PUBLICATION 404-229

Staphylococcus aureus Mastitis:

Cause, Detection, and Control
C. S. Petersson-Wolfe, Assistant Professor, Dairy Science, Virginia Tech
I. K. Mullarky, Assistant Professor, Dairy Science, Virginia Tech
G. M. Jones, Professor Emeritus, Dairy Science, Virginia Tech

Summary Recently published work has shown that 3 percent of

all animals are infected with S. aureus (Schukken et al.
Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) mastitis is extremely 2009). However, S. aureus represents 10 to 12 percent
difficult to control by treatment alone. To date, success- of all clinical mastitis infections (Tenhagen et al. 2009).
ful control is gained only through prevention of new Interestingly, cows infected with S. aureus do not nec-
infections and culling of infected animals. S. aureus essarily have elevated SCC. During 1978-1980, nearly
organisms colonize teat ends and/or teat lesions. Spread 27,000 milk samples from 28 herds were aseptically
of infection can occur through milkers hands, wash- collected. Culture results showed 10 percent of cows
cloths, teat cup liners, and flies. During milking, irregu- were infected with S. aureus (Jones et al. 1984). Only
lar vacuum fluctuations can force bacteria up into the 60 percent of the infections were found in cows produc-
teat canal, leading to the potential for new infection. ing milk with SCC greater than 200,000/mL.
If not culled, infected cows must be segregated from
the milking herd and milked last, or milked with sepa- Heifers are also a reservoir for S. aureus infections. In
rate milking units. A backflush system may help reduce several research trials, 12 to 15 percent of first-lacta-
bacterial numbers within the liners, but rinsing units by tion cows were found infected with S. aureus at calving
hand is certainly not recommended. (Boddie et al. 1987; Trinidad, Nickerson, and Adkinson
1990; Trinidad, Nickerson, and Alley 1990). Further-
more, infected heifers left untreated produce 10 percent
Introduction less milk in early lactation when compared with those
Staphylococcus aureus causes one of the most com- who received dry cow antibiotic treatment prior to calv-
mon types of chronic mastitis. Though some cows may ing (Owens et al. 1991). Many animals remain infected
flare up with clinical mastitis (especially after calving) throughout the first lactation and act as reservoirs for
the infection is usually subclinical, causing elevated infecting other cows in the herd. Although as many as
somatic cell counts (SCC) but no detectable changes half of the cows with high SCC may be infected with
in milk or the udder. The bacteria persist in mammary S. aureus, SCC alone are not sensitive enough to posi-
glands, teat canals, and teat lesions of infected cows and tively diagnose S. aureus infections.
are contagious. The infection is spread at milking time
when S. aureus-contaminated milk from an infected
gland comes in contact with an uninfected gland, and
Damage Caused by
the bacteria penetrate the teat canal. Once established, Staphylococcus aureus Mastitis
S. aureus infections do not respond well to antibiotic S. aureus bacteria produce toxins that destroy cell
therapy and infected cows must be segregated or culled membranes and can directly damage milk-producing
from the herd. In some herds with SCC below 200,000/ tissue. White blood cells (leukocytes) are attracted to
mL, dairy managers have not been able to eradicate S. the area of inflammation, where they attempt to fight
aureus despite the use of standard milking-time hygiene the infection. Initially, the bacteria damage the tissues
techniques (Roberson et al. 1994). lining the teats and gland cisterns within the quarter,
www.ext.vt.edu
Produced by Communications and Marketing, College of Agriculture and Life Sciences,
Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, 2010
Virginia Cooperative Extension programs and employment are open to all, regardless of race, color, national origin, sex, religion,
age, disability, political beliefs, sexual orientation, or marital or family status. An equal opportunity/affirmative action employer.
Issued in furtherance of Cooperative Extension work, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Virginia State University,
and the U.S. Department of Agriculture cooperating. Alan L. Grant, Dean, College of Agriculture and Life Sciences, and Interim
Director, Virginia Cooperative Extension, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg; Wondi Mersie, Interim Administrator, 1890 Extension
Program, Virginia State, Petersburg.
which eventually leads to formation of scar tissue. The Transmission of Staphylococcus
bacteria then move up into the duct system and estab-
lish deep-seated pockets of infection in the milk secret- aureus Infections
ing cells (alveoli). This is followed by the formation of The major reservoirs of S. aureus are infected udders,
abscesses that wall-off the bacteria to prevent spread teat canals, and teat lesions, but these bacteria also have
but allow the bacteria to avoid detection by the immune been found on teat skin, muzzles, and nostrils. The bac-
system. The abscesses prevent antibiotics from reach- teria are spread to uninfected quarters by teat cup liners,
ing the bacteria and are the primary reason why the milkers hands, washcloths, and flies. Staphylococci
response to treatment is poor. do not persist on healthy teat skin but readily colonize
damaged skin and teat lesions. The organisms multiply
However, bacteria can also escape the killing effects in infected lesions and result in increased chance of teat
of some antibiotics by hiding within neutrophils (white canal colonization and subsequent udder infection.
blood cells) and other host cells. As the neutrophils
attempt to remove bacteria, many organisms survive Heifers infected during gestation that carry infections
and become dormant within them, preventing contact through calving represent an important reservoir from
with antibiotics. When the white blood cells die (usu- which S. aureus can spread to uninfected herd mates.
ally in one to two days) the bacteria are released to There is considerable debate surrounding the route of
resume the infection process. S. aureus infection in heifers prior to first calving, but
calves fed colostrum from an S. aureus-infected dam is
During infection, destruction of alveolar and ductal a likely source. Early work suggested S. aureus-infected
cells reduces milk yield. These damaged cells may colostrum was not a culprit for first-calf heifers calving
combine with leukocytes and clog the milk ducts that with the infection (Barto et al. 1982). However, later
drain the alveolar areas, contributing to further scar tis- work did show a positive correlation between feeding
sue formation, occlusion of ducts, and decreased milk S. aureus-infected colostrum to a calf and that calf then
production. The ducts may reopen at a later time, but calving with S. aureus mastitis (Roberson et al. 1998).
this usually results in a release of S. aureus organisms Though the data is limited, if an S. aureus problem
to other areas of the mammary gland. The spread of exists on a farm, careful colostrum selection, e.g., pas-
S. aureus within the gland results in the formation of teurization, is certainly one area to consider. Clearly,
additional abscesses that can become quite large and good mastitis control programs will address the pres-
detectable as lumps within the udder. ence of this disease in heifers.
Though most cases of S. aureus mastitis are subclinical,
chronic cows usually have high SCC, abnormal mam- Detection of Staphylococcus
mary tissue, and recurrent cases of clinical mastitis.
Clinically infected quarters often show moderate swell- aureus Mastitis
ing and visible clots (chunks) in the milk, especially Culture of bulk-tank milk is easy, economical, and an
in forestrippings. Acute S. aureus infections gener- important aid in monitoring bacterial counts in milk.
ally develop late in the lactation. However, the clini- However, this does not replace an individual cow cul-
cal symptoms (udder swelling or hardness, changes in ture. Bulk-tank cultures can be used to monitor the
appearance of milk) do not show up until calving or status within a herd. For example, in a herd with no
early in the next lactation. It becomes difficult to suc- history of contagious mastitis, a positive culture or
cessfully treat an infection because drugs are not able to series of cultures would warn the producer to exam-
penetrate to all infection sites and because the bacteria ine individual cows. When troubleshooting a herd
can avoid contact with antibiotics while residing inside with a high SCC problem, we recommend culturing
leukocytes. Many strains of S. aureus have acquired all high-SCC cows (more than 400,000 cells/mL). If
antibiotic resistance the ability to produce an enzyme that includes more than 20 percent of the herd, then
that inactivates penicillin-based and other antibiotics it is best to culture the 20 to 30 cows with the high-
rendering the treatment ineffective. The development est SCC. These results will indicate the type of mas-
of antibiotic resistance during treatment with some titis problem in a given herd, which allows for more
beta-lactam antibiotics, e.g., penicillin, is an additional appropriate recommendations based on the individual
reason for therapy failures. farm results.

2
Alternatively, the producer can use the California Mastitis f. Teat ends should be examined for evidence of
Test (CMT) on cows with elevated Dairy Herd Improve- chapping, cracks, or lesions, which may harbor
ment program (DHI) SCC to determine which quarters mastitis-causing bacteria.
may be infected, then selectively culture positive quar-
ters. Herds not on test can also use the CMT periodically g. An effective postmilking teat dip should be
on all cows to identify quarters for culturing. This is an applied after milking, ensuring that the entire
excellent starting point for identifying positive cows and barrel of each teat is covered. At the end of
moving them to a separate group. It is important to iden- each milking any teat dip left in the dip cup
tify infections early in order to prevent spread to other should be discarded and cups should be rinsed
animals and increase chances of a successful treatment. with water and allowed to dry.

2. Milk S. aureus-infected cows separately and last

Control of Staphylococcus aureus a. Cows with clinical mastitis, S. aureus infec-
Mastitis tions, or those that have been treated with anti-
The most effective ways to prevent new infections are biotics should be milked last, or milked with
to eliminate conditions that expose teat ends to bacteria separate milkers. Segregation of S. aureus-
and reduce the possibility of spread from cow to cow infected cows has proven to significantly
many of which are discussed below. reduce the prevalence of S. aureus mastitis and
bulk-tank SCC (Wilson et al. 1995). In many
1. Hygienic procedures instances, if the animals cannot be culled, they
must be separated to prevent the spread of con-
a. Milkers should always wear gloves and change tagious pathogens and a rapid and negative
them frequently, especially when dirty or after impact on bulk-tank SCC. In the odd case in
stripping an infected animal. It is recommended which a separate group absolutely cannot be
to forestrip five squirts of milk from each quar- made, it is best to identify these animals with
ter and check for abnormal milk or flakes. a leg band to ensure proper care in the parlor,
such as changing gloves after prepping.
b. Dirt should be brushed off teats with the use
of a dry, single-use towel. Water should not be b. Uninfected, first-lactation cows should be
used as part of any milking procedures, even milked before older cows carrying subclini-
if a sanitizing solution is added. Sanitizers do cal mastitis infections. Since heifers may be
not maintain activity throughout a milking, and infected at calving and because cure rates are
water can introduce pathogens that are very highest in younger animals, aseptic milk sam-
difficult to cure. ples should be collected and cultured shortly
after calving.
c. A commercially available predip should be
applied with a dipper or cup and given 30 sec- 3. Milking equipment
onds of contact time. Sprayers can be used, but
proper coverage is difficult to attain, especially a. Staphylococcus aureus infections can occur
on the teats furthest from the milker. Foamers are during milking when organisms penetrate the
also commonly used, but caution must be taken teat canal. Irregular vacuum fluctuations caused
to ensure that adequate parts per million of the by liner slips, flooded lines, etc., may cause a
active ingredient reach the teat end and teat skin. backflow of milk against the teat end. With
sufficient force, bacteria can be propelled up
d. A separate paper or cloth towel should be used into the teat canal and teat cistern. Therefore,
to dry teats and scrub teats five times or for 20 properly functioning equipment is essential in
seconds (Rasmussen et al. 1992). Towels must preventing new infections.
not be used on more than one cow.
b. Conditions that are associated with high-impact
e. Milking units should be attached 90 seconds force against the teat end including liner slips,
after first tactile stimulation (stripping or wip- excessive temporary vacuum losses, low vac-
ing, whichever comes first). uum reserve, inefficient vacuum regulation, and

3
 abrupt milking unit removal should be mini- treatment during lactation is greater if detected and
mized. Teat cups should not be removed from the treated early, whereas the response is lower when
cow until the vacuum has been shut off. Research treating chronic infections. Use of a strip cup or
has shown that slipping teat cup liners may cause similar device is strongly recommended for detect-
10 to 15 percent of new mastitis infections. Liner ing abnormal milk. New clinical infections should
slippage early in milking often results from a low be treated promptly and appropriately, especially
vacuum level, blocked air vents, or restrictions in in first-lactation cows. Tissue damage can be
the short milk tube. Liner slippage late in milk- minimized if animals are treated during the early
ing is commonly caused by poor cluster align- stages of infection. As always, consult a veterinar-
ment, uneven weight distribution in the cluster, ian regarding off-label treatment options. The use
or poor liner condition. Incomplete milking can of DHI program SCC records in addition to visual
be caused by poor type or condition of liner, a observation of forestripped milk and milk culture
mismatch between claw inlet and short milk results will indicate effectiveness of treatment.
tube, clusters that are too light, clusters that do
not hang evenly under the udder, or high milk- Many researchers have looked at the efficacy of
ing-vacuum levels (Halleron 1997). pirlimycin treatment both in heifers prior to calving
and in all animals as an extended therapy treatment
c. Regular, preventive maintenance is essential during lactation. According to the manufacturer,
for milk quality and mastitis prevention. Vac- pirlimycin is one of the most effective compounds
uum controllers (regulators), pulsators, and air against S. aureus because its chemical nature allows
filters need to be cleaned monthly. All rubber it to penetrate mammary tissues. In heifers, a single
components must be changed according to tube of pirlimycin treatment in each quarter six to
the manufacturers instructions. Rubber that 12 days prior to calving significantly reduced S.
is cracked, flattened, or otherwise deteriorated aureus infections at calving (Roy et al. 2007). Fur-
should be replaced even if the recommended thermore, mastitis data presented to the FDA sug-
life of the product has not been reached. The gests that two tubes, administered 24 hours apart to
milking system should be evaluated every three
infected quarters of cows during lactation, resulted
months or 500 hours of operation, to include
in a cure rate of 36.6 percent, whereas only 1.1
the following tests: vacuum reserve, vacuum
percent of nontreated controls recovered spontane-
level, vacuum recovery time, vacuum regulator
ously. In field cases, the rate of cows cured during
response, pulsator graphs, and stray voltage.
lactation increased to 49.4 percent. However, tri-
Many of these tests need to be conducted dur-
als using the same treatment scheme at Louisiana
ing milking time and not between milkings.
State University and Iowa State University found
4. Antibiotic treatment of S. aureus cows cure rates of only 12 percent or less for chronically
infected S. aureus cows during lactation.
Antibiotic treatment will not control this disease
but it may, in certain cases, shorten the duration of Single-quarter, extended therapy with repeated
the infection. Treatment effectiveness decreases as label doses of pirlimycin has been examined as a
the cow becomes older and even as the first lacta- means of providing drug levels beyond the expected
tion progresses. Cure rates were 34 percent when life of the leukocytes that naturally fight off this
89 cows in 10 Dutch herds were treated for sub- infection. This protocol has been widely adopted
clinical S. aureus mastitis (Sol et al. 1997). The for new intramammary infections with S. aureus,
results showed that the probability of cure was as it increases cure rates. Four-quarter extended
lower in older cows with high SCC and in cows treatment with repeated label doses will provide
infected in hindquarters during early and midlacta- adequate therapeutic concentrations for many S.
tion. S. aureus infections were found in 36 percent aureus bacteria. A cure rate of 50 percent at four
of clinical mastitis cases in Finnish herds (Pyorala weeks after treatment was found in more than 100
and Pyorala 1997). Of these, 39 percent responded treated cows (Belschner et al. 1996). Whether these
to treatment. Cows with an SCC of less than 1 mil- cure rates justify the additional expenses and effort,
lion were more likely to cure an infection com- not to mention the potential risk of extra-label use
pared with those over the cut-off point. Successful and antibiotic residue, is unknown.

4
5. Dry cow therapy three groups of heifers, heifers dry-treated during
the second trimester of pregnancy demonstrated
Dry cow therapy (DCT) is more effective in elimi- the greatest reduction in mastitis and SCC at calv-
nating infections than lactating treatment. How- ing (Nickerson et al. 1995). It is recommended
ever, DCT is not effective if the infections have that heifers be treated with dry cow treatment at
become chronic by the end of lactation. When 60 days before expected calving date. Teat ends
cows are not given DCT, spontaneous cures have should be properly cleaned and disinfected before
been very low. DCT is cost-effective (Kirk et al. and after treatment. It is important to check milk
1997). When a cow is dried off, it is recommended for the presence of antibiotic residue at three to five
to treat all quarters with a commercially available days after calving or before the milk is allowed in
DCT. Follow these steps when dry treating: the bulk tank.
a. Cows must be milked out completely, teats In Tennessee, a lactating cow antibiotic treatment
dipped in postmilking teat dip and blotted dry containing either cloxacillin or cephapirin was
after 30 seconds contact time. administered to heifers at seven to 10 days before
expected calving (Oliver et al. 1992). Cephapirin
b. Teat ends should be scrubbed with alcohol pads
gave better treatment results than cloxacillin but
before partially inserting the antibiotic tube
resulted in antibiotic residue in milk at three days
into the teat (1/8 inch). Although internal teat
after calving. Treating heifers with cephapirin 14
sealants do not prevent the spread of S. aureus
days before expected calving eliminated the residue
infections, the commercially available product
problem. It is therefore recommended that heifers
does help to reduce new environmental infec-
be treated with lactating cow mastitis treatment at
tions. Internal teat sealants are especially useful
14 days before expected calving, using precautions
during the first two weeks and the last seven to
indicated under the preceding section about dry
10 days of the dry period when cows are most
cow therapy.
susceptible to mastitis pathogens. This increase
in susceptibility is in part due to the stress asso- 7. Precautions at calving
ciated with drying and the precalving period.
Many mastitis infections (not specifically S. aureus)
c. Teats should be dipped again after treatment, originate in the peripartum period. A well-drained
prior to turning the cows out into a clean, dry pasture is preferred as a calving area, with no
environment. access to ponds, swampy areas, or drainage ditches.
A clover-grass sod is desired, in contrast to fescue
6. Pregnant heifers
or muddy, beaten-up lots. Lots and pastures should
New infections are commonly found in heifers, be managed to prevent muddy areas where cattle
either at calving or in early lactation. Up to one-third would lie down. Filthy, damp, or muddy pens, lots,
of these infections are caused by S. aureus. Often or pastures continually expose the teat end to a bar-
these S. aureus infections, if untreated, become clin- rage of bacteria. Pens should be well-bedded, clean,
ical and recur throughout the first lactation and into dry, and comfortable. Selenium-vitamin E supple-
the second lactation. Furthermore, these infections mentation or injections at two to three weeks before
increase the chance of contagious spread to other expected calving have been shown to reduce mas-
animals in the herd. Several management practices titis after calving. Vitamin E levels of 1,000 IU/day
can be used on heifers prior to calving to eliminate during the dry period and 500 IU/day during lac-
infections before the start of lactation. tation are recommended by the National Research
Council. Other minerals and vitamins shown to
Administration of dry cow therapy to heifers has reduce the incidence of mastitis include vitamin A/
been evaluated in several Louisiana studies. A beta-carotene, copper, and zinc. By testing animals
dry cow product containing penicillin and dihy- to identify micronutrient deficiencies, providing a
drostreptomycin was administered during the first, balanced ration, avoiding poorly fermented silages,
second, or third trimester of pregnancy in 35 bred and including dietary supplementation of vitamin E
heifers from four herds. Although prevalence of and selenium, proper nutrition can be maintained to
infection and SCC were reduced by treatment in all reduce incidence of mastitis.

5
Conclusions infected colostrum and heifers calving with S.
aureus mastitis (Roberson et al. 1998). Therefore,
The best treatment for S. aureus mastitis is prevention. not feeding contaminated waste milk is a simple
Recommendations to prevent spread of contagious precaution that will most likely reduce a possible
mastitis pathogens include: reservoir of bacteria.
1. Do not milk cows and heifers with the same teat 8. Many S. aureus vaccines have been designed and
cup/claw unit used to milk mastitis-problem cows. tested over the years. One research study indicated
little-to-no effect on new intramammary infections
2. Segregate S. aureus-infected cows into one group
following vaccination with a commercial product
and milk them last. Another alternative is to sort
(Middleton et al. 2009). However, another inves-
out infected cows before each milking and restrain
tigation demonstrated a 61 percent reduction in S.
them in an isolation pen until all other cows have
aureus mastitis using the same product (Nickerson
been milked. In a short period of time, these cows
et al. 2008). Future research endeavors may focus
will become trained to sort.
on alternative vaccine options that will success-
3. If heifers or cows are purchased, segregate them fully prevent S. aureus mastitis.
until milk samples can be cultured and their masti-
tis pathogen status can be determined. If possible,
examine the DHI SCC of cows before agreeing to
References
make the purchase. Barto, P. B., L. J. Bush, and G. D. Adams. 1982. Feed-
ing milk containing Staphylococcus aureus to
4. Cull infected cows, especially those with additional calves. Journal of Dairy Science 65(2): 271-74.
problems. Often, it is not economically feasible to
cull a S. aureus-positive cow that produces 80-90 Belschner, A. P., J. W. Hallberg, S. C. Nickerson, and
pounds of milk. However, any cow that has had clin- W. E. Owens. 1996. Staphylococcus aureus masti-
ical mastitis in the same quarter for three or more tis therapy revisited. Proceedings, National Mastitis
occasions, or any cow whose milk has been with- Council annual meeting, Madison, Wis., 116-22.
held from shipment for more than 28 days during Boddie, R. L., S. C. Nickerson, W. E. Owens, and J. L.
the current lactation, should be considered for cull- Watts. 1987. Udder microflora in nonlactating heif-
ing from the herd. It is important to keep mastitis ers. Agri-Practice 22-25.
records, including cows and quarters treated and
treatment used. Halleron, R. 1997. Liner slips cause 10 to 15 percent of
new infections. Hoards Dairyman 142 (August):
5. Place S. aureus-infected cows on a do-not-breed list. 624. Fort Atkinson, Wis.: W. D. Hoard and Sons
Cull them when their milk is no longer needed (e.g., to Company. www.hoards.com.
make base) or they have been in milk for 305 days.
Jones, G. M., R. E. Pearson, G. A. Clabaugh, and C. W.
6. Biting flies traumatize the teat end. Flies also carry a Heald. 1984. Relationships between somatic cell
number of mastitis-causing organisms that can colo- counts and milk production. Journal of Dairy Sci-
nize these teat lesions. Elimination of fly-breeding ence 67(8): 1823-31.
sites is one aspect of fly control. Flies breed in decay-
ing feed or manure that has accumulated in exercise Kirk, J. H., S. L. Berry, I. A. Gardner, J. Maas, and A.
yards, calf pens, and box stalls. Another option for Ahmadi. 1997. Dry cow antibiotic treatment in a
control is use of back-rubbers, feed additives, and herd with low contagious mastitis prevalence. Pro-
ear or tail tags with insecticide. In one trial the use of ceedings, National Mastitis Council annual meet-
tail tags containing insecticide resulted in only one ing, Madison, Wis., 164.
of 100 tagged heifers with a mastitis infection, com-
pared to 18 of 100 untagged heifers. Nickerson, S. C., E. P. Hovingh, C. Peterson, S. Bran-
nock, E. Schaffer, and P. W. Widel. 2008. Adminis-
7. It is unclear whether waste milk from S. aureus- tration of a Staphylococcus aureus bacterin to dairy
infected cows is a problem. One study showed a heifers reduces new infection rate and somatic cell
positive association between feeding S. aureus- counts at time of calving. Paper presented at the

6
 American Dairy Science Association annual meet- Roy, J. P., D. Du Tremblay, L. DesCoteaux, S. Messier,
ing, Indianapolis, Ind. Journal of Dairy Science D. Scholl, and E. Bouchard. 2007. Effect of pre-
91:300, E-supplement 1, abstract No. 247. calving intramammary treatment with pirlimycin in
nulliparous Holstein heifers. Canadian Journal of
Nickerson, S. C., W. E. Owens, and R. L. Boddie. 1995.
Veterinary Research 71(4): 283-91.
Mastitis in dairy heifers: Initial studies on preva-
lence and control. Journal of Dairy Science 78(7): Schukken, Y. H., R. N. Gonzalez, L. L. Tikofsky, H.
1607-18. F. Schulte, C. G. Santisteban, F. L. Welcome, G.
Oliver, S. P., M. J. Lewis, B. E. Gillespie, and H. H. J. Bennett, M. J. Zurakowski, and R. N. Zadoks.
Dowlen. 1992. Influence of prepartum antibiotic 2009. CNS mastitis: Nothing to worry about? Vet-
therapy on intramammary infections in primigravid erinary Microbiology 134(1-2): 9-14.
heifers during early lactation. Journal of Dairy Sci-
ence 75(2): 406-14. Sol, J., O. C. Sampimon, J. J. Snoep, and Y. H. Schuk-
ken. 1997. Factors associated with bacteriological
Owens, W. E., S. C. Nickerson, P. J. Washburn, and cure during lactation after therapy for subclinical
C. H. Ray. 1991. Efficacy of a cephapirin dry cow mastitis caused by Staphylococcus aureus. Journal
product for treatment of experimentally induced of Dairy Science 80(11): 2803-08.
Staphylococcus aureus mastitis in heifers. Journal
of Dairy Science 74(10): 3376-82. Tenhagen, B. A., I. Hansen, A. Reinecke, and W. Heu-
wieser. 2009. Prevalence of pathogens in milk
Pyorala, S. and E. Pyorala. 1997. Accuracy of methods samples of dairy cows with clinical mastitis and
using somatic cell count and N-acetyl-beta-D-glu- in heifers at first parturition. Journal of Dairy
cosaminidase activity in milk to assess the bacte- Research 76(2): 179-87.
riological cure of bovine clinical mastitis. Journal
of Dairy Science 80(11): 2820-25. Trinidad, P., S. C. Nickerson, and R. W. Adkinson.
1990. Histopathology of staphylococcal mastitis
Rasmussen, M. D., E. S. Frimer, D. M. Galton, and L.
in unbred dairy heifers. Journal of Dairy Science
G. Petersson. 1992. The influence of premilking
73(3): 639-47.
teat preparation and attachment delay on milk yield
and milking performance. Journal of Dairy Science
Trinidad, P., S. C. Nickerson, and T. K. Alley. 1990.
75(8): 2131-41.
Prevalence of intramammary infection and teat
Roberson, J. R., L. K. Fox, D. D. Hancock, J. M. Gay, canal colonization in unbred and primigravid dairy
and T. E. Besser. 1994. Ecology of Staphylococcus heifers. Journal of Dairy Science 73(1): 107-14.
aureus isolated from various sites on dairy farms.
Journal of Dairy Science 77(11): 3354-64. Wilson, D. J., R. N. Gonzalez, and P. M. Sears. 1995.
Segregation or use of separate milking units for
Roberson, J. R., L. K. Fox, D. D. Hancock, J. M. Gay, cows infected with Staphylococcus aureus: Effects
and T. E. Besser. 1998. Sources of intramammary on prevalence of infection and bulk-tank somatic cell
infections from Staphylococcus aureus in dairy count. Journal of Dairy Science 78(9): 2083-85.
heifers at first parturition. Journal of Dairy Science
81(3): 687-93.