GRA MMATICAL APPENDIX

for Vergils Aeneid: Selected Readings from Books 1, 2, 4, and 6

Alphabet; Pronunciation; Quantity; Accent
1. With the exception that it has no w the Latin alphabet is the same as the English, which has been borrowed
from it.
2. The vowels, as in English, are a, e, i, o, u, and sometimes y. The other letters are consonants.

Sounds of the Letters

3. Vowels. All Latin vowels are either long or short. All long vowels are indicated in this text by having the
mark () placed over them, as nn, not. All unmarked vowels in this book are to be considered short.
4. Latin vowels have the following sounds:
Long Short
as in father: ra, altar a as in ask: anima, soul
as in they: mns, mind e as in red: bellum, war
as in machine: dvus, divine i as in hit: mitt, send
as in bone: mns, mountain o as in obey: aequor, sea
as in prune: lx, light u as in full: fuga, flight
5. Diphthongs. A diphthong is the union of two vowels in a single syllable. The sounds of the Latin diphthongs
are:
ae as ai in aisle: caelum, heaven
au as ou in house: aurum, gold
ei as ei in freight: ei, alas!
oe as oi in boil: poena, punishment
eu as eh-oo (oo as in spoon, but fused with the eh sound into a single syllable): heu, alas!
ui somewhat as we, but with a more vocalic sound of the u: cui, to whom
6. Consonants. In general the consonants have the same sounds as in English, but there are the following
exceptions:
c as k, always hard, as in come: faci, do, make
g always hard, as in get: fugi, flee
i (consonantal i) as y in yet: iube, order
s as in sit, never as in rise: csus, chance
t as in tie, never as in nation: tlis, such
v (consonantal u) as w in will: vide, see
x as in extra, always hard: rx, king
bs, bt, as ps, pt: urbs, city; obtine, gain, obtain
ch as k in kite: pulcher, beautiful
gu (usually), qu, and sometimes su before a vowel, as gw, kw, and sw, respectively: sanguis, blood;
qui, who; sude, persuade
ph as p-h (as p-h in saphead, but without the break): philosophia, philosophy
th as t-h (as t-h in fathead, but without the break): Corinthus, Corinth

1
2 Vergils Aeneid

a. Modern printed texts often use only one character for vocalic and consonantal u (u, v). The Romans did
not employ separate characters to distinguish between the vocalic and consonantal uses of this letter.
b. When followed by the letter i, as in compounds of iaci, throw, consonantal i, although pronounced, is
not ordinarily written in the classical period, as conici, throw together; dici, cast down; ici, throw
out; reici, throw back. These are to be pronounced as though spelled coniici, diici, iici, reiici.
7. Doubled Consonants. All doubled consonants are to be sounded separately, not as one consonant as is
customary in English. Thus puella, girl, must be pronounced pu-el-la, and not pu-ell-a as in English; so
also er-r, wander, stray; oc-cu-p, occupy.
8. Double Consonants. The double consonants are x and z; x is equivalent to ks or cs; z, a Greek letter, originally
zd, may be pronounced as z in lazy.

Syllables
9. A Latin word has as many syllables as it has vowels and diphthongs; as so-ci-us, comrade; vo-c-re, to call;
moe-ni-a, walls; ac-ci-pi-, receive.
10. In dividing a Latin word into syllables, a single consonant is pronounced with the following vowel, as ca-put,
head.
11. A consonant followed by l or r (except ll or rr) is usually pronounced with the l or r, as pa-trs, fathers; p-
bli-cus, public.
12. In all other combinations of two or more consonants between vowels, the fi rst consonant is pronounced
with the preceding vowel, and the others with the vowel following, as her-ba, herb; mn-str, show; ar-ma,
arms.
13. Exceptions. Compound words are divided in accordance with their original elements, as ab-est, he is absent;
trns-e, I pass across.

Quantity
14. The quantity of a syllable is the term used to denote the relative amount of time employed in pronouncing
it. About twice as much time should be used in pronouncing a long syllable as a short one.
15. A syllable is said to be long by nature when it contains a long vowel or a diphthong. It is said to be long by
position when its vowel is followed by two or more consonants which are separated in pronunciation (1012),
or by either of the double consonants x or z (8), or by consonantal i, which was regularly doubled in pronun-
ciation. H never helps to make a syllable long, and qu counts as a single consonant. Thus the fi rst syllable of
adhc, thus far, and of aqua, water, is short.
16. Except under the metrical accent (see section on Vergils Meter, pp. 6869), a fi nal syllable ending in a short
vowel regularly remains short before a word beginning with two consonants or a double consonant.
17. If a consonant followed by l or r comes after a short vowel, the syllable containing the short vowel is said to
be common, i.e., it may be either long or short, according to the pleasure of the one using it.
18. Note: Th is is due to the fact that the l and r blend so easily with the preceding consonant that the combina-
tion takes scarcely more time than a single consonant. When the l or r is separated in pronunciation from the
preceding consonant, as may be done in all cases, more time is required in pronunciation and the preceding
syllable is treated as long.
Grammatical Appendix 3

19. Observe that the vowel in a long syllable may be either long or short, and is to be pronounced accordingly.
Thus in err, wander; capt, seize; vert, turn; nox, night; the fi rst vowel in each case is short, and must be
so pronounced, according to 4, but the syllable is long, and must occupy more time in pronunciation, ac-
cording to 14, 15.
20. A vowel is regularly short before another vowel, or h, as aes-tu-, boil; de-us, god; tra-h, draw.
a. Th is rule does not apply to Greek words in Latin, such as -r, air; I-xi-n, Ixion (a proper name).
21. A vowel is regularly short before nt or nd. Observe that the syllable in this case is long.
22. A vowel is regularly short before any fi nal consonant except s.
a. Some monosyllables ending in l, r, n, and c have a long vowel as sl, sun; pr, equal; nn, not; sc, so.
23. A vowel is regularly long before ns, nf, nx, and nct.
24. Diphthongs and vowels derived from diphthongs or contracted from other vowels are regularly long.

Accent
25. Words of two syllables have the accent or stress on the fi rst (penult), as a-m, love.
a. The last syllable of a word is called the ultima (ultimus, last); the next to the last syllable is called the
penult (paene, almost; ultimus, last); and the syllable before the penult is called the antepenult (ante,
before; paene, almost; ultimus, last).
26. Words of more than two syllables (polysyllabic words) have the accent on the penult when the penult is long,
on the antepenult when the penult is short or common (17), as aes-tu--re, boil; a-ni-mus, mind.
27. Enclitics. Certain words are not ordinarily written separately but are regularly appended to the word they
introduce. The most common of these are -que, and; -ve, or; and -ne (sign of a question). They are called en-
clitics and, when appended to words accented on the antepenult, add an accent to the ultima, as foribusque,
and from the doorway. When an enclitic is appended to a word of two syllables having a long ultima, the accent
is shifted to the ultima; as amque, and I love; but bellaque, and wars; itaque, and so.

Pronunciation of Latin Words in English

28. Latin words and phrases commonly used in English are to be pronounced according to the ordinary English
system of pronunciation; for example, in alumn, the fi nal is to be pronounced as i in five, and the u as u
in bum; and in the phrase via Chicago, v is to be pronounced as in vine, and i as in vine; in the phrase vx
popul, the voice of the people, v as in voice, as in ox, u as in due, as in die.

Number
29. In Latin there are two numbers: the singular, denoting one; the plural, denoting more than one. For the
poetic plural see 243.
4 Vergils Aeneid

Cases
30. In Latin there are seven cases:
1. The nominative is the case of the subject.
2. The genitive is usually equivalent to the English possessive or to the objective with the preposition of.
3. The dative is the case of the indirect object or of personal interest.
4. The accusative is usually the case of the direct object.
5. The vocative is the case of direct address.
6. The ablative is the case of adverbial relation.
7. The locative is the case of the place where.

Declensions
31. There are five declensions in Latin, which are characterized by the fi nal letter of their respective stems (stem
characteristic). For practical purposes and regularly in lexicons they are also distinguished by the ending of
the genitive singular.
Declension Stem Characteristic Genitive Singular
I. (a) ae
II. o
III. a consonant or i is
IV. u s
V. e

a. The fi rst, second, and fi ft h declensions are called vowel declensions; the third and fourth, which really
form but one, the consonant declension, i and u being considered semiconsonants.
32. The case endings in combination with the stem characteristics give rise to the following systems of termina-
tions for the five declensions:
singular
I. II. III. IV. V.
Nom. a us; wanting; um s; wanting us; s
Gen. ae is s e,
Dat. ae u; e,
Acc. am um em, im um, em
Voc. a e; wanting; um s; wanting us, u s
Abl. e,

plural
I. II. III. IV. V.
Nom. Voc. ae , a s; a, ia s, ua s
Gen. rum rum um, ium uum rum
Dat. Abl. s s ibus ubus, ibus bus
Acc. s s, a s, s; a, ia s, ua s
Grammatical Appendix 5

33. General Rules of Declension.

a. The vocative is like the nominative, except in the singular of the second declension, when the nominative
ends in us.
b. In the third, fourth, and fi ft h declensions the nominative, accusative, and vocative cases are alike in the
plural.
c. Neuter substantives have the nominative, accusative, and vocative alike; in the plural these cases always
end in a.
d. The dative and ablative plural are alike in all declensions.

First Declension
34. The stem ends in . The nominative-vocative singular is the simple stem with shortened stem vowel and no
case ending.
Sg. Nom. terra, f; (a, the) land Pl. terrae, (the) lands
Gen. terrae, of (a, the) land, (a, the) terrrum, of (the) lands, (the)
lands lands
Dat. terrae, to, for (a, the) land terrs, to, for (the) lands
Acc. terram, (a, the) land terrs, to, for (the) lands
Voc. terra, O land! land! terrae, O lands! lands!
Abl. terr, from, with, by, in, on, at terrs, from, with, by, in, on, at
(a, the) land (the) lands

a. The locative singular of the fi rst declension is like the genitive: Rmae, at Rome; mlitiae, abroad (i. e.,
engaged in warfare).
b. The genitive singular sometimes ends in in poetry; the genitive plural sometimes takes the form um
instead of rum.
c. The ending bus is found (along with the regular ending) in the dative and ablative plural of dea, goddess,
and flia, daughter.
35. Rule of Gender. Nouns of the fi rst declension are feminine, except when they refer to males.

Second Declension
36. The stem ends in o, which in the classical period usually becomes u. In combination with the case endings
it frequently disappears altogether. In the vocative singular (except in neuters) it becomes e.
a. The nominative ends in s (m., f.) and m (n.). But many masculine stems in which the original fi nal vowel,
o, was preceded by r have dropped the us of the nominative and the e of the vocative, and inserted e be-
fore the r, if it was preceded by a consonant; thus original pueros became puer, boy, and libros became
liber, book.
b. The fi nal o was often retained after u or v until the fi rst century a.d.; as servos, slave.
6 Vergils Aeneid

37. Animus, spirit; puer, boy; vir, man; bellum, war, are declined as follows:
Sg. Nom. animus, m. puer, m. vir, m. bellum, n.
Gen. anim puer vir bell
Dat. anim puer vir bell
Acc. animum puerum virum bellum
Voc. anime puer vir bellum
Abl. anim puer vir bell

Pl. Nom. anim puer vir bella

Gen. animrum puerrum virrum bellrum
Dat. anims puers virs bells
Acc. anims puers virs bella
Voc. anim puer vir bella
Abl. anims puers virs bells

a. Words in ius (ium) have the genitive singular for the most part in until the fi rst century a.d.; without
change of accent: ingen (nom., ingenium), of genius; Vergil, of Vergil.
b. Proper names in ius have the vocative in , without change of accent: Antn, Tull, G, Vergil.
Flius, son, and genius, genius, form their vocative in like manner: fl, gen. In solemn discourse us of
the nominative is employed also for the vocative. So regularly deus, O god!
c. The locative singular ends in like the genitive, as Rhod, at Rhodes; Tarent, at Tarentum.
d. In the genitive plural um instead of rum is often found.
e. The locative plural is identical with the ablative: Delphs, at Delphi.
f. The declension of deus, m., god, is irregular:
Sg. Nom. deus Pl. d, de, di
Gen. de derum, deum
Dat. de ds, des, dis
Acc. deum des
Voc. deus d, de, di
Abl. de ds, des, dis

38. Rule of Gender. Nouns of the second declension ending in us or r are masculine; in um neuter.
a. Exceptions. Feminine are: (1) cities and islands, as Corinthus, Samus; (2) most trees, as fgus, beech;
pirus, pear tree; (3) alvus, belly; colus, distaff; humus, ground; vannus, wheat fan; (4) many Greek nouns,
as atomus, atom.
Neuters are: pelagus, sea; vrus, venom; vulgus, the rabble.

Third Declension
39. The stem ends in a consonant or in the close vowels (or semivowels) i and . The stems are divided according
to their last letter, called the stem characteristic:
Grammatical Appendix 7

I. Consonant Stems
1. Liquid stems, ending in l, m, n, r.
2. Sibilant stems, ending in s.
a. Ending in b, p.
3. Mute stems
{ b. Ending in g, c.
c. Ending in d, t.

II. i-Stems
40. 1. The nominative singular, masculine and feminine, case ending is s, which, however, is dropped after l,
n, r, s, and combines with c or g to form x. In the other cases, the endings are added to the unchanged
stem. The vocative of the third declension is always like the nominative.
2. Neuters always form the nominative without the addition of a case ending and the accusative and voca-
tive cases in both numbers are like the nominative. The nominative plural ends in a.

I. Consonant Stems
41. 1. Liquid Stems in l
Form the nominative without the case ending s. These comprise:
a. Those in which the stem characteristic is preceded by a vowel; thus:
Sg. Nom. cnsul, m., consul Pl. cnsuls, consuls
Gen. cnsulis cnsulum
Dat. cnsul cnsulibus
Acc. cnsulem cnsuls
Voc. cnsul cnsuls
Abl. cnsule cnsulibus

b. Two neuter substantives with stems in ll, one of which is lost in the nominative: mel, mellis, honey; fel,
fellis, gall.
42. Rules of Gender. Th ird declension nouns having their stems in l are regularly masculine; those having
stems in ll are neuter.
43. 2. Liquid Stems in n
Most masculine and feminine stems form the nominative singular by dropping the stem characteristic and
changing a preceding vowel to o. Some masculine and most neuter stems retain the stem characteristic in
the nominative and change a preceding i to e.
Masculine Neuter
Sg. Nom. serm, m., conversation hom, m., man nmen, n., name
Gen. sermnis hominis nminis
Dat. sermn homin nmin
Acc. sermnem hominem nmen
Voc. serm hom nmen
Abl. sermne homine nmine
8 Vergils Aeneid

Pl. Nom. sermns homins nmina

Gen. sermnum hominum nminum
Dat. sermnibus hominibus nminibus
Acc. sermns homins nmina
Voc. sermns homins nmina
Abl. sermnibus hominibus nminibus

44. Rules of Gender.

1. Th ird declension nouns ending in are masculine, except those ending in d, g, and i, which are
mostly feminine.
2. Th ird declension nouns in en (men) are regularly neuter.
45. 3. Liquid Stems in r
Form nominative without s.
Sg. Nom. soror, f., sister pater, m., father
Gen. sorris patris
Dat. sorr patr
Acc. sorrem patrem
Voc. soror pater
Abl. sorre patre

Pl. Nom. sorrs patrs

Gen. sorrum patrum
Dat. sorribus patribus
Acc. sorrs patrs
Voc. sorrs patrs
Abl. sorribus patribus

a. Imber, shower; linter, skiff; ter, bag; venter, belly, have the genitive plural in ium. Imber has also some-
times the ablative singular in .
46. Rules of Gender.
1. Th ird declension nouns in er and or are usually masculine.
2. Th ird declension nouns in ar and ur are neuter.
47. 4. Sibilant Stems
The nominative has no additional s, and in masculines changes e to i, and in neuters e or o to u before s.
In the oblique cases, the s of the stem usually passes over, between two vowels, into r.
Sg. Nom. Acc. Voc. genus, n., kind corpus, n., body
Gen. generis corporis
Dat. gener corpor
Abl. genere corpore

Pl. Nom. Acc. Voc. genera corpora

Gen. generum corporum
Dat. Abl. generibus corporibus
Grammatical Appendix 9

48. Rules of Gender.

1. Masculine are third declension nouns in is (eris), and s (ris).
2. Neuter are third declension nouns in us (eris, oris) and in s (ris).

49. 5. Mute Stems

All masculines and feminines of mute stems have s in the nominative. Before s a p or b is retained, a c or g
combines with it to form x, a t or d is dropped.
a. Most polysyllabic mute stems change their stem vowel i to e in the nominative.
50. Stems in p or b
Sg. Nom. princeps, m., leader Pl. princips
Gen. principis principum
Dat. princip principibus
Acc. principem princips
Voc. princeps princips
Abl. principe principibus
51. Stems in c or g
Sg. Nom. dux, m., leader Pl. ducs
Gen. ducis ducum
Dat. duc ducibus
Acc. ducem ducs
Voc. dux ducs
Abl. duce ducibus
52. Stems in t or d
Sg. Nom. comes, m., f., companion Pl. comits
Gen. comitis comitum
Dat. comit comitibus
Acc. comitem comits
Voc. comes comits
Abl. comite comitibus

Sg. Nom. pes, m., foot Pl. peds

Gen. pedis pedum
Dat. ped pedibus
Acc. pedem peds
Voc. pes peds
Abl. pede pedibus

Sg. Nom. caput, n., head Pl. capita

Gen. capitis capitum
Dat. capit capitibus
Acc. caput capita
Voc. caput capita
Abl. capite capitibus
10 Vergils Aeneid

a. The following mute stems have certain irregular forms: cor (gen. cordis), heart; nox (gen. noctis), night;
lac (gen. lactis), milk.
53. Monosyllabic mute stems, with the characteristic preceded by a consonant, have the genitive plural in ium:
urbium, of cities; arcium, of citadels; montium, of mountains; noctium, of nights.
a. Monosyllabic mute stems, with characteristic preceded by a long vowel or diphthong, vary: dtium, of
dowries; ltium, of lawsuits; faucium, of throats; fraudum (ium), of frauds; laudum (ium), of praises; but
vcum, of voices.
b. Most monosyllabic stems with characteristic preceded by a short vowel have um: opum, of resources; but
fac-ium, of torches; nuc-um (ium), of nuts; niv-ium (um), of snows.
c. Polysyllabic stems in nt and rt have more frequently ium, as clientium (um), of clients; cohortium (um),
of companies.
d. Polysyllabic feminine stems in t have either um or ium, as aettum or aettium, of ages; civittum or
civittium, of states; the rest have usually um. Pals, marsh, has usually paldium.
54. Rule of Gender. Mute stems, with nominative in s, are usually feminine.

II. i-Stems
55. Masculines and feminines form their nominative in s.
a. Some feminines change the stem vowel i to in the nominative.
b. Neuters change the stem vowel i to e in the nominative. Th is e is generally dropped after l and r in poly-
syllabic neuters.
c. Stems in i have genitive plural in ium.
d. Neuter stems in i have the ablative singular in and nominative plural in ia.
56. Sg. Nom. hostis, m., enemy mare, n., sea animal, n., living being
Gen. hostis maris animlis
Dat. host mar animl
Acc. hostem mare animal
Voc. hostis mare animal
Abl. host mar animl

Pl. Nom. hosts maria animlia

Gen. hostium marium animlium
Dat. hostibus maribus animlibus
Acc. hosts maria animlia
Voc. hosts maria animlia
Abl. hostibus maribus animlibus

a. The accusative singular ending im is found always in sitis, thirst; tussis, cough; vs, strength; and in names
of towns and rivers in is, as Nepolis, Naples; Tiberis, Tiber; usually in febris, fever; puppis, stern of ship;
restis, cable; secris, ax; turris, tower; occasionally in clvis, key; crtis, hurdle; cutis, skin; messis,
harvest; navis, ship.
Grammatical Appendix 11

b. The ablative in is found in i-stem nouns that regularly have im in the accusative (except perhaps restis,
rope, cable); also not infrequently in amnis, river; avis, bird; canlis, canal; cvis, citizen; classis, fleet;
fnis, end; fstis, club; ignis, fire; orbis, circle; unguis, claw; occasionally in anguis, snake; blis, bile;
clvis, key; collis, hill; corbis, basket; messis, harvest; regularly in neuters in e, al, and ar, except in rte,
net; and in the proper nouns Caere, Praeneste.
c. In the genitive plural instead of the ending ium, um is found always in canis, dog; juvenis, young man;
pnis, bread; snex, old man; strus, heap; volucris, bird; usually in apis, bee; sds, seat; vts, bard;
frequently in mnsis, month.
d. The accusative plural ending s is found frequently in the classical period along with s.
57. Rule of Gender.
a. i-stems, with nominative in s, are feminine, unless they refer to males; those with nominative in is are
partly masculine, partly feminine.
b. i-stems, with nominative in e, al, ar, are neuter.
c. The rest are feminine.

Fourth Declension
58. The fourth declension embraces only dissyllabic and polysyllabic stems in u.
a. The endings are the same as those of i-stems of the third declension.
b. In the genitive and ablative singular, and in the nominative, accusative, and vocative plural (sometimes,
too, in the dative singular), the u of the stem absorbs the vowel of the ending, and becomes long.
c. In the dative and ablative plural u generally becomes i before the ending bus.
59. Masculine Neuter
Sg. Nom. csus, m., chance corn, n., horn
Gen. css corns
Dat. csu (cs) corn
Acc. csum corn
Voc. css corn
Abl. cs corn

Pl. Nom. css cornua

Gen. csuum cornuum
Dat. csibus cornibus
Acc. css cornua
Voc. css cornua
Abl. csibus cornibus

60. Domus, f., house, is declined: sg. gen. doms; dat. domu; acc. domum; voc. domus; abl. dom; loc. dom
(domu); pl. nom. doms; gen. domrum; dat.abl. domibus; acc. doms, doms.
61. Rule of Gender. Fourth declension nouns in us are generally masculine; those in are neuter.
a. But feminine are acus, needle; domus, house; ds (pl.), the ides; manus, hand; penus, victuals; porticus,
piazza; tribus, tribe.
12 Vergils Aeneid

Fifth Declension
62. The stem ends in ; the nominative in s.
a. In the genitive and dative singular the stem vowel e is shortened after a consonant.
b. The accusative singular always ends in em; 22.
c. The ending in the genitive singular is that of the second declension, ; the other endings are those of the
third declension.
63. Masculine Feminine
Sg. Nom. dis, m., f., day rs, f., thing
Gen. di (di) re
Dat. di (di) re
Acc. diem rem
Voc. dis rs
Abl. di r

Pl. Nom. dis rs

Gen. dirum rrum
Dat. dibus rbus
Acc. dis rs
Voc. dis rs
Abl. dibus rbus

a. The genitive, dative, and ablative plural are rarely found except in dis and rs.
b. Many words of the fi ft h declension have a parallel form, which follows the fi rst declension, as mollitis
or mollitia, softness. Where this is the case, forms of the fi ft h declension are usually found only in the
nominative, accusative, and ablative singular.
64. Rule of Gender. Fift h declension nouns are feminine except dis which in the singular is either masculine
or feminine, and in the plural masculine, and merdis, midday, which is always masculine.

Declension of Greek Nouns

65. Greek nouns, especially proper names, are commonly Latinized and declined regularly according to their
stem characteristic. Some Greek nouns, however, either retain their Greek form exclusively or have the
Greek and Latin forms side by side. These variations occur principally in the singular.
a. In the plural the declension is usually regular, but the third declension often shows s in the nominative
and s in the accusative. In the genitive plural the endings n and en are found in the titles of books,
as Georgicn, of the Georgics; Metamorphsen, of the Metamorphoses.
66. First Declension
Sg. Nom. Pnelop Aens Anchss
Gen. Pnelops Aenae Anchsae
Dat. Pnelopae Aenae Anchsae
Acc. Pnelopn Aenam (n) Anchsn (am)
Voc. Pnelop Aen Anchs (, a)
Abl. Pnelop Aen Anchs
Grammatical Appendix 13

67. Second Declension

Sg. Nom. Dlos (us) lion (um) Panths Androges (us)
Gen. Dl li Panth Androge (e)
Dat. Dl li Panth Androge
Acc. Dlon (um) lion (um) Panthn Androgen (, na)
Voc. Dle lion (um) Panth Androges
Abl. Dl li Panth Androge

68. Third Declension

Sg. Nom. Soln (Sol) r, air Xenophn Atls
Gen. Solnis eris Xenophntis Atlantis
Dat. Soln er Xenophnt Atlant
Acc. Solna (em) era (em) Xenophnta (em) Atlanta
Voc. Soln r Xenophn Atl
Abl. Solne ere Xenophnte Atlante

Sg. Nom. Thals Paris hrs

Gen. Thal-tis (is) Paridis (os) hris
Dat. Thal-t () Parid () hr
Acc. Thal-ta (n, em) Par-ida (im, in) hra (em)
Voc. Thal Pari (Paris) hrs
Abl. Thal Paride hre

69. Mixed Declensions

II and III II and III II and III
Sg. Nom. Orpheus Aths Oedips
Gen. Orphe () Ath (nis) Oedip-odis ()
Dat. Orphe (e) Ath Oedipid
Acc. Orpheum (ea) Ath (n, nem) Oedip-um (oda)
Voc. Orpheu Aths Oedipe
Abl. Orphe Athne Oedip-ide ()

II and III II and III II and III

Sg. Nom. Achills (eus) Scrates Dd
Gen. Achillis (e), eos Scratis () Dds (nis)
Dat. Achill Scrat Dd (n)
Acc. Achillem (ea, n) Scratn (em) Dd (nem)
Voc. Achills (, eu, e) Scrat (es) Dd
Abl. Achille, () Scrate Dd (ne)

Adjectives
70. The Adjective adds a quality to its noun or pronoun. Adjectives have the same declension as nouns, and
according to the stem characteristics are of the fi rst and second or third declension.
14 Vergils Aeneid

Adjectives of the First and Second Declension

71. Stems end in o for masculine and neuter, for feminine; nominative in us (er), a, um. The same variations in
termination occur as in nouns, except that adjectives in ius form the genitive and vocative singular regularly.
See 37, a.
M. F. N.
Sg. Nom. bonus, good bona bonum
Gen. bon bonae bon
Dat. bon bonae bon
Acc. bonum bonam bonum
Voc. bone bona bonum
Abl. bon bon bon
Pl. Nom. bon bonae bona
Gen. bonrum bonrum bonrum
Dat. bons bons bons
Acc. bons bons bona
Voc. bon bonae bona
Abl. bons bons bons

Sg. Nom. miser, wretched misera miserum

Gen. miser miserae miser
Dat. miser miserae miser
Acc. miserum miseram miserum
Voc. miser misera miserum
Abl. miser miser miser
Pl. Nom. miser miserae misera
Gen. miserrum miserrum miserrum
Dat. misers misers misers
Acc. misers misers misera
Voc. miser miserae misera
Abl. misers misers misers

Sg. Nom. pulcher, beautiful pulchra pulchrum

Gen. pulchr pulchrae pulchr
Dat. pulchr pulchrae pulchr
Acc. pulchrum pulchram pulchrum
Voc. pulcher pulchra pulchrum
Abl. pulchr pulchr pulchr
Pl. Nom. pulchr pulchrae pulchra
Gen. pulchrrum pulchrrum pulchrrum
Dat. pulchrs pulchrs pulchrs
Acc. pulchrs pulchrs pulchra
Voc. pulchr pulchrae pulchra
Abl. pulchrs pulchrs pulchrs

a. All participles ending in us, a, um, are inflected like bonus.

Grammatical Appendix 15

72. In poetry we fi nd um alongside of rum and rum in the genitive plural.

a. In the dative and ablative plural is from adjectives in ius is often contracted to s especially in names of
months and in adjectives formed from proper names.
73. The so-called Pronominal Adjectives show certain peculiarities in the genitive and dative singular. These
adjectives are: alter, one of the two; alteruter (a combination of alter and uter), either of the two; alius, other;
neuter, neither; nulls, none; slus, sole; ttus, whole; llus, any; nus, one; uter, which of the two.
74. M. F. N.
Sg. Nom. alter, one of two altera alterum
Gen. alterus alterus alterus
Dat. alter alter alter
Acc. alterum alteram alterum
Abl. alter alter alter

Sg. Nom. alius alia aliud

Gen. alus alus alus
Dat. ali ali ali
Acc. alium aliam aliud
Abl. ali ali ali

Sg. Nom. llus, any lla llum

Gen. llus llus llus
Dat. ll ll ll
Acc. llum llam llum
Abl. ll ll ll

Sg. Nom. uter utra utrum

Gen. utrus utrus utrus
Dat. utr utr utr
Acc. utrum utram utrum
Abl. utr utr utr

Like uter is declined neuter; like llus are declined nllus, slus, ttus, nus. The plural is regular.
a. The genitive alus is very rare, and its place is usually taken by alterus or alinus.
b. The i of the ending us (except in alus) is often shortened in poetry. Th is is usually the case with alter,
and regularly in the compounds of uter; as utriusque.
c. In the compound alteruter we usually fi nd both parts declined; sometimes the second only.
d. Alius has its nominative and accusative singular neuter irregularly aliud.
Adjectives of the Third Declension
75. The declension of the adjectives of the third declension follows the rules given for nouns. Most adjectives of
the third declension are vowel stems in i, with two (rarely three) endings in the nominative. The remaining
adjectives of the third declension are consonant stems and have one ending only in the nominative.
16 Vergils Aeneid

Adjectives of Two or Three Endings

76. These have (except stems in ri) one ending in the nominative for masculine and feminine, one for neuter.
Most stems in i form the masculine and feminine alike, with nominative in s; but the nominative neuter
weakens the characteristic i into e. Compare mare, sea.
a. Several stems in i, preceded by r (cr, tr, br), form the nominative masculine, not by affi xing s, but by drop-
ping the i and inserting short e before the r, as, stem, cri, sharp; nom., cer (m.), cris (f.), cre (n.).
77. M., F. N.
Sg. Nom. omnis, all omne
Gen. omnis omnis
Dat. omn omn
Acc. omnem omne
Voc. omnis omne
Abl. omn omn

Pl. Nom. omns omnia

Gen. omnium omnium
Dat. omnibus omnibus
Acc. omns (s) omnia
Voc. omns omnia
Abl. omnibus omnibus

M. F. N.
Sg. Nom. cer, sharp cris cre
Gen. cris cris cris
Dat. cr cr cr
Acc. crem crem cre
Voc. cer cris cre
Abl. cr cr cr

Pl. Nom. crs crs cria

Gen. crium crium crium
Dat. cribus cribus cribus
Acc. crs (s) crs (s) cria
Voc. crs crs cria
Abl. cribus cribus cribus

Adjectives of One Ending

78. Adjective stems of one ending (consonant stems) end with l, r, s; p, b; t, d; c, g.
79. Present active participles are also consonant stems and follow the same declension.
80. The consonant stem adjectives have the same forms in all the genders, except that in the accusative singular
and in the nominative, accusative, and vocative plural, the neuter is distinguished from the masculine and
feminine.
81. Consonant stem adjectives follow in part the declension of i-stem nouns; thus:
1. In the ablative singular they have or e; when used as nouns, commonly e.
a. The participles, as such, have e; but used as nouns or adjectives either e or , with a tendency to .
Grammatical Appendix 17

2. In the neuter plural they have ia; except all comparatives (91), vetus, old, and ber, fertile, which have
vetera and bera. Many have no neuter.
3. In the genitive plural they have ium, when the stem characteristic is preceded by a long vowel or a con-
sonant; um, when the characteristic is preceded by a short vowel. The participles regularly have ium.
82. M., F. N. M., F. N.
Sg. Nom. flx, lucky flx Sg. recns, recent recns
Gen. flcis flcis recentis recentis
Dat. flc flc recent recent
Acc. flcem flx recentem recns
Voc. flx flx recns recns
Abl. flc (e) flc (e) recent (e) recent (e)

Pl. Nom. flcs flcia Pl. recents recentia

Gen. flcium flcium recentium recentium
Dat. flcibus flcibus recentibus recentibus
Acc. flcs (s) flcia recents (s) recentia
Voc. flcs flcia recents recentia
Abl. flcibus flcibus recentibus recentibus

M., F. N. M., F. N.
Sg. Nom. vetus, old vetus Sg. amns, loving amns
Gen. veteris veteris amantis amantis
Dat. veter veter amant amant
Acc. veterem vetus amantem amns
Voc. vetus vetus amns amns
Abl. vetere () vetere () amante () amante ()

Pl. Nom. veters vetera Pl. amants amantia

Gen. veterum veterum amantium amantium
Dat. veteribus veteribus amantibus amantibus
Acc. veters (s) vetera amants (s) amantia
Voc. veters vetera amants amantia
Abl. veteribus veteribus amantibus amantibus

a. In the poets, e is often found for in the ablative singular. Also in classical prose we fi nd regularly paupere,
poor; vetere, old; and frequently dvite, rich; sapiente, wise.
b. In the nominative and accusative plural s for s belongs to early Latin and the poets, but a few cases of
this accusative are found in Cicero. In the case of participles s is very common, and is the rule in Vergil
and Horace.
c. In the genitive plural cicur, tame; vetus, old; dves, rich, have um instead of ium; so also many compound
adjectives.
d. In the poets and in later writers, um is not infrequently found where classical prose uses ium.
Comparison of Adjectives
83. The Degrees of Comparison are: positive, comparative, and superlative.
84. The Comparative is formed by adding to the consonant stems the endings ior for the masculine and
feminine, and ius for the neuter.
18 Vergils Aeneid

85. The Superlative is formed by adding to the consonant stems the endings issimus, a, um (earlier issumus).
86. Vowel stems, before forming the comparative and superlative, drop their characteristic vowel.
87. Positive Comparative Superlative
altus, a, um, high altior, ius, higher altissimus, a, um, highest
fortis, e, brave fortior, ius, braver fortissimus, bravest
flx, happy flcior, ius, happier flcissimus, happiest
recns, recent recentior, ius, more recent recentissimus, most recent

88. Peculiarities of Comparison. Adjectives in er add the superlative ending rimus directly to the nominative
masculine. The comparative has the regular formation. See 84.
89. Positive Comparative Superlative
miser, era, erum, wretched miserior, miserius miserrimus
celer, eris, ere, swift celerior, celerius celerrimus
cer, cris, cre, sharp crior, crius cerrimus

a. Six adjectives in ilis add limus (earlier lumus) to the stem, after dropping i, to form the superlative:
facilis, easy; difficilis, hard; similis, like; dissimilis, unlike; gracilis, slender; and humilis, low.
Pos. facilis Comp. facilior, ius Sup. facillimus, a, um
90. Participles used as adjectives are subject also to the same laws of comparison: as amns, loving; amantior,
more loving; amantissimus, most loving; apertus, open; apertior, apertissimus.
91. The superlative follows the declension of adjectives of three endings of the fi rst and second declensions; 71.
The comparative is declined according to the third declension, thus:
M., F. N. M., F. N.
Sg. Nom. altior, higher altius Pl. altirs altira
Gen. altiris altiris altirum altirum
Dat. altir altir altiribus altiribus
Acc. altirem altius altirs (s) altira
Voc. altior altius altirs altira
Abl. altire () altire () altiribus altiribus

92. Irregular Comparison. Certain adjectives are irregular in their comparison:

Positive Comparative Superlative
bonus, good melior, melius optimus
malus, bad peior, peius pessimus
magnus, great maior, maius maximus
parvus, small minor, minus minimus
multus, much Sg. pls (no dat. nor abl.) plrimus
Pl. plres, plra
complres, complra (ia)
nequam, worthless nequior, nequius nequissimus
frg (indecl.), fr ugal frglior frglissimus
Grammatical Appendix 19

a. For the pronunciation of maior and peior = maiior, peiior, see 6, b.

b. The older form of the superlative ended in umus.

Adverbs
93. Most adverbs are either oblique cases or mutilated forms of oblique cases of adjectival, nominal or pronomi-
nal stems.
94. The cases from which they are derived are principally the accusative and the ablative.

Adverbs Formed from Adjectives

95. Many adverbs are formed from the ablative case of adjectives in us: tt, safely; prm, at first.
a. Many adverbs are formed from an old ablative form () of adjectives in us and er: alt, loftily; pulchr,
beautifully.
b. Many adverbs are formed from accusative singular neuter adjectival and pronominal stems: multum,
much; facile, easily. Th is is true of all comparatives: facilius, more easily. To the comparatives belong also
magis, more; nimis, too.
c. Adverbs are regularly formed from adjectives and participles of the third declension by the addition of
ter (iter) to the stem; stems in nt dropping the t, and stems in c or g inserting the connecting vowel i
before the ending: fortiter, bravely; ferciter, wildly; prdenter, prudently.
Comparison of Adverbs
96. The comparative of the adverb is the accusative neuter of the comparative of the adjective. See 95, b. The
superlative ends in issim, errim, illim (earlier issum, errum, illum), or irregularly, according to
the superlative of the adjective. See 87, 88, 89, 92.
97. Positive Comparative Superlative
alt, loftily altius altissim
pulchr, beautifully pulchrius pulcherrim
miser, poorly miserius miserrim
fortiter, bravely fortius fortissim
audcter, boldly audcius audcissim
tt, safely ttius ttissim
facile, easily facilius facillim
bene, well melius optim
male, ill peius pessim
[parvus], small minus, less minim, least
[magnus], great magis, more maxim, most
multum, much pls, more plrimum
cit, quickly citius citissim
di, long ditius ditissim
saepe, often saepius saepissim
nper, recently nperrim
satis, enough satius, better
20 Vergils Aeneid

Numerals
Numeral Adjectives
98. The Cardinal Numerals, as nus, one; duo, two; decem, ten, answer the question quot, how many? and are
the numbers used in counting.
a. The Ordinal Numerals, as prmus (nus), first; secundus (alter), second; decimus, tenth, answer the
question quotus, which one in the series?
99. The cardinal numerals are indeclinable, except: nus, one; duo, two; trs, three; the hundreds beginning
with ducent, two hundred; and the plural mlia, thousands, which forms mlium and mlibus.
M. F. N. M., F. N.
Nom. duo, two duae duo trs, three tria
Gen. durum durum durum trium trium
Dat. dubus dubus dubus tribus tribus
Acc. dus, duo dus duo trs (trs) tria
Abl. dubus dubus dubus tribus tribus

a. For the declension of nus see 7374.

100. The Distributive Numerals, as singul, one each; bn, two each; dn, ten each, answer the question
quotn, how many each?
101. Numeral Adverbs, as semel, once; bis, twice; ter, thrice, answer the question quotins, how often?

Pronouns
102. A Pronoun is a word that may be substituted for a noun. Latin pronouns may be divided into six classes:
personal (including reflexive), demonstrative, intensive, relative, interrogative, and indefi nite.
a. All but the personal pronouns may be used as pronominal adjectives.
b. The possessive adjectives are often classified as possessive pronouns.

A. Personal Pronouns
103. The Personal Pronoun of the First Person.
Sg. Nom. ego, I Pl. ns, we
Gen. me, of me nostr, nostrum, of us
Dat. mih (m), to, for me nbs, to, for us
Acc. m, me ns, us
Abl. m, from, with, by me nbs, from, with, by us

a. Compare the corresponding possessive adjectives:

Sg. meus, a, um, (voc. m., m), Pl. noster, nostra, nostrum,
mine, my own our(s), our own

b. The oblique cases of ego may also be used with reflexive force: me, of myself, etc.
Grammatical Appendix 21

104. The Personal Pronoun of the Second Person.

Sg. Nom. t, you Pl. vs, you
Gen. tu, of you vestr, vestrum, of you
Dat. tib, to, for you vbs, to, for you
Acc. t, you vs, you
Abl. t, from, with, by you vbs, from, with, by you

a. Compare the corresponding possessive adjectives:

Sg. tuus, a, um, your(s), your own Pl. vester, vestra, vestrum, your(s), your own

b. The oblique cases of t may also be used with reflexive force: tu, of yourself, etc.
105. The Personal Pronouns of the Th ird Person.
a. Is, ea, id, he, she, it, 107, used also as a demonstrative, this, that, is the ordinary form of the third personal
pronoun. It lacks the possessive adjective.
b. The original personal pronoun of the third person, together with its possessive, is used only as a reflexive
in Latin, and therefore lacks a nominative. See 106.
106. The Personal (Reflexive) Pronoun of the Th ird Person.
Sg. Nom. Pl.
Gen. su, of him(self), her(self), it(self) su, of them(selves)
Dat. sib, to, for him(self), her(self), it(self) sib, to, for them(selves)
Acc. s, ss, him(self), her(self), it(self) s, ss, them(selves)
Abl. s, ss, from, with, by him(self), s, ss, from, with, by
her(self), it(self) them(selves)

a. Compare the corresponding possessive adjective, suus, a, um, his (own), her (own), its (own); their (own),
theirs.
b. The enclitic met is sometimes added to certain forms of the personal pronouns; as egomet, I myself.
c. The enclitic pte is sometimes added to the ablative singular of the possessive adjective; as supte
ingeni, by his own genius.
107. B. Demonstrative Pronouns
1. is, this, that; he, she, it
M. F. N.
Sg. Nom. is ea id
Gen. eius eius eius
Dat. e e e
Acc. eum eam id
Abl. e e e

Pl. Nom. i, e, eae ea

Gen. erum erum erum
Dat. is, es, s is, es, s is, es, s
Acc. es es ea
Abl. is, es, s is, es, s is, es, s
22 Vergils Aeneid

a. For the pronunciation of eius ( = eiius) see 6, b.

b. Th is pronoun is often used as a third personal pronoun, he, she, it; 105, a.
2. dem, (is + dem), the same
M. F. N.
Sg. Nom. dem eadem idem
Gen. eiusdem eiusdem eiusdem
Dat. edem edem edem
Acc. eundem eandem idem
Abl. edem edem edem

Pl. Nom. dem, edem, idem eaedem eadem

Gen. erundem erundem erundem
Dat. sdem, esdem, isdem sdem, esdem, isdem sdem, esdem, isdem
Acc. esdem esdem eadem
Abl. sdem, esdem, isdem sdem, esdem, isdem sdem, esdem, isdem

a. For the pronunciation of eiusdem = eiiusdem, see 6, b.

3. hic, this
M. F. N.
Sg. Nom. hic haec hoc
Gen. huius huius huius
Dat. huic huic huic
Acc. hunc hanc hoc
Abl. hc hc hc

Pl. Nom. h hae haec

Gen. hrum hrum hrum
Dat. hs hs hs
Acc. hs hs haec
Abl. hs hs hs

a. For the pronunciation of huius = huiius, see 6, b.

b. The full forms with ce are rare in classical Latin, except in the phrase huiusce mod, of this kind.
c. When followed by a word which begins with a vowel or h, the nominative singular of the masculine, hic,
and the nominative and accusative singular of the neuter, hoc, are usually pronounced as though spelled
hicc, hocc, making these syllables long by position; 15.
Grammatical Appendix 23

4. iste, that (of yours)

M. F. N.
Sg. Nom. iste ista istud
Gen. istus istus istus
Dat. ist ist ist
Acc. istum istam istud
Abl. ist ist ist

Pl. Nom. ist istae ista

Gen. istrum istrum istrum
Dat. ists ists ists
Acc. ists ists ista
Abl. ists ists ists

a. Iste combines with ce, but in classical Latin the only common forms are istuc (for istud) and istaec
(for ista).
5. ille, that
M. F. N.
Sg. Nom. ille illa illud
Gen. illus illus illus
Dat. ill ill ill
Acc. illum illam illud
Abl. ill ill ill

Pl. Nom. ill illae illa

Gen. illrum illrum illrum
Dat. ills ills ills
Acc. ills ills illa
Abl. ills ills ills

108. C. The Intensive Pronoun

ipse, self
M. F. N.
Sg. Nom. ipse ipsa ipsum
Gen. ipsus ipsus ipsus
Dat. ips ips ips
Acc. ipsum ipsam ipsum
Abl. ips ips ips

Pl. Nom. ips ipsae ipsa

Gen. ipsrum ipsrum ipsrum
Dat. ipss ipss ipss
Acc. ipss ipss ipsa
Abl. ipss ipss ipss
24 Vergils Aeneid

109. D. The Relative Pronoun

qu, who
M. F. N.
Sg. Nom. qu quae quod
Gen. cuius cuius cuius
Dat. cui cui cui
Acc. quem quam quod
Abl. qu qu qu

Pl. Nom. qu quae quae

Gen. qurum qurum qurum
Dat. quibus quibus quibus
Acc. qus qus quae
Abl. quibus quibus quibus

a. For the pronunciation of cuius = cuiius, see 6, b.

b. Qu may also be used as a relative adjective.
c. The dative-ablative plural qus is common in the poets at all periods and occurs also occasionally in prose
writers.
d. The ablative singular qu for all genders is the prevalent form in early times; and in combination with
cum, as qucum, with whom, is preferred to qu, qu, by Cicero.
110. General Relatives are:
Pronoun quisquis, whoever
quidquid, quicquid, whatever
Adjective ququ, quaequae, quodquod, whatsoever
qucumque, quaecumque, quodcumque, whichever

111. E. The Interrogative Pronoun

Pronoun quis? who? quid? what?
Adjective qu? quae? quod? which?
Pron. and Adj. uter? utra? utrum? who? which of two?

M., F. N.
Sg. Nom. quis? quid?
Gen. cuius? cuius?
Dat. cui? cui?
Acc. quem? quid?
Abl. qu? qu?

a. The plural of the interrogative pronoun and both numbers of the interrogative adjective coincide with
the forms of the relative qu, quae, quod.
Grammatical Appendix 25

112. F. Strengthened Interrogatives

Pronoun quisnam? who, pray quidnam? what, pray?
ecquis? (is there) anyone ecquid? (is there) anything?
Adjective qunam? quaenam? quondam? which, pray?
ecqu? ecqua? (ecquae?) ecquod? is there any?

113. G. The Indefinite Pronoun

aliquis aliqua (rare) aliquid, somebody, someone or other, anybody
quis qua quid, someone, anyone

a. The adjective forms are aliqu, aliqua, aliquod, some, any; qu, quae (qua), quod, some, any.
114. The declension of the pronominal adjectives has been given, 7374. They are: llus, a, um, any; nllus, a,
um, no one, not one; alius, a, ud, another; alter, era, erum, the other, one (of two); neuter, tra, trum, neither
of two; amb, ae, , both. The corresponding substantives for nllus and nllum are nm and nihil, the
latter of which forms only nihil (gen.) and nihil (abl.) and those only in certain combinations.
a. Some of the more important compounds of these adjectives are:
nnnllus, a, um, some, many a, declined like nllus.
alteruter, alterutra, alterutrum, the one or the other of the two
uterque, utraque, utrumque, each of two, either
utervis, utravis, utrumvis, whichever you please of the two
uterlibet, utralibet, utrumlibet, whichever you please of the two

The Verb
115. The inflection given to the verbal stem is called conjugation and expresses:
1. Person: First, Second, Th ird.
2. Voice: Active, Passive, Middle.
a. The active voice denotes that the action proceeds from the subject: par, I prepare. The passive voice
denotes that the subject receives the action of the verb: paror, I am prepared. The middle voice has
passive form and denotes the subject as acting either for itself or upon itself (reflexive) as: paror, I
prepare (for) myself. Th is is chiefly a poetic usage.
3. Tense: Present, Imperfect, Future, Perfect, Pluperfect, Future Perfect.
4. Mood: Indicative, Subjunctive, Imperative.
a. The indicative is the mood of the fact: par, I prepare. The subjunctive is the mood of the wish, com-
mand, or qualified statement: parem, may I prepare, I may prepare; paret, may he prepare, let him
prepare; s paret, if he should prepare. The imperative is the mood of command: par, prepare!
26 Vergils Aeneid

Conjugation
116. The stem of a verb is variously modified, either by change of vowel or by addition of suffi xes, and appears in
the following forms:
1. The Present Stem: being the stem of the present, imperfect, and future tenses. These forms are called
the present system.
2. The Perfect Stem: being the stem of the perfect, pluperfect, and future perfect tenses of the active. These
forms are called the perfect system.
3. The Perfect Passive Participial Stem: which is used to form the perfect, pluperfect and future perfect
tenses of the passive and also the future active and perfect passive participles, infi nitives, and the supine.
These forms are called the participial system.
117. 1. The perfect, pluperfect, and future perfect tenses in the passive voice are formed by the combination of
the perfect passive participle with forms of the verb sum, be, exist.
2. The future passive infi nitive is formed by the combination of the supine with the present passive infi ni-
tive of e, go.
3. The infi nite parts of the verb are formed by the addition of the following endings to the present, perfect,
or participial stem:
ACTIVE PASSIVE
Infinitive Pres. re r,
Perf. isse us (a, um) esse
Fut. rus (a, um) esse um r
Participles Pres. ns (Gen. ntis)
Perf. us (a, um)
Fut. rus (a, um)

Gerund Gerundive Supine

nd, (d, dum, d) ndus (a, um) um,
Grammatical Appendix 27

The Verb sum, be, exist

Principal Parts: sum, esse, fu
118. INDICATIVE 119. SUBJUNCTIVE
present
Sg. 1. sum, I am sim1
2. es, you are ss
3. est, he, she, it is sit

Pl. 1. sumus, we are smus

2. estis, you are stis
3. sunt, they are sint

imperfect
Sg. 1. eram, I was essem (forem)
2. ers, you were esss (fors)
3. erat, he was esset (foret)

Pl. 1. ermus, we were essmus (formus)

2. ertis, you were esstis (fortis)
3. erant, they were essent (forent)

future
Sg. 1. er, I shall be
2. eris, you will be
3. erit, he will be
(lacking)
Pl. 1. erimus, we shall be
2. eritis, you will be
3. erunt, they will be

perfect
Sg. 1. fu, I have been, I was fuerim
2. fuist, you have been, you were fuers
3. fuit, he has been, he was fuerit

Pl. 1. fuimus, we have been, we were fuermus

2. fuistis, you have been, you were fuertis
3. furunt, fure, they have been, they were fuerint

pluperfect
Sg. 1 fueram, I had been fuissem
2. fuers, you had been fuisss
3. fuerat, he had been fuisset

Pl. 1. fuermus, we had been fuissmus

2. fuertis, you had been fuisstis
3. fuerant, they had been fuissent
1
The meaning of the subjunctive varies greatly, according to its use, and is best learned from the sections
on syntax.
28 Vergils Aeneid

future perfect
Sg. 1. fuer, I shall have been
2.fueris, you will have been
3. fuerit, he will have been
(lacking)
Pl. 1. fuerimus, we shall have been
2.fueritis, you will have been
3. fuerint, they will have been

120. IMPERATIVE
Present Future
Sg. 1. Pl. Sg. 1. Pl.
2. es, be este, be est, you shall be estte, you shall be
3. est, he shall be sunt, they shall be

121. INFINITIVE
Pres. esse, to be
Perf. fuisse, to have been
Fut. futrus (a, um) esse, fore, to be
about to be

122. PARTICIPLES
Pres. only in the compounds absens, absent, praesens,
present (79)
Fut. futrus, a, um, to be about to be (71, a)

123. Compounds of sum

absum, be away, absent. Perf. (abfu) fu, Pres. Part. absens, absent.
adsum, be present. Perf. aff u (adfu)
dsum, be wanting
insum, be in
intersum, be between
obsum, be against, hurt. Perf. obfu (off u)
possum, be able
praesum, be over, superintend. Pres. Part. praesens, present
prsum, be for, profit
subsum, be under. No Perf.
supersum, be or remain, over.
These are all inflected like sum, but prsum and possum require special treatment by reason of their
composition.
Grammatical Appendix 29

124. Prsum, profit

In the forms of prsum, prd is used before vowels, thus:
INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE
Pres. prsum, prdes, prdest; prsim
prsumus, prdestis, prsunt
Imperf. prderam prdessem
Fut. prder
Perf. prfu prfuerim
Pluperf. prfueram prfuissem
Fut. Perf. prfuer

INFINITIVE
Pres. prdesse; Fut. prfutrum esse (prfore); Perf. prfuisse.

125. Possum, be able, can

Possum is compounded of pot (potis, pote) and sum; t becomes s before s. The perfect forms and the present
participle are from an old form pote, potre.
INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE
present
Sg. 1. possum, I am able, can possim
2. potes posss
3. potest possit

Pl. 1. possumus possmus

2. potestis posstis
3. possunt possint

imperfect
Sg. 1. poteram, I was able, could possem
2. poters posss
3. poterat posset

Pl. 1. potermus possmus

2. potertis posstis
3. poterant possent

future
Sg. 1. poter, I shall be able
2. poteris
3. poterit
(lacking)
Pl. 1. poterimus
2. poteritis
3. poterunt
30 Vergils Aeneid

perfect
Sg. 1. potu, I have been able potuerim
2. potuist potuers
3. potuit potuerit

Pl. 1. potuimus potuermus

2. potuistis potuertis
3. poturunt, re potuerint

pluperfect
Sg. 1. potueram, I had been able potuissem
2. potuers potuisss
3. potuerat potuisset

Pl. 1. potuermus potuissmus

2. potuertis potuisstis
3. potuerant potuissent

future perfect
Sg. 1. potuer, I shall have been able
2. potueris
3. potuerit
(lacking)
Pl. 1. potuerimus
2. potueritis
3. potuerint

INFINITIVE PARTICIPLE
Pres. posse Pres. potns (79)
Perf. potuisse

Regular Verbs
Systems of Conjugation
126. 1. There are two systems of conjugation, the vowel and the consonant. The consonant system is confi ned to
a small class. The vowel system comprises four conjugations, distinguished by the vowel characteristics
of the present stem, , , e, , which may be found by dropping re from the present infi nitive active. The
consonant preceding the short vowel stem characteristic is called the consonant stem characteristic.
2. From the present stem, as seen in the present indicative and present infi nitive active; from the perfect
stem, as seen in the perfect indicative active; and from the perfect passive participial stem, can be derived
all forms of the verb. These forms are accordingly called the principal parts; and in the regular verbs ap-
pear in the four conjugations as follows:
Pres. Ind. Pres. Inf. Perf. Ind. Perf. Part.
I. par parre parv partus, prepare
II. habe habre habu habitus, have
III. dc dcere dx dctus, say
capi capere cp captus, take
IV. audi audre audv audtus, hear
Grammatical Appendix 31

Formation of the Tenses

127. The tenses are formed by the addition of the personal endings to the various stems, either directly or by
means of certain tense signs, as shown in the paradigms.
128. While no practical rules for the formation of the tenses can be given, it is well to observe that:
1. The second person singular imperative active is the same as the present stem.
2. The imperfect subjunctive may be formed from the present infi nitive active by adding m, etc. for active
and r, etc. for passive.
3. The second person singular imperative passive and second person singular present passive in re are the
same as the present infi nitive active. Hence ris is preferred in the present indicative passive in order to
avoid confusion.
4. The present subjunctive active and future indicative active in the third and fourth conjugations are alike
in the fi rst person singular.
5. The future perfect indicative active and the perfect subjunctive active differ only in the fi rst person sin-
gular, except for the quantity of the i.
6. Euphonic changes sometimes occur in the consonant stem characteristic in the perfect and participial
stem. Characteristic b before s and t becomes p; g and qu before t become c; c, g, qu, with s, become x;
t and d before s are assimilated, and then sometimes dropped; thus: scrb, scrps (scrbs), scrptus;
leg, lctus (lgtus); coqu, coctus (coqtus); dc, dx (dcs); iung, inx (ings); coqu, cox
(coqs); ed, sus (edsus); cd, cess (ceds); mitt, ms (mits), missus (mitsus).

First Conjugation
Conjugation of par, prepare
Principal Parts: par, parre, parv, partus
ACTIVE
129. INDICATIVE 130. SUBJUNCTIVE
present
I prepare, am preparing, do prepare
Sg. 1. paro parem
2. pars pars
3. parat paret

Pl. 1. parmus parmus

2. partis partis
3. parant parent

imperfect
I prepared, was preparing, did prepare
Sg. 1. parbam parrem
2. parbs parrs
3. parbat parret

Pl. 1. parbmus parrmus

2. parbtis parrtis
3. parbant parrent
32 Vergils Aeneid

future
I shall prepare, shall be preparing
Sg. 1. parbo
2. parbis
3. parbit
(lacking)
Pl. 1. parbimus
2. parbitis
3. parbunt

perfect
I prepared, have prepared, did prepare
Sg. 1. parv parverim
2. parvist parvers
3. parvit parverit

Pl. 1. parvimus parvermus

2. parvistis parvertis
3. parvrunt, re parverint

pluperfect
I had prepared
Sg. 1. parveram parvissem
2. parvers parvisss
3. parverat parvisset

Pl. 1. parvermus parvissmus

2. parvertis parvisstis
3. parverant parvissent

future perfect
I shall have prepared
Sg. 1. parver
2. parveris
3. parverit
(lacking)
Pl. 1. parverimus
2. parveritis
3. parverint

131. IMPERATIVE
present future
Sg. 1.
2. par, prepare part, you shall prepare
3. part, he shall prepare

Pl. 1.
2. parte, prepare partte, you shall prepare
3. parant, they shall prepare
Grammatical Appendix 33

132. INFINITIVE
Pres. parre, to prepare
Perf. parvisse, to have prepared
Fut. partrus, a, um esse, to be about to prepare

133. GERUND 134. SUPINE

Gen. parand, of preparing
Dat. parand, to, for preparing
Acc. parandum, preparing, to prepare partum, to prepare
Abl. parand, with, from, by preparing part, to prepare, in the preparing

135. PARTICIPLES
Pres. Nom. parns (Gen. parantis), preparing (79)
Fut. partrus, a, um, (being) about to prepare (71, a)

First Conjugation
PASSIVE
136. INDICATIVE 137. SUBJUNCTIVE
present
I am (being) prepared
Sg. 1. paror parer
2. parris, re parris, re
3. partur partur

Pl. 1. parmur parmur

2. parmin parmin
3. parantur parentur

imperfect
1 was (being) prepared
Sg. 1. parbar parrer
2. parbris, re parrris, re
3. parbtur parrtur

Pl. 1. parbmur parrmur

2. parbmin parrmin
3. parbantur parrentur

future
I shall be prepared
Sg. 1. parbor
2. parberis, re
3. parbitur
(lacking)
Pl. 1. parbimur
2. parbimin
3. parbuntur
34 Vergils Aeneid

perfect
I have been prepared, was prepared
Sg. 1. partus, a, um sum partus, a, um sim
2. es ss
3. est sit

Pl. 1. part, ae, a sumus part, ae, a smus

2. estis stis
3. sunt sint

pluperfect
I had been prepared
Sg. 1. partus, a, um eram partus, a, um essem
2. ers esss
3. erat esset

Pl. 1. part, ae, a ermus part, ae, a essmus

2. ertis esstis
3. erant essent

future perfect
I shall have been prepared
Sg. 1. partus, a, um er
2. eris
3. erit

Pl. 1. part, ae, a erimus

2. eritis
3. erunt
138. IMPERATIVE
present future
Sg. 1.
2. parre, be prepared partor, you shall be prepared
3. partor, he shall be prepared

Pl. 1.
2. parmin, be prepared
3. parantor, they shall be prepared
139. INFINITIVE
Pres. parr, to be prepared
Perf. partus, a, um esse, to have been prepared
Fut. partum r, to be about to be prepared

140. PARTICIPLE 141. GERUNDIVE

Perf. partus, a, um, having been parandus, a, um, (about) to be
prepared (71, a) prepared; must be, ought to be
prepared (71, a)
Grammatical Appendix 35

Second Conjugation
Conjugation of habe, have
Principal Parts: habe, habre, habu, habitus
ACTIVE PASSIVE
142. Indicative 143. Subjunctive 144. Indicative 145. Subjunctive
present
Sg. 1. habe habeam habeor habear
2. habs habes habris, re haberis, re
3. habet habeat habtur habetur

Pl. 1. habmus habemus habmur habemur

2. habtis habetis habmin habemin
3. habent habeant habentur habeantur

imperfect
Sg. 1. habbam habrem habbar habrer
2. habbs habrs habbris, re habrris, re
3. habbat habret habbtur habrtur

Pl. 1. habbmus habrmus habbmur habrmur

2. habbtis habrtis habbmin habrmin
3. habbant habrent habbantur habrentur

future
Sg. 1. habb habbor
2. habbis habberis, re
3. habbit habbitur

Pl. 1. habbimus habbimur

2. habbitis habbimin
3. habbunt habbuntur

perfect
Sg. 1. habu
2. habuist
3. habuit
habuerim
habuers
habuerit
habitus,
a, um {
sum
es
est
habitus,
a, um {
sim
ss
sit

Pl. 1. habuimus
2. habuistis
3. haburunt, re
habuermus
habuertis
habuerint
habit,
ae, a{sumus
estis
sunt
habit,
ae, a{smus
stis
sint

pluperfect
Sg. 1. habueram
2. habuers
3. habuerat
habuissem
habuisss
habuisset
habitus,
a, um {
eram
ers
erat
habitus,
a, um {
essem
esss
esset

Pl. 1. habuermus
2. habuertis
3. habuerant
habuissmus
habuisstis
habuissent
habit,
ae, a{eramus
eratis
erant
habit,
ae, a{essmus
esstis
essent
36 Vergils Aeneid

future perfect
Sg. 1. habuer habitus, a, um er
2. habueris eris
3. habuerit erit

Pl. 1. habuerimus habit, ae, a erimus

2. habueritis eritis
3. habuerint erint

146. IMPERATIVE
present future present future
Sg. 1.
2. hab habt habre habtor
3. habt habtor

Pl. 1.
2. habte habtte habmin
3. habent habentor

147. INFINITIVE
Pres. habre habr
Perf. habuisse habitus, a, um esse
Fut. habitrus, a, um esse habitum r

148. GERUND 149. SUPINE 150. PARTICIPLES

Gen. habend Pres. Nom. habns; Gen. habentis (79)
Dat. habend Fut. habitrus, a, um (71, a)
Acc. habendum Acc. habtum Perf. habitus, a, um (71, a)
Abl. habend Abl. habit

Gerundive
habendus, a, um (71, a)

Third Conjugation
Conjugation of dc, say
Principal Parts: dc, dcere, dx, dictus
ACTIVE PASSIVE
151. Indicative 152. Subjunctive 153. Indicative 154. Subjunctive
present
Sg. 1. dc dcam dcor dcar
2. dcis dcs dceris, re dcris, re
3. dcit dcat dcitur dctur

Pl. 1. dcimus dcmus dcimur dcmur

2. dcitis dctis dcimin dcmin
3. dcunt dcant dcuntur dcantur
Grammatical Appendix 37

Indicative Subjunctive Indicative Subjunctive

imperfect
Sg. 1. dcbam dcerem dcbar dcerer
2. dcbs dcers dcbris, re dcerris, re
3. dcbat dceret dcbtur dcertur

Pl. 1. dcbmus dcermus dcbmur dcermur

2. dcbtis dcertis dcbmin dcermin
3. dcbant dcerent dcbantur dcerentur

future
Sg. 1. dcam dcar
2. dcs dcris, re
3. dcet dctur

Pl. 1. dcmus dcmur

2. dctis dcmin
3. dcent dcentur

perfect
Sg. 1. dx
2. dxist
3. dxit
dxerim
dxers
dxerit
{
dic- sum
tus, es
a, um est
{
dic- sim
tus, ss
a, um sit

Pl. 1. dximus
2. dxistis
3. dxrunt, re
dxermus
dxertis
dxerint
{
dict,
ae, a
sumus
estis
sunt
{
dict,
ae, a
smus
stis
sint

pluperfect
Sg. 1. dxeram
2. dxers
3. dxerat
dxissem
dxisss
dxisset
{
dic- eram
tus, ers
a, um erat
{
dic- essem
tus, esss
a, um esset

Pl. 1. dxermus
2. dxertis
3. dxerant
dxissmus
dxisstis
dxissent
{
dict,
ae, a
eramus
eratis
erant
{
dict,
ae, a
essmus
esstis
essent

future perfect
Sg. 1. dxer
2. dxeris
3. dxerit
{
dic- er
tus, eris
a, um erit

Pl. 1. dxerimus
2. dxeritis
3. dxerint
{
dict,
ae, a
erimus
eritis
erint
38 Vergils Aeneid

155. IMPERATIVE
present future present future
Sg. 1.
2. dc1 dcit dcere dcitor
3. dcit dcitor
Pl. 1.
2. dcite dcitte dcimin
3. dcunt dcuntor
1
See 202.
156. INFINITIVE
Pres. dcere dc
Perf. dxisse dictus, a, um esse
Fut. dictrus, a, um esse dictum r

157. GERUND 158. SUPINE 159. PARTICIPLES

Gen. dcend Pres. Nom. dcns; Gen. dcentis (79)
Dat. dcend Fut. dictrus, a, um (71, a)
Acc. dcendum Acc. dictum Perf. dictus, a, um (71, a)
Abl. dcend Abl. dict

160. GERUNDIVE
dcendus, a, um (71, a)

Verbs in i of the Third Conjugation

161. Many verbs of the third conjugation with present indicative in i change i to e before r and drop it when it
would come before e or i in all tenses of the present system except the future, participle, and gerund. Oth-
erwise they follow the inflection of dcere.
162. These verbs are capi, take; cupi, desire; faci, do, make; fodi, dig; fugi, flee; jaci, throw; pari, produce,
bear; quati, shake; rapi, snatch; sapi, be wise, and their compounds; also compounds of -lici, -spici;
and the deponents gradior, go, and its compounds; morior, die, and its compounds; patior, endure, suffer,
and its compounds.
Grammatical Appendix 39

Synopsis of Present System of capi, take

Principal Parts: capi, capere, cp, captus
ACTIVE PASSIVE
163. Indicative 164. Subjunctive 165. Indicative 166. Subjunctive
present
Sg. 1. capi capiam capior capiar
2. capis capis capieris, re capiris, re
3. capit capiat capitur capitur

Pl. 1. capimus capimus capimur capimur

2. capitis capitis capimin capimin
3. capiunt capiant capiuntur capiantur

imperfect
Sg. 1. capibam caperem capibar caperer
etc. etc. etc. etc.
future
Sg. 1. capiam capiar
2. capis capiris, re
etc. etc.

167. IMPERATIVE
present future present future
Sg. 1.
2. cape capit capere capitor
3. capit capitor

Pl. 1.
2. capite capitte capimin
3. capiunt capiuntor

168. INFINITIVE
Pres. capere cap

169. PARTICIPLE 170. GERUND 171. GERUNDIVE

Pres. capins (79) Gen. capiend capiendus, a, um (71, a)
40 Vergils Aeneid

Fourth Conjugation
Conjugation of audi, hear
Principal Parts: audi, audre, audv, audtus
ACTIVE PASSIVE
172. Indicative 173. Subjunctive 174. Indicative 175. Subjunctive
present
Sg. 1. audi audiam audior audiar
2. auds audis audris, re audiris, re
3. audit audiat audtur auditur

Pl. 1. audmus audimus audmur audimur

2. audtis auditis audmin audimin
3. audiunt audiant audiuntur audiantur

imperfect
Sg. 1. audibam audrem audibar audrer
2. audibs audrs audibris, re audrris, re
3. audibat audret audibtur audrtur

Pl. 1. audibmus audrmus audibmur audrmur

2. audibtis audrtis audibmin audrmin
3. audibant audrent audibantur audrentur

future
Sg. 1. audiam audiar
2. audis audiris, re
3. audiet auditur

Pl. 1. audimus audimur

2. auditis audimin
3. audient audientur

perfect
Sg. 1. audv
2. audvist
3. audvit
audverim
audvers
audverit
audtus,
a, um {
sum
es
est
audtus,
a, um {
sim
ss
sit

Pl 1. audvimus
2. audvistis
3. audvrunt, re
audvermus
audvertis
audverint
audt,
ae, a{sumus
estis
sunt
audt,
ae, a{smus
stis
sint

pluperfect
Sg. 1. audveram
2. audvers
3. audverat
audvissem
audvisss
audvisset
audtus,
a, um {
eram
ers
erat
audtus,
a, um {
essem
esss
esset

Pl 1. audvermus
2. audvertis
3. audverant
audvissmus
audvisstis
audvissent
audt,
ae, a{ermus
ertis
erant
audt,
ae, a{essmus
esstis
essent
Grammatical Appendix 41

future perfect
Sg. 1. audver
2. audveris
3. audverit
audtus,
a, um {
er
eris
erit

Pl 1. audverimus
2. audveritis
3. audverint
audt,
ae, a {
erimus
eritis
erunt

176. IMPERATIVE
present future present future
Sg. 1.
2. aud audt audre audtor
3. audt audtor

Pl. 1.
2. audte audtte audmin
3. audiunt audiuntor

177. INFINITIVE
Pres. audre audr
Perf. audvisse audtus, a, um esse
Fut. audtrus, a, um esse audtum r

178. GERUND 179. SUPINE 180. PARTICIPLES

Gen. audiend Pres. Nom. audins; Gen. audientis (79)
Dat. audiend Fut. audtrus, a, um (71, a)
Acc. audiendum Acc. audtum Perf. audtus, a, um (71, a)
Abl. audiend Abl. audit

181. GERUNDIVE
audiendus, a, um

Deponent Verbs
182. Deponent verbs have the passive form, but are active in meaning. They have also the present and future ac-
tive participles, and the future active infi nitive. Thus a deponent verb alone can have a present, future, and
perfect participle, all with active meaning. The gerundive, however, is passive in meaning as well as in form.
The conjugation differs in no particular from that of the regular conjugation.
42 Vergils Aeneid

I. First Conjugation
Conjugation of moror, delay
Principal Parts: moror, morr, mortus
183. INDICATIVE 184. SUBJUNCTIVE
present
I delay, am delaying, do delay
Sg. 1. moror morer
2. morris, re morris, re
3. mortur mortur

Pl. 1. mormur mormur

2. mormin mormin
3. morantur morentur

imperfect
I was delaying, delayed, did delay
Sg. 1. morbar morrer
2. morbris, re morrris, re
3. morbtur morrtur

Pl. 1. morbmur morrmur

2. morbmin morrmin
3. morbantur morrentur

future
I shall delay, will delay
Sg. 1. morbor
2. morberis, re
3. morbitur

Pl. 1. morbimur
2. morbimin
3. morbuntur

perfect
I have delayed, delayed, did delay
Sg. 1. mortus, a, um sum mortus, a, um sim
2. es ss
3. est sit

Pl. 1. mort, ae, a sumus mort, ae, a smus

2. estis stis
3. sunt sint
Grammatical Appendix 43

pluperfect
I had delayed
Sg. 1. mortus, a, um eram mortus, a, um essem
2. ers esss
3. erat esset

Pl. 1. mort, ae, a ermus moriti, ae, a essmus

2. ertis esstis
3. erant essent

future perfect
I shall (will) have delayed
Sg. 1. mortus, a, um er
2. eris
3. erit

Pl. 1. mort, ae, a erimus

2. eritis
3. erunt

185. IMPERATIVE
present future
Sg. 1.
2. morre, delay mortor, you shall delay
3. mortor, he shall delay

Pl. 1.
2. mormin, delay
3. morantur, they shall delay

186. INFINITIVE
Pres. morri, to delay
Fut. mortrus, a, um esse, to be about to delay
Perf. mortus, a, um esse, to have delayed

187. SUPINE
Acc. mortum, to delay, for delaying
Abl. mort, to delay, in the delaying

188. PARTICIPLES
Pres. morns, antis, delaying (79)
Fut. mortrus, a, um, about to delay (71, a)
Perf. mortus, a, um, having delayed (71, a)

189. GERUNDIVE
morandus, a, um, (one) to be delayed, about to be delayed (71, a)
44 Vergils Aeneid

190. GERUND
Gen. morand, of delaying
II. Second, Third, Fourth Conjugations
Synopsis of fateor, confess; sequor, follow; patior, endure; experior, try
191. INDICATIVE
Pres. fateor sequor patior experior
fatris, etc. sequeris pateris experris
Imperf. fatbar sequbar patibar experibar
Fut. fatbor sequar patiar experiar
Perf. fassus sum sectus sum passus sum expertus sum
Pluperf. fassus eram sectus eram passus eram expertus eram
Fut. Perf. fassus er sectus er passus er expertus er

192. SUBJUNCTIVE
Pres. fatear sequar patiar experiar
fateris, etc. sequris patiris experiris
Imperf. fatrer sequerer paterer experrer
Perf. fassus sim sectus sim passus sim expertus sim
Pluperf. fassus essem sectus essem passus essem expertus essem

193. IMPERATIVE
Pres. fatre sequere patere experre
Fut. fattor sequitor patitor expertor

194. INFINITIVE
Pres. fatr sequ pat experr
Fut. fassrus esse sectrus esse passrus esse expertrus esse
Perf. fassus esse sectus esse passus esse expertus esse

195. PARTICIPLES
Pres. fatns sequns patins experins
Fut. fassrus sectrus passrus expertrus
Perf. fassus sectus passus expertus

196. GERUND
fatend sequend patiend experiend

197. GERUNDIVE
fatendus sequendus patiendus experiendus

198. SUPINE
fassum sectum passum expertum
fass sect pass expert
Grammatical Appendix 45

Periphrastic Conjugation
199. The periphrastic conjugation arises from the combination of the future participle active and passive (the
gerundive) with forms of the verb sum.
a. The active periphrastic denotes something about to take place.
b. The passive periphrastic denotes necessity or duty.
200. ACTIVE
INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE
Pres. partrus (a, um) sum, am about to prepare partrus (a, um) sim
Imperf. partrus eram, was about to prepare partrus essem
Fut. partrus er, shall be about to prepare
Perf. partrus fu, have been, was, about to prepare partrus fuerim
Pluperf. partrus fueram, had been about to prepare partrus fuissem
Fut. Perf. partrus fuer, shall have been about to prepare

INFINITIVE
Pres. partrus (a, um) esse, to be about to prepare
Perf. partrus (a, um) fuisse, to have been about to prepare

201. PASSIVE
Pres. parandus (a, um) sum, have to be prepared; ought to be, parandus (a, um) sim
must be prepared
Imperf. parandus eram, had to be prepared; ought to be, must be parandus essem, forem
prepared
Fut. parandus er, shall have to be prepared
Perf. parandus fu, have had to be prepared parandus fuerim
Pluperf. parandus fueram, had had to be prepared parandus fuissem
Fut. Perf. parandus fuer, shall have had to be prepared

INFINITIVE
Pres. parandus (a, um) esse, to have to be prepared
Perf. parandus fuisse, to have had to be prepared

202. Irregular Imperatives: Four verbs, dc, say, dc, lead, faci, do, make, fer, bear, form the present im-
perative active dc, dc, fac, fer. But in early Latin dce, dce, face are common. The compounds follow the
usage of the simple verbs, except prepositional compounds of faci. Sci, know, lacks the present imperative
sc.
203. Gerunds and Gerundives. The older ending of the gerund and gerundive in the third and fourth conjuga-
tions was undus; and endus was found only after u. In classical times undus is frequent, especially in verbs
of the third and fourth conjugations; later, endus is the regular form.
204. 1. Syncopated and Shorter Forms. The perfects in v, v, v often drop the v before s or r and contract
the vowels throughout, except those in v, which admit the contraction only before s. These forms are
called syncopated. They are found in all periods, and in the poets are used to suit the meter.
46 Vergils Aeneid

perfect
Indic. Sg. 1.
2. parvist, parst audvist, audst
3.
Pl. 1.
2. parvistis, parstis audvistis, audstis
3. parvrunt, parrunt audvrunt, audirunt
Subj. parverim, parrim audverim, audierim
etc. etc.
pluperfect
Indic. parveram, parram audveram, audieram
etc. etc.
Subj. parvissem, parssem audvissem, audssem
etc. etc.
future perfect
Indic. parver, parr audver, audier
etc. etc.
infinitive
Perf. parvisse, parsse audvisse, audsse

2. In the fi rst and third persons singular and in the fi rst person plural of the perfect, syncope occurs regu-
larly only in perfects in v, and there is no contraction. It is most common in the perfects of e, go, and
pet, seek. The unsyncopated forms are always common except those of e, which are very rare in good
prose, but occur more often in the poets for metrical reasons.
3. nv, I know, and mv, I have moved, are also contracted, especially in their compounds.
Sg. 2. nst. Pl. 2. nstis. 3. nrunt. Subj. nrim, etc. Pluperf. nram, etc. Subj. nssem, etc. Inf. nsse.
But the future perfect nr is found only in compounds.
a. Similar contractions are seen in mv, but not so often.
4. The shorter form of the ending of the perfect active indicative third plural, re instead of runt, and of
the second singular, re instead of ris, is often found. Thus amvre = amvrunt, they have loved, and
ambre = ambris, you were loved.
Semideponents
205. 1. A few verbs form the perfect forms only as deponents:
aude, audre, ausus sum, dare
fd, fdere, fsus sum, trust
gaude, gaudre, gvsus sum, rejoice
sole, solre, solitus sum, be accustomed

Irregular Verbs
206. Irregular in the conjugation of the present stem are:
1. orior, orr, ortus, arise
The present indicative is usually formed according to the third conjugation; the imperfect subjunctive
is always orerer; but the future participle is oritrus. The compounds follow the same usage except
adorr, rise up at, attack, which follows the fourth conjugation.
Grammatical Appendix 47

2. e, go.
The stem is , which, before a, o, u, becomes e.

Principal Parts: e, re, v (i), itus

207. INDICATIVE 208. SUBJUNCTIVE
Pres. Sg. 1. e, I go eam
2. s es
3. it eat

Pl. 1. mus emus

2. tis etis
3. eunt eant

Imperf. bam, I went rem

Fut. b, I shall go
Perf. v (i), I have gone verim (ierim)
Pluperf. veram (ieram), I had gone vissem (ssem)

209. IMPERATIVE
Sg. 1.
2. , go t, you shall go
3. t, he shall go

Pl. 1.
2. te, go tte, you shall go
3. eunt, they shall go

210. INFINITIVE 211. PARTICIPLES

Pres. re Pres. ins (Gen. euntis)
Fut. itrus esse Fut. itrus
Perf. visse (sse)

212. GERUND 213. SUPINE

eund, etc. itum, to go

a. Like the simple verb are inflected most of the compounds, except in the perfect system, where i is the
regular form. Vne, be for sale, and pere, perish, serve as passives to vend, sell, and perd, destroy.
Ambi, solicit, follows the fourth conjugation throughout.
b. The passive of the simple verb e is found only in the impersonal forms tur, btur, itum est, r (in com-
bination with the supine). But compounds with transitive force are conjugated regularly: so, praetere
forms praetereor, ris, tur, mur, min, euntur, bar, etc.; itus sum, eram, er, euntor, tor, r,
eundus.
3. fer, bear.
The endings beginning with t, s, and r are added directly to the root, fer.
a. Some forms of fer are lacking and are supplied by tul and (t)l.
48 Vergils Aeneid

Principal Parts: fer, ferre, tul, ltus

ACTIVE
214. INDICATIVE 215. SUBJUNCTIVE
Pres. Sg. 1. fer, I bear feram
2. fers fers
3. fert ferat

Pl. 1. ferimus fermus

2. fertis fertis
3. ferunt ferant

Imperf. ferbam, I was bearing ferem

Fut. feram, I shall bear
Perf. tul, I have borne tulerim
Pluperf. tuleram, I had borne tulissem
Fut. Perf. tuler, I shall have borne

216. IMPERATIVE
Sg. 1.
2. fer, bear fert, you shall bear
3. fert, he shall bear

Pl. 1.
2. ferte, bear fertte, you shall bear
3. ferunt, they shall bear

217. INFINITIVE 218. PARTICIPLES

Pres. ferre ferns, ferentis, bearing
Fut. ltrus esse
Perf. tulisse ltrus

219. GERUND 220. SUPINE

ferend, etc. ltum, lt

PASSIVE
221. INDICATIVE 222. SUBJUNCTIVE
Pres. Sg. 1. feror, I am borne ferar
2. ferris ferris
3. fertur fertur

Pl. 1. ferimur fermur

2. ferimin fermin
3. feruntur ferantur
Grammatical Appendix 49

Imperf. ferbar ferer

Fut. ferar
Perf. ltus sum ltus sim
Pluperf. ltus eram ltus essem
Fut. Perf. ltus er

223. IMPERATIVE
Sg. 1.
2. ferre, be borne fertor, you shall be borne
3. fertor, he shall be borne

Pl. 1.
2. ferimin, be borne
3. feruntor, they shall be borne

224. INFINITIVE 225. PARTICIPLES

Pres. ferr, to be borne Perf. latus, a, um, borne
Fut. ltum r, to be about to be borne
Perf. ltus esse, to have been borne

226. GERUNDIVE
ferendus, a, um, ought to be borne
4. f, become
227. F is conjugated in the present, imperfect, and future, according to the fourth conjugation, but in the
subjunctive imperfect and in the infi nitive the stem is increased by e; thus, fierem, fier, to become. In these
forms the i is short, but elsewhere it is long except before fi nal t. The infi nitive ends in r, and the whole verb
in the present system is treated as the passive of faci, do, make (161171). The rest of the verb is formed as
a regular passive of faci.
228. Principal Parts: f, fier, factus sum
Pres. Indic. f, I am made, I become Subj. fam, fas, fat, etc.
fs, fit, fmus, ftis, funt
Imperf. fbam, I was made, I became fierem, fiers, etc.
Fut. fam, I shall be made (become)
Perf. factus sum factus sim, etc.
Pluperf. factus eram factus essem, etc.
Fut. Perf. factus er

IMPERATIVE INFINITIVE
(f) (ft) Pres. fier, to become
(ft) Perf. factus esse, to have become
Fut. factum r, to be about to become
50 Vergils Aeneid

229. When compounded with prepositions, faci changes the a of the stem into i, and forms the passive in clas-
sical Latin regularly from the same stem: perfici, achieve; passive, perficior; interfici, destroy; passive,
interficior. When compounded with words other than prepositions, faci retains its a, and uses f as its
passive: patefaci, lay open; passive, patef; calefaci, warm; passive, calef.
230. vol, wish; nl, be unwilling; ml, prefer.
Principal Parts: vol, velle, volu
nl, nlle, nolu
ml, mlle, mlu

231. INDICATIVE
Pres. vol nl ml
vs nn vs mvs
vult nn vult mvult
volumus nlumus mlumus
vultis nn vultis mvultis
volunt nlunt mlunt
Imperf. volbam nlbam mlbam
Fut. volam nlam mlam
vols, etc. nls, etc. mls, etc.
Perf. volu nlu mlu, etc.
Pluperf. volueram nlueram mlueram, etc.
Fut. Perf. voluer nluer mluer, etc.

232. SUBJUNCTIVE
Pres. velim nlim mlim
vels nlis mls
velit nlit mlit
velmus nlimus mlmus
veltis nlitis mltis
velint nlint mlint
Imperf. vellem nllem mllem
Perf. voluerim nluerim mluerim, etc.
Pluperf. voluissem nluissem mluissem, etc.

233. IMPERATIVE
Sg. nl, nlt
Pl. nlte, nltte, nlunt

234. INFINITIVE
Pres. velle nlle mlle
Perf. voluisse nluisse mluisse

235. PARTICIPLES
Pres. volns nlns
Grammatical Appendix 51

Principal Rules of Syntax

Agreement
236. A verb agrees with its subject in number and person, as ego voc, I call; t vocs, you call.
a. A collective noun may take its predicate in the plural, as pars veniunt, part come.
b. The nearer subject is preferred to the more remote, as mlits et dux vnit, the leader and his troops came.
c. The copula may agree in number with the predicate noun, as amantium rae amris integrti est,
lovers quarrels are loves renewal. Compare the wages of sin is death.
237. The adjective agrees with its noun in gender, number, and case, as tlis vir, such a man; tls vir, such men;
tlia dna, such gifts.
238. The common att ribute of two or more substantives generally agrees with the nearest, rather than with the
most important, as cncta maria terraeque patbant, all seas and lands lay open.
239. The common predicate att ribute of two or more subjects is usually in the plural, as pater et mter mortu
sunt, father and mother are dead; but may agree with the nearest or most important, as Caesar mortuus est
et Ilia, Caesar is dead, and Julia also.
a. When the persons of the subjects are different, the predicate takes the fi rst in preference to the second;
the second in preference to the third.
b. When the genders of the subjects are different, the predicate att ribute takes the nearest gender or the
strongest (the masculine being the strongest of things with life, the neuter of those without), as pater et
mter mortu sunt, father and mother are dead; mrus et porta d cael tcta erant, wall and gate had
been struck by lightning.
240. The predicate substantive agrees with its subject in case, as ille vir erat dux, that man was leader.
a. The pronoun used as subject is commonly att racted into the gender of the predicate as negat Epicrus;
hoc enim vestrum lmen est, Epicurus says No; for he is your great light!
241. The appositive agrees with its subject in case; if possible, also in number and person, as Aens, pius dux,
Aeneas, the devoted leader; Aens et Dd, superb ducs, Aeneas and Dido, proud leaders.
242. The relative pronoun agrees with its antecedent in gender, number, and person, as vir qu adest, the man
who is present; dna quae adsunt, the gifts which are here; ego qu hoc dc, I who say this.
a. Occasionally the antecedent is att racted into the case of the relative, as urbem quam statu vestra est,
the city which I am founding is yours.
243. Poetic Plural. The plural is often used instead of the singular, especially in poetry, to generalize a statement,
for metrical reasons, or for rhetorical effect, as rae, wrath, wrathful passions; fortitdins, gallant actions;
ra, face, features; scptra, scepter; silentia, silence.
a. Plural of Modesty. The plural of the fi rst person is sometimes used instead of the singular, as dximus
multa, we (I) have spoken much. Similarly ns in all its cases for ego, etc., and noster in all its forms for
meus, etc. Th is usage in English is sometimes called the editorial we.
244. Disproportion is indicated by the comparative with quam pr, than for; quam ut, than that; quam qu,
than who; as minor caeds quam pr tant victri fuit, the loss was (too) small for so great a victory; major
sum quam cui fortna nocre possit, I am too great for fortune possibly to hurt me.
52 Vergils Aeneid

245. In comparing two qualities, use either magis quam with the positive, as dsertus magis est quam
sapins, he is eloquent rather than wise (more eloquent than wise); or a double comparative, actirem s
quam orntirem vult, he wishes to be acute rather than ornate.
246. Superlatives denoting order and sequence are often used partitively and then usually precede their substan-
tives, as summa aqua, the surface (of the) water; summus mns, the top (of the) mountain; prm vre, in
the beginning (of) spring. Similarly in medi urbe, in the midst of the city; reliqua, ctera Graecia, the rest of
Greece, and the like.

Pronouns
247. Since the form of the verb indicates its person, the nominative of the personal pronouns is used only for
emphasis or contrast, as ego rgs ic, vs tyranns intrdxistis, I drove out kings; you bring in tyrants.
a. The forms me, tu, nostr, vestr are used as objective genitives; nostrum and vestrum as partitive
genitives (284, 286).
248. The reflexive is used regularly when reference is made to the grammatical subject, as ipse s quisque dligit,
quod sibi quisque crus est, everyone loves himself, because everyone is dear to himself.
a. The reflexive is sometimes used when reference is made to the logical subject, as ferunt sua flmina
classem, their own (favorable) breezes wait the fleet.
b. The reflexive is used of the principal subject when reference is made to the thought or will of that subject,
especially in indirect discourse or in substantive volitive clauses (clauses of desire), as sentit animus s
v su movr, the mind feels that it moves by its own force; m petvit ut scum essem, he asked me to
be with him; librs qus frter suus relquisset mihi dnvit, he gave me the books (as he said) that his
brother had left.
249. The possessive adjective is used instead of the genitive of the fi rst and second person pronouns, as socius
meus, a comrade of mine; tlum tuum, a weapon of yours; amor meus, my love (which I feel); sps tua, your
hope (which you have).
a. The appositive to a possessive adjective is in the genitive, as urbs me nus oper fuit salva, the city
was saved by my exertions alone.

Adjectives for Adverbs

250. With words of inclination and disinclination, knowledge and ignorance, order and position, time and season,
the adjective is commonly employed for the adverb, as id faci volns, I do this willing(ly).

Special Use of Moods

251. The Indicative, not the subjunctive, is commonly used to express possibility, power, obligation, and neces-
sity, as possum persequ permulta oblctmenta rrum rsticrum, I might rehearse very many delights
of country life; ad mortem t dc oportbat, you ought to have been led to execution.
252. The Potential Subjunctive. The present or perfect subjunctive may be used to express possibility in the pres-
ent or future, as t superesse velim, I should like for you to survive; Platnem nn nimis vald laudvers,
you cant praise Plato too much; the imperfect subjunctive to express possibility in the past, crders victs,
you would (might) have thought them beaten.
253. The Optative Subjunctive. The subjunctive, sometimes with utinam, would that, is often used in expressions
of wishing. The negative is n. Vales, farewell! n veniant, may they not come! utinam n ntus essem,
would that I had not been born! utinam vveret frter, would that my brother were alive!
Grammatical Appendix 53

254. The Volitive Subjunctive. The subjunctive may be used in expressions of will, asseveration, command, or
concession, as stet haec urbs, may this city continue to stand; moriar s magis gaudrem, may I die if I could
be more glad: ammus patriam, let us love our country; sit deus, granted that he is a god. Th is subjunctive
is often called jussive, hortatory, or concessive, according as it expresses a command, an exhortation, or a
concession, respectively.
255. The present imperative looks forward to immediate, the future imperative to contingent, fulfi lment, as haec
dcite vestr rg, tell this to your king; cnsuls nmin prent, the consuls shall obey no one.
256. The negative of the imperative is regularly nl with the infi nitive; as nl fugere, dont flee! sometimes n
or cav (n) with the present or perfect subjunctive is also used, as cav (n) facis, dont do it! n mortem
times (or timuertis), dont fear death!
a. In poetry n is often found with the imperative, as n tim, fear not! n fuge, dont run!

Infinitives
257. The Historical Infi nitive. The present infi nitive, with the subject in the nominative, is sometimes used
to give a rapid sequence of events, as hinc Ulixs terrre, henceforth Ulysses began to frighten (me). Th is is
called the historical infi nitive.
258. The Infi nitive as Neuter Subject. The infi nitive with or without a subject may be treated as a neuter subject,
object, or predicate, as dulce et decrum est pr patri mor, it is sweet and glorious to die for ones fatherland;
turpe est vinc, it is shameful to be conquered; scit vincere, he knows (how) to conquer; vvere est cogitre,
to live is to think, living is thinking.
259. The Complementary Infi nitive. The infi nitive is used with verbs of will, desire, power, duty, habit, inclina-
tion, resolve, continuance, purpose, etc., as cupit mor, he wishes to die; dbet haec vulnera pat, he ought
to suffer these wounds. Th is is called the complementary infi nitive.
260. The Infi nitive as Object. The accusative with infi nitive is used as the object of verbs of emotion, will, and
desire; as t vnisse gaude, I rejoice that you have come; m dcere vult, he wishes me to speak.
261. The Infi nitive of Purpose. In poetry the infi nitive is often used to express purpose, as nn populre
vnimus, we have not come to pillage.
262. The Infi nitive of Exclamation. The infi nitive with accusative subject is used in exclamation or exclamatory
questions, as m dsistere, what! I desist?
263. The Infi nitive of Indirect Statement (Indirect Discourse). The infi nitive is used after verbs of saying,
showing, believing, and perceiving, to express an indirect statement; the present infi nitive expresses action
contemporary with that of the governing verb, the perfect infi nitive action prior to it, the future infi nitive
action future to it, as dcit t errre, he says that you are wrong; dcbat t errre, he was saying that you were
wrong; dcbat t errsse, he was saying that you had been wrong.
a. The future infi nitive of sum followed by ut and the subjunctive is used in indirect statement of future
action when the verb has no future participle, as dcit fore (futrum esse) ut metus, he says that you
will fear.
264. The Infi nitive with Nouns. The poets and later prose writers use the infi nitive with nouns denoting atten-
tion or opportunity, as amor css cognscere nostrs, desire to know our misfortunes; adfectre potests,
opportunity to seize.
265. The Infi nitive with Adjectives. The infi nitive is used with many adjectives and with participles of adjectival
force, as nescia vinc pectora, hearts not knowing (how) to yield; certa mor, determined to die.
54 Vergils Aeneid

Gerunds and Gerundives

266. The genitive of the gerund or gerundive is used chiefly after substantives and adjectives that require a comple-
ment, as sapientia ars vvend putanda est, philosophy is to be considered the art of living; nlla sps plcand
de, no hope of appeasing god; cupidus maledcend, eager to abuse.
267. The dative of the gerund or gerundive is used mainly in postclassical Latin after words of fitness and func-
tion; also after words of capacity and adaptation, and to express purpose, as tla apta mittend, weapons
suitable for hurling; comitia cnsulibus creands, elections for nominating consuls.
268. The accusative of the gerund or gerundive is used with ad to express purpose, as ad bellandum venimus,
we come to make war.
a. The accusative of the gerundive is used in agreement with the direct object of verbs of giving, sending,
and leaving, etc., to indicate purpose, as id mihi servandum dedit, he gave it to me to keep; Conn mrs
reficiends crat, Conn has the walls rebuilt; patriam dripiendam relquimus, we have left our country
to be plundered.
269. The ablative of the gerund or gerundive is used to denote means and cause, rarely manner, as nus hom
nbs cnctand restituit rem, one man by delaying raised our cause again.

Supines
270. The supine in um (accusative) is used chiefly after verbs of motion to express purpose, as veniunt specttum,
they come to see.
271. The supine in (ablative) is used chiefly with adjectives to indicate respect, as mrbile dict, wonderful to
relate (in the relating); mrbile vs, wonderful to see (in the seeing).

Participles
272. The Present Participle denotes continuance, the perfect participle denotes completion at the time of the
principal verb.
273. The participle is used after verbs of perception and representation to express the actual condition of the ob-
ject at the time, as Catnem vd in bibliothc sedentem mults circumfsum librs, I saw Cato sitting
in the library with an ocean of books about him; illam audv frtv vce loquentem, I heard her talking in
a stealthy tone.
274. The Future Participle is used in poetry and occasionally in prose to express desire or purpose, as fabricta
est mchina nspectra doms ventraque dsuper urb, it has been built as an engine of war, to spy into
our homes and come down upon the city from above.
275. The Perfect Participle passive is used after verbs of causation and desire, to denote that entire fulfi lment
is demanded or desired, as s qu volupttibus dcuntur, misss faciant honrs, if any are led captive by
sensual pleasures, let them give up honors (at once and forever).

CASES
Nominative
276. The subject of a fi nite verb is in the nominative, as urbs stat, the city is standing.
277. The subject of a historical infi nitive is in the nominative, as Ulixs terrre, Ulysses began to terrorize (me).
Grammatical Appendix 55

278. The predicate of a fi nite form of the verb to be, sum, or of a verb of seeming or becoming, or of the passive of
a verb of making, choosing, showing, thinking, or calling, is in the nominative, as pater est rx, his father
is king; pater fit rx, his father becomes king; pater voctur rx, his father is called king.
279. When an active verb of saying, showing, believing, or perceiving is changed to the passive, the accusative
subject of the infi nitive may become the nominative subject of the leading verb, as urbs dcitur magna
fuisse, the city is said to have been great. Compare dcunt urbem fuisse magnam, they say that the city was
great.

Genitive
280. Genitive of Material. The genitive may be used to denote the material or substance of which a thing consists,
as flmina lactis, rivers of milk. See 324 for the ablative of material.
281. The Appositional Genitive is used with vx, nmen, verbum, rs, urbs, etc., as nmen amcitiae, the
name of fr iendship; urbem Patav, the city of Patavium.
282. The Epexegetical Genitive (or genitive of explanation) is used after genus, vitium, culpa, etc., as virtts
continentiae, gravittis, jstitiae, fide, the virtues of self-control, earnestness, justice, honor.
283. The Possessive Genitive is used to denote possession, as domus rgis, the palace of the king, the kings palace.
284. The Subjective Genitive is used of the subject of the action indicated by the substantive; the Objective
Genitive, of the object of that action, as metus hostium, the fear of the enemy, which may mean: (1) the
fear which the enemy feel (subjective genitive) or (2) the fear felt toward the enemy (objective genitive).
The objective genitive is used with nouns, adjectives, and participles used as adjectives, as cupd glriae,
desire for glory; tempesttum potentem, ruling the storms; memorem vestr, obltum su, mindful of you,
forgetful of himself.
285. Genitive of Quality. The genitive with an adjective may be used to describe a person or thing, as hom
maxim corporis, a man of gigantic size. Th is is called the genitive of quality (characteristic, description).
Compare the ablative of quality or characteristic (330).
a. The genitive of quality (or description) or the possessive genitive may be used as a predicate, as id virttis
est, that is a mark of virtue; huius er vvus, mortuus huius er, hers I shall be living; dead, hers shall I
be; haec domus est patris me, this house is my fathers.
286. The Partitive Genitive stands for the whole to which a part belongs, as pars hominum, part of the men;
maximus omnium, greatest of all. Th is is sometimes called the genitive of the whole.
287. Genitive with Special Adjectives and Verbs. Adjectives and verbs of fullness and want, of knowledge
and ignorance, of desire and disgust, of participation and power, may take the genitive. Also some present
participles used as adjectives, and in later Latin some verbals in x, as plnus labris, full of toil; egnus
omnium, in need of everything; cnscius rct, conscious of right; ignrus mal, ignorant of misfortune;
cupidus aur, desirous of gold; dligns vr, careful (a lover of) the truth; capx imper, capable of empire;
implentur veteris Bacch, they fill themselves with old wine.
288. Genitive with Verbs. Verbs of reminding, remembering, and forgett ing usually take the genitive, as me-
minit malrum, obltus est bonrum, he remembers the evil, forgets the good.
a. Sometimes these verbs take the accusative, especially of things, as haec lim meminisse iuvbit, to
remember these things will one day be a pleasure.
289. Verbs of Emotion take the genitive, as miserre anim nn digna ferentis, pity a soul enduring what it does
not deserve.
56 Vergils Aeneid

290. Impersonal verbs of emotion take the accusative of the person who feels, and the genitive of the exciting
cause, as tu m miseret, me piget, I pity you, I loathe myself.
291. Verbs of accusing, convicting, condemning, and acquitt ing take the genitive of the charge, as accstus
est prditinis, he was accused of treason; damntus est caedis, he was convicted of murder; absoltus est
crminis, he was acquitted of the charge.
292. Genitive of Value. Verbs of rating and buying take the genitive of the general value, as parv exstimre,
to consider of small account; mit equs tant quant Caesar voluit, he bought the horses at the price Caesar
wanted.
293. Interest and rfert take the genitive of the person, rarely of the thing concerned, as interest omnium rct
facere, it is to the interest of all to do right; rfert omnium, it concerns everybody.
a. Sometimes the ablative singular feminine of the possessive adjective is used, as me interest, me rfert,
I am concerned.
294. Genitive of Respect. The genitive is used with various adjectives to denote the respect to which a thing is
true, as aeger anim, sick at heart. Th is is sometimes called the genitive of specification.

Dative
295. The Indirect Object is put in the dative, as aurum homin dat, he gives gold to the man.
296. Some verbs of giving take either the dative and the accusative, or the accusative and the ablative, as homin
aurum dnat, he presents the gold to the man; hominem aur dnat, he presents the man with gold.
297. Dative with Special Verbs. Many verbs meaning favor, help, trust, bid and forbid, believe, persuade, obey,
serve, threaten, pardon, spare, join, and contend, take the dative, as invide nmin, I envy no one; cdit
fortnae, he yields to fortune; id mihi placet, that pleases me; prmus duc, we obey our leader; crdit
homin, he trusts the man.
298. Dative with Compounds. Many intransitive verbs compounded with ad, ante, con, in, inter, ob, post,
prae, sub, and super may take a dative, as accd equ, I approach the horse; antecellit omnibus, he excels
all; nox incubat mar, night broods over the sea; piger ipse sibi obstat, this lazy man stands in his own way.
a. Transitive verbs so compounded also take an accusative, as m vestrs rs deus appulit, god drove me
to your shores.
299. Dative of Possession. The dative is used with esse to denote possession, as est ager nbs, we have a field.
300. The Ethical Dative is used of the personal pronouns only, as ecce tibi hom, heres your man! tibi bellum
geret, he shall wage war (for you, let me tell you).
301. The Dative of Reference is used of the person interested or concerned in the action or of the person to whom
a statement is referred, as de altria fmant, the altars smoke in honor of the god; pulchra est mults, she is
beautiful to many (in the eyes of many); est urbe gresss tumulus, as you go out of town (to those who have
gone out of town) there is a mound. Th is is also called the dative of interest, and at times is called the dative of
advantage and of disadvantage.
302. The Dative of Agent is used with a passive verb, especially with the gerundive, as id faciendum mihi, this
must be done by me, I must do this; vetor fts, I am forbidden by the fates; urbs capta est mihi, the city was
captured by me.
303. Dative of Purpose. The dative may denote the object for which (purpose), as pars optre locum tct,
part were choosing a site for a home.
Grammatical Appendix 57

a. The Dative of Purpose is often used in combination with the dative of reference (301), as auxili is fuit,
he was a help to them; id erit crae mihi, that shall be my care.
304. Dative with Adjectives. Adjectives of friendliness, fullness, likeness, nearness, with their opposites, take
the dative, as similis est homin, he is like a man; hom amcus est mihi, the man is friendly to me; id erit
tile omnibus, this will be useful to all; proximus sum egomet mihi, myself am nearest to me.
305. Dative of Separation. Many verbs of warding off, robbing, and ridding, depriving, and separation take a
dative, especially in poetry, as ripis mihi hunc errrem, you will rid me of this mistake; silic scintillam
excdit, he strikes a spark from the flint. Th is is called the dative of separation.
306. Dative of Direction. In poetry the place to which, or limit of motion, is often expressed by the dative, as it
clmor cael, a shout goes to heaven; mults dmittimus Orc, we send many to Hades.

Accusative
307. The Direct Object of active transitive verbs is in the accusative case and may denote either the object effected
or the object affected, as bellum gerunt, they wage war (object effected or result produced); condidit urbem,
he founds the city (object effected); capit urbem, he captures the city (object affected); rx dcit homins, the
king leads the men (object affected).
308. Accusative with Compounds. Many intransitive verbs, mostly those of motion, compounded with ad,
ante, circum, con, in, inter, ob, per, praeter, sub, subter, super, and trns, take the accusative, as adit
urbem, he approaches the city; poenam subit, he submits to punishment.
a. Transitive verbs thus compounded may have two accusatives, as exercitum flmen tricit, he threw
his army across the river.
309. In poetry the passive is often used in a reflexive or middle sense, as fertur in hosts, he charges upon the
enemy.
a. When thus used the verb may take an accusative as a direct object, as ferrum cingitur, he girds on (girds
himself with) the steel; sins collcta, having gathered her robes; tnsae pectora, beating their breasts;
nsternor umers, I spread over my shoulders.
310. The accusative and ablative of certain adjectives are used adverbially, as multum iacttus, much tossed;
prm, at first. See 9394.
311. Accusative of Respect. In poetry the accusative is often used with an adjective or verb to denote the part
concerned, as nda gen, with knee bare (bare as to her knee); s umersque de similis, like a god in (as
to) face and shoulders. Th is is called the accusative of respect or specification.
312. Accusative with Prepositions. The accusative is used with many prepositions, the most important being
ante, apud, ad, adversum
circum, cis, ob, trns, secundum
penes, pne, prope, per,
post, and all in , and ter.1
1
Observe the metrical form of these four lines.
313. Cognate Accusative. Intransitive verbs may take an accusative of similar form or meaning, as dum vtam
vvs, as long as you live; somnium somniv, I dreamed a dream. Th is is called a cognate accusative.
314. Accusative of Extent. The accusative may express extent in space, time, or degree, as tumulum centum
peds altum, a mound one hundred feet high; fuit rx decem anns, he was king ten years; s m ams tantum
quantum t am, if you love me as I love you. Th is is called the accusative of extent. With expressions of time
this is often called the accusative of duration of time.
58 Vergils Aeneid

315. Place Whither (place to which) is regularly denoted by the accusative with the preposition ad or in, as vnit
ad taliam, he came to Italy. Th is is sometimes called the accusative of limit of motion.
a. The names of towns, small islands, domus, and rs, do not ordinarily take the preposition, as vnit
Rmam, he came to Rome; pater, ven domum, father, come home! fugiunt rs, they flee to the country.
b. In poetry also the preposition is often omitted, as taliam Lvnaque vnit ltora, he came to Italy and
the Lavinian shores.
316. Two Accusatives. Verbs meaning to inquire, require, teach, and conceal take two accusatives, one of the
person, one of the thing, as quis t illud docuit, who taught you that? Mlsis nvem poposcit, he demanded
a ship of the Milesians; quid m istud rogs, why do you ask me that?
a. Verbs of naming, making, taking, choosing, and showing take two accusatives of the same person or
thing, as vocant urbem Rmam, they call the city Rome; illum rgem faciunt, they make him king.
317. The Subject of the Infi nitive is regularly in the accusative, as vult m dcere, he wishes me to speak.
a. A predicate noun in such an infi nitive phrase agrees with the subject, as volunt eum rgem esse, they
wish him to be king.
318. Accusative of Exclamation. The accusative may be used in exclamations, as m miserum, poor me! pr
deum fidem, for heavens sake!

Ablative
319. Place Where is denoted by the ablative, usually with in, as in alt et in terrs, on sea and on land.
a. With names of towns and small islands the locative is used to express place where, as Rmae, at Rome.
See 345.
b. In poetry the preposition is often omitted, as terr marque, on land and sea; tali, in Italy; ltore, on
the shore; pectore, in his heart.
320. Place Whence is denoted by the ablative, usually with ex, d, or ab, as ex mar, out of the sea.
a. With names of towns, small islands, dom, from home, and with rre, from the country, the preposition
is regularly omitted, as Karthgine, from Carthage.
b. In poetry the preposition is often omitted, as venit (ex) tali, he comes from Italy.
321. Ablative of Accompaniment. Accompaniment (attendance) is denoted by the ablative with cum, as venit
cum socis, he comes with his comrades.
a. With m, t, s, nbs, vbs, qu, qu, quibus, the preposition cum is regularly appended, as mcum,
with me; tcum, with you; scum, with him(self), with them(selves).
322. Time When or Within Which is denoted by the ablative, as urbem cpit nocte, he captured the city at night;
nocte pluit tt, it rains all night.
323. Origin (source or descent) is denoted by the ablative with or without ex or d, as ntus de, born of a god-
dess (goddess-born); ex m atque ex hc ntus es, you are his son and mine.
324. Ablative of Material. Material is denoted by the ablative, usually with ex, as domus facta ex sax, ex ferr,
a house made of stone, of iron; aere clipeus, a shield of bronze. See 280 for the genitive of material.
325. Ablative of Respect. The respect in which a verb, adjective, or noun is to be taken is denoted by the ablative,
as sunt qudam homins nn r sed nmine, some people are human beings not in fact (reality), but in name
(only). Th is is sometimes called the ablative of specification.
Grammatical Appendix 59

326. Ablative of Accordance. The ablative, usually with d or ex, is used to express that in accordance with
which a thing is done or judged, as ex sents cnsult, in accordance with the decree of the senate.
a. With certain words accordance is usually expressed by the ablative without a preposition, as cnsutdine
su, according to his custom; tu cnsili, in accordance with your plan; me sententi, in my opinion.
327. Ablative with Comparatives. Comparatives without quam are followed by the ablative, as exg monu-
mentum aere perennius, I have erected a monument more enduring than bronze; mtre pulchr flia
pulchrior, O daughter fairer than a mother fair!
328. Ablative of Manner. Manner is denoted by the ablative regularly with an adjective or with cum, as cum
virtte vvere, to live virtuously; id fcit magn cum cr, he did it very carefully.
a. The simple ablative of certain nouns may be used to denote manner, as cs, by chance; v, by force.
329. Ablative of Attendant Circumstance. Attendant circumstance, situation, or result may be expressed
by the ablative, usually with a modifier, and without a preposition, but sometimes with cum, as magn
intervall, at a great distance; frequentissim sent, at a crowded meeting of the senate; imperi su,
under his full power; clmre, with shouting; cum tu pernici, with (to) your destruction; magn (cum)
dolre omnium, to the great grief of all.
330. Ablative of Quality. Quality or description is denoted by the ablative regularly with an adjective, as sttra
fuit humil, he was of low stature. Th is is sometimes called the ablative of characteristic or description. See
285 for the genitive of quality.
331. Ablative of Means. Means or instrument is denoted by the ablative, without a preposition, as clr vide
oculs, I see clearly with my eyes; pugnbant arms, they fought with arms.
332. Ablative of Cause. Cause may also be expressed by the ablative without a preposition, as drunt peccre
bon virttis amre, the good hate to sin from love of virtue.
333. Ablative of Agent. The agent is denoted by the ablative with (ab), as urbs capta est ab ill duce, the city
was captured by that leader.
334. The Standard of Measurement is denoted by the ablative, as magns homins virtte mtimur, nn
fortn, we measure great men by worth, not by fortune.
335. Measure of Difference is put in the ablative, as sl mults partibus est major quam terra niversa, the sun
is many parts (a great deal) larger than the whole earth. Th is is also sometimes called the degree of difference.
336. Ablative of Price. Defi nite price is put in the ablative, as mit morte immortlittem, he purchased death-
lessness with death.
a. General value is expressed by the genitive. See 292.
337. Ablative with Adjectives. The ablative is used with dignus, indignus, frtus, contentus, and laetus, and
with adjectives of fullness and abundance, as contentus hc equ, content with this horse; dignus poen,
worthy of punishment; indignus poen, unworthy of punishment.
a. Also the verb dignor, deem worthy, takes the ablative in poetry and later prose, as haud tl m dignor
honre, I do not deem myself worthy of such honor.
338. The Ablative of Route is used to denote the way by which, as prvehimur pelag, we sail forth over the sea.
339. Ablative with Prepositions. The ablative is used with many prepositions, the most important being
abs (ab, ), cum, cram, d
prae, pr, sine, ex (or ).
60 Vergils Aeneid

340. Ablative of Separation. Separation is expressed by the ablative case, with or without a preposition. Th is
ablative is used especially with verbs of depriving, of freedom, and of want, as s prvvit oculs, he deprived
himself of his eyes; omnibus egre rbus, to be in need of everything; t ab e lber, I free you from him. Th is
is called the ablative of separation.
a. The ablative of separation is also used with alinus and with adjectives of freedom and want, as alinum
mjestte derum, inconsistent with the dignity of the gods; lber cr, free from care.
341. The ablative is used with opus and sus, as opus est mihi aur, I need gold; sus est dicts bons, there is
need of kind words.
342. Ablative with Special Verbs. tor, fruor, fungor, potior, vscor, and their compounds take the ablative,
as hs vcibus sa est, she spoke (used) these words; absus est nostr patienti, he used up our patience;
fruimur lce vtae, we enjoy the light of life; fungor offici, I am performing my duty; pottur victri, he
gains the victory; lacte vscuntur, they live on milk.
343. Ablative Absolute. The ablative, combined with a participle, adjective, or noun, may serve to express the
circumstances in which an act takes place, as duce vict, abeunt, the leader having been conquered, they de-
part; urbe capt, homins redeunt, the city having been captured, the men return. Th is phrase is called the
ablative absolute.
a. The ablative absolute phrase may have an accessory idea of time, cause, or condition, as Caesare cnsule
haec lx lta est, this law was passsed in Caesars consulship.

Vocative
344. Vocative. The vocative, with or without , O, is used in addressing a person or thing, as Msa, O Muse!
Aeole, O Aeolus! rgna, O queen!

Locative
345. Names of towns and small islands of the fi rst and second declensions, humus, domus, and rs, are put in
the locative of the place where, as Rmae, at Rome; Crtae, in Crete; hum, on the ground; dom, at home.
a. In poetry the names of countries and large islands also are sometimes found in the locative, as Libyae,
in Libya.

Adverbs
346. Adverbs qualify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs, as male vvit, he lives badly; bene labrat, he works
well; fer omns, almost all; nimis saepe, too often.

Questions
347. a. A question for information merely is generally introduced by ne, as videtne patrem, does he see his
father?
b. A question that expects the answer yes is generally introduced by nnne, as nnne vids, dont you see?
c. A question that expects the answer no is generally introduced by num, as num vids patrem, you dont
see your father (do you)?
Grammatical Appendix 61

Moods in Interrogative Sentences

348. The Deliberative Question has its verb in the subjunctive, as dcam an taceam, shall I speak or hold my
tongue? quid facerem, what was I to do?
a. Occasionally the present indicative is used in deliberative questions, as quem sequimur, whom are we
to follow?
349. The Indirect Question has its verb in the subjunctive, as quaermus (1) quid fcerit, (2) quid faciat, (3)
quid factrus sit, we shall ask what he has done, what he is doing, what he is going to do (will do).
350. The direct form of these three questions would be: (1) quid fcit? (2) quid facit? (3) quid faciet (or factrus
est)?

Tenses
351. There are six tenses in Latin: the present, imperfect, future, perfect, pluperfect, and future perfect.
1. The Present denotes continuance in the present; it is used: (1) of that which is going on now (specific
present), as auribus tene lupum, I am holding a wolf by the ears; (2) of statements that apply to all time
(universal present), as probits laudtur et alget, honesty is praised and freezes.
a. The Historical Present. The present is used far more frequently than in English as a lively representa-
tion of the past, as cohorts incdere iubet, he orders the cohorts to advance. Th is is called the historical
present.
b. The present is used in Latin of actions that continue into the present, especially with iam, now,
iam di, now for a long time, iam prdem, now long since, as Mithridts annum iam tertium et
vcsimum rgnat, Mithridates has been reigning now going on twenty-three years.
c. The present is sometimes used for the future, or to denote attempted action (conative present), as
quam prendimus arcem, what citadel are we to seize? uxrem dcis, are you to be married? quid m
terrs, why do you try to frighten me?
2. The Imperfect Tense denotes continued or repeated action in the past, as pugnbam, I was fighting,
I kept fighting, I used to fight. The imperfect is employed to represent manners, customs, situations; to
describe and to particularize.
a. The Imperfect of Endeavor. The imperfect is used of attempted and interrupted, intended and ex-
pected actions (imperfect of endeavor, conative imperfect), as urbem relinqubat, he was trying to
leave the city; lx abrogbtur, the law was to be abrogated.
b. The imperfect and the historical perfect serve to supplement each other. The imperfect dwells on
the process; the historical perfect states the result. The imperfect counts out the items; the historical
perfect gives the sum. The two tenses are often so combined that the general statement is given by the
historical perfect, the particulars of the action by the imperfect, as Verrs in forum vnit; ardbant
ocul; tt ex re crdlits minbat, Verres came into the forum; his eyes were blazing; cruelty was
standing out from his whole countenance.
3. The Future Tense denotes continuance in the future, as scrbam, I shall be writing. It is also used to
express indefi nite action in the future, as scrbam, I shall write.
a. The future is sometimes used in an imperative sense, as in English, as cum volet, accds; cum t
vtbit, abbis, when she wants you, approach; when she avoids you, begone sir. Compare such English
expressions as Thou shalt not kill.
b. A similar use is that of the future in asseverations, as ita m ambit Iuppiter, so help me, Jove!
62 Vergils Aeneid

4. The Perfect Tense has two distinct uses: the pure perfect and the historical perfect.
a. The Pure Perfect expresses completion in the present and hence is sometimes called the present per-
fect. It is used of an action that is now over and gone, as vximus, we have lived (life for us has been);
Troia fuit, Troy has been (but is no longer). It is more frequently used to denote the present result of a
more remote action (resulting condition), as ctum est, perst, it is all over, you are ruined; equum et
mlum Brundisi tibi relqu, I have left a horse and mule for you at Brundisium (they are still there).
b. The Historical or Indefi nite Perfect states a past action, without reference to its duration, simply
as a thing attained, an occurrence, as vn, vd, vc, I came, I saw, I conquered; Mil domum vnit,
calces et vestmenta mtvit, paulisper commortus est, Milo came home, changed shoes and
clothes, tarried a little while.
5. The Pluperfect denotes completion in the past and is used of an action that was completed before another
was begun, as fuerat inimcus, he had been my enemy.
6. The Future Perfect denotes both completion and attainment, as fcer, I shall have done it, or I shall do
it (once and for all).
352. The Latin tenses are divided into primary (principal) and secondary (historical).
a. The Primary Tenses have to do with the present and future; they are the present, pure perfect, future,
and future perfect.
b. The Secondary Tenses have to do with the past; they are the historical present, imperfect, historical
perfect, and pluperfect.

Moods in Subordinate Sentences

Sequence of Tenses
353. Primary (principal) tenses are ordinarily followed by primary tenses, secondary (historical) by secondary
tenses, as follows:
(1) All forms that relate
to the present and future
(primary tenses)
} are regularly
followed by { the present subjunctive (for continued
action); the perfect subjunctive (for
completed action).
(2) All forms that relate
to the past (secondary
tenses)
} are regularly
followed by { the imperfect subjunctive (for continued
action); the pluperfect subjunctive (for
completed action).
a. The action which is completed with regard to the leading verb may be in itself a continued action. So in
English: I do not know what he has been doing, I did not know what he had been doing. The Latin is unable
to make this distinction, and so the imperfect indicative (he was doing) is represented in the dependent
form by the perfect or pluperfect, thus: nesci quid fcerit, nescv quid fcisset.
b. The above rule is subject to several modifications:
1. Tense refers to time, not merely to tense form, so that
(a). The historical present may be felt according to its sense as past or according to its tense as present.
(b). The pure perfect may be felt according to its starting-point as past, or according to its completion
as present.
2. The effect of a past action may be continued into the present or the future.
Grammatical Appendix 63

3. The dependent clause may depend on two or more clauses with their verbs in different tenses, and so
follow a varying sequence.
4. An original imperfect or pluperfect subjunctive does not change its tense even when made to depend
on a primary leading verb, for example, in unreal conditions (382, a).
354. The future relation of a verb in a dependent subjunctive clause may be made clearer by the use of an active
periphrastic, as cognscam, quid factrus ss, I shall (try to) find out what you are going to do; cognv quid
factrus esss, I have found out (know) what you were going to do.
355. In Indirect Discourse (indirect statement) all verbs in subordinate clauses are in the subjunctive and follow
the general rule of sequence of tenses. See 390.

Quod Clauses
356. Quod, the fact that, in that, is used with the indicative to introduce explanatory clauses after verbs of add-
ing and dropping, doing and happening, and after demonstrative expressions, as adde quod vcimus, add
the fact that we have won; praetere quod nn mnsit, I pass over the fact that he did not remain; bene facis
quod tacs, you do well in that you keep silent; hc r est nflx, quod victus est, in this he is unfortunate, in
that he was conquered.

Causal Clauses
357. Quod, quia, quoniam and quand take the indicative in direct discourse, the subjunctive in implied indi-
rect discourse, to express cause, as fgit quod timbat, he fled because he was afraid; fgit quod timret,
he fled because (as he said) he was afraid.
358. Quod is used after verbs of emotion with the indicative in direct discourse, the subjunctive in implied
indirect discourse, to give the reason (ground), as gaudet quod vnrunt, he rejoices that they have come;
gaudet quod vnerint, he rejoices that (as he says) they have come.

Purpose Clauses
359. Purpose is expressed by the present or imperfect subjunctive with ut or n, as vnit ut dceret homins,
he came to lead (that he might lead) the men; fugit n capitur, he flees lest he be (that he may not be) captured.
For the relative clauses of purpose see 388.
360. Substantive Volitive Clauses. The present or imperfect subjunctive with ut or n is used in a substantive
clause after verbs of will and desire, as r ut venis, I beg that you come; vol ut veniat, I wish him to come;
volu n venret, I wished him not to come. Such a clause is called a substantive volitive clause.
a. The infi nitive may also be used with such verbs, especially in poetry.
b. Iube regularly takes the accusative and infi nitive.

Verbs of Hindering
361. A verb of preventing, refusing, and the like may take n or quminus with the subjunctive, as obstat n
veniat, he hinders him from coming.
362. A negatived verb of preventing, refusing, and the like may take qun or quminus with the subjunctive, as
nihil obstat qun (or quminus) ss betus, nothing hinders you from being happy.
64 Vergils Aeneid

Verbs of Fearing
363. A verb of fear may be followed by n or ut (= n + nn) with any tense of the subjunctive, as time n hostis
veniat, I fear lest the enemy come, that he is coming, that he will come; time n hostis vnerit. I lear lest the
enemy have come, that (it will turn out that) he has come; time ut amcus veniat, I fear lest my friend come
not, that he is not coming, will not come.

Result Clauses
364. The subjunctive with ut or ut nn is used to denote result, as tanta vs derum est ut es nn possmus
obstre, so great is the power of the gods that we cannot oppose them; nm est tam fortis ut nn possit ca-
dere, no one is so strong but he can (that he cannot) fall.
a. A relative pronoun is sometimes used instead of ut, as nm est tam fortis qu nn possit cadere.
365. A verb of effecting has the subjunctive with ut, n, or ut nn, as faciam ut veniat, I shall make (have) him
come; faciam n veniat, I shall bring it about that he does not come.
366. Negatived or questioned verbs of doubt and uncertainty may be followed by the subjunctive with qun, as
nn dubium est qun urbs capitur, there is no doubt (but) that the city is being captured.
367. Substantive Clauses of Result. The subjunctive with ut is often used in a substantive clause to give the
contents or character of a preceding substantive, adjective, or pronoun, as ttum in e est, ut tibi impers,
all depends on this, your self-command (that you rule yourself); id est proprium cvittis, ut sit lbera, this is
the peculiar privilege of a state, to be free (that it be free). Th is is called the substantive clause of result.

Temporal Clauses
368. Ut, ut prmum, cum, cum prmum, ubi, ubi prmum, simul ac, simul atque, in the sense of as soon as,
and postquam take the perfect indicative, as postquam vnit dux, urbs capta est, after the leader came, the
city was captured; ut vdit urbem captam, fgit, as (soon as) he saw the city captured, he fled.
a. The imperfect indicative is used of overlapping action, and the pluperfect indicative when a defi nite
interval is given, as ut vidbat hosts vincents, rediit domum, as he saw the enemy were conquering,
he returned home; postquam cperat urbem, mlits dcit domum, after he had captured the city, he led
his soldiers home.
369. When two repeated actions are contemporaneous, both are put in the indicative in tenses of continuance,
as rx bellum gerbat cum volbat, the king waged war whenever he wished.
370. When one repeated action comes before another, the antecedent action is put in the perfect, pluperfect, or
future perfect indicative, the subsequent in the present, imperfect, or future indicative, according to the
relation, as quotins cecidit, surgit, as often as he falls (has fallen), he rises; quotins ceciderat, surgbat,
as often as he fell (had fallen), he rose; quotins ceciderit, surget, as often as he falls (shall have fallen), he will
rise.
371. Dum, dnec, quoad, and quamdi, so long as, while, take the indicative of all tenses, as vta dum superest,
bene est, while (as long as) there is life, it is well; dnec grtus eram tib, flx fu, while I was pleasing to you,
I was fortunate; quoad potuit restitit, he resisted as long as he could.
372. Dum, while, while yet, usually takes the present indicative when the verb of the main clause is in the past
tense, as dum hae rs aguntur, urbs ardbat; while these things were going on, the city was burning.
373. Dum, dnec, and quoad, until, take the present, historical present, historical perfect, or future perfect
indicative, when suspense or anticipation are not involved, as manb dum venit, I shall remain until he
comes; mns dum (quoad, dnec) vnit, I remained until he came. See 374.
Grammatical Appendix 65

374. Dum, dnec, and quoad, until, take the subjunctive when suspense, anticipation, or design is involved, as
mns dum venret, I remained until he could come; exspect dum veniat, I am waiting for him to come. See
373.
375. Dum, modo, and dummodo, if only, provided only, take the present or imperfect subjunctive in a proviso
clause, as derint dum metuant, let them hate so long as they fear (provided that, if they will only fear); veniat,
dum maneat, let him come, provided that he remains.
376. Antequam and priusquam take the indicative present, perfect, or future perfect when the time limit is
stated as a fact, as antequam abe, dcam pauca, before I go, I shall say a few words; antequam abiit, dxerat
pauca, before he went, he had said a few words.
a. Antequam and priusquam take the subjunctive when the action is anticipated, contingent, or designed,
as urbem capit priusquam rx veniat, he captures the city before the king may arrive (too soon for the king
to arrive); ante vidmus fulgrem quam sonum audimus, we see the flash of lightning before we hear
the sound (of thunder).

Cum Clauses
377. Temporal cum, when, is used with all tenses of the indicative to designate merely temporal relations, as
animus nec cum adest nec cum discdit appret, the soul is not visible, either when it is present or when it
departs; pruit cum necesse erat, he obeyed when it was necessary.
378. Descriptive cum, when, is used with the imperfect and pluperfect subjunctive to give the circumstances
under which an action took place, as cum dmicret, occsus est, when he engaged in battle, he was slain;
Caesar cum id nuntitum esset, mtrat ab urbe proficsc, when this was (had been) announced to Caesar,
he hastened to set out from the city. Th is cum is sometimes called cum circumstantial.
379. Causal or Concessive cum, when, whereas, although, is used with any tense of the subjunctive, as quae cum
ita sint, dbet fugere, since these things are so, we must flee; cum pr esset arms, tamen dbuerat fugere,
although he was equal in arms, nevertheless he had to flee.

Conditional Sentences
380. The Logical (More Vivid or Simple) Conditional Sentence regularly has the same tense of the indica-
tive in both the subordinate clause (the condition or protasis) and the principal clause (the conclusion or
apodosis) as follows:
condition conclusion
S id crdis, errs.
If you believe that, you are wrong.
S id crdbs, errbs.
If you believed that, you were wrong.
S id crdidist, errvist.
If you (have) believed that, you were (have been) wrong.
S id crds, errbis.
If you (shall) believe that, you will be wrong.
S id crdiders, errvers.
If you shall have believed that, you will have been wrong.
66 Vergils Aeneid

381. The Ideal (Less Vivid) Conditional Sentence regularly has the present or perfect subjunctive, in both
clauses, as follows:
condition conclusion
S id crds, errs.
If you should (were to) believe that, you would be wrong.
S id crdiders, errvers (rare)
If you should (prove to) have believed that, you would have been wrong.

a. In indirect discourse, or indirect statement, the verb of the conditional clause of a logical or less vivid
conditional sentence is in the subjunctive and follows the general rule of sequence of tenses, as dc t,
s id crds, errre; dx t, s id crders, errre.
382. The Unreal (Contrary to Fact) Conditional Sentence regularly has the imperfect subjunctive in both
clauses if contrary to present fact, and the pluperfect subjunctive in both clauses if contrary to past fact, as
follows:
condition conclusion
S id crders, errrs.
If you believed that (but you do not), you would be wrong.
S id crdidisss, errvisss.
If you had believed that (but you did not), you would have been wrong.

a. In indirect discourse the verb of an unreal condition is in the same mood and tense as it would be in direct
discourse, and the verb of an unreal conclusion takes one of four special periphrastic forms, as follows:

Dc (dx) s id crders, t errtrum esse. { (active, contrary to

present fact)
(active, contrary to
Dc (dx) s id crdidisss, t errtrum fuisse. { past fact)
Dc (dx) s id crders, fore ut dciperrs. { (passive, contrary
to present fact)
(passive, contrary
Dc (dx) s id crdidisss, futrum fuisse ut dciperrs. { to past fact)
b. Similarly in substantive clauses, as follows:
Nn dubitum est qun, s id crders, errrs.
Nn dubitum erat qun, s id crdidisss, errtrus fuers.
c. In poetry the present subjunctive is often used in both clauses of an unreal conditional sentence.
d. All conceivable combinations of types of mixed conditions and conclusions may be used; as the conclu-
sion may have the form of a wish, command, statement of obligation, necessity, etc. These mixed forms
are especially common with verbs which convey a future idea, as dbe, ought; possum, be able, can;
stude, desire; vol, will, wish, as s Pompius prvtus esset, tamen is mittendus erat, if Pompey were
a private citizen, nevertheless he ought to be sent; vincite s vultis, have your way if you will.
Grammatical Appendix 67

383. Ut s, ac s, quasi, quam s, tamquam, tamquam s, velut, or velut s and the subjunctive are used in a
clause of comparison, as tantus metus patrs cpit, velut s iam ad ports hostis esset, a great fear took
hold of the senators, as if the enemy were already at the gates.
a. The subjunctive verb in such a clause follows the rule of sequence of tenses.

Concessive Clauses
384. A Concessive Clause may be introduced by ets, etiams, or tamets, with the indicative or subjunctive; by
quamquam, with the indicative only; by quamvs, with the subjunctive only.

Relative Clauses
385. The Relative Clause as such, that is, a clause used as an adjective to modify a noun, regularly has its verb in
the indicative, as am virum qu fortis est, I like a man who is brave, I like a brave man.
386. An indefi nite or general relative clause usually has its verb in the indicative; so explanatory qu, when
equivalent to quod, as errverim fortasse, qu m aliquid putv, I may have erred in thinking myself to be
something.
387. A relative clause that depends on an infi nitive or a subjunctive, and forms an integral part of the thought, has
its verb in the subjunctive by att raction, as pigr est ingeni contentum esse is quae sint ab alis inventa,
it is the mark of a lazy mind to be content with what has been found out by others.
388. A relative clause has its verb in the subjunctive when qu is equivalent to ut is in an expression of purpose,
as ripiunt alis quod alis dent, they snatch from some to give to others. Th is is called the relative clause of
purpose.
389. A relative clause has its verb in the subjunctive when qu is equivalent to ut is in a clause of description or
characteristic; so after an indefi nite antecedent, after dignus, indignus, idneus, aptus, etc., as mult sunt
qu ripiant, there are many to snatch away; sunt (e) qu dcant, there are those who say (some say); dignus
est qu cnsul fat, he is worthy of being made consul. Th is is called the subjunctive of characteristic.

Indirect Discourse
390. Indirect discourse (indirect statement), as opposed to direct discourse, gives the main drift of a speech and
not the exact words.
a. Indirect discourse depends on some verb of saying, showing, believing, perceiving, or thinking, ex-
pressed or implied.
b. In indirect discourse a principal statement has its verb in the infi nitive, as dcit es vnisse, he says that
they have come; dcit es venre, he says that they are coming; a question or a command has its verb in the
subjunctive, as quaerit quid velint, he asks what they want; quaesvit quid vellent, he asked what they
wanted; dcit hominibus ut veniant, he tells the men to come; dxit hominibus ut fugerent, he told the
men to flee.
c. A subordinate clause in indirect discourse has its verb in the subjunctive. See 355.
68 Vergils Aeneid

Vergils Meter
The Dactylic Hexameter
Vergil used dactylic hexameter, the meter of epic poetry, to compose the Aeneid. Homer (8th century bce) estab-
lished the epic character of dactylic hexameter by using it to compose the Iliad and the Odyssey; many other early
Greek epic poems, now lost, were composed in the same meter. Beginning in the third century bce, Latin poets
began to experiment with adapting dactylic hexameter to their language. Th is was no easy taskGreek has a much
larger vocabulary, including many more words with multiple short syllables, than does Latin, and is therefore bet-
ter suited than Latin to dactylic hexameter. Vergil is generally considered by scholars and other admirers to have
been the fi rst to bring dactylic hexameter to perfection in Latin; in fact, many believe that he was the fi rst and
last Latin poet to do so. Whether this is true or not, there is no better introduction to Latin meter than through
Vergil; and, strained and odd-sounding though the results may be at fi rst, it is in fact possible with practice to get
a reasonable idea of how Latin poetry might have sounded 2,000 years ago. It is important to make this attempt
both for its own sake and because much ancient poetry, including the Aeneid, was intended to be heard; and a well-
read excerpt can be quite powerful.
The term dactylic hexameter is derived from Greek. Hexameter means six measures (hex, six; metron,
measure). A dactyl is a measure consisting of one long and two short syllables; the name dactyl comes from the
Greek word for fi nger (daktylos), since with its two joints a fi nger can be imagined as consisting of one longer
and two shorter sections. A line of dactylic hexameter consists of five dactylic measures (or, as they are commonly
called, feet) followed by a fi nal measure of two syllables, the fi rst of which is always long. Any of the five dactyls
can be replaced by a spondee (a measure consisting of two long syllables). The pattern of long and short syllables
in dactylic hexameter looks like this (Aen. 1.111):
l k k| l k k| l l|l l | l k k | l x
A R M A v irumque can, Troiae qu prmus ab rs

lkk|l l|l k k| l l| l k k | l x
taliam ft profugus Lvniaque vnit

lkk| l l | l l | l l |l k k |l x
ltora, multum ille et terrs iacttus et alt
k k
l k k| l l| l k k| l l|l k k |l x
v superum, saevae memorem Innis ob ram,

l k k | l l|l l | l l |l k k|l x
5 multa quoque et bell passus, dum conderet urbem
k
l l |l k k|l k k|l k k | l k k|l x
nferretque des Lati; genus unde Latnum

l l|l k k| l l| l l | l kk| l x
A lbnque patrs atque altae moenia Rmae.
k
l k k|l l | l k k|l l | l k k | l x
Msa, mih causs memor, qu nmine laes

l k k|l l|l k k|l l | l k k | l x

quidve dolns rgna deum tot volvere css
Grammatical Appendix 69

l l | l kk|l k k| l k k|l k k| l x
10 nsignem piette virum, tot adre labrs

l k k|l l | l k k| l l | l k k |l x
impulerit. Tantaene anims caelestibus rae?
k

Note that the fi nal syllable in a line is always indicated by x. It can be either long or short; its Latin name, syllaba
anceps, means ambiguous or undecided syllable.
Most lines of hexameter consist of a combination of dactyls and spondees. The variety of combinations avail-
able would have kept the spoken verse from sounding monotonous. Note, however, that lines consisting entirely
of spondees are very rare, and that Vergil uses a spondee in the fi ft h foot only on rare occasions. Such lines (i.e.,
those with a fi ft h-foot spondee) are called spondaic lines, or spondeiazontes (singular, spondeiazon). Lines
consisting entirely of dactyls are relatively unusual as well, although they are not as rare as spondaic lines.
Latin meter is quantitative. Every syllable in a Latin word has a quantity, either long or short. Syllable
length is determined a) by nature or b) by position. See items 1424 for general guidelines on how to determine
the length of a syllable.

Some special features of the Latin hexameter should be noted:

Elision when one word ends with a vowel, diphthong, or -m, and the following word begins with a vowel or h-,
the fi rst vowel or diphthong is elided, i.e., blended, with the second. The length of the resulting combination
syllable will generally be whatever the length of the second syllable originally was. There are examples of elision
above in lines 3, 5, 7, and 11.
Hiatus see the list of rhetorical and stylistic devices below.
Consonantal vowels when used in combination with other vowels (e.g., Iuppiter, coniunx, genua), the vowels -i-
and -u- can sometimes serve as consonants, pronounced as -j- and -w-, respectively. As such, they do not create
diphthongs with the vowels next to them, and they can lengthen a preceding short syllable if combined with an-
other consonant. There is an example above in line 2, Laviniaque, where the second -i- is treated as a consonant.
Synizesis see the list of rhetorical and stylistic devices below.
Hypermetric lines occasionally a hexameter ends with a syllable that can elide with the fi rst syllable of the next
line. Th is fi nal syllable is not needed to complete the metrical pattern of the line in which it appears.
70 Vergils Aeneid

Glossary of Rhetorical Terms, Figures of Speech,

and Metrical Devices Mentioned in the Notes
Alliteration is the repetition of the same letter or sound, usually at the beginning of a series of words, as at Aen.
1.124, Interea magno misceri murmure pontum. Alliteration is often used in combination with Onomatopoiea
(see below), as in this example.
Anaphora is the repetition of a word or words at the beginning of successive clauses. E.g., Aen. 1.42122, Miratur
molem Aeneas, ..., / miratur portas. In Vergil, Anaphora is often used in combination with Asyndeton (see
below), as in this example.
Anastrophe is the inversion of the normal order of words, as at Aen. 4.320, te propter.
Aposiopesis (a falling silent) is a breaking off in the middle of a sentence, the syntax of which is never resumed.
E.g., Aen. 1.135, Quos egosed motos praestat componere fluctus, when Neptune decides to suppress his
wrath, at least temporarily.
Apostrophe is a sudden break from the previous narrative for an address, in the second person, of some person or
object, absent or present. E.g., Aen. 1.9496, O terque quaterque beati, / quis ante ora patrum Troiae sub
moenibus altis / contigit oppetere!, addressed to the Trojans who fell at Troy.
Asyndeton is the omission of conjunctions, as at Aen. 6.315, nunc hos nunc accipit illos.
Ecphrasis is an extended and elaborate description of a work of art, a building, or a natural sett ing. E.g., Aen.
1.15969, describing the cave of the nymphs at Carthage.
Ellipsis is the omission of one or more words which must be logically supplied in order to create a grammatically
complete expression. E.g., Aen. 1.543, sperate deos memores, where the verb futuros esse must be supplied to
complete the sense of the line.
Enallage is the transference of an epithet from the word to which it strictly belongs to another word connected
with it in thought. E.g., Aen. 6.390, somni noctisque soporae, where the epithet soporae in fact describes not
night itself but the drowsiness associated with sleep and night.
(N.B.: this defi nition is sometimes mistakenly given in textbooks and notes for a related but not identical
figure of speech, Hypallage. The figure of speech sometimes called Hypallage is identical to Metonymy [see
below].)
Enjambment is the continuation of a unit of thought beyond the end of one verse and into the fi rst few feet of
the next. E.g., Aen. 6.42021, melle soporatam et medicatis fr ugibus offam / obicit, where obicit completes the
meaning of the preceding line; a strong pause follows immediately thereafter.
Epanalepsis is the repetition of a word (often a proper name, and often in successive lines of verse) for dramatic
and/or emotional effect. (It sometimes appears in combination with Anaphora and Asyndeton [see above for
both terms].) E.g., Aen. 6023, divum inclementia, divum / has evertit opes . . .
Euphemism is the avoidance of a direct, sometimes blunt manner of speaking in favor of a more subtle and some-
times diluted form of expression. E.g., Aen. 6.457, the circumlocution extrema secutam instead of the explicit
mortuam.
Hendiadys is the expression of an idea by means of two nouns connected by a conjunction instead of by a noun and
a modifying adjective, or by one noun modified by another. E.g., Aen. 1.54, vinclis et carcere = vinclis carceris.
Hiatus is the avoidance in meter of elision between one word ending in a vowel and another beginning with a
vowel (or h). E.g., Aen. 4.667, femineo ululatu. Here as often the metrical device enhances Onomatopoiea
(see below).
Grammatical Appendix 71

Hyperbaton is the distanced placement of two (or more) words which are logically meant to be understood to-
gether. E.g., Aen. 2.58991, cum mihi se, non ante oculis tam clara, videndam / obtulit et pura per noctem in luce
refulsit / alma parens, where the subject + verb + object combination se obtulit et refulsit alma parens is
dislocated, and added emphasis is thus given to each word.
Hyperbole is exaggeration for rhetorical effect. E.g., Aen. 1.103, fluctusque ad sidera tollit.
Hysteron proteron is the reversal of the natural or logical order of ideas. E.g., Aen. 1.69, submersas . . . obrue puppes,
where, contrary to logic, Juno instructs Aeolus to flood the Trojan ships after they have been sunk.
Litotes is understatement, often enhanced by the use of the negative. E.g., Aen. 6.392, nec . . . me sum laetatus.
Metonymy is the substitution of one word for another which it suggests. E.g., Aen. 4.309, hiberno sidere = hiberno
tempore.
Onomatopoeia is the use of words the sound of which suggests the sense. E.g., Aen. 1.105, insequitur cumulo
praeruptus aquae mons.
Pathetic fallacy is the att ribution of human emotion to inanimate objects. E.g., Aen. 4.66768, Lamentis gemituque
et femineo ululatu / tecta fremunt, where the roaring is in fact done not by the dwelling but by those whose
cries fi ll it. When used with adjectives, Pathetic fallacy is a special type of Transferred epithet (see below).
Pleonasm is exceptional (and usually unnecessary) fullness of expression, typical of archaic Latin style. E.g., Aen.
4.203, amens animi.
Polyptoton is the repetition of a noun or pronoun in different cases at the beginning of successive phrases or
clauses. E.g., Aen. 1.1067, Hi summo in fluctu pendent; his unda dehiscens / terram inter fluctus aperit . . . Polyp-
toton is a form of Anaphora, and often is found with Asyndeton (see above).
Polysyndeton is an overabundance of conjunctions, as at Aen. 1.8586, una Eurusque Notusque ruunt creberque
procellis / Africus
Rhetorical question is a question that anticipates no real answer. E.g., Aen. 2.57778 (Aeneas to himself): Scilicet
haec Spartam incolumis patriasque Mycenas / aspiciet, partoque ibit regina triumpho?
Prolepsis is the inclusion in the main story of references to events which in fact will occur after the dramatic time
of the poem, and to the people and circumstances involved in these later events. E.g., Aen. 6.84750, Excudent
ducent orabunt describent dicent, all used to describe the Romans who will be descended from
Aeneas and who are not themselves characters in the Aeneid.
Simile is a figure of speech which likens or asserts an explicit comparison between two different things. E.g., Aen.
6.45154, [Dido] quam . . . / obscuram, qualem primo qui surgere mense / aut videt aut vidisse putat per
nubile lunam.
Synchysis is interlocking word order; many variations on the pattern abAB exist. E.g., Aen. 4.700, Iris croceis . . .
roscida pennis.
Synecdoche is the use of a part for the whole, or the reverse. E.g., Aen. 4.354, capitis . . . iniuria cari, where capitis
cari is used to indicate a person.
Synizesis is a metrical effect whereby two contiguous vowels within the same word and normally pronounced
separately are slurred into one syllable. E.g., Aen. 1.120, Ilionei, where the last two vowels, normally pronounced
as a short vowel followed by a long, become one long vowel.
Tmesis (splitt ing) is the separation into two parts of a word normally written as one, often for a (quasi-)visual
effect. E.g., Aen. 2.21819, bis collo squamea circum / terga dati, where circum + dati = circumdati; the word
terga is literally surrounded by the two parts of circumdati.
Transferred Epithet is an epithet which has been transferred from the word to which it strictly belongs to another
word connected with it in thought. E.g., Aen. 1.123, inimicum imbrem = inimici dei imbrem.
(See also Enallage [above], an ancient name for the same stylistic feature.)
72 Vergils Aeneid

Tricolon crescens is the accumulation of three parallel phrases or clauses, each of which is at least one syllable
longer than that preceding it. E.g., Aen. 4.3078, Nec te noster amor [6 syllables] nec te data dextera quon-
dam [9 syllables] / nec moritura tenet crudeli funere Dido? [15 syllables]. Tricolon crescens is often found
in combination with Anaphora and Asyndeton (see above).
Zeugma is the joining of two words by a modifying or governing word which strictly applies to only one of them.
E.g., Aen. 12.898, limes agro positus litem ut discerneret arvis, where zeugma occurs in the use of the verb
discerneret with both litem and arvis: the boundary stone settles disagreements by dividing the fields.
 INDEX TO THE GRA MMATICAL APPENDIX
(The references are to sections.)

, ending of acc. sing. of Greek Accomplishing, verbs of, 365 Adjectives, Syntax: agreement,
nouns, 68; nom., acc. and voc. Accordance, abl. of, 326 237239; as adverbs, 95, 250,
pl. ending of neuters, 33, c Accusative, defined, 30; in neuters 310; with inf., 265; with gen.,
, prepositions ending in, 312 like nom., 33, c; sing. in a, 68; 287; with dat., 304; with abl., 337;
or ab with abl., 320, 333, 339 sing. in im, 56, a; pl. in s, 56, pred., 239; double compar., 245
Ability, verbs of with inf., 259 d, 83, b; of supine, 270; names Advantage, dat. of, 301
Ablative, defined, 30; in bus, 34, of towns, domus and rs, 315, a Adverbial accusative, 310; adv.
c; in , 55, d, 56, b, 77, 81, 82, Accusative, Syntax: adv., 309311, abl., 328
a; prepositions with, 339; adv. 95, b; cognate, 313; direct obj., Adverbs, 9397; formation, 95;
forms of, 310; of supine, 271; pl. 307; exclamation, 318; extent, compar., 9697; adjectives used
like the dat., 33, d; qus and qu 314; Greek, 309311; subj. of adverbially, 250, 310, 328, a; use,
as abl. and dat., 109, c, d inf., 317; with middle voice, 309; 346; double compar., 245; num.
Ablative, Syntax: abs., 343; accom- with prepositions, 312; respect, adverbs, 101
paniment, 321; accordance, 326; 311; of gerund(ive) with ad, 268; Adversative clauses, 379, 384
as adv., 95, 310, 328, a; agent, two accusatives: verbs of asking, adversum, with acc., 312
333; with adjectives (dignus, making, etc., 316; remembering
ae, diphthong, 5
alinus, etc.), 337, 340, a; cause, and forgetting, 288, a; com-
pound verbs, 308 aeger, decl. like pulcher, 71
332; gerund(ive), 269; with com-
Accusing and acquitting, gen. Aens, decl., 66
paratives, 327; degree of differ-
ence, 335; with dep. verbs (tor, with verbs of, 291 r, decl., 68
etc.), 342; with dignor, 337, a; cer, decl., 77; compar., 89 aethr, decl. like r, 68
with dn, 296; manner, 328; ac s, in clauses of compar., 383 Affecting, acc. of, 307
material, 324; means, 331; with Action, see tenses, moods, etc. Affirmative, expressed by two
gerund(ive), 269; measurement, negatives, 431; nnne for affir-
Active voice, 115, a; changed to
334; with opus est and sus est, mative answer, 347, b
pass., 279; act. periphrastic,
341; origin, 323; place where, Agent, dat. of, 302; abl. of, 333
199, a
319; place whence, 320; with
ad, with acc., 312; dat. with com- ager, decl. like masc. of pulcher, 71
prepositions, 339; price, 336;
respect, 325; route, 338; separa- pounds of, 298; acc. with com- Agreement, nouns: appos., 241;
tion, 340; time, 322 pounds of, 308; with gerund(ive), pred., 240, 278, 317, a; adjectives:
268 237238; pred., 239; poss., 249;
Abounding, words of with gen.,
adde quod, with indic., 356 pronouns: rel., 242; dem., 240, a;
287
Adjectives, definition, 70; a and o verbs: 236; according to sense,
Absolute, abl. abs., 343 236, a, 444
stems, 71; i stems, 76; consonant
absum, conj., 123 , ending of gen. sing., 34, b
stems, 8082; three termina-
bus, dat. and abl. ending, 34, c tion, 77; compar., 8392; decl. ai, pronounced ai-i, 6, b
Accent, 2527; metrical, 394; of of compar., 91; num. adjectives, al, decl. of nouns in, 56
nouns in ius, ium, 37, a, b 98100; pronom. adjectives, 73, alinus, for gen. of alius, 74, a; abl.
Accompaniment, abl. of with 102, a, 113, a, 114; poss. adjec- with 340, a
cum, 321 tives, 103, a, 104, a, 106, a

73
74 Vergils Aeneid

aliquis (aliqu), decl., 113 s, acc. pl. of Greek nouns in, 65, a caput, decl., 52
alius, decl., 74 Asking, verbs of with two accusa- Cardinal numerals, 9899
Alphabet, 16 tives, 316; questions, 347349 care, abl. with, 340
alter, decl., 74; alterus in gen. for Asseverations, with fut. indic., 351, Cases, 30; endings, 32; of pred.
alus, 74, a; ordinal num., 98 3, b; subj., 254 substantive, 240, 278; for uses
alterus for alus, 73, a At, translated by prep. with abl., see nom., gen., etc.
Although, how expressed, 379, 384 319; by loc., 345 csus, decl., 59
an, in double questions, 348 ter, decl. like pulcher, 71 Cause, abl. of, 332; gerund(ive),
anceps, syllaba, 393 Aths, decl. like Androges, 67 269; expressed by abl. abs., 343,
Atls, decl., 68 a; clauses with quod, quia, quo-
Anchss, decl., 66
atque, simul atque, 368; ac s, 383 niam, quand, 357358; cum
Androges, decl., 67 with subj., 379; rel. clause, 386
Andromach, decl. like Pnelop, Attendant circumstance, abl. of, 329
Causing, verbs of, with perf. part.,
66 Attraction, antecedent to case
275; with gerundive, 268, a
animal, decl., 56 of rel., 242, a; dem. to gender
of pred., 240, a; of verb in rel. Caution, constr. with verbs of, 363
Answer to questions, 347 cav, in prohibitions, 256
clauses to subjunctive, 387
ante, prep. with acc., 312; dat. with ce, enclitic, 107, 3, b, 4, a
au, diphthong, 5
compounds of, 298; acc. with
aude, semi-deponent, 205 Ceasing, complementary inf. with
compounds of, 308
audi, conj., 172; with dat., 297 verbs of, 259
Antecedent, agreement of rel.
avis, decl., 65, b ctera, partitive use, 246
pron. with, 242; attracted to case
of rel., 242, a; undefined in char. x, gen. with verbal adjectives Characteristic, rel. clause of, 389;
clauses, 389 in, 287 abl. of, 330; gen. of, 285
Antepenult, 25, a Choosing, two accusatives with
verbs of, 316, a
antequam, with indic., 376; with b, stems in, 50; becomes p before
subj., 376, a s and t, 128, 6 circum, prep. with acc., 312; dat.
with compounds of, 298; acc.
Anticipation, clauses of, 440; at- Becoming, verbs of, constr. with,
with compounds of, 308
traction of antecedent to case 278
of rel., 242, a Circumstances, part., 273; abl.
Believing, verbs of, with dat., 297;
abs., 343; cum descriptive, 378;
Antithesis, 415 pers. constr. with pass., 279
abl., 329
apis, gen. pl. in ium, 56, c bene, compar., 97
cis, prep. with acc., 312
Apodosis, defined, 380 Beseeching, verbs of, with ut (n),
Cities and islands, names of, fem.,
Apostrophe, 417 360
38, a; in acc., 315, a; abl., 320, a;
Appointing, verbs of with two ac- bis, num. adv., 101 loc., 345
cusatives, 316, a bonus, compar., 92; decl., 71 Clauses, see substantive, temporal,
Apposition, 241; pronouns and Buying, abl. with verbs of, 336 conditional, etc.
poss. adjectives, 249; expressed Cognate accusative, 313
by gen., 281; quod and ut clauses c, stems ending in, 51; represents Collective nouns, with pl. verbs,
with nouns and pronouns, 356, changed g before t, 128, 6 236, a
367; inf. with nouns, 264
Caere, decl., 56, b comes, decl., 52
aptus, with dat. of gerund(ive),
canlis, decl., 56, b Command, imp., 255; subj., 254;
267; with rel. clause of char., 389
canis, decl., 56, c fut. indic., 351, 3, a; in ind. disc.,
apud, prep. with acc., 312
capi, conj., 163171 390, b
re, inf. ending, 132
Index to the Grammatical Appendix 75

Commanding, verbs of, with dat., Conjugation, 116, 126128; see d, stems ending in, 52; before s,
297; with inf., 360, a, b; with verbs and first, second, etc. 128, 6, 124
subj., 360 Conjunctions, see ut, cum, etc.; Dactyl, 392; fi ft h foot usually a
Common syllables, 17 omission of, 418; asyndeton, dactyl, 395
Comparative, 84; decl., 91; of ad- 418; polysyndeton, 349; compar. Date, cum with indic., 377
verbs, 96; double compar., 245; conjunctions, 383 Dative, defined, 30; sing. in (first
conjunctions, 383 cnor, conj., 183; inf. with, 259 decl.), 34, b; sing. in (second
Comparison, of adjectives, 83; of cnscius, with gen., 287 decl.), 74; pl. in s for is (deus),
adverbs, 96; disproportion, 244; Consecutive clauses, 364367 37, f; pl. in ubus (fourth decl.),
abl. of, 327; degree of difference, Consonantal, i and u, 6, a, b, c, 401 58, c
335; clauses of with ut s, quasi, Dative, Syntax: with adjectives,
Consonants, 68; quantity, 15, 17
etc., 383; metaphor, 432; simile, 267, 304; agent, 302; com-
441 cnstrcti ad snsum, 236, a; re-
pounds, 298; direction, 306;
flex. refers to logical subj., 248, a
Complement, subj., 278279; obj., double dat., 303, a; ethical, 300;
316, a, 317, a; agreement with Construction, see cases, moods, ind. obj., 295; poss., 299; pur-
subj., 238240 etc. pose, 303; reference, 301, 303,
Complementary infinitive, 259 cnsul, decl., 41, a a; separation, 305; with special
Complex sentences, see clauses contentus, abl. with, 337 verbs, 297
Compounds, of sum, 123; of faci Continued action, pres., 351, 1; d, with abl., 329; place whence,
and f, 229; dat. with, 298 impf., 351, 2; hist. inf., 257; se- 320; origin, 323; accordance, 326
quence of tenses, 353 dea, decl., 34, c
Compound verbs, with dat., 298;
with dat. and acc., 298, a; with Continuing, verbs of, with com- dbe, with complementary inf.,
acc., 308; with two accusatives, plementary inf., 259 259; indic. for obligation, 251; in
308, a Contracted perfects, 204 conditions, 382, d
con-, in composition with dat., Contracted verb forms, 204; con- Declensions, 3133; first, 3435;
298; in composition with acc., tracted vowels long, 24 second, 3638; third, 3957;
308 Contracting, undertaking, verbs fourth, 5861; fi ft h, 6264; of
Conative, pres., 351, 1, c; impf., of, with gerund(ive), 268, a Greek nouns, 6569; of adjec-
351, 2, a Contrary to fact conditions, 382 tives, 7182, 91; of numerals, 99;
of pronouns, 103114
Concessive clauses, with cum, 379; cram, with abl., 339
with ets, quamquam, quamvs, Defective verbs, 205
corn, decl., 59
etc., 384; concessive subj., 254; Degree of difference, abl. of, 335
corpus, decl., 47
see participles and abl. abs. Deliberative questions (subjunc-
Crasis, 204, vowels resulting from
Conclusion, see conditions tive), 348
long, 24
Condemning and convicting, gen. Dlos, decl., 67
cuius, see qu; pronunciation, 6, b
with verbs of, 291 Demonstrative pronouns, decl.,
cum (preposition), 339; enclitic,
Condition, of an object, expressed 107; as subj. attracted to gender
321, a; abl. of accompaniment,
by part., 273 of pred., 240, a; as adjectives,
321
Conditions, simple, 380; more 102, a
cum clauses, temporal, 377; de-
vivid, 380; ideal (less vivid), 381; Deponent verbs, 182; first conj.,
scriptive, 378; causal, 379; con-
contrary to fact (unreal), 382, c; 163, 190; second, third, fourth
cessive, 379; cum (whenever),
mixed, 382, d; in ind. disc., 381, conj., 191198; participles of,
370, 377
a, 382, a; in substantive clauses, 182; abl. with, 342; semi-depo-
cum prmum, 368 nents, 205
382, c; abl. abs., 343, a
cupidus, with gen., 287
76 Vergils Aeneid

Depriving, verbs of, with abl., 340; dc, imperative, 202 d, 81, 2; dat., abl. pl. bus, 34, c;
with dat., 305 dum, 371; with indic., 371373; acc. im, 56, a; gen. pl. n, 65, a;
Descriptive genitive, 285; abl., 330; with subj., 374; in proviso claus- acc. sing. in, 68; sti, runt, re,
impf., 351, a, b; cum descrip- es, 375 etc., 204
tive, 378 duo, decl., 99 English pronunciation of Latin
Desire, expressions of with gen., Duration, acc., 314; abl., 322 words, 28
287; clauses of, 360; in ind. disc., Duty, expressed by indic., 251; by Envy, verbs of with dat., 297
248, b; verbs of with inf., 260; periphrastic, 199, b, 382, d e, see is, ea, id
expressed by fut. part., 274; voli- e, conj., 207213; compounds of,
dux, decl., 51
tive subj., 253 213, a; r in fut. pass. inf., 117,
dsum, conj., 123; dat. with, 301 2, 213, b
, prep.; see ex; adv. ending, 95, a
deum = derum, 37, d, f er, nom. ending, 37, 74, 77
ecquis, 112
deus, decl., 37, f re for runt, 204, 4; ere for eris,
Editorial we, 243, a
dexter, decl. like miser, 71 204, 4
Effecting, acc. of, 307; verbs of:
dc, ind. disc., 263, 390; imp. esse, see sum
with perf. part., 275; with result
dc, 202 Esteeming, verbs of, double acc.,
clause, 365
dis, decl., 63; gender, 64 316; abl. with dignor, 337, a
ege, abl. with, 340
dignor, with abl., 337, a Ethical dative, 300
ego, decl., 103; omission, 247; for
dignus, with abl., 337; with rel. emphasis and contrast, 247 ets, etiams, in concessive claus-
clause, 389 es, 384
ei, diphthong, 5
Diphthongs, 5; always long, 24 eu, diphthong, 5
Elision, 398, 402
Direct, obj., 307; question, 347; ex (), prep. with abl., 339; place
Ellipsis, 421
reflex., 106, 248 whence, 320; origin, 323; accor-
Emotion, verbs of with gen., 289; dance, 326; material, 324
Direction, dat. of, 306
with inf., 260; with quod and
Disproportion, quam (pr, ut), Exchanging, verbs of with abl., 336
indic. or subj., 358; see excla-
qu, 244 mation Exclamations, subj., 253; imp.,
Distance, acc., 314 255, 256; inf., 262; acc., 318; voc.,
Emphasis, see figures of speech,
Distributive, numerals, 100; pro- 344; fut. ind. in asseverations,
106, b, c, and 247
nouns, see quisque and uterque 351, 3, b
Enclitics, 27; que, 27; met, 106,
di, compar., 97 Exhortations, subj., 254; imp., 255;
b; pte, 106, c; ce, 107, 3, b, 4,
ut clause, 360
domus, abl. of, 320, a; loc., 345; a; nam, 112; cum, 321, a; ve,
acc., 315, a; decl., 60; gender, 61, a 27; ne, 27, 347, a Extent of space and time, acc., 314
dnec, with indic., 371; with subj., Endings (regular), of nouns, 32; of
374 infinitives and participles, 117, fac, imp. of faci, 202
dn, with dat. or abl., 269 3; see declensions and conjuga- facilis, decl. like omnis, 77; com-
Double consonants, 7; s and z, 8; tions par., 89, e
double questions, 348; double ac- Endings (irregular), gen. sing. in faci, conj. like capi, 163; imp.
cusatives, 308, 316; double datives, , 34, b; gen., dat. sing. for e fac, 202; two accusatives, 316, a;
303, a; double comparatives, 245 in fift h decl., 63; gen. pl. um, 34, faci ut (n), 365; pass. of, 227;
Doubting, verbs of; potential subj., b, 37, d; acc. pl. s, 56, d, 83, b; compounds of, 229
252; deliberative question, 348; gen. sing. us, 74; gen. pl. ium, fgus, gender, 38, a
subst. clause with qun, 366; cf. 77, 81, 3, 55, c; abl. sing. , 55, d, fateor, conj., 191198
382, b 77, 81, 1; nom. and acc. pl. ia, 55,
Favor, verbs of with dat., 297
Index to the Grammatical Appendix 77

Fearing, clauses with n or ut, 363 frtus, with abl., 337 gen, decl., 59
Feeling, verbs of with gen., 289 frg, compar., 92 genus, decl., 47
290; with quod and indic. or fruor, with abl., 342 Gerund(ive), 117, 3, 203; for forma-
subj., 358 fu, see sum tion see verbs, conj. of, uses of,
Feet, in verse, 392; fift h foot, 395 Fullness, expressions of, with gen., 266269; with dat. of agent, 302;
fel, decl., 41, b 287; with abl., 337 in undus, 203; see periphrastic;
flx, decl., 82; compar., 87 of dep. verbs, 182
fungor, with abl., 342
Feminine, first decl. (mostly), Giving, verbs of, with gerundive,
Future perfect tense, 351, 6; in
35; second decl.: cities, islands, 268, a
conditions, 380; in temporal
trees, and a few others, 38, a; clauses, 370; like perf. subj., gracilis, decl., 77; compar., 89, a
third decl., nouns in d, g, 128, 5 Greek accusative, 309, 311
i, 44; i stems in s, 57; some i Future tense, 251, 3; specific and Greek nouns, decl., 6569
stems in is, 57; all other i stems, universal, 351, 3; as imperative, Guilt, expressions of, with gen.,
57; mutes in s, 54; fourth decl., 351, 3, a; asseverative, 351, 3, b; 287, 291
a few in us, 61, a; fift h decl., all part. expressing purpose, 274;
but dis and meridis, 64 conditions, 380381; forma- h, never makes position, 15; vowels
fer, imp. of fer, 202 tion of pass. inf., 117, 2, 213, short before, 20; elision before,
fer, conj., 214225; imp., 202 b; expressed by fore ut, 263, a; 398; hiatus before, 399
fd, semi-deponent, 205; with use of periphrastic, 199, a; in
habe, conjug., 142150
dat., 297 subj., 354
Having, verbs of with gerundive,
Fift h declension, 6264 268, a; verbs of with perf. part.,
flia, decl., 34, c g, stems in, 51; changes to c before 275
flius, decl., 37, a, b t, 128, 6
Helping, verbs of with dat., 297
f, conj., 228; compounds, 229; Gender, rules of, 35, 38, 42, 48,
hrs, decl., 68
pass. of faci, 227 54, 57, 61, 64; attraction of
pronouns, 240, a; and see mas- Hesitation, clauses of, 363, 366
First conjugation, 129141; depo- hic, decl., 107; pronounced hicc,
culine, feminine and neuter; of
nents, 183190 107, 3, c
pred. complement, 239, b
First declension, 3435 Himself, ipse, 108; s, 106, 248
Genitive, defined, 30; for ae, 34,
Fitness, adjectives of, with dat., b; um for rum, 37, d; um and Hindering, clauses with n, qun
304; of gerund(ive), 267 ium, 53, 55, c, 56, c, 77, 81, 3; or quminus, 361362
fore (futrus esse), 121; fore ut in for e, 63; us, 7374; poss. adj. Historical inf., 257; with subj.
ind. disc., 263, a; cf. 382, a as gen., 249; two forms for pers. nom., 277; pres., 351, 1, a; with
Forgetting, verbs of, with gen., pronouns, 247, a secondary sequence, 353, b,
288; acc., 288, a; complementary Genitive, Syntax: material, 280; 1 (a)
inf., 259 appos., 261; explanatory, 282; hom, decl., 43
Forms, 29275; see nouns, verbs, poss., 283; subj., 284; obj., 284; Hortatory subjunctive, 254
etc. quality, 285; part., 286; pred.,
humus, loc. of, 345; gender, 38, a
Fourth conjugation, 172181; de- 285, a; with adjectives, 287;
ponents, 191198 with verbs, 287291; value,
292; with interest and rfert, i, vowel, 4; semi-vowel (conso-
Fourth declension, 5861
293; respect, 294; genitive of nantal), 6, a, 401; i stems, 55,
Freedom, adjectives and verbs 76; changed to e in i verbs,
gerund(ive), 266
with abl., 340; adjectives and 161, 206, 1; i and u in dat., abl.
verbs with gen., 287 genius, decl., 37, b
pl., 58, c
78 Vergils Aeneid

, imperative of e, 209; voc. end- in, prep. with acc., 315; prep. with Intensive suffi xes, 106, b, c; pro-
ing, 37, b; abl. ending, 55, d, 77, abl., 319; verbs compounded noun, 108; cf. 248
81, 1; loc. ending, 37, c; pres. with, 298 inter, prep. with acc., 312; verbs
pass. inf. ending, 117, 3; nom. Inclination, adjectives of, with dat., compounded with, 298
pl. of is, ea, id, 107 304; expressions of, 251254; ad- interest with gen. of person, 293;
ia, nom. and acc. pl. ending, 55, jectives of, for adverbs, 250 with abl. of poss. adj., 293, a
d, 81, 2 Indefi nite antecedent, 389; pro- Interjections, 318, 344
iaci, conj., 161, 227229; com- nouns, 113 Interrogative pronouns and adjec-
pounds, 6, c, 229; pass. of, 227 Indicative, 115, 4; to denote pos- tives, 111112; sentences, 347
229 sibility, 251, 382, d; in delibera- Intransitive verbs with dat., 297;
iam, with pres. indic., 351, b tive questions, 348, a; with quod with cognate acc., 313
Ictus, in verse, 392, 394, 404 in explanatory clauses, 356;
i, gender of nouns in, 44; verbs
Ideal conditions, 361 in causal clauses, 357358; in
in, 162
temporal clauses, 368373, 377;
dem, decl., 107 ipse, decl., 108; for use cf. 248
present with dum, 372; simple
idneus, with dat. of purpose, 303; (more vivid) conditions, 380; r, in fut. pass. inf., 213, b
gerund, 267; with rel. clause, 389 in unreal conditions, 382, d; in Irregular verbs, conj., 206235
ds, decl., 59; gender, 61, a concessive clauses, 384 s, acc. pl. ending, 56, d
ignis, decl., 56, b Indirect command, 390 is, ea, id, decl., 107; as pers. pron.
i, or in gen., 37, a; i for e, 107; Indirect discourse, 263, 390; of third person, 105, b
i perfect of e, 207; in com- subordinate clauses in, 355; Islands, names of, gender, 38, a;
pounds, 213, a conditions in, 382, a; implied, acc., 315, a; abl., 320, a; loc., 345
is, for es, 107 357358; cf. 248, b; commands sse, syncopated form, 204
ille, decl., 107 in, 390, b; tense of inf. in, 263
iste, decl., 107, 4
im, acc. ending, 56, a Indirect object, 295
Iterative imperfect, 351, 2
Imperative, 115, 4; for formation Indirect questions, 349; cf. 353, a;
iube, with inf., 360, b
see under verbs, conjugation of; use of periphrastic in, 354
ium, gen. pl. ending, 55, c, 77, 81,
irregular imperatives, 202; pres. Infinitive, formation, 117, 23; of
3; decl. of words in, 37, b
and fut. 255; neg. 256; fut. ind. as deponents, 182; contraction of
imp., 351, 3, a; in ind. disc., 390, b perf., 204; see also conjugations ius ending, declension of words
in, 37, b; gen. sing. ending, 74;
Imperfect tense, 351, a; of possum, Infinitive, Syntax: with adjectives,
see also declension of pronouns
etc., for pluperf., 251, 382, d; 265; cf. 258; pred. nom. with,
conative, 351, 2, a; descriptive, 317, a; complementary, 259;
351, 2, b; in temp. clauses, 368, purpose, 261; exclamatory, 262; Jussive subjunctive, 254
a, 371; in conditions, 380, 382, d; as subject, 258; hist., 257, 277;
sequence of tenses, 353; forma- subj. acc., 317; in ind. disc., 263, Knowing, verbs of, see indirect
tion of impf. subj., 128, 2 390, b; for ut-clause, 360, a; with discourse
imper, with dat., 297; with subst. jube, 360, b; with nouns, 264; Knowledge, adjectives of with
vol. clause, 360 as obj., 260 gen., 287; adjectives of as ad-
Impersonal verbs, forms of e, Inflection, 29235; see declension, verbs, 250
213, b; with gen., 290; impers. conjugation, etc.
constructions, 258, 366 Informal indirect discourse, 367, l, nouns in, 56; stems in, 41, b; in
Implied indirect discourse, 357 358; cf. 248, b common syllables, 1718
358; cf. 248, b, 390. Instrumental ablative, 531; of lac, decl., 52, a
in, acc. ending, 68 gerund(ive), 269
Index to the Grammatical Appendix 79

laetus, with abl., 337 s (oris), 48; some i stems in is, Motion, end of, with dat., 306;
Leaving, verbs of with gerundive, 57; nouns in er and or, 46; fourth with acc., 315
268, a decl. in us (mostly), 61; fifth decl. mv, contracted forms of, 204, 3
Length, of vowels, 2023; of syl- only dis and meridis, 64 multus, compar., 92
lables, 1419, 396, 407 Material, expressed by gen., 280; mnus, decl. like genus, 47
Less vivid, conditions, 381 by abl., 324
Mute stems, decl., 4954
Letters, of alphabet, 18 M e a n s , a b l . o f , 331; w i t h
gerund(ive), 269
liber, noun, 36, a n, stems in, 43
Measure, abl. of, 334
lber, adjective, decl. like miser, nam, enclitic, 27, 112
71; with abl. of separation, 340, a medius, used partitively, 246
Names of towns and islands, abl.,
Likeness, adjectives of with dat., mel, decl., 41
320, a; loc., 345; acc., 315, a
304 melior, see bonus
Naming, verbs of, with two ac-
Liquids, in common syllables, 17; memin, with gen., 288; with acc., cusatives, 316, a
stems in, 4146 288, a
ntus, with abl. of origin, 323
Locative, defined, 30; first decl., memor, with gen., 287
nvis, decl., 56, a
34, a; second decl., 37, c; of do- men, suffi x, 44, 2
ne, enclitic, 27; in questions,
mus, 60; use, 345; loc. gen., 294 met, enclitic, 106, b 347, a
Logical, constructions, sing. coll. Metrical scheme, of the hexam- n, in prohibitions, 253, 256, a; in
subj. with pl. verb, 236, a, 444; eter, 394 purpose clauses, 359; with verbs
copula agrees with pred. noun, meus, form, 103, a; as gen. of ego, of hindering, refusing, etc., 361;
236, c; pron. attracted to gender 249 with verbs of fearing, 363; result,
of pred., 240, a; reflex. referring
m, voc. of meus, 103, a; short 365; omitted after cav, 256
to logical subj., 248, a; logical
for mihi Nearness, adjectives of with dat.,
conditions, 280
Middle voice, 115, a; with obj. 304
acc., 309, a Necessity, indic., 251, 382, d; pass.
m, final syllable in, 398
mihi, see ego periphrastic, 199, b; 382, d; see
magis, compar., 97; in double command
mles, decl. like comes, 52
comparisons, 245
mlle, numeral, 99 Negative, answer expected, 347, c;
magnus, compar. of, 92 double neg., 431; purpose clause,
minus, compar., 97; in double
Making, verbs of, two accusatives, 359; clause of fearing, 363; result
comparisons, 245
316, a; gerundive, 268, a; perfect clause, 364; see prohibitions
part., 275 miser, decl., 71
nm, missing forms supplied by
male, compar., 97 misereor, with gen., 289
nllus, 114; nm est qu, 364, a
ml, conj., 230; see comparison miseret, with gen. and acc., 290
nquam, comparison of, 92
malus, compar., 92 Modesty, pl. of, 243, a; subjunctive
Neuter, adjectives with inf., 258;
Manner, abl. of, 328; gerund(ive), of, 252
complement with subjects of
269; implied in part., 273 modo, in proviso clauses, 375 different genders, 239, b
manus, decl., 59; gender, 61, a Monosyllabic, nouns of third Neuter, pronom. adj., 114; decl., 74
mare, decl., 56 decl., 53
Neuter, second decl. in um and a
Masculine, first decl., referring to Mood, 115, 4: for forms see verbs; few in us, 38; third decl. stems in
males, 35; second decl. in us or r for uses see indic., subj., etc. ll, 42; nouns in en, 44, 2; nouns
(mostly), 38; third decl. stems in More vivid conditions, 380 in ar, ur, 46, 2; i stems in e, al,
1, 42; nouns in , except d, g, moror, conj., 183190 ar, 57, b; nouns in us (eris), s
and i, 44; nouns in is (eris) and (ris), 48, 2; fourth decl. in , 61
80 Vergils Aeneid

nf, vowels long before, 23 , nouns in, 43; gender of nouns Panths, decl., 67
nihil, forms of, 114 in, 44 pr, with gen., 287; with dat., 304;
nimis, compar., 95, b , interj. with voc., 344 with dat. of gerund(ive), 267
No, questions expecting answer, ob, prep. with acc., 312; verbs Participles, formation, 117, 3; com-
347, c compounded with, 298 par., 90; of deponents, 182, 205;
nl(te), in prohibitions, 256 Obeying, verbs of, with dat., 297 tenses of, 272275; gerundive,
Object, direct, 307; ind., 295; 266, 269; periphrastic, 199; decl.
nl, conj., 230
clauses, 360363, 365; inf. as of pres., 82
Nominative, defined, 30; like acc.
obj., 260 Partitive genitive, 286; of pers.
and voc. pl. in third, fourth, and
Objective genitive, 284; of pers. pronouns, 247, a
fifth declensions, 33, b; like acc.,
and voc. in all neuters; in a, 34; pronouns, 247, a; objective parv, gen. of value, 292
in us (os), um, er and ir, 36; in complement, 317, a parvus, compar., 92
l, 41; in and en, 43; in or and Obligation, indic., 251, 382, d; Passive voice, 115, a; formation
er, 45; in us, 47; in s, 5051; in periphrastic, 199, b, 382, d; subj., of perf. system, 116, 3; constr.
s, 52; in is, e, al, 56; in us, , 253; see command with verbs of saying, 279; pass.
59; in s, 62 oblvscor, gen., 288; acc., 288, a periphrastic, 199, b, cf. 382, d;
Nominative case, 30; as subj., 276; obsum, 123; dat. with, 298 gerundive constructions, 267,
with hist. inf., 277; as subjective 268; middle and reflex. use, 309;
Occasion, expressed by part., 273
complement, 278, 279; of gerund perf. pass. system, 116, 3; fut.
disse, see 204, 3 pass. inf., 117, 2, 213, b; with dat.
supplied by inf., 258; agreement
of verb with, 236; double nom., oe, diphthong, 5 of agent, 302
239, 241 Oedips, decl., 69 Past perfect, see pluperfect
nnne, for affirmative answer, Omission, of pers. pron., 247 patior, conj., 191198
347, b omnis, decl., 77 pelagus, gender of, 38, a
ns, see ego; pl. for sing., 243; on, n, Greek endings, 65, a, 67, Penalty, gender of, 38, a
nom. emphatic, 247 68, 69 penes, prep. with acc., 312
nostr, nostrum, 247, a oportet, 251, 382, d Penult, 25, a
Nouns: decl., 3169; appos., 241; Optative, subjunctive, 253 per, prep. with acc., 312
pred., 240, 278279, 317, a; with opus est, with abl., 341 Perception, verbs of, with part.,
infinitives, 264; and see gender rti oblqua, see indirect dis- 273; see indirect discourse
nv, contracted forms of, 204, 3; course Perfect tense, 351, 4; pres. state,
perf. with pres. meaning, 204, Ordinal numerals, 98, a 351, 4, a; past act, 351, 4, b; temp.
3, 354
Origin, abl. of, 323 clauses, 368, 370, 376; perf. subj.
nox, decl., 53; quantity of vowel, 19 both primary and secondary inf.
orior, conj., 206
ns, vowels long before, 23 in ind. disc., 263; participle, 275;
r, constr. of verbs depending
nt, vowels short before, 21 on, 360 in conditions, 381, 353, b, 1, b; in
nllus and nm, 114; decl., 74 ind. disc., 382, a, b; contracted
Orpheus, decl., 69
num, for negative answer, 347, c; perfects, 204
os, nom. sing. of second decl., 36,
in questions, 347, c Periphrastic conjugation, 199201;
a, b; Greek nominatives in 67, 69
Number, 29; pl. for sing., 243, 236, as fut. subj., 354; conditions in
a, 444; and see agreement of ind. disc., 382, a; in contrary
p, represents changed b before s to fact apodosis, 382, d; in ind.
pred. attribute, 239
and t, 128, 6; stems in, 50 questions, 354; with dat. of
Numerals, 98101
paenitet, with gen. and acc., 290 agent, 302
Index to the Grammatical Appendix 81

Person, agreement of verb, 236; post, prep. with acc., 312; verbs pr, prep. with abl., 329; pr ut,
agreement of rel. pron., 242; for compounded with, 298, 308 quam pr, 244, cf. 383; interj.,
forms see conjugations postquam, with indic., 368 318
Personal construction, of pass. Potential, indic., 251; subj., 252; see Prohibitions, subj., 253; imp., 256;
with inf., 279 possibility obj. clauses (volitive), 360; hin-
Personal pronouns, forms, 103; potior, with abl., 342 dering, 361362; in ind. disc.,
omission, 247; as part. gen., 247, 390, b
Power, adjectives of, with gen., 287;
a; in appos. to poss. adjectives, nouns of, with inf., 264 Pronouns, 102114; pers., 103
249 106; omitted, 247; reflex., 106;
prae, prep. with abl., 339
Persuading, verbs of with dat., 297 use of, 248; dem., 107; attrac-
Predicate adjective, 239, 279; pred. tion of, 240, a; intensive, 108;
ps, decl., 52 noun, 236, c, 240, 317, a, 278; rel., 109110; general relatives,
piget, with acc. and gen., 290 pred. acc., 317, a, 279; pred. acc. 110; agreement of relatives.
Pity, verbs of, with gen. and acc., becomes pred. noun in pass., 242; relative clauses, 385389;
290 279; pred. noun with inf., 317, a; interrog., 111112; adj., 111, a;
Place whither, 315, 306; where, 319; pred. use of participles, 273, 275; pronom. adjectives, 7374, 114;
whence, 320; extent, 314 pred. gen., 285, a; of gerund(ive), see poss.; indef., 113; distribu-
Pleasing, verbs of, with dat., 297 266; pred. adj. with inf., 258; tive, see quisque and uterque
pred. with pass. verbs of saying, as part. gen., 247, a; in appos. to
Plenty, expressions of, with gen.,
etc., 279; pred. dat., 303, a; see poss. adj., 249
287
agreement
plnus, gen. with, 287; abl. with, Pronunciation, Latin, 48; of Latin
Prepositions, with acc., 312; words in English, 28; of i and u
337
with abl., 339; omitted, 315, a, as consonants, 401
Pluperfect, 351, 5; indic. in time b; 319, b, 320, a, b, 340; cum
clauses, 370; subj. in unreal prsum, conj., 124
appended to certain words,
conditions, 362; secondary se- 321, a; assimilation, cf. 123, Protasis, 380; see conditions
quence in ind. disc. 353, 382, a, compounds of with dat., 298; Proviso clauses, vol. subj., 254;
b; in cum descriptive clauses, with acc., 308 with dum (modo), 375
378 proximus, with dat., 304
Present tense, 351; specific and
Plural, see number, agreement, universal, 351, 1; hist., 351, 1, a; pte, enclitic, 106, c
etc.; poetic, 243, 444; editorial, with jam as perf., 351,1, b; cona- pudet, with gen. and acc., 290
243, a tive (as fut.), 351, 1, c; part., 272; puer, decl., 37
pls, compar., 92, 97 decl., 82; indic. with dum, 372;
pulcher, decl., 71; compar., 88
Possession, gen., 283; dat., 299 inf. in ind. disc., 263
pulchr, compar., 97
Possessive adjectives (pronouns), Preventing, verbs of, with n,
forms, 103106; used as gen. of quminus, qun, 361362; with Purpose, inf., 261; gerund(ive),
pron., 249 abl. of separation, 340 268; fut. part., 274; ut and n
with subj., 359; rel. clause of,
Possibility, indic., 251, 382, d; subj., Price, abl. of, 336; gen. of, 292
388; supine in um, 270; dat.
252, cf. 386; periphrastic, 382, d; Primary tenses, 352, a; sequence of, 303
in causal clauses, 357358; with of tenses, 353
antequam and priusquam, 376, prmus, beginning of, 246
a; in conditions, 381; in relative qu, pronunciation, 6; counts as
princeps, decl., 50 single consonant, 15; becomes
clauses, 389
Principal parts, 126 x with s, 128, 6
possum, conj., 125; to express pos-
sibility, 251, 382, d; in apodosis, priusquam, with indic., 376; with Quality, gen., 285; abl., 330; two
382, d subj., 376, a qualities compared, 245
82 Vergils Aeneid

quam, omission of in compar., r, for s between two vowels, 47; rog, two accusatives, 316; inf.
327; quam pr, quam ut, quam stems in r, 45; nouns in r, 36, a, with, 360; ut (volitive) clause, 360
qu, 244; quam s, 383; with two 37; adjectives in r, 71, 74, 76, 77, Route, abl. of, 338
positives, 245; with two com- 91; see liquids rs, decl. and gender, 48, 2; acc.,
paratives, 245; antequam and re, for ris, 204, 4 315, a; abl., 320, a; loc., 345
priusquam separated, 376, a Reference, dat. of, 301, 303, a; gen.,
quamquam, with indic. in conces- 294; acc., 311; abl., 325 s, changed to r between vowels, 47;
sive clauses, 384 rfert, with gen. of person, 293; change of mutes before s in verb
quamvs, with subj. in concessive with abl. of poss. adj., 293, a stems, 128, 6; stems in s, 47; nom.
clauses, 384 Reflexive pronouns, forms, 103 ending, 32
quand, in causal clauses, 357 106; use, 248 saepe, compar., 97
quant, gen. of value, 292 Refusing, verbs of, 361362 satis, with gen., 286; compar., 97
Quantity, of vowels, 2024; of syl- Regarding, two accusatives with Saying, verbs of, ind. disc., 263,
lables, 1419; numerals, 99101 verbs of, 316, a; constr. with pass. 390; constr. with pass., 279
quasi, in clauses of comparison, 383 verbs of, 279 sct, fut. used as pres. impera-
que, enclitic, 27 Relative clauses, 385; explanatory, tive, 202
Questions, 347; deliberative, 348; 386; dependent, 387; purpose, s, reflex. pron., 106, 248
ind., 349, 354; exclamatory, 262 388; result, 364, a; char., 389
Second conjugation, principal
qu, decl., 109; abl. form qu, 109, Relative pronouns, decl. 109; parts, 126; forms, 142150; de-
d; = ut is, 389; see relative agreement, 242; in comparison, ponents, 191198
quia, in causal clauses, 357 244
Second declension, 3638
qucumque, general relative, 110 reliquus, partitive use = rest of, 246
Secondary object, 308, 316; tenses,
qun, after verbs of hindering, Remembering, verbs of, with gen., 352, b, 353
refusing, etc., 362; after neg. 288; acc., 288, a
secundum, prep. with acc., 312
expressions of doubt, 366 Removing, verbs of, with abl., 340
Selling, verbs of with gen., 292;
quis, interrog., decl., 111; indef., Repeated action, impf., indic., 351, with abl., 336
113 2; in temp. clauses, 369370;
semi-deponents, 205; semi-vowels,
qus, dat., abl. pl. of qu, 109, c sequence of tenses, 353
6, a, b, c
quisque, use with reflex., 248 rs, decl., 63
senex, decl., 56, c
quisquis, general rel., 110 Resisting, verbs of, with dat., 297;
Separation, dat. of, 305; abl. of, 340
with n, qun, quminus, 361,
quoad, with indic., 371; with subj., Sequence of Tenses, 353; condi-
362
374 tions in ind. disc., 381, a; sup-
Resolving, verbs of, complemen-
quod, rel. pron., 109; with indic. positions in ind. disc., 383, a;
tary inf., 259; subst. vol. clause
in explanatory clauses, 356; with for examples see 358, 360, 363,
with, 360
indic. and subj. in causal clauses, 374, 390, b
357358; in ind. disc. 355 Respect, abl. of, 325; acc. of, 311
sequor, conj., 191198
quminus, after verbs of hinder- Restricted, rel. clause, 387
Service, dat. of, 303; dat. with ad-
ing, refusing, etc., 361362 Result clauses, 364; rel. clause of, jectives of, 304
quoniam, in causal clauses, 357 364, a; sequence of tenses, 353;
Serving, dat. with verbs of, 297
explanatory clause of, 367
quot, numeral adv., 98 Sharing, adjectives of with gen.,
rte, decl., 56, b
quotins, numeral adv., 101; in 287
temp. clauses, 320 Rhotacism, 47
s, conditions, 380382; supposi-
quum = cum ri, adjective stems in, 76, a tions, 383; ut s, ac s, quam s, 383
Index to the Grammatical Appendix 83

similis, with gen., 287; with dat., 381382; comparisons with ut Syllables, division of, 913, 18;
304 s, quasi, etc., 383; double com- named, 25, a; long and short
simul ac (atque), with indic., 368 parisons with quam s, quam ut, syllables, 1419
Singular, with pl. verb, 236, 444; 244; cum descriptive, 378; con- Syntax, 236390
see number, agreement, etc. cessive clauses with cum, 379;
with ets and quamvs, 384; rel.
singulus, distributive num., 100 t, assimilated before s, 128, 6, 125;
clauses of attraction, 387; pur-
Situation, participle, 273; cum stems ending in, 52
pose, 388; char., 389; result, 364,
descriptive, 378; dum with a; deliberative questions, 348; taedet, with gen. and acc., 290
pres. ind., 372; rel. clause, 385; ind. questions, 349, 354; temp. tamets, in concessive clauses, 384
abl., 329 clauses of anticipation, 374, 376, tamquam (s), in clauses of com-
sole, semi-deponent, 305; com- a; result clauses, 364367; with parison, 383; simile, 441
plementary inf. with, 259 verbs of fearing, 363; prohibi- tant, gen. of value, 292
slus, with rel. clause, 389 tions; 256; of modesty, cf. 252; Teaching, verbs of, two accusa-
Source, abl. of., 323 proviso, 375; subordinate clauses tives, 316
Space, extent of with acc., 314 in ind. disc., 357, 358, cf. 248, b;
Temporal clauses, 368377; of ac-
tenses of, 353
Specification, with gen., 294; abl., tion prior to the main verb, 368,
325; abl. of supine, 271; acc., 311 Subordinate clauses, sequence of 370; of action contemporaneous
tenses, 353; in ind. disc., 390 b, with the main verb, 369, 371373,
Spelling, i and v, 6, a, b
c; see temporal, result, condi- 377; of action later than the main
Spondee, 392; spondaic verse, 395 tional, etc. verb, 374376; abl. abs., 343, a
Stem of nouns, 31, 34, 36, 3940, Substantive (volitive) clauses of
58, 62; of adjectives, 71, 7576, Tenses, 115, 3; formation of, 127;
desire, 360; hindering, 361362; pres., impf., etc. and verbs of
7881; stems in i, 55, 76; of fearing, 363; result, 365367;
verbs, 116, 126128 imp., 255; of inf., 263, 390; of
conditions in, 382, b; quod with part., 272; uses of, 351; primary
sub, prep. with acc., 312; com- indic., 356 and secondary, 352; sequence
pounds of with dat., 298; with Suffi xes, see enclitics, endings of, 353
acc., 308
su, decl., 106; use, 248 ter, adv. suffi x, 95, c
Subject, 276; agreement of verb
sum, conj., 118; compounds of, ter, num. adv., 101
with, 236; coll., 236, a, 444; two
123; fut. inf. with ut in ind. Terminations, of nouns, 32; of
subjects, 236, b; subject of differ-
disc., 263, a; agreement with verbs, 127128; of infinitives
ent persons, 239, a; omitted pers.
pred. noun, 236, c; with dat. of and participles, 117; see endings,
pronouns, 247; impers. verbs,
poss., 299; sunt qu, 389; simple enclitics, declension, conjuga-
cf. 240; indef. second person, cf.
sentence with, 278 tion, etc.
252; imp., 255; of hist. inf., 257;
subj. acc., 260, 317; exclamatory summus, top of, partitive, 246 Than, compar. of adjectives, 83
inf., 262; ind. disc., 263, 390; inf. super, prep. with acc., 312; in 92; compar. of adverbs, 9397;
as subj., 258 composition with dat., 298; with omission of quam, 327; than if,
Subjective genitive, 284; poss. adj. acc., 308 383; than that, 244
as, 249 Superlative, 85, 88, 89, a; used Thinking, see indirect discourse,
Subjunctive, 115, 4; potential, 252; partitively as noun, 246 constr. with pass., 279; with acc.
opt., 253; vol., 254, 360; in causal Supine, for forms see conjugations; and inf., cf. 317, a
clauses, 357358, 379; in purpose uses, 270271 Third conjugation, principal parts,
clauses, 359; with verbs of hin- Suppositions with ut s, quasi, 126; forms dc, 151160; capi,
dering, refusing, etc., 361362; velut, etc., 383 163171; deponents: sequor,
in ideal and unreal conditions, suus, forms, 106, a; uses, 248 patior, 191198
84 Vergils Aeneid

Third declension, stems in l, Unreal conditions, 382 Verbs, uses of, agreement, 236;
4142; n, 4344; r, 4546; s, nus, decl., 74; nus est qu, 389 with gen., 287291; interest and
4748; p or b, 50; c or g, 51; t or urbs, decl., 53 rfert, 293; with dat., 297298;
d, 52; i, 5557 with abl., 342; see names of
sus est, with abl., 341
Time, from which, 320; when, moods and tenses, ind. disc.,
ut clauses: fearing, 363; fore ut, etc.
within which, 322; till which,
263; indic., 368; indirect com-
315; extent, 314; expressed by vscor, with abl., 342
mands, 390, b; omitted, 256;
abl. abs., 343, a; see temp. claus- vester, 104
purpose, 359; result, 364; se-
es; time in pronouncing syl- vestr, vestrum, 247, a
quence of tenses, 353; ut s, 383;
lables, 14, 408
substantive, 360, 367; temporal, vet, acc. and inf. with, 260, 360, a
time, with subj., 363 368 vetus, decl., 82; rhotacism, 47
too . . . to, two clauses compared, uter and uterque, decl., 74, b; videor, dat. of reference, 301; pred.
244 compounds of uter, 114, a nom., 279; complementary inf.,
ttus, decl., 73; all of, partitive utinam, in unfulfilled wishes, 259: ind. disc., 263390
use, 246 253 vir, decl., 37
Towns, names of; see cities tor, with abl., 342 vs, decl., 56, a
trns, prep. with acc., 312; acc.
Vocative, defined, 30; second decl.,
with compounds of, 308
v, omitted in perf. forms, 204; sing., 36; of words in ius, ium,
Trees, names of, gender, 38, a use of, 6, a; as a consonant in 37, b; deus, 37, f; meus, 103, a;
trs, decl., 99 poetry, 401 Greek nouns, 6669; use, 344
t, decl., 104; omission, emphatic, Value, gen. of, 292 Voices, 115, 2, a; middle with obj.
247 vannus, gender, 38, a acc., 309, a; see active, middle,
tu, obj. gen., 247, a ve, enclitic, 27 passive
Two accusatives, 308, a, 316; two velim, vellem, subj. of modesty, Volitive, subj., 254; substantive
datives, 303, a 252; opt., 253 with ut (n) after verbs of will,
desire, etc., 360; in ind. disc.,
velut (s), in clauses of compari-
u, sometimes pronounced like 390, b
son, 383; simile, 441
v, 6, a; after g, q, 6, 15; for i in vol, conj., 230; with inf., 260, 317;
vne, compound of e, 213, a;
superlatives, 85, 89, a; for e in with subj., 360; with part., 275
see selling
gerund(ive), 203; noun stems in vs, see t
Verbal adjectives, in x with gen.,
u, 58; i and u in dat., abl. pl., 58, c voster, see vester
287
ubi, with indic., 368 Vowels, long and short, 34,
Verbs, inflection of, 115; stems,
ubus, for ibus in dat., abl. pl., 58, c 116, 128, 6; conj., 116; principal 2024; long vowels marked, 3;
ui, diphthong, 5 parts, 126; fi rst conj., 12141; syncopation, 204
llus, decl., 74 second conj., 142150; third vulgus, gender, 38, a
Ultima, 25, a conj., 151160, dc; 161171,
um, gen. pl. ending, first decl., 34, capi; fourth conj., 172181; Want, words of with gen., 287;
b, second decl., 37. d; third decl., dep., 182198; semi-dep., 205; with abl., 340
53, a, b, c, d, 56, c, 81, 3, 82, c, d periphrastic. 199203, 263, Way, by which, abl., 328, 331, 338
a; syncopated forms, 204; ir-
Understatement, 431, see potential Whole, gen. of, 286
regular, 206235; sum, 118122;
subj., 252 Wishes, inf., 260, 317; subj., 253,
principal parts, 126; general
Undertaking, verbs of, with acc. of rules, 128 254; ind. disc., 390, b; ut (voli-
gerund(ive), 268, a tive) clause, 360
Index to the Grammatical Appendix 85

x, nom. ending, 51, 82; in verb

stems (c, g, qu and s), 128, 6;
double consonant, 8; makes
position, 15

Yes, questions expecting, 347, b

z, double consonant, 8; makes

position, 15