Heating and Cooling System

Upgrades

Course No: M03-022

Credit: 3 PDH

Elie Tawil, P.E., LEED AP

Continuing Education and Development, Inc.

9 Greyridge Farm Court
Stony Point, NY 10980

P: (877) 322-5800
F: (877) 322-4774

[email protected]
 HEATING AND COOLING SYSTEM UPGRADES
Overview
Heating and cooling systems are the largest single consumers of energy in buildings.
These systems condition the air within a building so that occupants are comfortable.
Heating and cooling systems consist mainly of chillers, boilers, cooling towers, and
pumps. There are central heating and cooling systems, and unitary systems that
combine heating and cooling. Opportunities exist for improvement to both central
and unitary systems.

The heat flow diagram (Figure 1) illustrates how, you can capitalize on the heating,
cooling, and electrical load reductions you have realized through your upgrades in the
other stages of an integrated approach. The cumulative effect of these various load
reductions now allows you to install heating and cooling systems that are both more
energy efficient and properly sized to accommodate appropriate loads.

Heating and Cooling System Upgrades chapter will help you identify the
opportunities for improving the performance of your heating and cooling system
based on the type of system that you have in place. Best Ways to Save and Take
Action provide checklists for cooling and heating upgrade opportunities and benefits.
The Heating and Cooling Survey Appendix will assist you with evaluating the current
condition of your systems and opportunities for improvement.

Heating and Cooling System Strategy

Measure your heating and cooling loads.
Rightsize your heating and cooling systems.
Replace your chillers with new, more energy-efficient, non-chlorofluorocarbon (CFC)
models.
Upgrade your heating and cooling system components.
Install variable-speed drives (VSDs) on your pumps and cooling tower fans.
Optimize operation of your heating and cooling systems.

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 Figure 1: Heat Flow In Buildings

PLANT

FAN SYSTEM

LOADS
Heat Flow In Buildings: Building Systems Interactions
Figure 2 shows the interaction of heating, cooling, and electrical loads with the HVAC
equipment. Arrows indicate heat flow pathways. Reducing heating, cooling, and
electrical loads reduces the demand on HVAC equipment, thus saving energy.

The Best Ways To Save

Cooling System Upgrades
High Efficiency Components
Cooling Tower Improvements
Free Cooling
VSD Pumping
Controls
Heating System Upgrades
High Efficiency Components
Controls

Table 1: Potential Cooling and Heating Energy Savings

System Typical Savings
Cooling
Central Chiller 1535%
Unitary A/C 2035%
Heating
Boiler 1030%
Furnace 525%
Adapted from: E SOURCE, Space Cooling Technology Atlas and E SOURCE, Space Heating Technology Atlas.

E N E R G Y S T A R Buildings Manual 2 H EATING AND C OOLING S YSTEM U PGRADES 2

 Use An Integrated System Approach
The conventional approach to upgrading a heating and cooling system is to address
each component of the system individually. However, addressing the interaction
between the components using an integrated system approach ultimately results in a
more energy-efficient system. In addition, compared with assessing components
individually, assessing upgrade opportunities for whole systems consumes less time,
and therefore less money, in the long term. Heating and cooling system components,
particularly in central systems, interact with each other extensively. For example,
chillers operate more efficiently if they receive cooler condenser water. However, the
cooling tower fans consume more energy to provide cooler condenser water.
Optimizing the energy use of the cooling tower/chiller system is one example of using
an integrated system approach that can improve your energy performance and save
money.

Heating and Cooling System Energy Use

Cooling may use as much as a third of the electricity consumed in a typical building.
Heating systems use natural gas or oil as the primary fuel, but may also use electricity.
Heating and cooling systems condition the air within a building so that occupants are
comfortable. These systems consist mainly of chillers, boilers, cooling towers, and
pumps. Cooling systems generally have higher space conditioning capacities than
heating systems, because a large portion of the buildings heating requirements is
supplied by waste heat from the people, lighting, and office equipment. The proper
design and operation of these systems can translate into significant savings. If you have
followed the steps outlined in the other stages, your cooling load may now be low
enough to justify retrofitting or rightsizing your cooling system.

Advantages Of A Rightsized System

In addition to reducing energy consumption and costs, heating and cooling upgrades
will:

Reduce noise.
Lower first costs for equipment.
Reduce equipment footprint.
Eliminate CFCs.
Optimize equipment operation

Take Action!
1. Measure your existing heating and cooling loads. To begin, see the Heating and
Cooling Survey (Appendix). Contact an engineering services firm for the more
complex load measurement tasks.
2. Total the reduction in cooling load achieved by your efforts from the previous

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 stages. Calculate the proper size for your chiller. See the Heating and Cooling
Survey (Appendix).
3. Use the information from the Heating and Cooling Survey to investigate options
for upgrading your chiller plant.
4. Contact vendors and/or an engineering consultant who can recommend specific
components and design upgrades for your heating and cooling system.

Central Cooling Systems: Best Opportunities

Cooling systems consist of various components that must work together to operate at
highest efficiency while ensuring proper occupant comfort. Improvements to any
system must, of course, incorporate improvements to its individual pieces of
equipment. However, these changes must be viewed as part of an integrated system
approach. To improve your buildings overall efficiency, modifications in the design or
operation of one set of components will affect, the operation of other equipment
within the system.

There are four types of mechanical compression chillerscentrifugal, screw, scroll,

and reciprocating, different applications call for different chiller types. Generally, older
chillers have efficiencies ranging from 0.8 to 1.0 kW/ton; they often consume
approximately twice the energy of newer, more efficient chillers. Today, centrifugal
chillers have efficiencies as low as 0.45 kW/ton. Table 2 shows the efficiency ranges in
which these chiller technologies.

Eliminating CFCs:
Headache Or Opportunity?
CFC refrigerant production was phased out by law in 1996. As existing stock of CFCs
dwindle and become more expensive, conversion to or replacement with non-CFC
chillers is becoming more cost effective.
Existing, relatively new chillers may be cost effective to retrofit for non-CFC operation.
Replacing an older chiller with a new, non-CFC chiller is an excellent opportunity to in-
vest in a high efficiency unit. First cost for the installation will be reduced by installing a
smaller chiller made possible by the implementation of all upgrade stages.

Chiller Retrofit
If the existing chiller is less than 10 years old, retrofitting the chiller to operate on
non-CFC refrigerants at the newly reduced loads will probably be your most
profitable option. This postpones investing in a new chiller. When you are replacing
refrigerant, use HCFC-123 in place of R-11 and HFC-134a in place of R-12.

Retrofitting may involve replacing orifice plates, impellers, gaskets, or even the
compressor. The specifics of the retrofit depend on the type of chiller and its
manufacturer. Many manufacturers offer retrofit kits for their chillers. Contact the
manufacturer of your chiller to determine its requirements.

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 Due to their inherent properties, non-CFC refrigerants are not as efficient and thus
will affect the chiller efficiency by reducing its cooling tonnage at current or even
increased levels of energy consumption. However, the reduced cooling loads obtained
through performing a comprehensive upgrade will offset this loss.

Table 2: Common Chiller Types and Efficiencies

Chiller Size Full-load
Type Range Efficiency
(tons) (kW/ton)
Centrifugal 1001,500+ 0.450.68
Screw 401,100
water-cooled 0.560.70
air-cooled 1.11.3
Reciprocating 1400
water-cooled 0.81.0
air-cooled 0.971.6
Source: E SOURCE, Space Cooling Technology Atlas.

CFCs Are On The Way Out

Eighty percent of todays existing chillers are centrifugal chillers that use R-11 as refrig-
erant. The newer, non-CFC alternative to R-11 is HCFC-123. Some centrifugal chillers
use R-12; its non-CFC alternative is HFC-134a. Unitary A/C units typically use R-22,
which will be phased out in the future.
Phase-Out Dates Refrigerants Action
1996 R-11, R-12, Production of these refrigerants
R-500,HCFC-152A, has stopped. Equipment
CFC-114 using these refrigerants is no
longer manufactured.
2010 HCFC-22 Manufacture of equipment
using this refrigerant has stopped
2020 HCFC-123 Manufacture of equipment
using this refrigerant has stopped
2030 HCFC-22 Production of this refrigerant
has stopped.
2030 HCFC-123 Production of this refrigerant
has stopped.
Source: ASHRAE Fundamentals Handbook, 2001..

Chiller Rightsizing
Depending on the upgrades implemented in the previous stages, loads on your cooling
system (see Figure 2) likely have been reduced by at least 10 percent, and perhaps by
as much as 40 percent. Even if you havent implemented upgrades, design loads and
actual building demand rarely match.

Chillers are frequently oversized, and those in poor condition suffer downtime and
significantly increased operating and maintenance costs. A new efficient and reliable
chiller may be more cost effective. Thus, you may want to consider rightsizing your

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 existing chiller with a new, smaller, energy-efficient one that matches the newly
reduced loads and uses compliant non-CFC refrigerants. This option is most
profitable when your existing chiller is more than 10 years old.

Figure 2: Typical Water-Cooled Chiller System

Condenser
Water Cooling
Pump Tower
Cooling
Tower
Circuit

Chiller

Chilled
Water
Circuit AHU Cooling Coil

Chilled
Water
Pump
When you decide to replace an existing chiller with an energy efficient unit, be sure
to evaluate the initial operating and maintenance costs, size, and weight of the new
unit. Keep in mind that the energy consumption of a new high efficiency chiller
could range from 15 percent to more than 50 percent less than that of the existing
chiller.

While the new chiller must be sized for peak loads, be sure that it operates efficiently
at part-load conditions, because it is at part load that the chiller operates most of the
time. Many chiller manufacturers provide electronic copies of their equipment
specifications catalogs on CD-ROM. This information can be used to identify the
appropriate chiller for your facility, once you have analyzed the buildings peak load
profile. An energy services professional or consulting engineer can develop the new
peak load profile.

To analyze the profitability of chiller upgrades, you will need to identify the
relationship between outdoor air temperature and the cooling load that the chillers
must meet. Consult the chiller manufacturers specifications to prepare a load profile
for your building gathered using the Heating and Cooling survey (Appendix).

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 To evaluate the chiller project, gather data about existing chillers, operating schedules,
utility rate schedules, cooling tower parameters, and water reset temperatures for the
condenser and evaporator.

Chiller Rightsizing Case Study: An ENERGY STAR Showcase Building

Mobil Corporations 340,000-sf research and development building in Dallas, Texas, was
upgraded over a 1-year period as an ENERGY STAR Showcase Building. The original
cooling capacity of the buildings chiller plant was 1,760 tons. During the first 10
years, the buildings cooling load had been projected to increase to 1,805 tons prima-
rily from heat generated by the increasing number of personal computers and related
equipment. Prior to the Showcase project, Mobil was planning to replace its three R-
11 chillers with larger R-123 chillers, sized to provide the additional cooling capacity.
Using the ENERGY STAR Approach, Mobil identified profitable opportunities to reduce
the buildings cooling loads. Upgrades in the five stages provided a total cooling load
reduction of 212 tonsmore than enough to eliminate the need for larger chillers.

Existing Cooling Capacity 1,760 tons

Pre-Upgrade Calculated Peak Cooling Load 1,805 tons
Upgrades Implemented Reductions
Lighting retrofit 45 tons
Peak air flow to labs reduced 10 percent 115 tons
ENERGY STAR computers, monitor shutoff devices,
window films 38 tons
Variable-speed drives 14 tons
Post-Upgrade Projected Peak Cooling Load 1,593 tons

By committing to ENERGY STAR, Mobil was able to rightsize the three chillers with chillers
that were smaller than originally planned. Mobil thus saved money on the first cost of
the chillers and is reaping significant energy savings over the life of the chillers. The
total cost of the chiller plant upgrades was $641,000. This investment resulted in an
annual cost savings of $110,000, an annual energy savings of 10.4 percent, with an
internal rate of return of 16.5 percent.
Mobil purchased the chillers before the tune-up and conversion of the return air system
for lab spaces. In hindsight, had it waited to purchase the chillers last, as prescribed
by the ENERGY STAR Approach, the lab return air conversion and tune-up would have
reduced the peak cooling load by up to 120 tons and 250 tons respectively.
Mobils experience in upgrading its R&D facility confirmed one of the basic premises of
ENERGY STAR: systematically reducing cooling loads where profitable from tune-ups
through fan systems generates opportunities to profitably install rightsized, high effi-
ciency chillers.
Source: ENERGY STAR Showcase Building Project: Demonstrating Profitable Energy Savings,
EPA 430-R-96-006.

Upgrading Chiller Components

Numerous components of a chiller system can be upgraded to improve system
efficiency and increase cooling cost savings.

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 Cooling Tower Improvements
Central cooling systems generate heat that must be rejected outside the building, a
cooling tower is commonly used for this purpose. All cooling towers function as large
heat exchangers, transferring heat from the condenser side of the chiller to the outside
air by spraying the hot water through a flow of outside air. This flow of outside air is
created with centrifugal or axial fans mounted at the lower end of the tower in the
forced-draft tower.

A more common type of tower, the induced-draft tower, utilizes a propeller fan at the
top of the tower to pull air up through the tower. The induced-draft tower offers
better aerodynamics and is generally more efficient than a forced-draft tower. The
forced-draft tower is generally quieter and requires less space than an induced-draft
tower, but operates at a lower efficiency. Both forced-draft and induced-draft cooling
towers (Figure 3) employ a surface contact medium or fill to increase contact surface
and improve the transfer of heat between hot water from the chiller and the outside
air.

Figure 3: Cooling Tower Types

Air Air
Air

Forced Draft Tower Induced Draft Tower

Scaling, corrosion, and biological growth all impede tower efficiency and increase
maintenance costs from the resultant condenser fouling and loss of heat transfer.
Chemical treatment is generally used to mitigate these problems. However, new, non-
chemical water treatment technologies, such as ozone generators, magnetic systems,
and ultraviolet irradiation, are available. Ozone is a powerful oxidant and biocide that
can replace chemicals completely in some cases. Magnetic systems are designed to
cause scale-forming minerals to precipitate in a low-temperature area away from heat
exchanger surfaces, thus producing non-adherent particles. The precipitated particles
can then be removed by blowdown, mechanical means or physical flushing. The
effectiveness of a magnetic system can be diminished by a low ratio of dissolved
calcium to silica, by the presence of excessive iron in the water, or if it is installed in
close proximity to high-voltage power lines.

Two-speed fan motors in combination with fan cycling provide an improvement in

control and efficiency over fan cycling alone. VSDs provide the most efficient method
of control. Cooling tower fans offer similar energy-saving opportunities. Fan power is
proportional to the cube of the airflow rate; thus, a reduction of 20 percent in fan
airflow (and speed) will correspond to a reduction of 49 percent in fan power.

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 Free Cooling (Water Side Economizer)
Under the right conditions, free cooling or a water side economizer system can
generate significant energy savings. In cooler, drier climates, water side economizers
can provide over 75 percent of the cooling requirements; in warmer climates they may
provide only 20 percent. Although air side economizers, as discussed in Stages Three
and Four, are typically less expensive, you should also consider using a water side
economizer.

Several methods of free cooling are available. The most common method is a type of
indirect free cooling that uses a separate heat exchanger, typically of the plate-and-
frame type. It allows for a total bypass of the chiller, transferring heat directly from the
chilled water circuit to the condenser water loop (see Figure 4).

A less common method is direct free cooling, in which the condenser and chilled
water circuits are linked directly without the use of a separate heat exchanger. A
disadvantage of using direct free cooling is that bacteria present in the cooling tower
water system (described above) may contaminate your chilled water circuit. You can,
however, install filtration systems or strainers to minimize this risk.

Facilities that require year-round cooling from high sensible heat gains would most
likely benefit from direct free cooling. A large computer room or data center cooled
with a central chilled water system would be a promising application.

When ambient outdoor conditions are ideal (that is, when the wet-bulb temperature is
low enough), the chiller can be shut off and the cooling load may be served exclusively
by the cooling tower without the energy-intensive mechanical refrigeration. The
resulting reduction in energy consumption can be dramatic.

Figure 4: Indirect Water Side Economizer

Condenser Cooling
Water Tower
Pump

Plate And Frame Heat Exchanger

Chilled Water
Circuit
AHU Cooling Coil

Chilled
Water
Pump

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 Pumping System Upgrades
In buildings that use pumps to transport chilled water or condenser water, an
integrated system approach can reduce pumping system energy by 50 percent or more.
You can make your pumping systems more energy-efficient by:

Replacing oversized impellers, pumps, and motors with rightsized pumps and
smaller, energy-efficient motors.
Installing VSDs on pump motors.
Converting single-loop configurations to primary-secondary loop configurations.

Rightsizing
Rightsizing pumps to accommodate lower maximum loads can result in energy savings
of up to 70 percent. The most cost-effective method is often trimming or replacing an
oversized impeller in an existing centrifugal pump. When pump rightsizing, maximum
design capacity of the new impeller or pump must be greater than the measured
maximum load for the system. Be certain that the new motor is an energy-efficient
model, sized to meet the maximum load, and recognize that pump motors, like fan
motors, come in incremental sizes (5 hp, 7.5 hp, 10 hp, etc.).

Calculate your energy savings from rightsizing by comparing rated energy curves at
various loads for old and new pump and motor sizes. Contact the pump manufacturer
or an engineering consultant for further assistance.

Variable-Speed Drives
Installation of VSDs will ensure that your pumps are performing at maximum
efficiency at part-load conditions. (See page 10 for an example of VSD savings
potential.) Similar to the fan systems, the power required to operate a pump motor is
proportional to the cube of the speed. For example, in a pump system with a VSD, a
load reduction that results in a 10-percent reduction in motor speed reduces energy
consumption by 27 percent [1 (0.9)3 = 0.27].

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 Estimating Savings From Installing VSDs On Pumps
To estimate the annual energy savings you can gain from installing VSDs on pumps, you
will need to estimate run times for all part-load conditions, based either on monitoring
or load calculations. Compare the motor horsepower of the existing motor with the
motor horsepower of the motor with a VSD installed under the part-load conditions.
The difference in horsepower (converted to kW) multiplied by the operating hours for
the range of load percentages will give you the expected energy savings in kWh.
Example:
A 30-hp VSD is installed on a chilled-water pump. The existing flow rate is 1,040 gallons
per minute (GPM), existing operating hours are 3,300 per year, and the pumps energy
consumption is 66,900 kWh per year. The initial cost of the VSD is $7,175.
The VSD reduces average flow to 700 GPM.

Estimated new annual energy consumption:

(66,900)(700 1,040)3 =
20,400 kWh per year.

Estimated annual energy savings:

(66,900 20,400)($0.08/kWh) =
$3,720 per year.

Simple payback =
$7,175 $3,720 = 1.9 years.

When installing VSDs, be sure to:

Complete harmonic, power factor, and torsional analyses before installation.

Conduct a coast-down test to compare mechanical resonance with speed response.
Ensure that maximum and minimum flow rates through the chiller can be met
with chiller pump upgrades.

Single-Loop Conversions
The rated minimum flow for chilled water through the chiller is typically 70 percent
of maximum, which also applies to VSD flow reductions. However, a primary-
secondary loop configuration, also known as a production-distribution configuration,
can allow for greater energy savings without compromising your chiller performance.
With the primary-secondary loop configuration (see Figure 5), chillers are equipped
with smaller chilled-water pumps, or primary pumps. These are constant-flow pumps
that operate with a lower pressure drop than in a single-loop configuration. Variable-
flow secondary pumps then distribute the chilled water through your buildings end-
use air-handling devices and have the capability of reducing their speed at part-load
conditions.

When converting from a single-loop configuration to a primary-secondary

configuration, be sure to:

Pipe the lower velocity chiller bypass water on the production side to flow into
the higher velocity chilled water return on the distribution side and not vice versa.

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 Replace three-way valves at air-handling unit coils with two-way valves.
Maintain maximum and minimum flow rates through the chiller.

Figure 5: Primary/Secondary Pumping Loop

Chiller Primary Loop

Secondary Loop

VSD
Pumps

Building Cooling Load

Central Heating Systems: Best Opportunities

Boiler System Upgrades

Approximately 40 percent of all commercial buildings use boilers for space heating
(see Figure 6). Of these, roughly 65 percent are gas fired, 28 percent are oil fired, and
7 percent are electric. The combustion efficiency of older boilers is generally between
65 percent and 75 percent, although inefficient boilers can have efficiencies between
40 percent and 60 percent. Energy-efficient gas- or oil-fired boiler systems can have
efficiencies between 85 and 95 percent.

Figure 6: Boiler Components

Combustion Gas

Flue Fire
Tubes

Burner

Furnace

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 Boiler system energy consumption can be reduced by 10 to 30 percent. Improve your
boiler systems efficiency by either:

Replacing your existing boiler system with a new, rightsized, more energy-efficient
boiler system.
Retrofitting your boiler so that it can perform more efficiently.

Boiler Rightsizing
The best opportunities for energy savings come with replacing an old or inefficient
boiler with a more efficient boiler system. Energy-efficient boilers have increased
heating surface areas and improved controls for fuel and airflow over the range of load
conditions. Before replacing your boiler:

Determine your buildings heating load and rightsize your boiler

accordingly.
Plan to rightsize your boiler with an energy-efficient model.
Determine the applicability of converting from a single-boiler system to a staged
system of smaller, energy-efficient boilers operating in combination.
To determine whether you should replace your boiler system, you need to understand
your buildings heating load and your existing boilers efficiency. Calculate the energy
savings from replacing a boiler by comparing rated energy consumption at various
loads for the old and new boiler systems. Contact the boiler manufacturer or an
engineering consultant for further assistance.

Boiler Retrofit
Retrofitting existing boilers can dramatically improve the peak- and part-load
efficiency of your boiler and extend the useful life of your heating systems. Your best
options include:

New BurnersEfficient burners improve fuel combustion and reduce emissions

of nitrogen oxide.
Temperature/Pressure Reset
Temperature and pressure reset controls provide significant energy savings by
minimizing fuel waste. Reset controls match the supply of steam with the demand
for heat instead of supplying steam at a higher pressure than is needed. The
system water temperature is reset based on the outdoor temperature. If outdoor
temperature increases, the system water temperature is lowered.
Boiler EconomizerA boiler economizer captures waste heat in the exhaust flue
gases and uses it to preheat the boiler feedwater. When natural gas fuels the boiler,
it is important to maintain the stack temperature at a minimum of 250 F to
avoid condensation of the water vapor in the flue gases. The figure below shows
the percentage of fuel saved as a function of the percentage of excess air for

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 different stack temperatures from a gas-fired boiler. For example, with the use of
an economizer, a boiler operating at a stack temperature of 500 F and 80 percent
excess air would realize a 7 percent fuel savings (see Figure 7).
Baffle InsertsBaffle inserts induce combustion gases to flow in a turbulent
spiral pattern, which increases the efficiency of heat transfer.

Figure 7: Boiler Economizer Fuel Energy Savings

25

20
Fuel Energy Savings (%) 800 F

700 F
15
600 F

10 500 F

5 400 F

0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
Excess Air (%)

Source: Turner, Energy Management Handbook, 2nd ed.

As discussed in Recommissioning, improved operation and maintenance are important

parts of your overall strategy and can provide significant energy savings. An annual
tune-up, improved water treatment, and a preventative maintenance program can
reduce boiler energy waste by as much as 15 percent.

Furnace Upgrades
Furnaces are heating plants that produce heat for the purpose of providing thermal
comfort for your building. The heat source can be fuel oil, natural gas, electricity, coal,
or wood. The main components of a warm-air furnace are the heat exchanger, fuel
burner, blower or fan, controls, and housing.

An integrated system approach can reduce your furnace energy consumption 5 percent
to 25 percent. You can make your furnace energy-efficient by:

Replacing your existing furnace with a new, rightsized, energy-efficient furnace.

Retrofitting your furnace with additional controls so that it can perform more
efficiently.

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 Furnace Rightsizing
Standard combustion furnaces have a steady-state efficiency of about 80 percent. High
efficiency furnaces built with condensing heat exchangers have a steady-state efficiency
as high as 94 percent. If your furnace is more than 10 years old, you should:

Measure your heating loads.

Evaluate your existing furnace in terms of efficiency and capacity.
Determine the benefits of installing a new, rightsized energy-efficient model.

Furnace Retrofit
Retrofitting existing furnaces can significantly increase your energy savings. Your best
options are to:

Install new burnersEfficient burners improve fuel combustion and reduce

emissions of nitrogen oxide.
Install two-stage setback controlsIn electrically heated spaces where the
temperature is reduced during unoccupied periods, the electric demand needed to
bring the space back to its original temperature can be significant. In this case, if
your electric rate structure includes demand charges, install a two-stage setback
thermostat with staged supplemental heat and a programmable demand limiter to
prevent demand peaks in the morning. Consider alternatives to resistance heating
to reduce heating costs and overall impact on the environment.
As discussed in Recommissioning, improved operation and maintenance of your
systems save energyoften in significant amounts. As with boiler systems, an annual
tune-up and a preventative maintenance program are crucial to achieving and
sustaining these savings.

Unitary Systems: Best Opportunities

Unitary systems are factory-assembled cooling, or combined heating and cooling,
systems. Cabinet- or skid-mounted for easy installation, typical units generally consist
of an evaporator, blower, compressor, condenser, and, if a combined system, a heating
section. The size of the units ranges from approximately 1.5 to 130 tons.

Typical unitary systems are single-packaged units, split-system packaged units, heat
pump systems, and water-source heat pump systems. Compared to central chiller
plants, unitary systems do not last as long (only 12 to 15 years) and are less efficient.
Unitary systems are generally used in one-, two-, or three-story buildings that have
small cooling loads, such as retail spaces, small office buildings, and classrooms.

Generally speaking, it is not feasible to convert a building from packaged units to

central chilling. However, it is not always necessary to replace in kind. (See the heat
pump and additional strategies sections for conversion options, pages 18 and 19.)

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 Whether your building uses unitary systems for cooling, heating, or both, you can
benefit from an integrated system approach. Depending on the upgrades you have
implemented in tune-ups through fan systems, cooling load requirements have
probably been reduced between 10 percent and 40 percent.

As with chillers, existing unitary systems are, in many cases, oversized. Likewise,
unitary systems that are in poor condition suffer downtime and significantly increased
operating and maintenance costs. A new and more reliable unitary system may be
more cost effective. If your unitary systems are 10 years old or older, you can realize
energy savings by replacing unitary systems with rightsized, energy-efficient models.

Rightsizing
Rightsizing your unitary systems to maximize the benefits of the cooling and heating
load reductions can result in significant energy savings. When determining the
rightsizing potential of your unitary system, be sure to measure your cooling and
heating loads first. By knowing what your cooling and heating loads are, you will be
better able to rightsize your new unitary system to meet maximum loads.

To estimate your energy savings from rightsizing, first measure your cooling and
heating loads. Then, using the seasonal energy efficiency ratio (SEER) for your old
and new systems, compare their respective energy consumption. Contact your
equipment manufacturer or an engineering consultant for further assistance.

Typically, commercial buildings use unitary systems with cooling capacities greater
than 5 tons. In some cases, however, due to space requirements, physical limitations,
or small additions, residential-sized unitary systems are used. In these cases, be sure to
look for the ENERGY STAR label. The ENERGY STAR label is found on various high
efficiency heating, cooling, and control products and can help you differentiate
between these and standard efficiency products. To determine what products may
meet your needs, visit the ENERGY STAR Web site at http://www.energystar.gov/
products/

The information about the technologies listed below will help you better understand
your unitary system and recent technological advances that may increase its rightsizing
potential.

Packaged or rooftop units

Vertical packaged units
Split-system packaged units
Air-source heat pumps
Water-loop heat pump systems

E N E R G Y S T A R Buildings Manual 16 H EATING AND C OOLING S YSTEM U PGRADES 16

 Packaged Or Rooftop Units
Packaged units are packaged HVAC units that are usually mounted on the roof,
freeing up valuable indoor floor space. They can also be installed on a concrete pad at
ground level. Because they are self-contained, manufactured units, installation costs
are low.

Single-package units consist of a blower section, filter bank, evaporator coil,

at least one compressor (larger units typically have multiple compressors to improve
load matching), and an air-cooled condenser section (see Figure 8). Units may also
come equipped with a heating section.

Heating is accomplished using either natural gas or electricity; however, natural gas is
generally less expensive, depending on the region. Heat pump systems can be used in
situations where electricity is the only source of energy. Unitary heat pump units
typically range in size from 1.5 to 20 tons. Heat pump systems are discussed further
below.

As packaged units age and deteriorate, their efficiency often decreases while the need
for maintenance increases. Upgrading your packaged units to high efficiency models
will result in substantial long-term energy savings.

Figure 8: Self-Contained Packaged AC Unit

Supply Duct Blower

Fan Motor

Condenser
Fan

Return
Duct

Evaporator

Compressor Condenser
Air Out
Condenser Air In Condenser

E N E R G Y S T A R Buildings Manual 17 H EATING AND C OOLING S YSTEM U PGRADES 17

 In the last 10 to 15 years, manufacturers have made significant improvements to the
efficiency of packaged units. The efficiency of heat transfer at both the evaporator and
condenser coils has been improved; high efficiency motors are now standard; and
blower and compressor designs have improved in high efficiency packaged units. Scroll
compressors are now commonplace on medium-sized (20- to 60-ton) rooftop units.
Energy efficiencies of newer units have a SEER in the range of 9.50 to 13.0. It is not
uncommon to find older units operating at efficiencies as low as 6.0, and most operate
at less than 9.0. Gas-fired heating sections typically have an annual fuel utilization
efficiency (AFUE) of about 80 percent.

Case Study: Installing High Efficiency Packaged Units Can

Cut Energy Costs
For a typical 100,000-sf office building that has 10 standard 25-ton packaged units with
a SEER rating of 9 and 80 percent electric heat efficiency, electricity costs would be
about $71,300 per year ($53,300 for cooling and $18,000 for heating, at $0.08 per
kWh).
Installing a new energy-efficient unit with a cooling energy efficiency rating of 13 would
result in cooling mode electricity costs of about $36,900 annuallya savings of
$16,400 per year. If the heating component of the system was improved to 90 per-
cent efficiency, the heating savings would be $2,000 per year. The combined annual
savings of $18,400 equals a reduction in energy costs of more than 25 percent.
(The cooling units are assumed to operate for 2,000 hours per year, while the heating
units are assumed to run for 1,000 hours per year.)

All newer packaged rooftop units are equipped with factory-installed microprocessor
controls. These controls make maintaining equipment easier and improve the energy
efficiency of both the unit and the overall HVAC system. Control features include
temperature setback and on/off scheduling. Large systems have variable air volume
capability, as discussed in Fan System Upgrades. Also, most units have an optional
communication interface for connection to an EMS system.

Vertical Packaged Units

Other unitary systems, if upgraded to high efficiency systems, offer much the same
potential for energy savings. Vertical packaged units (see Figure 9), which are a
variation on the packaged unit, are typically designed for indoor installation. Most
units have a water-cooled condenser, which can be fed from a cooling tower and/or
city water. Other components are mounted in the package. Ductwork can be
connected to the unit to distribute the air.

Split-System Packaged Units

Split-system packaged units (see Figure 10) have an outdoor pad or rooftop-mounted
air-cooled condenser. Refrigerant piping connects the compressor section to an indoor
air-handling unit and evaporator coil.

E N E R G Y S T A R Buildings Manual 18 H EATING AND C OOLING S YSTEM U PGRADES 18

 Unless they are heat pump type units, they cannot provide heat to the space. Heating
coils can be installed in the air-handling section, particularly if there is a central source
of heat such as hot water or steam from a boiler.

Figure 9: Vertical Packaged Units

Supply Air Outlets

Fan
Evaporator Section
Coil
Section

Access
Panel

Return Air Filters

Compressor Section

Figure 10: Split-System Packaged Units

To
Space

Blower
Compressor Condensor

Evaporator

Refrigerant Lines

E N E R G Y S T A R Buildings Manual 19 H EATING AND C OOLING S YSTEM U PGRADES 19

 Air-Source Heat Pumps
Air-source heat pump systems are typically rooftop units, packaged either complete or
as split systems. During cooling mode, the unit operates as a typical air-conditioning
system. During heating mode, the cooling system is reversed completely to extract
heat from the outside air and to provide it to the space. The size of unitary heat pump
systems ranges from approximately 1.5 tons to 20 tons. In some cases, existing
packaged cooling units with electric resistance heat can be upgraded to heat pumps for
improved energy efficiency.

Heat pump applications are best suited to relatively warm climates, such as the
Southeastern United States, and to areas where the availability of natural gas for
heating is low. . When temperatures are low, the coefficient of performance (COP) of
the heat pump falls dramatically. A 7.5-ton rooftop heat pump unit that has a high-
temperature COP of 3.0 can have a low-temperature COP of 2.0 or less. Moreover,
when the temperature drops further, heat pumps require supplemental heat, typically
electric resistance; thus, effective heating efficiencies become even lower. More
recently, dual-fuel heat pumps have become available in areas where natural gas can be
used as the supplemental heating source.

Split-package heat pumps are designed with an air-handling unit located inside the
conditioned space, and both the condenser and compressor are packaged in units for
outdoor installation on a pad or on the roof.

Due to their improved annual efficiency, air-source heat pumps are good candidates
for replacing packaged cooling units with electric-resistance heating coils.

Water-Loop Heat Pump Systems

Water-loop, or water-source, heat pump systems use water instead of air to transfer
heat. In an air-to-air heat pump system, heat is removed from indoor air and rejected
to outside air during the cooling cycle. The reverse happens during the heating cycle.
However, in a water-loop heat pump, water replaces the outdoor air as the source or
sink for heat, depending on the cycle in use.

In hot weather, a cooling tower removes heat from the water loop; in cooler weather, a
central boiler heats the water.

As shown in Figure 11, water-loop heat pump systems allow for simultaneous heating
and cooling by multiple separate and distinct units, and thus increase individual
comfort. Furthermore, recovering heat from cooled areas and recycling it into other
areas adds to the systems efficiency.

The size of water-source heat pumps ranges from approximately 0.5 tons to 25 tons.
Efficiencies of water-source units are generally higher than their air-to-air
counterparts, where a SEER of 11.0 and COP of 3.8 to 4.0 are not uncommon. High

E N E R G Y S T A R Buildings Manual 20 H EATING AND C OOLING S YSTEM U PGRADES 20

 efficiency water-source heat pumps have a SEER as high as 14.0 to 15.0 and a COP as
high as 4.4.

Figure 11: Water-Loop Heat Pump System

WSHP WSHP
Cooling Cooling

Cooling
WSHP Tower
Cooling
WSHP Cooling Season
Cooling

Boiler
WSHP
Cooling
Pump Heating
Season

WSHP WSHP
Cooling Cooling

Additional Strategies: Best Opportunities

In addition to the strategies outlined in previous sections, other worthwhile
technological strategies warrant further attention for some applications. Whether or
not these strategies are viable for your building depends upon various conditions (for
example, size, location, types of business onsite, utility rate structures). These strategies
include the following:

Heating and Cooling Strategies

Geothermal heat pumps

District heating and cooling
Radiant heating and cooling
Cooling Strategies

Cool storage
High temperature difference distribution

E N E R G Y S T A R Buildings Manual 21 H EATING AND C OOLING S YSTEM U PGRADES 21

 Evaporative cooling
Non-electric cooling

Geothermal Heat Pumps

An additional strategy for improving the efficiency of your HVAC equipment is the
geothermal heat pump. Geothermal heat pumps take advantage of the natural heat
stored underground to provide space conditioning heating, cooling, and humidity
control. Rather than converting chemical energy to heat, as in a furnace, geothermal
heat pumps work by moving heat. During the heating season, a geothermal heat
pump can move heat taken from the ground and apply it to a building. In the
cooling season, this process is reversed, as the buildings excess heat is moved back to
the ground to provide air conditioning. (See A Short Primer and Environmental
Guidance for Geothermal Heat Pumps, EPA 430-K-97-007, available from 1-888-
STAR YES).

Due to the relative stability of ground temperature, geothermal heat pump systems
are inherently more efficient than air-source heat pumps, which rely on outside air as
the medium which receives heat from the heat pump or from which heat is extracted
by the heat pump. Geothermal heat pump systems provide the highest efficiencies in
both cooling and heating seasons, as well as in heating water.

Information on geothermal heat pump systems is available from the ENERGY STAR
Web site at http://www.energystar.gov/products/, under the Heating and Cooling for
your home. For additional information, visit the Geothermal Heat Pump
Consortium Web site at http://www.ghpc.org/home.htm.

District Heating and Cooling

District cooling is a shift in the generation location of chilled water from inside a
facility to a local chilled-water producer. As a district cooling customer, your facility
would purchase chilled water from a generation plant just as you purchase power
from a local utility company. Chilled-water plants supply water to a number of
customers within the plant district territory, usually encompassing a radius of three
to five city blocks.

There are several advantages to district cooling:

Most district cooling plants are modern facilities that use energy-efficient
generation methods.
The need for buildings to own and use refrigerants is eliminated along with
refrigerant compliance responsibilities, handling regulations, rising replacement
costs, and capacity-loss issues.
Ice can be generated at off-peak hours (when utility demand and rates are
lowest) and used at peak cooling periods to supplement chilled-water

E N E R G Y S T A R Buildings Manual 22 H EATING AND C OOLING S YSTEM U PGRADES 22

 production, yielding a lower chilled-water temperature. This lower temperature
means that high temperature-difference distribution may be viable, as discussed
below.
Chilled water can be purchased without the expense of installing, operating, or
maintaining ones own chiller.
This strategy is applicable for some facilities in cities, campuses, or industrial parks.
District heating and cooling eliminates central heating and/or cooling equipment.
Also, because district cooling suppliers use modern, non-CFC chillers, CFC chiller
equipment in your building can be retired.

Radiant Heating And Cooling

Radiant heating and cooling, also called hydronic heating and cooling, differs from
standard HVAC design in that it uses water distribution instead of air distribution to
meet a buildings heating and cooling needs.

In a radiant cooling system, cold water is pumped through special panels or grids of
tubing mounted in the walls, ceilings, or floors. These panels absorb heat from the
building and bring it back to the HVAC plant to be removed from the building.

As discussed in load reductions and fan systems, the amount of outdoor air required
to ventilate your building is actually much smaller than the amount of air that must
be circulated through cooling coils to handle cooling load. Radiant systems cool the
space directly, reducing your ventilation system to the size required to bring in
outside air. This requirement is about 20 percent of the total air recirculation
capacity of the average building. As water has a much higher capacity to store heat or
cold than air, a much smaller volume of water can be circulated, further reducing
costs. Radiant cooling can supply the same cooling capacity as other systems but at
levels of energy consumption that are typically about 75 percent of those for air-
based systems.

Cool Storage
Cool storage is a means of using less expensive off-peak power to produce cooling for
the building. Cool storage is based upon the principle that a storage medium can be
cooled while chiller operating cost is low, and the storage can be discharged when
chiller operating cost is high. Furthermore, chillers tend to be most economical to
operate at night, when building cooling loads are low, electric rates may be lower,
and lower outdoor temperatures allow the chiller to reject heat more efficiently.
Cooling energy is stored in tanks of water, ice and water, or water circulating around
chemical modules that freeze and thaw. This last system, as well as an ice-based

E N E R G Y S T A R Buildings Manual 23 H EATING AND C OOLING S YSTEM U PGRADES 23

 system, has the advantage of taking up less space than chilled-water storage because
the freezing process can naturally store much more cold in a given volume.

Generally, the most cost effective type of cool-storage design and operating strategy is
the partial-storage system shown in Figure 12. A partial storage system reduces a
buildings maximum electrical demand by shifting a portion of the cooling load from
daytime to nighttime. The total chiller capacity required for the building is also less
than that of a standard system.

The cost effectiveness of cool-storage systems varies considerably depending on the

specific application. However, high electric-utility peak-demand charges, which
generally coincide with the peak cooling period in the afternoon, and a time-of-use
rate with a low nighttime kWh charge are factors that make it favorable to shift
cooling equipment operation away from the utility peak period. A cool storage system
is most cost effective when its capital cost is viewed as an incremental cost compared
to replacing or constructing a new chilled-water system.

Figure 12: Partial-Storage Strategy

Load
Chiller Capacity
Chiller Charging Storage
Chiller Meets Load Directly
Storage Meets Load
Tons

24-Hour Period

Source: E SOURCE, Commercial Space Cooling Technology Atlas.

High Temperature-Difference Distribution

Designing or modifying the chilled water distribution system to have a lower supply
temperature and a higher return temperature than normal provides more cooling
capacity for the same amount of chilled water flow. Increasing the difference between
the supply and return temperatures by a certain percentage reduces the required water
flow by the same percentage. Such a reduction in chilled-water flow can substantially
reduce required pumping energy.

Because a chiller operates less efficiently as it supplies colder chilled water, high
temperature-difference distribution systems are most appropriate when combined with

E N E R G Y S T A R Buildings Manual 24 H EATING AND C OOLING S YSTEM U PGRADES 24

 cool-storage systems, as discussed above. To reduce the required tank size, cool-storage
tanks containing ice or water are generally at lower-than-standard supply temperature.

High temperature difference distribution systems are most cost effective in new
construction, because reduced chilled water flow requirements reduce the capital cost
of pumps, piping, and heat exchangers.

Evaporative Cooling
The process of evaporating water or another fluid absorbs heat, just as a kettle must be
heated before the water must boil. This is the basis for many types of mechanical
cooling. A much simpler and more economical variation can be used in some climates.
Cooling is produced by passing a flow of dry air over a wet surface. As the water
evaporates from the surface, the air stream is cooled. Although evaporative cooling
systems are most effective in dry climates, where the air has a large capacity to absorb
evaporating water, they can also be used elsewhere to reduce the annual cooling load
on mechanical refrigeration equipment.

There are both direct and indirect types of evaporative coolers and systems used in
conjunction with mechanical refrigeration. Direct evaporation systems evaporate water
directly into the supply air stream, whereas indirect systems cool one air stream that in
turn cools the supply air stream through a heat exchanger. Although indirect systems
are more costly, they avoid increasing the humidity of supply air. Evaporative cooling
can also be used to precool air to reduce the load on a mechanical refrigeration system.
Mechanical refrigeration can be used to increase the evaporative cooling capacity by
cooling the water used for evaporation.

Compared with standard unitary air-conditioning equipment, indirect evaporative

coolers have been shown to use 70 percent less electricity seasonally. While evaporative
cooling equipment generally offers reduced cooling capacity compared to mechanical
refrigeration, indirect evaporative precooling can supply half of the annual cooling
load in many areas (ASHRAE, 1999, Applications Handbook, Chapter 50).

Nonelectric Cooling
While the most common cooling plants use an electric motor to drive a refrigerant
compressor, there are nonelectric alternatives, such as engine-driven, steam turbine-
driven, and absorption chillers. While nonelectric cooling systems are often less
expensive to operate, their first cost is higher than that of electric systems, and they
come with increased equipment size and maintenance costs.

Gas engine-driven chillers are a cost-effective option for producing chilled water in
areas where gas rates are lower than electric rates. Gas engine-driven chillers are much
like electric chillers, except that they contain an engine rather than a motor. Where
there is a need for heating during the cooling season, heat recovery from both the

E N E R G Y S T A R Buildings Manual 25 H EATING AND C OOLING S YSTEM U PGRADES 25

 exhaust and cooling water can improve the efficiency of these systems. Gas engine-
driven chillers have average operating COPs of 1.7 to 1.9. If heat recovery from the
exhaust and water jacket are implemented, their efficiency can increase to 2.3 COP.
While the efficiency of gas engine-driven chillers is much lower than that of electric
chillers, total fuel use and pollution emissions can be comparable when considering
electric power plant operations. The centrifugal or screw chiller driven by the engine
uses an HCFC or HFC refrigerant, much like an electric chiller.

Absorption chillers do not use the vapor compression cycle that most mechanical
refrigeration uses; instead, they are driven by heat, not by a mechanical drive input.
Moreover, they use water as a refrigerant in conjunction with lithium bromide as the
absorption chemical (or ammonia and water) such that there is no ozone-depletion
potential from the system. Although the system has fewer moving parts than a
centrifugal chiller, it is technically complex.

There are single- and double-effect absorption systems, and they may be fired directly
with a gas burner or indirectly with steam generated by separate equipment. Single-
effect systems have a COP of 0.5 to 0.7. Double-effect systems are more efficient, with
a COP of 1.0 to 1.1. Triple-effect absorbers are also under development and promise
still better efficiency. In addition, chiller-heaters, which use absorption technology to
provide cooling, heating, or both cooling and heating as required, are available.

Steam turbines can be used to drive centrifugal compressors. The chilled medium is
usually water or brine, with a halogenated hydrocarbon refrigerant. Other refrigerants
such as ammonia, butane, or propane are also used in industrial processes.

Summary
This section has described numerous opportunities for optimizing both the size and
efficiency of your buildings heating and cooling systems. Before undertaking any of
these strategies, you should measure your buildings heating and cooling loads. Having
done so, retrofit or rightsize your heating and cooling equipment based on the load
reductions implemented in tune-ups through fan systems.

To find the most efficient equipment for your buildings cooling and heating systems,
consult the American Council for an Energy-Efficient Economys (ACEEEs) Guide To
Energy-Efficient Commercial Equipment, 2nd edition.

Next Steps
Measure your cooling and heating loads and complete the Heating and Cooling
Survey at the end of this document.

E N E R G Y S T A R Buildings Manual 26 H EATING AND C OOLING S YSTEM U PGRADES 26

 Cooling Systems
Estimate your savings by conducting a Heating and Cooling survey and working
with an engineer (on-staff or consultant) to calculate savings potential.
Rightsize your cooling system to take advantage of load reductions.
Eliminate CFC refrigerants from your chiller system by retrofitting or replacing
your chiller.
Older chillers represent an investment opportunity. Install new high efficiency
chillers to reduce operating costs and match equipment size to cooling load.
Improve cooling towers and install VSD controls with rightsized pumps.
Implement cooling system efficiency strategies such as free cooling.

Heating Systems
Replace older boilers and furnaces or upgrade components and controls of
existing units.

Unitary Systems
Replace older unitary equipment with high efficiency equivalents or heat pumps.

Additional Strategies
When evaluating your upgrade options, assess whether your buildings specific
characteristics lend themselves to:
Geothermal heat pumps
District heating and cooling
Radiant heating and cooling
Cool storage
High temperature-difference distribution
Evaporative cooling
Nonelectric cooling

E N E R G Y S T A R Buildings Manual 27 H EATING AND C OOLING S YSTEM U PGRADES 27

 APPENDIX: HEATING AND COOLING SURVEY

Measure Heating and Cooling Loads To Rightsize Systems

This survey will familiarize you with the condition of your heating and cooling
systems and enable you to determine whether your heating and cooling equipment
needs replacing with rightsized, energy-efficient equipment.

To prepare to rightsize your heating and cooling systems, compile basic information
and measurements about the systems and your facility. Next, calculate the required
cooling and heating loads for your building.

To get started, recruit a survey team including a building engineer, HVAC technician,
boiler operator, and electrician. You will need to evaluate your available staff resources
and staff capabilities. If you do not have the means of taking these measurements, you
may want to contact an independent testing, adjusting and balancing (TAB) firm or
seek outside engineering services.

Before You Begin

You will need the following items to complete your survey:

The latest specifications for the heating and cooling equipment in your building.
The TAB report for your buildings pumping systems.
As built mechanical drawings.
Operations and maintenance manuals for the boiler, chiller, or unitary system
equipment.
The system logs showing hot and chilled water supply and chilled-water return
temperatures and flow rates (if you have an energy management system).
A data logger (note: for unitary systems only).
A calculator.

E N E R G Y S T A R Buildings Manual 28 H EATING AND C OOLING S YSTEM U PGRADES 28

 Chiller Systems Survey

Collect the following information:

Chiller Type
(choose one) Air-cooled centrifugal
Water-cooled centrifugal
Reciprocating
Helical rotary/screw
Steam absorption
Hot-water absorption
Direct-fired absorption
Engine-driven

Manufacturer ________________________________________
Type of Refrigerant __________________________________
Age _________________________________________________
Efficiency (kW/ton) ___________________________________
Size or Capacity (in tons) _____________________________
(12,000 Btu/hr = 1 ton)

Calculate the maximum cooling load for your building using the following proce-
dure:
What is the maximum cooling load for the building (in tons)? This load will be
compared with the chiller capacity recorded above. To determine maximum cooling
load, take the following measurements in the afternoon on a typical hot summer day
to capture peak load effects on your system. Note: An energy management system may
also log these measurements.

Temperature of the chilled-water supply (CHWS). A temperature gauge should be

found on the pipe at the chillers supply outlet.
Temperature of the chilled-water return (CHWR). A temperature gauge should be
found on the pipe at the chillers return inlet.
Flow rate (GPM) of the chilled water supply. A flow rate gauge should be found
on the supply pipe. If a gauge is not available, the design flowrate from as-built
drawings may be used.

Chilled Water System

Measurements
Temperature of CHWS ___________
Temperature of CHWR __________
Flow rate (GPM) of CHWS _______

E N E R G Y S T A R Buildings Manual 29 H EATING AND C OOLING S YSTEM U PGRADES 29

 Now, using the measurements, do the following calculations:

CHWR CHWS = T:

T x 500 x (GPM 12,000) =

Load (in tons):

Load x 1.1 = Maximum Cooling Load

How much of your existing chiller capacity does your building currently need? To
answer this, do the following calculation:

Maximum Cooling Load

Chiller Capacity =
Percentage of Chiller Capacity Needed

If the required capacity of the chiller is 30 percent less than the installed capacity of
your existing chiller, you should seriously consider replacing the chiller. The efficiency
of the chiller decreases sharply below 70 percent loading. Also, remember that the
chiller is operating most of the time at part-load conditions with your newly reduced
loads, which increases your rightsizing potential even further.

Boiler Systems Survey

Collect the following information:

Heating Plant Central hot water

Type boiler
Manufacturer ___________________
Fuel (gas, oil, electric) ___________
Age ___________________________
Efficiency (percent) ______________
Size or Capacity ________________
(in MBtu/hr)

Calculate the maximum heating load for your building using the following
procedure:
What is the maximum heating load for the building (in MBtu/hr)? This load will be
compared with the heating system capacity recorded above. To determine maximum
heating load, take the following measurements in the morning on a typical cold winter
day to capture peak load effects on your system. Note: An energy management system
may also log these measurements. The following procedure is tailored to typical central
hot water boiler systems.

Temperature of the hot water supply (HWS). A temperature gauge should be

found on the pipe at the boilers supply outlet.

E N E R G Y S T A R Buildings Manual 30 H EATING AND C OOLING S YSTEM U PGRADES 30

 Temperature of the hot water return (HWR). A temperature gauge should be
found on the pipe at the boilers return inlet.
Flow rate (GPM) of the hot water supply. A flow rate gauge should be found on
the supply pipe. If a gauge is not available, the design flow rate from as-built
drawings may be used.

Boiler System Measurements

Temperature of HWS ____________
Temperature of HWR ____________
Flow rate (GPM) of HWS _________

Now, using the measurements, do the following calculations:

HWR HWS = T

T x 500 x GPM/1,000 = Load

(in MBtu/hr)

Load x 1.1 = Maximum Heating Load

How much of your existing boiler capacity does your building currently need?

Maximum Heating Load

Heating Plant Capacity =
Percentage of Heating Capacity Needed

For other types of heating systems, there are other ways of measuring maximum
heating load.

For systems such as forced-air furnaces and heat pumps that respond to
thermostats by cycling on and off, a simple runtime meter will show how much of
the time the unit cycles on. Supply-temperature data logged every few minutes by
an EMCS or other data logger can also be analyzed to determine how much of the
time the unit is cycled on. The percentage of heating capacity needed is the time
the unit operates divided by the total time during a high heating load period.
Measuring steam boiler loading is similar, but more complicated than for a hot
water boiler. Instead of the water flow rate, the steam flow rate must be measured.
Instead of multiplying a temperature difference by a factor accounting for the
heat content of each GPM, the temperature and pressure properties of the supply
steam must be recorded from gauges on the supply line and used to determine the
heat content of each pound of steam using a steam table.

E N E R G Y S T A R Buildings Manual 31 H EATING AND C OOLING S YSTEM U PGRADES 31

 Other strategies for measuring heating loads include:

Periodic gas meter readings

Oil tank gauge readings or oil deliveries
On/off cycle times for systems that operate intermittently

Unitary Systems Survey

Collect the following information for each type of unit installed in your building:

Boiler System Measurements

Unitary System Type Packaged rooftop unit
(choose one) Split system
Vertical packaged unit
Heat pump
Manufacturer ____________________________________________
Htg Fuel (gas, oil, elec.) ___________________________________
Unit Age ________________________________________________
Cooling Efficiency (%) ____________________________________
Heating Efficiency (%) ____________________________________
Size or Capacity (cooling) _________________________________
(in tons)
Size or Capacity (heating) _________________________________
(in MBtu/hr)

Calculate the maximum cooling and heating loads for your building using the
following steps:
What are the maximum heating and cooling loads for the building (in MBtu/hr)?
These loads will be compared with the cooling and heating capacities recorded above.
To determine maximum heating or cooling load use the procedure described in the
heating section for small systems that cycle on and off.

Time cycled on Total time = Percentage of Capacity Needed

A data logger can be used to determine how much of the time the unit is cycled on.

E N E R G Y S T A R Buildings Manual 32 H EATING AND C OOLING S YSTEM U PGRADES 32