a computer having

capability to integrate two or more types of media (text,
graphics, animation, audio, and video)
In general, size for multimedia information is much
larger than plain text information
Multimedia computer systems require:
Faster CPU
Larger storage devices (for storing large data files)
Larger main memory (for large data size)
Good graphics terminals
I/O devices to play any multimedia

(Continued on next slide)

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 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Text Media
(Continued from previous slide..)

Alphanumeric characters are used to present information

in text form. Computers are widely used for text
processing
Keyboards, OCRs, computer screens, and printers are
some commonly used hardware devices for processing
text media
Text editing, text searching, hypertext, and text
importing/exporting are some highly desirable features
of a multimedia computer system for better presentation
and use of text information

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 Computer
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Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Graphics Media

Computer graphics deals with generation, representation,

manipulation, and display of pictures (line drawings and
images) with a computer
Locating devices (such as a mouse, a joystick, or a
stylus), digitizers, scanners, digital cameras, computer
screens with graphics display capability, laser printers,
and plotters are some common hardware devices for
processing graphics media
Some desirable features of a multimedia computer system
are painting or drawing software, screen capture software,
clip art, graphics importing, and software support for high
resolution

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Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Animation Media

Computer animation deals with generation, sequencing,

and display (at a specified rate) of a set of images
(called frames) to create an effect of visual change or
motion, similar to a movie film (video)
Animation is commonly used in those instances where
videography is not possible or animation can better
illustrate the concept than video
Animation deals with displaying a sequence of images at
a reasonable speed to create an impression of
movement. For a jerk-free full motion animation, 25 to
30 frames per second is required

(Continued on next slide)

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Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Animation Media
(Continued from previous slide..)

Scanners, digital cameras, video capture board

interfaced to a video camera or VCR, computer
monitors with image display capability, and graphics
accelerator board are some common hardware devices
for processing animation media
Some desirable features of a multimedia computer
system with animation facility are animation creation
software, screen capture software, animation clips,
animation file importing, software support for high
resolution, recording and playback capabilities, and
transition effects

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Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Virtual Reality

Virtual reality is a relatively new technology using

which the user can put a pair of goggles and a glove
and tour a three-dimensional world that exists only in
the computer, but appears realistic to the user

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Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Audio Media

Computer audio deals with synthesizing, recording, and

playback of audio or sound with a computer
Sound board, microphone, speaker, MIDI devices,
sound synthesizer, sound editor and audio mixer are
some commonly used hardware devices for processing
audio media
Some desirable features of a multimedia computer
system are audio clips, audio file importing, software
support for high quality sound, recording and playback
capabilities, text-to-speech conversion software,
speech-to-text conversion software, and voice
recognition software

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Computer Fundamentals:
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Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Video Media

Computer video deals with recording and display of a

sequence of images at a reasonable speed to create an
impression of movement. Each individual image of
such a sequence is called a frame
Video camera, video monitor, video board, and video
editor are some of the commonly used hardware
devices for processing video media
Some desirable features of a multimedia computer
system with video facility are video clips and recording
and playback capabilities

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 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Multimedia Applications

Multimedia presentation
Foreign language learning
Video games
Special effects in films
Multimedia kiosks as help desks
Animated advertisements
Multimedia conferencing

Ref. Page 375 Chapter 19: Multimedia Slide 13/16

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Media Center Computer

There is a growing trend of owning a personal computer

(PC) at home like other electronic equipment
New terminologies like infotainment and edutainment
have evolved to refer to computers as versatile tools
Media center PC provides following functionalities:
Server as PC, TV, radio, and music system
Serve as digital photo album and digital library
Server as Game station and DVD/CD Player
Allows play, pause, and record of TV programs
Provides Electronic Programming Guide (EPG)

Ref. Page 376 Chapter 19: Multimedia Slide 14/16

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Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Media Center Computer

High-resolution
display screen

System
Unit
Remote
Control

Mouse
Keyboard

Ref. Page 377 Chapter 19: Multimedia Slide 15/16

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Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Keywords/Phrases

Animation
Audio
Clip art
Cognitive graphics
Computer Aided Design (CAD)
Computer Aided Manufacturing (CAM)
Frames
Generative graphics
Graphics
Multimedia
Media Center Computer
Pixel
Refresh rate
Text
Transducer
Transition effects
Video
Virtual reality

Ref. Page 378 Chapter 19: Multimedia Slide 16/16

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
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Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Ref. Page Chapter 20: Classification of Computers Slide 1/26

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Learning Objectives

In this chapter you will learn about:

Classifications of computers
Common types of computers today
Characteristic features of various types of
computers in use today

Ref. Page 381 Chapter 20: Classification of Computers Slide 2/26

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Computer Classification

Traditionally, computers were classified by their size,

processing speed, and cost
Based on these factors, computers were classified as
microcomputers, minicomputers, mainframes, and
supercomputers
However, with rapidly changing technology, this
classification is no more relevant
Today, computers are classified based on their mode of
use

Ref. Page 381 Chapter 20: Classification of Computers Slide 3/26

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Types of Computers

Based on their mode of use, computers are classified as:

Notebook computers
Personal computers
Workstations
Mainframe systems
Supercomputers
Clients and servers
Handheld computers

Ref. Page 381 Chapter 20: Classification of Computers Slide 4/26

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Notebook Computers

Portable computers mainly meant for use by people who

need computing resource wherever they go
Approximately of the size of an 8 x 11 inch notebook and
can easily fit inside a briefcase
Weigh around 2 kg only.
Comfortably placed on ones lap while being used. Hence,
they are also called laptop PC
Lid with display screen is foldable in a manner that when
not in use it can be folded to flush with keyboard to
convert the system into notebook form

(Continued on next slide)

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 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Notebook Computers
(Continued from previous slide..)

Designed to operate with chargeable batteries

Mostly used for word processing, spreadsheet
computing, data entry, and power point presentations
Normally run MS-DOS or MS WINDOWS operating
system
Some manufacturers are also offering models with
GNU/Linux or its distributions
Each device of laptop is designed to use little power and
remain suspended if not used

Ref. Page 382 Chapter 20: Classification of Computers Slide 6/26

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Notebook Computers

Foldable flat
screen

Keyboard, trackball,
hard disk, floppy
disk drive, etc. are
in this unit

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 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Personal Computers (PCs)

Non-portable, general-purpose computer that fits on a

normal size office table
Designed to meet personal computing needs of
individuals
Often used by children and adults for education and
entertainment also
Generally used by one person at a time, supports
multitasking
Two common models of PCs are desktop model and
tower model
Popular OS are MS-DOS, MS-Windows, Windows-NT,
Linux, and UNIX

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Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Common PC Models

Monitor

System
Unit Mouse

Mouse

Keyboard
(a) Desktop model (b) Tower model

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Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Workstations

Powerful desktop computer designed to meet the

computing needs of engineers, architects, and other
professionals
Provides greater processing power, larger storage, and
better graphics display facility than PCs
Commonly used for computer-aided design, multimedia
applications, simulation of complex scientific and
engineering problems, and visualization
Generally run the UNIX operating system or a variation of
it
Operating system is generally designed to support
multiuser environment

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Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Mainframe Systems

Mainly used by large organizations as banks, insurance

companies, hospitals, railways, etc.
Used for data handling and information processing
requirements
Used in such environments where a large number of
users need to share a common computing facility
Oriented to input/output-bound applications

(Continued on next slide)

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 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Mainframe Systems
(Continued from previous slide..)

Typically consist of a host computer, front-end

computer, back-end computer, console terminals,
magnetic disk drives, tape drives, magnetic tape
library, user terminals, printers, and plotters
Typical mainframe system looks like a row of large file
cabinets and needs a large room
Smaller configuration (slower host and subordinate
computers, lesser storage space, and fewer user
terminals) is often referred to as a minicomputer
system

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Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Mainframe Computer Systems

SYSTEM ROOM (Entry restricted to system administrators and maintenance staff)

Magnetic Tape Library
Magnetic
Disk Drives
Magnetic
Tape
Drive
Back-end
Processor
Plotter

Host Processor Printer

Console

Front-end
Processor

User Terminal User Terminal User Terminal

USERS ROOM (Entry restricted to authorized users)

Ref. Page 385 Chapter 20: Classification of Computers Slide 13/26

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Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Supercomputers

Most powerful and most expensive computers available at

a given time.
Primarily used for processing complex scientific
applications that require enormous processing power
Well known supercomputing applications include:
Analysis of large volumes of seismic data
Simulation of airflow around an aircraft
Crash simulation of the design of an automobile
Solving complex structure engineering problems
Weather forecasting

(Continued on next slide)

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Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Supercomputers
(Continued from previous slide..)

Supercomputers also support multiprogramming

Supercomputers primarily address processor-bound
applications

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 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Parallel Processing Systems

Use multiprocessing and parallel processing

technologies to solve complex problems faster
Also known as parallel computers or parallel processing
systems
Modern supercomputers employ hundreds of
processors and are also known as massively parallel
processors

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 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

C-DACs PARAM 10000 Supercomputer

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 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Client and Server Computers

Client-server computing environment has multiple

clients, one/more servers, and a network
Client is a PC/workstation with user-friendly interface
running client processes that send service requests to
the server
Server is generally a relatively large computer that
manages a shared resource and provides a set of
shared user services to the clients
Server runs the server process that services client
requests for use of managed resources
Network may be a single LAN or WAN or an internet
work

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 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Client-Server Computing

Involves splitting an application into tasks and putting

each task on computer where it can be handled most
efficiently
Computers and operating systems of a client and a
server may be different
Common for one server to use the services of another
server, and hence act both as client and server
Concept of client and server computers is purely role-
based and may change dynamically as the role of a
computer changes

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Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Client-Server Computing Environment

PC (Client)
PC (Client) File
Server
LAN or WAN or an
Internet of Networks

PC (Client)

Database
Server

Workstation
(Client)
Workstation
(Client)

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Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Handheld Computers

Small computing device that can be used by holding in

hand, also known as palmtop
Size, weight, and design are such that it can be used
comfortably by holding in hand
Types of Handheld are:
Tablet PC: Miniaturized laptop with light weight, screen
flip, handwriting and voice recognition
PDA/Pocket PC: Acts as PIM device with LCD touch
screen, pen for handwriting recognition, PC based
synchronization, and optionally mobile phone services
Smartphone: Fully functional mobile phone with
computing power, voice centric, do not have a touch
screen and are smaller than PDA

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Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Handheld Computers

(a) Table PC (b) PDA/Pocket PC (c) Smartphone

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Computer Fundamentals:
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Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Comparison of Different Types of
Computers
Types of
Computers
Note PC Work Mainframe Super Client Server Handheld
book station system computer
Key
features

Size Very Small Medium Large Large Generally Generally Very small
small (can be (slightly (needs a (needs a small (may large (can be
(can be placed on larger than large room) large room) be large if it placed on
placed on an office PC) is also play ones palm)
ones lap) table) the role of a
server

Processing Low Low High Higher Highest Generally Generally Low

power low high

Main memory Low Low High Higher Highest Generally Generally Low
capacity low high

Hard disk Low Low High Highest Higher Generally Generally Low
storage low high
capacity

Has its own Yes Yes Yes Generally no Generally no Yes Generally No
monitor, no
keyboard, and
mouse for
user interface

(Continued on next slide)

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Computer Fundamentals:
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Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Comparison of Different Types of
Computers
(Continued from previous slide..)

Types of
Work Mainframe Super
Computers
Notebook PC station system computer Client Server Handheld

Key
features

Display Foldable Medium Large-screen Generally Generally not Medium to Generally Small
facility flat screen size color monitor not available large not display
small display which can available screen available
display screen display high monitor
resolution
graphics

Single/ Single Generally Generally Multiple Multiple Generally Generally Single

multiple single multiple single multiple
processors

Single/ Single Single Generally Multiple Multiple Single Multiple Single

multiple single
User
oriented
MS-DOS, MS-DOS, Unix or a A variation A variation of MS-DOS, Windows MS-Wndows
MS- MS- variation of of Unix, or Unix, or MS- -NT, Mobile, Palm
Popular
Windows Windows, it proprietary proprietary Windows, Unix or OS, Symbian
operating
Windows- Windows- its OS, Linux,
systems
NT, Linux, NT, variation, Blackbery OS
Unix Linux, or
proprieta
Unix ry

(Continued on next slide)

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Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Comparison of Different Types of
Computers
(Continued from previous slide..)

Types of
Computers Work
Notebook Personal station Mainframe Super Client Server Handheld
Key Computer system computer
features

Popular Word Personal Computing Data and Large Provide Manage a Computing,
usage processing; computing needs of information processor- highly shared Personal
Spreadsheet needs of engineers, processing bound user- resource Information
; Data individuals architects, of I/O- application friendly and Managemen
Entry; either in designers; bound s like interface provide a t (PIM), cell
Preparing their Simulation of applications complex in a client- set of phone,
presentation working complex scientific server shared digital
materials; places or at scientific and simulation computing user camera
and Making their engineering s environme services
presentation homes; and problems and nt in a
s Education visualizing the client-
and results of server
entertain- simulation; and computin
ment of Multimedia g
children applications environm
and adults ent

Major IBM, IBM, Apple, Sun IBM, DEC Cray, IBM, Same as Same as Nokia,
vendors Compaq, Compaq, Microsystems Silicon PC and Workstation, Sony,
Siemens, Dell, , IBM, DEC, Graphics, Workstati Mainframe Motorola,
Toshiba Zenith, Hewlett- Fujitsu, on System, & Dell,
Siemens, Packard, Intel, C- vendors Super- Hawlett-
Toshiba, Silicon DAC computer Packard
Hewlett- Graphics vendors
Packard

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Computer Fundamentals:
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Pradeep K.
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& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Key Words/Phrases

Back-end computer
Client computer
Client process
Front-end computer
Host computer
Handheld
I/O-bound application
Laptop PC
Mainframe system
Massively parallel processors
Minicomputer
Notebook computer
Parallel computers
Parallel processing system
Personal Computer (PC)
Processor-bound application
Server computer
Server process
Supercomputer
System board
Workstation

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Computer Fundamentals:
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Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Ref. Page Chapter 21: Introduction to C Programming Language Slide 1/65

 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Learning Objectives

In this chapter you will learn about:

Features of C
Various constructs and their syntax
Data types and operators in C
Control and Loop Structures in C
Functions in C
Writing programs in C

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Features

Reliable, simple, and easy to use

Has virtues of high-level programming language with
efficiency of assembly language
Supports user-defined data types
Supports modular and structured programming concepts
Supports a rich library of functions
Supports pointers with pointer operations
Supports low-level memory and device access
Small and concise language
Standardized by several international standards body

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& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

C Character Set

Category Valid Characters Total

Uppercase alphabets A, B, C, , Z 26

Lowercase alphabets a, b, c, , z 26

Digits 0, 1, 2, , 9 10

~ `! @ # % ^ & * ( ) _
Special characters 31
+ = | \ {}[ ]:; " ' < > , . ? /

93

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Constants

Constant is a value that never changes

Three primitive types of constants supported in C are:
Integer
Real
Character

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Rules for Constructing Integer

Constants
Must have at least one digit
+ or sign is optional
No special characters (other than + and sign) are
allowed
Allowable range is:
-32768 to 32767 for integer and short integer
constants (16 bits storage)
-2147483648 to 2147483647 for long integer
constants (32 bits storage)
Examples are: 8, +17, -6

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Rules for Constructing Real Constants

in Exponential Form

Has two parts mantissa and exponent - separated by

e or E
Mantissa part is constructed by the rules for constructing
real constants in fractional form
Exponent part is constructed by the rules for
constructing integer constants
Allowable range is -3.4e38 to 3.4e38
Examples are: 8.6e5, +4.3E-8, -0.1e+4

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Rules for Constructing Character

Constants

Single character from C character set

Enclosed within single inverted comma (also
called single quote) punctuation mark
Examples are: A a 8 %

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Variables

Entity whose value may vary during program

execution
Has a name and type associated with it
Variable name specifies programmer given name to
the memory area allocated to a variable
Variable type specifies the type of values a variable
can contain
Example: In i = i + 5, i is a variable

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Rules for Constructing Variables

Names

Can have 1 to 31 characters

Only alphabets, digits, and underscore (as in last_name)
characters are allowed
Names are case sensitive (nNum and nNUM are different)
First character must be an alphabet
Underscore is the only special character allowed
Keywords cannot be used as variable names
Examples are: I saving_2007 ArrSum

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Data Types Used for Variable Type

Declaration

Data Minimum Storage

Used for Variables that can contain
Type Allocated

int 2 bytes (16 bits) integer constants in the range

-32768 to 32767
short 2 bytes (16 bits) integer constants in the range
-32768 to 32767
long 4 bytes (32 bits) integer constants in the range
-2147483648 to 2147483647
float 4 bytes (32 bits) real constants with minimum 6 decimal digits
precision
double 8 bytes (64 bits) real constants with minimum 10 decimal
digits precision
char 1 byte (8 bits) character constants
enum 2 bytes (16 bits) Values in the range -32768 to 32767
void No storage allocated No value assigned

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Variable Type Declaration Examples

int count;
short index;
long principle;
float area;
double radius;
char c;

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Standard Qualifiers in C

Category Modifier Description

Lifetime auto Temporary variable

register Attempt to store in processor register, fast
static access
extern Permanent, initialized
Permanent, initialized but declaration
elsewhere
Modifiability const Cannot be modified once created
volatile May be modified by factors outside program

Sign signed + or
unsigned + only

Size short 16 bits

long 32 bits

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Lifetime and Visibility Scopes of
Variables

Lifetime of all variables (except those declared as static) is

same as that of function or statement block it is declared in
Lifetime of variables declared in global scope and static is
same as that of the program
Variable is visible and accessible in the function or statement
block it is declared in
Global variables are accessible from anywhere in program
Variable name must be unique in its visibility scope
Local variable has access precedence over global variable of
same name

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Keywords

Keywords (or reserved words) are predefined words whose

meanings are known to C compiler
C has 32 keywords
Keywords cannot be used as variable names

auto double int struct

break else long switch
case enum register typedef
char extern return union
const float short unsigned
continue for signed void
default goto sizeof volatile
do if static while

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Comments

Comments are enclosed within \ and /

Comments are ignored by the compiler
Comment can also split over multiple lines
Example: / This is a comment statement /

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Operators

Operators in C are categorized into data access,

arithmetic, logical, bitwise, and miscellaneous
Associativity defines the order of evaluation when
operators of same precedence appear in an expression
a = b = c = 15, = has R L associativity
First c = 15, then b = c, then a = b is evaluated
Precedence defines the order in which calculations
involving two or more operators is performed
x + y z , is performed before +

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Arithmetic Operators

Operator Meaning with Example Associativity Precedence

Arithmetic Operators
+ Addition; x+y LR 4
- Subtraction; x-y LR 4
Multiplication; xy LR 3
/ Division; x/y LR 3
% Remainder (or Modulus); x%y LR 3

++ Increment;
x++ means post-increment (increment LR 1
the value of x by 1 after using its value);

++x means pre-increment (increment the RL 2

value of x by 1 before using its value)

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Arithmetic Operators

Associativit
Operator Meaning with Example Precedence
y
Arithmetic Operators
-- Decrement;
x-- means post-decrement (decrement LR 1
the value of x by 1 after using its value);
--x means pre-decrement (decrement RL 2
the value of x by 1 before using its value)

= x = y means assign the value of y to x RL 14

+= x += 5 means x = x + 5 RL 14
-= x -= 5 means x = x - 5 RL 14
= x = 5 means x = x 5 RL 14
/= x /= 5 means x = x / 5 RL 14
%= x %= 5 means x = x % 5 RL 14

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Logical Operators

Operator Meaning with Example Associativity Precedence

Logical Operators
! Reverse the logical value of a single variable; RL 2
!x means if the value of x is non-zero, make it
zero; and if it is zero, make it one
> Greater than; x>y LR 6
< Less than; x<y LR 6
>= Greater than or equal to; x >= y LR 6
<= Less than or equal to; x <= y LR 6
== Equal to; x == y LR 7
!= Not equal to; x != y LR 7
&& AND; x && y means both x and y should be LR 11
true (non-zero) for result to be true
|| OR; x || y means either x or y should be true LR 12
(non-zero) for result to be true

z?x:y If z is true (non-zero), then the value returned RL 13

is x, otherwise the value returned is y

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Bitwise Operators
Operator Meaning with Example Associativity Precedence
Bitwise Operators
~ Complement; ~x means RL 2
All 1s are changed to 0s and 0s to 1s
& AND; x & y means x AND y LR 8
| OR; x | y means x OR y LR 10
^ Exclusive OR; x ^ y means x y LR 9

<< Left shift; x << 4 means shift all bits in x LR 5
four places to the left
>> Right shift; x >> 3 means shift all bits LR 5
in x three places to the right
&= x &= y means x = x & y RL 14
|= x |= y means x = x | y RL 14
^= x ^= y means x = x ^ y RL 14
<<= x <<= 4 means shift all bits in x four places RL 14
to the left and assign the result to x
>>= x >>= 3 means shift all bits in x three RL 14
places to the right and assign the result to x

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Data Access Operators

Operator Meaning with Example Associativity Precedence

Data Access Operators

x[y] Access yth element of array x; y starts LR 1

from zero and increases monotically up
to one less than declared size of array
x.y Access the member variable y of LR 1
structure x

x y Access the member variable y of LR 1

structure x

&x Access the address of variable x RL 2

*x Access the value stored in the storage RL 2

location (address) pointed to by pointer
variable x

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Miscellaneous Operators

Associativit Precedenc
Operator Meaning with Example
y e
Miscellaneous Operators

x(y) Evaluates function x with argument y LR 1

sizeof (x) Evaluate the size of variable x in RL 2

bytes
sizeof (type) Evaluate the size of data type type RL 2
in bytes

(type) x Return the value of x after converting RL 2

it from declared data type of variable
x to the new data type type

x,y Sequential operator (x then y) LR 15

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Statements

C program is a combination of statements written

between { and } braces
Each statement performs a set of operations
Null statement, represented by ; or empty {} braces,
does not perform any operation
A simple statement is terminated by a semicolon ;
Compound statements, called statement block, perform
complex operations combining null, simple, and other
block statements

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Examples of Statements

a = (x + y) 10; / simple statement /

if (sell > cost) / compound statement

follows /
{
profit = sell cost;
printf (profit is %d, profit);
}
else / null statement follows /
{
}

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Simple I/O Operations

C has no keywords for I/O operations

Provides standard library functions for
performing all I/O operations

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Basic Library Functions for I/O

Operations
I/O Library
Meanings
Functions
getch() Inputs a single character (most recently typed) from standard input (usually
console).
getche() Inputs a single character from console and echoes (displays) it.
getchar() Inputs a single character from console and echoes it, but requires Enter key to be
typed after the character.
putchar() or Outputs a single character on console (screen).
putch()
scanf() Enables input of formatted data from console (keyboard). Formatted input data
means we can specify the data type expected as input. Format specifiers for
different data types are given in Figure 21.6.
printf() Enables obtaining an output in a form specified by programmer (formatted
output). Format specifiers are given in Figure 21.6. Newline character \n is
used in printf() to get the output split over separate lines.
gets() Enables input of a string from keyboard. Spaces are accepted as part of the input
string, and the input string is terminated when Enter key is hit. Note that although
scanf() enables input of a string of characters, it does not accept multi-word
strings (spaces in-between).
puts() Enables output of a multi-word string

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Basic Format Specifiers for
scanf() and printf()

Format
Data Types
Specifiers
%d integer (short signed)
integer (short
%u
unsigned)
%ld integer (long signed)
%lu integer (long unsigned)
%f real (float)
%lf real (double)
%c character
%s string

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Formatted I/O Example

/ A portion of C program to illustrate formatted input and output /

int maths, science, english, total;

float percent;

clrscr(); / A C library function to make the screen clear /

printf ( Maths marks = ); / Displays Maths marks = /
scanf ( %d, &maths); / Accepts entered value and stores in variable maths /
printf ( \n Science marks = ); / Displays Science marks = on next line because of \n /
scanf ( %d, &science); / Accepts entered value and stores in variable science /
printf ( \n English marks = ); / Displays English marks = on next line because of \n /
scanf ( %d, &english); / Accepts entered value and stores in variable english /

total = maths + science + english;

percent = total/3; / Calculates percentage and stores in variable percent /

printf ( \n Percentage marks obtained = %f, percent);

/ Displays Percentage marks obtained = 85.66 on next line
because of \n /

(Continued on next slide)

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Formatted I/O Example

(Continued from previous slide..)

Output:
Maths marks = 92
Science marks = 87
English marks = 78
Percentage marks obtained = 85.66

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Preprocessor Directives

Preprocessor is a program that prepares a program for

the C compiler
Three common preprocessor directives in C are:
#include Used to look for a file and place its
contents at the location where this preprocessor
directives is used
#define Used for macro expansion
#ifdef..#endif Used for conditional
compilation of segments of a program

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Examples of Preprocessor
Directives
#include <stdio.h>
#define PI 3.1415
#define AND &&
#define ADMIT printf (The candidate can be admitted);

#ifdef WINDOWS
.
.
.
Code specific to windows operating system
.
.
.
#else
.
.
.
Code specific to Linux operating system
.
.
.
#endif
.
.
.
Code common to both operating systems

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Standard Preprocessor
Directives in C
Preprocessor Directive Meaning Category
# Null directive
#error message Prints message when processed
Simple
#line linenum filename Used to update code line number and filename
#pragma name Compiler specific settings
#include filename Includes content of another file File
#define macro/string Define a macro or string substitution
#undef macro Removes a macro definition Macro

#if expr Includes following lines if expr is true

# elif expr Includes following lines if expr is true
#else Handles otherwise conditions of #if
Conditional
#endif Closes #if or #elif block
#ifdef macro Includes following lines if macro is defined
#ifndef imacro Includes following lines if macro is not defined
# String forming operator
## Token pasting operator Operators

defined same as #ifdef

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Pointers

C pointers allow programmers to directly access

memory addresses where variables are stored
Pointer variable is declared by adding a symbol
before the variable name while declaring it.
If p is a pointer to a variable (e.g. int i, *p = i;)
Using p means address of the storage location of
the pointed variable
Using p means value stored in the storage location
of the pointed variable
Operator & is used with a variable to mean variables
address, e.g. &i gives address of variable i

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Illustrating Pointers Concept

1000 62 i

Location address Location Location

contents name

Address of i = 1000
Value of i = 62

int i = 62;
int p;
int j;
p = &i; / p becomes 1000 /
j = p; / j becomes 62 /
j = 0; / j becomes zero /
j = (&i) / j becomes 62 /

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Array

Collection of fixed number of elements in which all

elements are of the same data type
Homogeneous, linear, and contiguous memory structure
Elements can be referred to by using their subscript or
index position that is monotonic in nature
First element is always denoted by subscript value of 0
(zero), increasing monotonically up to one less than
declared size of array
Before using an array, its type and dimension must be
declared
Can also be declared as multi-dimensional such as
Matrix2D[10][10]

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Illustrating Arrays Concept

1010 92 Y
1005
1008 63 A
1004
1006 82 1012 10.25
1003 B
1004 66 1008 250.00
1002 M
1002 84 1004 155.50 O
1001
1000 45 1000 82.75 B
1000

int marks[6]; float price[4]; char city[6];

Each element Each element Each element

being an int being a float being a char
occupies 2 bytes occupies 4 bytes occupies 1 byte

marks[0] = 45 price[0] = 82.75 city[0] = B

marks[1] = 84 price[1] = 155.50 city[1] = O
. . .
. . .
. . .
marks[5] = 92 price[3] = 10.25 city[5] = Y

(a) An array of (b) An array of (c) An array of

integers having real numbers characters
6 elements having 4 elements having 6 elements

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 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
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Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

String

One-dimensional array of characters terminated by a null

character (\0)
Initialized at declaration as
char name[] = PRADEEP;
Individual elements can be accessed in the same way as
we access array elements such as name[3] = D
Strings are used for text processing
C provides a rich set of string handling library functions

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 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
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Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Library Functions for String Handling

Library Function Used To

strlen Obtain the length of a string
strlwr Convert all characters of a string to lowercase
strupr Convert all characters of a string to uppercase
strcat Concatenate (append) one string at the end of another
strncat Concatenate only first n characters of a string at the end of another
strcpy Copy a string into another
strncpy Copy only the first n characters of a string into another
strcmp Compare two strings
strncmp Compare only first n characters of two strings
stricmp Compare two strings without regard to case
strnicmp Compare only first n characters of two strings without regard to case
strdup Duplicate a string
strchr Find first occurrence of a given character in a string
strrchr Find last occurrence of a given character in a string
strstr Find first occurrence of a given string in another string
strset Set all characters of a string to a given character
strnset Set first n characters of a string to a given character
strrev Reverse a string

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 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
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Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

User Defined Data Types (UDTs)

UDT is composite data type whose composition is not

include in language specification
Programmer declares them in a program where they are
used
Two types of UDTs are:
Structure
Union

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 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
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Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Structure

UDT containing a number of data types grouped together

Constituents data types may or may not be of different
types
Has continuous memory allocation and its minimum size is
the sum of sizes of its constituent data types
All elements (member variable) of a structure are publicly
accessible
Each member variable can be accessed using . (dot)
operator or pointer (EmpRecord.EmpID or EmpRecord
EmpID)
Can have a pointer member variable of its own type, which
is useful in crating linked list and similar data structures

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 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
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Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Structure (Examples)

struct Employee struct Employee

{ {
int EmpID; int EmpID;
char EmpName[20]; char EmpName[20];
}; } EmpRecord;

Struct Employee EmpRecord;

Struct Employee pempRecord = &EmpRecord

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 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
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Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Union

UDT referring to same memory location using several data

types
Mathematical union of all constituent data types
Each data member begins at the same memory location
Minimum size of a union variable is the size of its largest
constituent data types
Each member variable can be accessed using , (dot)
operator
Section of memory can be treated as a variable of one type
on one occasion, and of another type on another occasion

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 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Union Example

unionNum
{
int intNum;
unsigned
unsNum
};
union Num Number;

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 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
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Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Difference Between Structure and

Union
Both group a number of data types together
Structure allocates different memory space contiguously
to different data types in the group
Union allocates the same memory space to different
data types in the group

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 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
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Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Control Structures

Control structures (branch statements) are decision

points that control the flow of program execution based
on:
Some condition test (conditional branch)
Without condition test (unconditional branch)
Ensure execution of other statement/block or cause
skipping of some statement/block

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 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Conditional Branch Statements

if is used to implement simple one-way test. It can be in

one of the following forms:
if..stmt
if..stmt1..else..stmt2
if..stmt1..else..if..stmtn
switch facilitates multi-way condition test and is very
similar to the third if construct when primary test object
remains same across all condition tests

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 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Examples of if Construct

if (i <= 0) if (i <= 0)
i++; i++;
else if (i >= 0)
if (i <= 0) j++;
i++; else
else k++;
j++;

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 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
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Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Example of switch Construct

Same thing can be written also using if

switch(ch)
construct as:
{
case A:
case B: if (ch == A || ch == B || ch ==
case C: C)
printf(Capital); printf(Capital);
break; else if (ch == a || ch == b || ch
case a: == c)
case b: printf(Small);
else
case c:
printf(Not cap or small);
printf(Small);
break;
default:
printf(Not cap or small);
}

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 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Unconditional Branch Statements

Break: Causes unconditional exit from for, while, do,

or switch constructs. Control is transferred to
the statement immediately outside the block
in which break appears.
Continue: Causes unconditional transfer to next
iteration in a for, while, or do construct.
Control is transferred to the statement
beginning the block in which continue
appears.
Goto label: Causes unconditional transfer to statement
marked with the label within the function.

(Continued on next slide)

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 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Unconditional Branch Statements

(Continued from previous slide)

Return [value/variable]: Causes immediate termination of

function in which it appears and
transfers control to the statement
that called the function. Optionally,
it provides a value compatible to
the functions return data type.

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 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Loop Structures

Loop statements are used to repeat the execution of

statement or blocks
Two types of loop structures are:
Pretest: Condition is tested before each iteration to
check if loop should occur
Posttest: Condition is tested after each iteration to
check if loop should continue (at least, a single
iteration occurs)

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 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Pretest Loop Structures

for: It has three parts:

Initializer is executed at start of loop
Loop condition is tested before iteration to
decide whether to continue or terminate the
loop
Incrementor is executed at the end of each
iteration
While: It has a loop condition only that is tested
before each iteration to decide whether to
continue to terminate the loop

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 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Examples of for and while

Constructs

for (i=0; i < 10; i++)

printf(i = %d, i);

while (i < 10)

{
printf(i = %d, i);
i++;
}

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 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha
Posttest Loop Construct
dowhile
It has a loop condition only that is tested after each
iteration to decide whether to continue with next
iteration or terminate the loop
Example of dowhile is:

do {
printf(i = %d, i);
i++;
}while (i < 10) ;

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 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Functions

Functions (or subprograms) are building blocks of a

program
All functions must be declared and defined before use
Function declaration requires functionname, argument list,
and return type
Function definition requires coding the body or logic of
function
Every C program must have a main function. It is the
entry point of the program

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 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
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Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Example of a Function

int myfunc ( int Val, int ModVal )

{
unsigned temp;
temp = Val % ModVal;
return temp;
}

This function can be called from any other place using

simple statement:

int n = myfunc(4, 2);

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 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Sample C Program (Program-1)

/ Program to accept an integer from console and to display

whether the number is even or odd /

# include <stdio.h>
void main()
{
int number, remainder;
clrscr(); / clears the console screen /
printf (Enter an integer: );
scanf (%d, &number);
remainder = number % 2;
if (remainder == 0)
printf (\n The given number is even);
else
printf (\n The given number is odd);

getch();
}

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 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Sample C Program (Program-2)

/ Program to accept an integer in the range 1 to 7 (both inclusive) from

console and to display the corresponding day (Monday for 1, Tuesday for
2, Wednesday for 3, and so on). If the entered number is out of range,
the program displays a message saying that /

# include <stdio.h>
# include <conio.h>

#define MON printf (\n Entered number is 1 hence day is MONDAY);

#define TUE printf (\n Entered number is 2 hence day is TUESDAY);
#define WED printf (\n Entered number is 3 hence day is WEDNESDAY);
#define THU printf (\n Entered number is 4 hence day is THURSDAY);
#define FRI printf (\n Entered number is 5 hence day is FRIDAY);
#define SAT printf (\n Entered number is 6 hence day is SATURDAY);
#define SUN printf (\n Entered number is 7 hence day is SUNDAY);
#define OTH printf (\n Entered number is out of range);

void main()
{
int day;
clrscr();
printf (Enter an integer in the range 1 to 7);
scanf (%d, &day);
switch(day)

(Continued on next slide)

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 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Sample C Program (Program-2)

(Continued from previous slide..)

{
Case 1:
MON;
break;
Case 2:
TUE;
break;
Case 3:
WED;
break;
Case 4:
THU;
break;
Case 5:
FRI;
break;
Case 6:
SAT;
break;
Case 7:
SUN;
break;
defautl:
OTH;
}
getch();
}

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 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Sample C Program (Program-3)

/ Program to accept the radius of a circle from console and to calculate

and display its area and circumference /

# include <stdio.h>
# include <conio.h>
# define PI 3.1415

void main()
{
float radius, area, circum;
clrscr();
printf (Enter the radius of the circle: );
scanf (%f, &radius);
area = PI radius radius;
circum = 2 PI radius;
printf (\n Area and circumference of the circle are %f
and %f respectively, area, circum);
getch();
}
(Continued on next slide)

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 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Sample C Program (Program-4)

/ Program to accept a string from console and to display the number of

vowels in the string /

# include <stdio.h>
# include <conio.h>
# include <string.h>

void main()
{
char input_string[50]; / maximum 50 characters /
int len;
int i = 0, cnt = 0;
clrscr();
printf (Enter a string of less than 50 characters: \n);
gets (input_string);
len = strlen (input_string);
for (i = 0; i < len; i++)
{
switch (input_string[i])

(Continued on next slide)

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 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
Fundamentals: Pradeep
Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Sample C Program (Program-4)

{
case a:
case e:
case i:
case o:
case u:
case A:
case E:
case I:
case O:
case U:
cnt++
}
}
printf (\n Number of vowels in the string are: %d, cnt);
getch();
}

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 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
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Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Sample C Program (Program-5)

/ Program to illustrate use of a user defined function. The program initializes an array of n elements
from 0 to n-1 and then calculates and prints the sum of the array elements. In this example n = 10 /

#include <stdio.h>
#define SIZE 10

int ArrSum(int *p, int n);

{
int s, tot = 0;
for(s = 0; s < n; s++)
{
tot += *p;
p++;
}
return tot;
}
int main()
{
int i = 0, sum = 0;
int nArr[SIZE] = {0};
while(i < SIZE)
{
nArr[i] = i;
i++
}
sum = ArrSum(nArr, SIZE);
printf("Sum of 0 to 9 = %d\n", sum);
return 0;
}

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 Computer
Computer Fundamentals:
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Pradeep K.
K. Sinha
Sinha &
& Priti
Priti Sinha
Sinha

Key Words/Phrases
Arithmetic operators Macro expansion
Arrays Main function
Assignment operators Member element
Bit-level manipulation Null statement
Bitwise operators Operator associativity
Branch statement Operator precedence
Character set Pointer
Comment statement Posttest loop
Compound statement Preprocessor directives
Conditional branch Pretest loop
Conditional Primitive data types
compilation Reserved words
Constants Simple statement
Control structures Statement block
Format specifiers Strings
Formatted I/O Structure data type
Function Unconditional branch
Keywords Union data type
Library functions User-defined data types
Logical operators Variable name
Loop structures Variable type declaration
Variables

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