Introduction to Unix

After logging in, common commands are:

Comma Example Description

nd
ls ls List items in current directory
cd cd bar Navigate to locationChange Directory
cp cp file1.txt file1.bak Make a duplicate of the file and keep the
original file
mkdir mkdir bar Create Directory Bar
rmdir rmdir bar Remove Empty Directory bar
rm rm myfile.txt Remove or Delete a File
mv mv filename1 Move or Rename File, Replaces oldfilename
filename2 with newfilename
man man ls The Man Pages. Online help manual.
more more index.html See the contents of a file one page at a time
lpr lpr index.html Send a file to the printer
pwd pwd Shows present working directory

Exercise 1: Execute the above commands and get comfortable with them.

More commands are below.

Files
ls --- lists your files
ls -l --- lists your files in 'long format', which contains lots of useful
information, e.g. the exact size of the file, who owns the file and who
has the right to look at it, and when it was last modified.
ls -a --- lists all files, including the ones whose filenames begin in a
dot, which you do not always want to see.
There are many more options, for example to list files by size, by
date, recursively etc.

more filename --- shows the first part of a file, just as much as will fit
on one screen. Just hit the space bar to see more or q to quit. You can
use /pattern to search for a pattern.

emacs filename --- is an editor that lets you create and edit a file. See
the emacs page.

vi filename --- is an editor that lets you create and edit a file. See
the vi page.
 mv filename1 filename2 --- moves a file (i.e. gives it a different
name, or moves it into a different directory (see below)

cp filename1 filename2 --- copies a file

rm filename --- removes a file. It is wise to use the option rm -i,

which will ask you for confirmation before actually deleting
anything. You can make this your default by making an alias in
your .cshrc file.

diff filename1 filename2 --- compares files, and shows where they
differ

wc filename --- tells you how many lines, words, and characters there
are in a file

chmod options filename --- lets you change the read, write, and
execute permissions on your files. The default is that only you can
look at them and change them, but you may sometimes want to
change these permissions. For example, chmod o+r filename will
make the file readable for everyone, and chmod o-r filename will
make it unreadable for others again. Note that for someone to be able
to actually look at the file the directories it is in need to be at least
executable. See help protection for more details.

File Compression

o gzip filename --- compresses files, so that they take up much

less space. Usually text files compress to about half their
original size, but it depends very much on the size of the file
and the nature of the contents. There are other tools for this
purpose, too (e.g. compress), but gzip usually gives the highest
compression rate. Gzip produces files with the ending '.gz'
appended to the original filename.

o gunzip filename --- uncompresses files compressed by gzip.

o gzcat filename --- lets you look at a gzipped file without

actually having to gunzip it (same as gunzip -c).

Directories
Directories are used to group files together in a hierarchical structure.

mkdir dirname --- make a new directory

 cd dirname --- change directory. You basically 'go' to another
directory, and you will see the files in that directory when you do 'ls'.
You always start out in your 'home directory', and you can get back
there by typing 'cd' without arguments. 'cd ..' will get you one level up
from your current position. You don't have to walk along step by step
- you can make big leaps or avoid walking around by
specifying pathnames.

pwd --- tells you where you currently are.

Finding things
ff --- find files anywhere on the system. This can be extremely useful
if you've forgotten in which directory you put a file, but do remember
the name. In fact, if you use ff -p you don't even need the full name,
just the beginning. This can also be useful for finding other things on
the system, e.g. documentation.

grep string filename(s) --- looks for the string in the files. This can
be useful a lot of purposes, e.g. finding the right file among many,
figuring out which is the right version of something, and even doing
serious corpus work. grep comes in several varieties (grep, egrep,
and fgrep) and has a lot of very flexible options. Check out the man
pages if this sounds good to you.

About other people

w --- tells you who's logged in, and what they're doing. Especially
useful: the 'idle' part. This allows you to see whether they're actually
sitting there typing away at their keyboards right at the moment.

who --- tells you who's logged on, and where they're coming from.
Useful if you're looking for someone who's actually physically in the
same building as you, or in some other particular location.

finger username --- gives you lots of information about that user, e.g.
when they last read their mail and whether they're logged in. Often
people put other practical information, such as phone numbers and
addresses, in a file called .plan. This information is also displayed by
'finger'.

last -1 username --- tells you when the user last logged on and off
and from where. Without any options, last will give you a list of
everyone's logins.
 talk username --- lets you have a (typed) conversation with another
user

write username --- lets you exchange one-line messages with another
user

About your (electronic) self

whoami --- returns your username. Sounds useless, but isn't. You may
need to find out who it is who forgot to log out somewhere, and make
sure *you* have logged out.

finger & .plan files

of course you can finger yourself, too. That can be useful e.g. as a
quick check whether you got new mail. Try to create a useful .plan
file soon. Look at other people's .plan files for ideas. The file needs to
be readable for everyone in order to be visible through 'finger'. Do
'chmod a+r .plan' if necessary. You should realize that this
information is accessible from anywhere in the world, not just to
other people on turing.

passwd --- lets you change your password, which you should do
regularly (at least once a year). See the LRB guide and/or look at help
password.

ps -u yourusername --- lists your processes. Contains lots of

information about them, including the process ID, which you need if
you have to kill a process. Normally, when you have been kicked out
of a dialin session or have otherwise managed to get yourself
disconnected abruptly, this list will contain the processes you need to
kill. Those may include the shell (tcsh or whatever you're using), and
anything you were running, for example emacs or elm. Be careful not
to kill your current shell - the one with the number closer to the one
of the ps command you're currently running. But if it happens, don't
panic. Just try again :) If you're using an X-display you may have to
kill some X processes before you can start them again. These will
show only when you use ps -efl, because they're root processes.

kill PID --- kills (ends) the processes with the ID you gave. This
works only for your own processes, of course. Get the ID by using ps.
If the process doesn't 'die' properly, use the option -9. But attempt
without that option first, because it doesn't give the process a chance
to finish possibly important business before dying. You may need to
 kill processes for example if your modem connection was interrupted
and you didn't get logged out properly, which sometimes happens.

quota -v --- show what your disk quota is (i.e. how much space you
have to store files), how much you're actually using, and in case
you've exceeded your quota (which you'll be given an automatic
warning about by the system) how much time you have left to sort
them out (by deleting or gzipping some, or moving them to your own
computer).

du filename --- shows the disk usage of the files and directories
in filename (without argument the current directory is used). du
-sgives only a total.

last yourusername --- lists your last logins. Can be a useful memory
aid for when you were where, how long you've been working for, and
keeping track of your phonebill if you're making a non-local
phonecall for dialling in.

Connecting to the outside world

nn --- allows you to read news. It will first let you read the news local
to turing, and then the remote news. If you want to read only the local
or remote news, you can use nnl or nnr, respectively. To learn more
about nn type nn, then \tty{:man}, then \tty{=.*}, then \tty{Z}, then
hit the space bar to step through the manual. Or look at the man page.
Or check out the hypertext nn FAQ - probably the easiest and most
fun way to go.

rlogin hostname --- lets you connect to a remote host

telnet hostname --- also lets you connect to a remote host.

Use rlogin whenever possible.

ftp hostname --- lets you download files from a remote host which is
set up as an ftp-server. This is a common method for exchanging
academic papers and drafts. If you need to make a paper of yours
available in this way, you can (temporarily) put a copy in
/user/ftp/pub/TMP. For more permanent solutions, ask Emma. The
most important commands within ftp are get for getting files from the
remote machine, and put for putting them there (mget and mput let
you specify more than one file at once). Sounds straightforward, but
be sure not to confuse the two, especially when your physical location
doesn't correspond to the direction of the ftp connection you're
 making. ftp just overwrites files with the same filename. If you're
transferring anything other than ASCII text, use binary mode.

lynx --- lets you browse the web from an ordinary terminal. Of course
you can see only the text, not the pictures. You can type any URL as
an argument to the G command. When you're doing this from any
Stanford host you can leave out the .stanford.edu part of the URL
when connecting to Stanford URLs. Type H at any time to learn more
about lynx, and Q to exit.

Miscellaneous tools
webster word --- looks up the word in an electronic version of
Webster's dictionary and returns the definition(s)

date --- shows the current date and time.

cal --- shows a calendar of the current month. Use e.g., 'cal 10 1995'
to get that for October 95, or 'cal 1995' to get the whole year.
Assignment:

1. What is Linux?
2. How to make a directory in Linux?
3. How to change to a specific directory in Linux?
4. What is meant by ~ in unix directory structure?