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Design & Construction of a 220V Voltage

Stabilizer

Technical Report November 2014

DOI: 10.13140/2.1.2712.0960

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DESIGN & CONSTRUCTION OF A
220V VOLTAGE STABILIZER

Submitted By

Md. Nafis Ahmed

ID: EEEE110300099

Ariful Hoque
ID: EEEE110300101

Supervised By

Ashraful Arefin
Assistant Professor
Department of Electrical & Electronic Engineering
Northern University Bangladesh

November 2014

Department of Electrical & Electronic Engineering

Northern University Bangladesh
 DECLARATION

We, hereby, declare that the entire project work, presented in this report is the outcome of
investigation, study and presentation performance performed by us under the supervision of
Ashraful Arefin, Assistant Professor, Department of Electrical & Electronic Engineering,
Northern University Bangladesh. We also announce that no part of this report has been or is
submitted elsewhere for the award of any degree or diploma.

Signature

Md. Nafis Ahmed

ID: EEEE110300099

Ariful Hoque
ID: EEEE110300101

Countersigned

____________________________________________
Ashraful Arefin
Assistant Professor
Department of Electrical & Electronic Engineering
Northern University Bangladesh

i
 APPROVALS

The project report titled, Design & Construction of a 220V Voltage Stabilizer, submitted
by Md. Nafis Ahmed, ID: EEEE110300099, and Ariful Hoque, ID: EEEE110300101, to the
department of Electrical & Electronic Engineering, Northern University Bangladesh, has
been accepted as satisfactory in partial fulfillment for the degree of Bachelor of Science in
Electrical & Electronic Engineering.

________________________________________
Ashraful Arefin (Supervisor)
Assistant Professor
Department of Electrical & Electronic Engineering
Northern University Bangladesh

_______________________________________
Lecturer
Department of Electrical & Electronic Engineering
Northern University Bangladesh

________________________________________
Lecturer
Department of Electrical & Electronic Engineering
Northern University Bangladesh

________________________________________
Engr. Md. Badiuzzaman
Associate Professor & Head
Department of Electrical & Electronic Engineering
Northern University Bangladesh

ii
 ABSTRACT

A voltage stabilizer is a device which is used to sense inappropriate voltage levels and correct
them to produce a reasonably stable output where the load is connected. Here we will study
the design of a simple automatic AC voltage stabilizer which can be used for the above
purpose. In this circuit, active and passive devices, such as diodes, transformer, resistor,
capacitor, relay, IC etc. have been used. One step down transformer and one step up
transformer have also been used in this work. In case the line voltage crosses a predetermined
threshold, the comparator detects it and its output immediately goes high, switching ON the
transistor and the relay for the desired actions. The relay contacts are appropriately integrated
to the transformer taps for executing the above actions as per the commands given by the op
amp output. The designed circuit operates successfully and the results obtained are
satisfactory. When installed, the relay trips whenever the input voltage crosses 230 volts,
bringing the output to 218 volts and keeps it until the voltage reaches higher levels. When the
voltage drops back to 225, the relay gets de-energized pulling the voltage to 238 volts and
maintains the difference as the voltage further goes down. The above action keeps the output
to the appliance well between 200 to 250 volts with fluctuations ranging from 180 to 265
volts.

iii
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

First start with great thank to almighty, we take this opportunity to express our profound
gratitude and deep regards to our guide Ashraful Arefin for his exemplary guidance,
monitoring and constant encouragement throughout the course of this project. I cant say
thank you enough for his tremendous support and help. I feel motivated and encouraged
every time we attend his meeting. Without his encouragement and guidance this project
would not have materialized.

We sincerely thank the respected teachers and faculty members of Northern University
Bangladesh as they have tremendous contribution behind our progress.

Last but not least we wish to avail ourselves of this opportunity, express a sense of gratitude
and love to our friends and our beloved parents for their manual support, strength and help
and for everything.

Authors
November 2014

iv
TABEL OF CONTENTS Page No.

Chapter 1: Introduction & Overview 1

1.1 Introduction... 1

1.2 Block Diagram . 1

1.3 Overview .. 2

Chapter 2: Description of Equipments 3

2.1 Required Component 3

2.2 Transformer . 4

2.3 Capacitor .. 8

2.4 Resistor .. 15

2.5 Potentiometer. 18

2.6 Diode . 23

2.7 Zener Diode 26

2.8 Op-Amp (LM741). 27

2.9 Transistor.. 29

2.10 Relay.. 33

Chapter 3: Circuit and Operation 37

3.1 How the Circuit Functions 37

3.2 Circuit Diagram 38

3.3 Circuit Design & Implementation 39

Chapter 4: Discussion and Conclusion . 40

4.1 Utilities . 40

4.2 Limitation 40

4.3 Conclusion 41

References ........... 42

v
 Chapter 1
Introduction & Overview
1.1 Introduction
A voltage stabilizer is a device which is used to sense inappropriate voltage levels and correct
them to produce a reasonably stable output at the output where the load is connected. Which is
fabricated using transistor and other discrete components. It can be used to protect loads such as
TV, Refrigerator and VCR from undesirable over and under line voltages, as well as surges
caused due to sudden failure/resumption of mains power supply. This circuit can be directly as
standalone circuit between the main supply and the load, or it may be inserted between an
existing automatic/manual stabilizer and the load. In case the mains voltage crosses a
predetermined threshold, the ICs non inverting detects it and its output immediately goes high,
switching ON the transistor and the relay for the desired actions.

The relay, which is a DPDT type of relay, has its contacts wired up to a transformer, which is an
ordinary transformer modified to perform the function of a stabilizer transformer.

So if the input AC voltage tends to increase a set threshold value, the transformer deducts some
voltage and tries to stop the voltage from reaching dangerous levels and vice versa during low
voltage situations.

1.2Block Diagram :

AC Input Rectifier
Power & Filter Amplifier Relay Output
Supply

Fig: Block diagram of Voltage Stabilizer

Operation:

220V ac input supply from supply line and flow the ac voltage of rectifier. Rectifier chance the
voltage ac to dc and capacitor chance the filtering dc. Operational amplifier or comparator
compare the ac supply voltage. Relay is an Electrical switching device. Its Normally-open (NO)
contacts connect the circuit when the relay is activated the circuit is disconnected when the relay
is inactive. Normally-closed (NC) contacts disconnect the circuit when the relay is activated; the
1
circuit is connected when the relay is inactive. Change-over (CO), or double-throw (DT),
contacts control two circuits: one normally-open contact and one normally-closed contact with a
common terminal. Output voltmeter show the stable voltage.

1.3 Overview

A voltage stabilizer is a device which is used to sense inappropriate voltage levels and correct
them to produce a reasonably stable output at the output where the load is connected.
The power line fluctuations and cut-offs cause damages to electrical appliances connected to the
line. It is more serious in the case of domestic appliances like Fridge and Television. If a fridge
is operated on low voltage, excessive current flows through the motor, which heats up, and get
damaged.
The high/low voltage protection circuit with time delay presented here is a low cost and reliable
circuit for protecting such equipments from damages. Whenever the power line is switched on it
gets connected to the appliance only after a delay of a fixed time. If the power down time (time
for which the voltage is beyond limits) is less than the delay time, the power resumes after the
delay: If it is equal or more, then the power resumes directly.

This circuit has been designed, built and evaluated by me to use as a protector for my home
refrigerator. This is designed around readily available semi-conductor devices such as standard
bipolar medium power NPN transistor (BC547), an 8-pin type 741 op-amp IC and DPDT relay.
Its salient feature is that no relay hunting is employed. This draw back is commonly found in the
proctors available in the market.

The complete circuit is consisting of various stages. They are: - Dual rail power supply,
Reference voltage source, Voltage comparators for hi/low, Time delay stage and Relay driver
stage. Lets now look at the step-by-step design details

2
 Chapter 2
Description of Equipments
2.1 Required Component:

Resistor R1 & R2 = 10K

Resistor R3 = 470K

Variable Resistor = 10K

Capacitor C1 = 1000 F/25 V

Diode D1 & D2 = 1N 4007

Zener Diode Z1 & Z2 = 4.7 V/ 400mW

Transformer TR1 = 0V - 12 V , 500mA

Transformer TR2 = 9V-0V-9V, 5A.

Op-Amp = LM 741

Transistor = BC 547

Relay = DPDT, 12V, 200.

LED = Red (1)

Voltmeter = 1 Pcs.

3
2.2 Transformer:

Basic principles a transformer is an electrical device that transfers energy between two or more
circuits through electromagnetic induction.

A varying current in the transformer's primary winding creates a varying magnetic flux in the
core and a varying magnetic field impinging on the secondary winding. This varying magnetic
field at the secondary induces a varying electromotive force (emf) or voltage in the secondary
winding. Making use of Faraday's Law in conjunction with high magnetic permeability core
properties, transformers can thus be designed to efficiently change AC voltages from one
voltage level to another within power networks. Transformers have become essential for the AC
transmission, distribution, and utilization of electrical energy.

Ideal transformer equations:

By Faraday's law of induction

. . . (1)

. . .(2)

Combining ratio of (1) & (2)

Turns ratio . . . (3) where

for step-down transformers, a > 1

4
 for step-up transformers, a < 1

By law of Conservation of Energy, apparent, real and reactive power are each conserved in the
input and output

. . (4)

Combining (3) & (4) with this endnote[b] yields the ideal transformer identity

. . . (5)

By Ohm's Law and ideal transformer identity

. . .(6)

Apparent load impedance Z'L (ZL referred to the primary)

. . .(7)

Ideal transformer and induction law

5
It is very common, for simplification or approximation purposes, to analyze the transformer as
an ideal transformer model as represented in the two images. An ideal transformer is a
theoretical, linear transformer that is lossless and perfectly coupled; that is, there are no energy
losses and flux is completely confined within the magnetic core. Perfect coupling implies
infinitely high core magnetic permeability and winding inductances and zero net magnetomotive
force.

A varying current in the transformer's primary winding creates a varying magnetic flux in the
core and a varying magnetic field impinging on the secondary winding. This varying magnetic
field at the secondary induces a varying electromotive force (EMF) or voltage in the secondary
winding. The primary and secondary windings are wrapped around a core of infinitely high
magnetic permeability[e] so that all of the magnetic flux passes through both the primary and
secondary windings. With voltage source connected to the primary winding and load impedance
connected to the secondary winding, the transformer currents flow in the indicated directions.

Center Taps Transformer:

In electronics, a center tap is connection made to a point halfway along a winding of a

Transformer or inducer, or along the element of a resistor or a potentiometer. Taps are
Sometimes used on inductors for the coupling of signals, and may not necessarily be at the half-
way point , but rather, closer to one end. A common application of this is in the Hartley
oscillator. Inductors with taps also permit the transformation of the amplitude of alternating
current (AC) voltages for the purpose of power conversion, in which case, they are referred to as
autotransformers, since there is only one winding. An example of an autotransformers is an
automobile ignition coil. Potentiometer tapping provides one or more connections along the
devices element, along with the usual connections at each of the two ends of the element, and
the slider connection. Potentiometer taps allow for circuit functions that would otherwise not be
available with the usual construction of just the two end connections and one slider connection.

6
 Fig: 12V ac. 500mA Center- tap Transformer

Step-Up Transformer:

Fig: Step-up Transformer

7
2.3 Capacitor:

Electronic symbol

A capacitor (originally known as a condenser) is a passive two-terminal electrical component

used to store energy electro statically in an electric field. The forms of practical capacitors vary
widely, but all contain at least two electrical conductors (plates) separated by a dielectric (i.e.
insulator). The conductors can be thin films, foils or sintered beads of metal or conductive
electrolyte, etc. The "non-conducting" dielectric acts to increase the capacitor's charge capacity.
A dielectric can be glass, ceramic, plastic film, air, vacuum, paper, mica, oxide layer etc.
Capacitors are widely used as parts of electrical circuits in many common electrical devices.
Unlike a resistor, an ideal capacitor does not dissipate energy. Instead, a capacitor stores energy
in the form of an electrostatic field between its plates.

Theory of operation:

8
Charge separation in a parallel-plate capacitor causes an internal electric field. A dielectric
(orange) reduces the field and increases the capacitance.

A simple demonstration of a parallel-plate capacitor

A capacitor consists of two conductors separated by a non-conductive region. The non-

conductive region is called the dielectric. In simpler terms, the dielectric is just an electrical
insulator. Examples of dielectric media are glass, air, paper, vacuum, and even a semiconductor
depletion region chemically identical to the conductors. A capacitor is assumed to be self-
contained and isolated, with no net electric charge and no influence from any external electric
field. The conductors thus hold equal and opposite charges on their facing surfaces, and the
dielectric develops an electric field. In SI units, a capacitance of one farad means that one
coulomb of charge on each conductor causes a voltage of one volt across the device.

An ideal capacitor is wholly characterized by a constant capacitance C, defined as the ratio of

charge Q on each conductor to the voltage V between them:

Because the conductors (or plates) are close together, the opposite charges on the conductors
attract one another due to their electric fields, allowing the capacitor to store more charge for a
given voltage than if the conductors were separated, giving the capacitor a large capacitance.
Sometimes charge build-up affects the capacitor mechanically, causing its capacitance to vary.
In this case, capacitance is defined in terms of incremental changes:

9
Parallel-plate model:

Dielectric is placed between two conducting plates, each of area A and with a separation of d

The simplest capacitor consists of two parallel conductive plates separated by a dielectric (such
as air) with permittivity . The model may also be used to make qualitative predictions for other
device geometries. The plates are considered to extend uniformly over an area A and a charge
density = Q/A exists on their surface. Assuming that the width of the plates is much greater
than their separation d, the electric field near the centre of the device will be uniform with the
magnitude E = /. The voltage is defined as the line integral of the electric field between the
plates

Solving this for C = Q/V reveals that capacitance increases with area of the plates, and decreases
as separation between plates increases.

The capacitance is therefore greatest in devices made from materials with a high permittivity,
large plate area, and small distance between plates. A parallel plate capacitor can only store a
finite amount of energy before dielectric breakdown occurs. The capacitor's dielectric material
has a dielectric strength Ud which sets the capacitor's breakdown voltage at V = Vbd = Udd. The
maximum energy that the capacitor can store is therefore

10
We see that the maximum energy is a function of dielectric volume, permittivity, and dielectric
strength per distance. So increasing the plate area while decreasing the separation between the
plates while maintaining the same volume has no change on the amount of energy the capacitor
can store. Care must be taken when increasing the plate separation so that the above assumption
of the distance between plates being much smaller than the area of the plates is still valid for
these equations to be accurate. In addition, these equations assume that the electric field is
entirely concentrated in the dielectric between the plates. In reality there are fringing fields
outside the dielectric, for example between the sides of the capacitor plates, which will increase
the effective capacitance of the capacitor. This could be seen as a form of parasitic capacitance.
For some simple capacitor geometries this additional capacitance term can be calculated
analytically.[17] It becomes negligibly small when the ratio of plate area to separation is large.

Several capacitors in parallel

Networks:

See also: Series and parallel circuits for capacitors in parallel Capacitors in a parallel
configuration each have the same applied voltage. Their capacitances add up. Charge is
apportioned among them by size. Using the schematic diagram to visualize parallel plates, it is
apparent that each capacitor contributes to the total surface area.

For capacitors in series

Several capacitors in series

Connected in series, the schematic diagram reveals that the separation distance, not the
plate area, adds up. The capacitors each store instantaneous charge build-up equal to that
of every other capacitor in the series. The total voltage difference from end to end is
apportioned to each capacitor according to the inverse of its capacitance. The entire
series acts as a capacitor smaller than any of its components.

11
 Capacitors are combined in series to achieve a higher working voltage, for example for
smoothing a high voltage power supply. The voltage ratings, which are based on plate
separation, add up, if capacitance and leakage currents for each capacitor are identical. In
such an application, on occasion, series strings are connected in parallel, forming a
matrix. The goal is to maximize the energy storage of the network without overloading
any capacitor. For high-energy storage with capacitors in series, some safety
considerations must be applied to ensure one capacitor failing and leaking current will
not apply too much voltage to the other series capacitors. Series connection is also
sometimes used to adapt polarized electrolytic capacitors for bipolar AC use. See
electrolytic capacitor designing for reverse bias.

Voltage distribution in parallel-to-series networks :

To model the distribution of voltages from a single charged capacitor connected in

parallel to a chain of capacitors in series :

Note: This is only correct if all capacitance values are equal.

The power transferred in this arrangement is:

Structure:

Capacitor packages: SMD ceramic at top left; SMD tantalum at bottom left; through-hole
tantalum at top right; through-hole electrolytic at bottom right. Major scale divisions are cm.

The arrangement of plates and dielectric has many variations depending on the desired ratings of
the capacitor. For small values of capacitance (microfarads and less), ceramic disks use metallic
coatings, with wire leads bonded to the coating. Larger values can be made by multiple stacks of
12
plates and disks. Larger value capacitors usually use a metal foil or metal film layer deposited on
the surface of a dielectric film to make the plates, and a dielectric film of impregnated paper or
plastic these are rolled up to save space. To reduce the series resistance and inductance for
long plates, the plates and dielectric are staggered so that connection is made at the common
edge of the rolled-up plates, not at the ends of the foil or metalized film strips that comprise the
plates.

The assembly is encased to prevent moisture entering the dielectric early radio equipment used
a cardboard tube sealed with wax. Modern paper or film dielectric capacitors are dipped in a
hard thermoplastic. Large capacitors for high-voltage use may have the roll form compressed to
fit into a rectangular metal case, with bolted terminals and bushings for connections. The
dielectric in larger capacitors is often impregnated with a liquid to improve its properties.

Several axial-lead electrolytic capacitors

Capacitors may have their connecting leads arranged in many configurations, for example
axially or radially. "Axial" means that the leads are on a common axis, typically the axis of the
capacitor's cylindrical body the leads extend from opposite ends. Radial leads might more
accurately be referred to as tandem; they are rarely actually aligned along radii of the body's
circle, so the term is inexact, although universal. The leads (until bent) are usually in planes
parallel to that of the flat body of the capacitor, and extend in the same direction; they are often
parallel as manufactured.

Small, cheap discoidal ceramic capacitors have existed since the 1930s, and remain in
widespread use. Since the 1980s, surface mount packages for capacitors have been widely used.
These packages are extremely small and lack connecting leads, allowing them to be soldered
directly onto the surface of printed circuit boards. Surface mount components avoid undesirable
high-frequency effects due to the leads and simplify automated assembly, although manual
handling is made difficult due to their small size.

13
Mechanically controlled variable capacitors allow the plate spacing to be adjusted, for example
by rotating or sliding a set of movable plates into alignment with a set of stationary plates. Low
cost variable capacitors squeeze together alternating layers of aluminum and plastic with a
screw. Electrical control of capacitance is achievable with varactors (or varicaps), which are
reverse-biased semiconductor diodes whose depletion region width varies with applied voltage.
They are used in phase-locked loops, amongst other applications.

Applications:

1. Energy storage
2. Power factor correction
3. Suppression and coupling
4. High-pass and low-pass filters
5. Motor starters
6. Hazards and safety

14
2.4 Resistor:

A resistor is a passive two-terminal electrical component that implements electrical resistance

as a circuit element. Resistors act to reduce current flow, and, at the same time, act to lower
voltage levels within circuits. In electronic circuits resistors are used to limit current flow, to
adjust signal levels, bias active elements, terminate transmission lines among other uses. High-
power resistors that can dissipate many watts of electrical power as heat may be used as part of
motor controls, in power distribution systems, or as test loads for generators. Resistors may have
fixed resistances that only change a little with temperature, time or operating voltage. Variable
resistors can be used to adjust circuit elements (such as a volume control or a lamp dimmer), or
as sensing devices for heat, light, humidity, force, or chemical activity. Resistors are common
elements of electrical networks and electronic circuits and are ubiquitous in electronic
equipment. Practical resistors as discrete components can be composed of various compounds
and forms. Resistors are also implemented within integrated circuits. The electrical function of a
resistor is specified by its resistance: common commercial resistors are manufactured over a
range of more than nine orders of magnitude. The nominal value of the resistance will fall within
a manufacturing tolerance.

A typical axial-lead resistor

Electronic symbol

15
Electronic symbols and notation:

(a) resistor, (b) rheostat (variable resistor), and (c) potentiometer

Theory of operation:

The hydraulic analogy compares electric current flowing through circuits to water flowing
through pipes. When a pipe (left) is filled with hair (right), it takes a larger pressure to achieve
the same flow of water. Pushing electric current through a large resistance is like pushing water
through a pipe clogged with hair: It requires a larger push (voltage drop) to drive the same flow
(electric current).

Ohm's law:

The behavior of an ideal resistor is dictated by the relationship specified by Ohm's law:

Ohm's law states that the voltage (V) across a resistor is proportional to the current (I), where the
constant of proportionality is the resistance (R). For example, if a 300 ohm resistor is attached
across the terminals of a 12 volt battery, then a current of 12 / 300 = 0.04 amperes flows through
that resistor.

Practical resistors also have some inductance and capacitance which will also affect the relation
between voltage and current in alternating current circuits.

16
The ohm (symbol: ) is the SI unit of electrical resistance, named after Georg Simon Ohm. An
ohm is equivalent to a volt per ampere. Since resistors are specified and manufactured over a
very large range of values, the derived units of milliohm (1 m = 103 ), kilo ohm (1 k = 103
), and mega ohm (1 M = 106 ) are also in common usage.

Series and parallel resistors:

The total resistance of resistors connected in series is the sum of their individual resistance
values.

The total resistance of resistors connected in parallel is the reciprocal of the sum of the
reciprocals of the individual resistors.

So, for example, a 10 ohm resistor connected in parallel with a 5 ohm resistor and a 15 ohm
resistor will produce the inverse of 1/10+1/5+1/15 ohms of resistance, or 1/(.1+.2+.067)=2.725
ohms. A resistor network that is a combination of parallel and series connections can be broken
up into smaller parts that are either one or the other. Some complex networks of resistors cannot
be resolved in this manner, requiring more sophisticated circuit analysis. Generally, the Y-
transform, or matrix methods can be used to solve such problems.

17
Power dissipation:

At any instant of time, the power P consumed by a resistor of resistance R (ohms) is calculated as:

where V (volts) is the voltage across the resistor and I (amps) is the current flowing through it.
Using Ohm's law, the two other forms can be derived. This power is converted into heat which
must be dissipated by the resistor's package before its temperature rises excessively.

Lead arrangements:

2.5 Potentiometer:

A potentiometer informally a pot, is a three-terminal resistor with a sliding or rotating contact

that forms an adjustable voltage divider. If only two terminals are used, one end and the wiper, it
acts as a variable resistor or rheostat. A potentiometer measuring instrument is essentially a
voltage divider used for measuring electric potential (voltage); the component is an
implementation of the same principle, hence its name. Potentiometers are commonly used to
control electrical devices such as volume controls on audio equipment. Potentiometers operated
by a mechanism can be used as position transducers, for example, in a joystick. Potentiometers
are rarely used to directly control significant power (more than a watt), since the power
dissipated in the potentiometer would be comparable to the power in the controlled load.

18
 Fig: A typical single-turn potentiometer

Electronic symbol:

(International)

(US)

Potentiometer construction:
Potentiometers comprise a resistive element, a sliding contact (wiper) that moves along the
element, making good electrical contact with one part of it, electrical terminals at each end of the
element, a mechanism that moves the wiper from one end to the other, and a housing containing
the element and wiper.

19
Many inexpensive potentiometers are constructed with a resistive element formed into an arc of
a circle usually a little less than a full turn and a wiper sliding on this element when rotated,
making electrical contact. The resistive element, with a terminal at each end, is flat or angled.
The wiper is connected to a third terminal, usually between the other two. On panel
potentiometers, the wiper is usually the center terminal of three. For single-turn potentiometers,
this wiper typically travels just under one revolution around the contact. The only point of
ingress for contamination is the narrow space between the shaft and the housing it rotates in.

Another type is the linear slider potentiometer, which has a wiper which slides along a linear
element instead of rotating. Contamination can potentially enter anywhere along the slot the
slider moves in, making effective sealing more difficult and compromising long-term reliability.
An advantage of the slider potentiometer is that the slider position gives a visual indication of its
setting. While the setting of a rotary potentiometer can be seen by the position of a marking on
the knob, an array of sliders can give a visual impression of, for example, the effect of a multi-
band equalizer.

Theory of operation:

A potentiometer with a resistive load, showing equivalent fixed resistors for clarity.
20
The potentiometer can be used as a voltage divider to obtain a manually adjustable output
voltage at the slider (wiper) from a fixed input voltage applied across the two ends of the
potentiometer. This is their most common use.

The voltage across RL can be calculated by:

If RL is large compared to the other resistances (like the input to an operational amplifier), the
output voltage can be approximated by the simpler equation:

(dividing throughout by RL and cancelling terms with RL as denominator)

As an example, assume

, , , and

Since the load resistance is large compared to the other resistances, the output voltage VL will be
approximately:

Due to the load resistance, however, it will actually be slightly lower: 6.623 V.

One of the advantages of the potential divider compared to a variable resistor in series with the
source is that, while variable resistors have a maximum resistance where some current will
always flow, dividers are able to vary the output voltage from maximum (VS) to ground (zero
volts) as the wiper moves from one end of the potentiometer to the other. There is, however,
always a small amount of contact resistance.

In addition, the load resistance is often not known and therefore simply placing a variable
resistor in series with the load could have a negligible effect or an excessive effect, depending
on the load.

21
Potentiometer applications:

Potentiometers are rarely used to directly control significant amounts of power (more than a watt
or so). Instead they are used to adjust the level of analog signals (for example volume controls
on audio equipment), and as control inputs for electronic circuits. For example, a light dimmer
uses a potentiometer to control the switching of a TRIAC and so indirectly to control the
brightness of lamps. Preset potentiometers are widely used throughout electronics wherever
adjustments must be made during manufacturing or servicing.

User-actuated potentiometers are widely used as user controls, and may control a very wide
variety of equipment functions. The widespread use of potentiometers in consumer electronics
declined in the 1990s, with rotary encoders, up/down push-buttons, and other digital controls
now more common. However they remain in many applications, such as volume controls and as
position sensors. Low-power potentiometers, both linear and rotary, are used to control audio
equipment, changing loudness, frequency attenuation and other characteristics of audio signals.

The 'log pot' is used as the volume control in audio power amplifiers, where it is also called an
"audio taper pot", because the amplitude response of the human ear is approximately
logarithmic. It ensures that on a volume control marked 0 to 10, for example, a setting of 5
sounds subjectively half as loud as a setting of 10. There is also an anti-log pot or reverse audio
taper which is simply the reverse of a logarithmic potentiometer. It is almost always used in a
ganged configuration with a logarithmic potentiometer, for instance, in an audio balance control.

Television:

Potentiometers were formerly used to control picture brightness, contrast, and color response. A
potentiometer was often used to adjust "vertical hold", which affected the synchronization
between the receiver's internal sweep circuit (sometimes a multivibrator) and the received
picture signal, along with other things such as audio-video carrier offset, tuning frequency (for
push-button sets) and so on.

Motion control:

Potentiometers can be used as position feedback devices in order to create "closed loop" control,
such as in a servomechanism. This method of motion control used in the DC Motor is the
simplest method of measuring the angle or speed.

22
Transducers:

Potentiometers are also very widely used as a part of displacement transducers because of the
simplicity of construction and because they can give a large output signal.

Computation:

In analog computers, high precision potentiometers are used to scale intermediate results by
desired constant factors, or to set initial conditions for a calculation. A motor-driven
potentiometer may be used as a function generator, using a non-linear resistance card to supply
approximations to trigonometric functions. For example, the shaft rotation might represent an
angle, and the voltage division ratio can be made proportional to the cosine of the angle.

2.6 Diode:

The most common function of a diode is to allow an electric current to pass in one direction
(called the diode's forward direction), while blocking current in the opposite direction (the
reverse direction).

Thus, the diode can be viewed as an electronic version of a check valve. This unidirectional
behavior is called rectification, and is used to convert alternating current to direct current,
including extraction of modulation from radio signals in radio receiversthese diodes are forms
of rectifiers.

Anode Cathode

P-N Junction Diodes:

A diode is an electronics component made from a combination of a P-type and N-type

semiconductor material, known as a p-n junction, with leads attached to the two ends. The most
The lead attached to the n-type semiconductor is called the cathode. Thus, the cathode is the
negative side of the diode. The positive side of the diode that is, the lead attached to the p-
type semiconductor is called the anode.

23
When a voltage source is connected to a diode such that the positive side of the voltage source is
on the anode and the negative side is on the cathode, the diode becomes a conductor and allows
current to flow. Voltage connected to the diode in this direction is called forward bias.

But if you reverse the voltage direction, applying the positive side to the cathode and the
negative side to the anode, current doesn't flow. In effect, the diode becomes an insulator.
Voltage connected to the diode in this direction is called reverse bias.

Forward bias allows current to flow through the diode. Reverse bias doesn't allow current to
flow. (Up to a point, anyway. As you'll discover in just a few moments, there are limits to how
much reverse bias voltage a diode can hold at bay.)

The anode is on the left, and the cathode is on the right. Here are two useful tricks for
remembering which side of the symbol is the anode and which is the cathode.

Rectifier diodes:

Fig: Diode schematic symbol

A rectifier diode is designed specifically for circuits that need to convert alternating current to
direct current. The most common rectifier diodes are identified by the model numbers 1N4001
through 1N4007. These diodes can pass currents of up to 1 A, and they have peak inverse
voltage (PIV) ratings that range from 50 to 1,000 V.

24
Most rectifier diodes have a forward voltage drop of about 0.7 V. Thus, a minimum of 0.7 V is
required for current to flow through the diode.

Currentvoltage characteristic:

Fig: IV (current vs. voltage) characteristics of a pn junction diode

A semiconductor diode's behavior in a circuit is given by its currentvoltage characteristic, or I

V graph (see graph below). The shape of the curve is determined by the transport of charge
carriers through the so-called depletion layer or depletion region that exists at the pn junction
between differing semiconductors. When a pn junction is first created, conduction-band
(mobile) electrons from the N-doped region diffuse into the P-doped region where there is a
large population of holes (vacant places for electrons) with which the electrons "recombine".
When a mobile electron recombines with a hole, both hole and electron vanish, leaving behind
an immobile positively charged donor (dopant) on the N side and negatively charged acceptor
(dopant) on the P side. The region around the pn junction becomes depleted of charge carriers
and thus behaves as an insulator.

25
2.7 Zener Diode (4.7V 400mW):
A Zener diode is a diode which allows current to flow in the forward direction in the same
manner as an ideal diode, but also permits it to flow in the reverse direction when the voltage is
above a certain value known as the breakdown voltage, zener knee voltage, zener voltage,
avalanche point, or peak inverse voltage.

Zener Diode schematic symbol

Fig: Practical symbol of zener diode

Operation:

In a normal diode, the peak inverse voltage is usually pretty high 50, 100, even 1,000 V. If
the reverse voltage across the diode exceeds this number, current floods across the diode in the
reverse direction in an avalanche, which usually results in the diode's demise. Normal diodes
aren't designed to withstand a reverse avalanche of current. Zener diodes are. They're specially
designed to withstand current that flows when the peak inverse voltage is reached or exceeded.
And more than that, Zener diodes are designed so that as the reverse voltage applied to them
exceeds the threshold voltage, current flows more and more in a way that holds the voltage drop
across the diode at a fixed level. In other words, Zener diodes can be used to regulate the voltage
across a circuit. In a Zener diode, the peak inverse voltage is called the Zener voltage. This
voltage can be quite low in the range of a few volts or it can be hundreds of volts.

Zener diodes are often used in circuits where a predictable voltage is required. For example,
suppose you have a circuit that will be damaged if you feed it with more than 5 V. In that case,
you could place a 5 V Zener diode across the circuit, effectively limiting the circuit to 5 V. If
26
more than 5 V is applied to the circuit, the Zener diode conducts the excess voltage away from
the sensitive circuit

2.8 An operational amplifier:

(op-amp) is a DC-coupled high-gain electronic voltage amplifier with a differential input and,
usually, a single-ended output. In this configuration, an op-amp produces an output potential
(relative to circuit ground) that is typically hundreds of thousands of times larger than the
potential difference between its input terminals. Operational amplifiers had their origins in
analog computers, where they were used to do mathematical operations in many linear, non-
linear and frequency-dependent circuits. Characteristics of a circuit using an op-amp are set by
external components with little dependence on temperature changes or manufacturing variations
in the op-amp itself, which makes op-amps popular building blocks for circuit design.

A voltage comparator is an electronic circuit that compares two input voltages and lets you
know which of the two is greater. Its easy to create a voltage comparator from an op amp,
because the polarity of the op-amps output circuit depends on the polarity of the difference
between the two input voltages. Suppose that you have a photocell that generates 0.5 V when
its exposed to full sunlight, and you want to use this photocell as a sensor to determine when
its daylight. You can use a voltage comparator to compare the voltage from the photocell with a
0.5 V reference voltage to determine whether or not the sun is shining. In the voltage-
comparator circuit, first a reference voltage is applied to the inverting input (V); then the
voltage to be compared with the reference voltage is applied to the no inverting input. The
output voltage depends on the value of the input voltage relative to the reference voltage, as
follows:

27
Equivalent Circuit for Ideal Operational Amplifiers:

How to op amp work:

On the top left, we see a sine wave, which is one of the simplest time varying signals there is.
Amplifying this signal would not shift the signal, but instead would make the entire range of the
signal larger. If we used a 4x amplification, then we would get the top right picture with the
larger signal. Notice in the bottom picture the overlay of these two signals. They do not shift up,
but instead look like they are stretched. The easiest way to think of all this is at the extremes. If
in the first picture the highest point was 1 and we had 4x amplification, then the output would be
4. However, the middle point is 0 and that multiplied by 4 is still zero. Hence the reason the
overlay shows the extreme highs and lows being stretched the most. Also, it is important to
note that these are analog signals, so every point in between the extremes is being amplified.

The power coming into the op amp also restricts how much the op amp can amplify a signal. Not
only that, but sometimes you dont even get to go to the limits! Say you have +15 volts attached
to D and -15 volts attached to E (most op amps have lower voltages these days but +/- 15
volts still happens sometimes). Now lets say you have a 1V signal coming into a non-inverting
amplifier (shown below). The gain on this amplifier is set to 15 by making the top resistor 14
28
times less than the resistor connected to the ground (non-inverting amplifiers have a gain of
1+R(top)/R(GND). So our 1 volt signal is placed at the non-inverting input (the plus) and the op
amp says 15 volts.

2.9 Transistor:
BC547 is an NPN bi-polar junction transistor. A transistor, stands for transfer of resistance, is
commonly used to amplify current. A small current at its base controls a larger current at
collector & emitter terminals. BC547 is mainly used for amplification and switching purposes. It
has a maximum current gain of 800. Its equivalent transistors are BC548 and BC549.

The transistor terminals require a fixed DC voltage to operate in the desired region of its
characteristic curves. This is known as the biasing. For amplification applications, the transistor
is biased such that it is partly on for all input conditions. The input signal at base is amplified
and taken at the emitter. BC547 is used in common emitter configuration for amplifiers. The
voltage divider is the commonly used biasing mode. For switching applications, transistor is
biased so that it remains fully on if there is a signal at its base. In the absence of base signal, it
gets completely off.

A bipolar junction transistor (BJT or bipolar transistor) is a type of transistor that relies on the
contact of two types of semiconductor for its operation. BJTs can be used as amplifiers,
switches, or in oscillators. BJTs can be found either as individual discrete components, or in
large numbers as parts of integrated circuits. Bipolar transistors are so named because their
operation involves both electrons and holes. These two kinds of charge carriers are characteristic
29
of the two kinds of doped semiconductor material; electrons are majority charge carriers in n-
type semiconductors, whereas holes are majority charge carriers in p-type semiconductors. In
contrast, unipolar transistors such as the field-effect transistors have only one kind of charge
carrier.

Charge flow in a BJT is due to diffusion of charge carriers across a junction between two
regions of different charge concentrations. The regions of a BJT are called emitter, collector, and
base. A discrete transistor has three leads for connection to these regions. Typically, the emitter
region is heavily doped compared to the other two layers, whereas the majority charge carrier
concentrations in base and collector layers are about the same. By design, most of the BJT
collector current is due to the flow of charges injected from a high-concentration emitter into the
base where there are minority carriers that diffuse toward the collector, and so BJTs are
classified as minority-carrier devices.

Transistor parameters: Alpha () and Beta ():

The proportion of electrons able to cross the base and reach the collector is a measure of the BJT
efficiency. The heavy doping of the emitter region and light doping of the base region causes
many more electrons to be injected from the emitter into the base than holes to be injected from
the base into the emitter. The common-emitter current gain is represented by F or hFE; it is
approximately the ratio of the DC collector current to the DC base current in forward-active
region. It is typically greater than 100 for small-signal transistors but can be smaller in
transistors designed for high-power applications. Another important parameter is the common-
base current gain, F. The common-base current gain is approximately the gain of current from
emitter to collector in the forward-active region. This ratio usually has a value close to unity;
between 0.98 and 0.998. It is less than unity due to recombination of charge carriers as they
cross the base region. Alpha and beta are more precisely related by the following identities
(NPN transistor):

30
Structure:

Fig: Simplified cross section of a planar NPN bipolar junction transistor

A BJT consists of three differently doped semiconductor regions, the emitter region, the base
region and the collector region. These regions are, respectively, p type, n type and p type in a
PNP transistor, and n type, p type and n type in an NPN transistor. Each semiconductor region is
connected to a terminal, appropriately labeled: emitter (E), base (B) and collector (C). The base
is physically located between the emitter and the collector and is made from lightly doped, high
resistivity material. The collector surrounds the emitter region, making it almost impossible for
the electrons injected into the base region to escape without being collected, thus making the
resulting value of very close to unity, and so, giving the transistor a large . A cross section
view of a BJT indicates that the collectorbase junction has a much larger area than the emitter
base junction.

The bipolar junction transistor, unlike other transistors, is usually not a symmetrical device. This
means that interchanging the collector and the emitter makes the transistor leave the forward
active mode and start to operate in reverse mode. Because the transistor's internal structure is
usually optimized for forward-mode operation, interchanging the collector and the emitter makes
the values of and in reverse operation much smaller than those in forward operation; often
the of the reverse mode is lower than 0.5. The lack of symmetry is primarily due to the doping
ratios of the emitter and the collector. The emitter is heavily doped, while the collector is lightly
doped, allowing a large reverse bias voltage to be applied before the collectorbase junction
breaks down. The collectorbase junction is reverse biased in normal operation. The reason the
emitter is heavily doped is to increase the emitter injection efficiency: the ratio of carriers
injected by the emitter to those injected by the base. For high current gain, most of the carriers
injected into the emitterbase junction must come from the emitter.

31
Regions of operation:

Fig: The relationship between , and .

Forward-active (or simply, active): The baseemitter junction is forward biased and the
basecollector junction is reverse biased. Most bipolar transistors are designed to afford
the greatest common-emitter current gain, F, in forward-active mode. If this is the case,
the collectoremitter current is approximately proportional to the base current, but many
times larger, for small base current variations.

Reverse-active (or inverse-active or inverted): By reversing the biasing conditions of

the forward-active region, a bipolar transistor goes into reverse-active mode. In this
mode, the emitter and collector regions switch roles. Because most BJTs are designed to
maximize current gain in forward-active mode, the F in inverted mode is several times
smaller (23 times for the ordinary germanium transistor). This transistor mode is
seldom used, usually being considered only for failsafe conditions and some types of
bipolar logic. The reverse bias breakdown voltage to the base may be an order of
magnitude lower in this region.

Saturation: With both junctions forward-biased, a BJT is in saturation mode and

facilitates high current conduction from the emitter to the collector (or the other direction
in the case of NPN, with negatively charged carriers flowing from emitter to collector).
This mode corresponds to a logical "on", or a closed switch.

Cutoff: In cutoff, biasing conditions opposite of saturation (both junctions reverse

biased) are present. There is very little current, which corresponds to a logical "off", or
an open switch.

32
2.10 Relay:

A relay is an electrically operated switch. Many relays use an electromagnet to mechanically

operate a switch, but other operating principles are also used, such as solid-state relays. Relays
are used where it is necessary to control a circuit by a low-power signal (with complete electrical
isolation between control and controlled circuits), or where several circuits must be controlled
by one signal. The first relays were used in long distance telegraph circuits as amplifiers: they
repeated the signal coming in from one circuit and re-transmitted it on another circuit. Relays
were used extensively in telephone exchanges and early computers to perform logical
operations.

A type of relay that can handle the high power required to directly control an electric motor or
other loads is called a contactor. Solid-state relays control power circuits with no moving parts,
instead using a semiconductor device to perform switching. Relays with calibrated operating
characteristics and sometimes multiple operating coils are used to protect electrical circuits from
overload or faults; in modern electric power systems these functions are performed by digital
instruments still called "protective relays".

Relays in a control panel. Although such relays once were the backbone of automation in such
industries as automobile assembly, the programmable logic controller (PLC) mostly displaced
the machine tool relay from sequential control applications. A relay allows circuits to be
switched by electrical equipment: for example, a timer circuit with a relay could switch power at
a preset time. For many years relays were the standard method of controlling industrial
electronic systems. A number of relays could be used together to carry out complex functions

33
(relay logic). The principle of relay logic is based on relays which energize and de-energize
associated contacts. Relay logic is the predecessor of ladder logic, which is commonly used in
programmable logic controllers.

Pole and Throw:

Circuit symbols of relays. (C denotes the common terminal in SPDT and DPDT types.) Since
relays are switches, the terminology applied to switches is also applied to relays; a relay
switches one or more poles, each of whose contacts can be thrown by energizing the coil in one
of three ways:

Normally-open (NO) contacts connect the circuit when the relay is activated; the circuit is
disconnected when the relay is inactive. It is also called a Form A contact or "make"
34
 contact. NO contacts may also be distinguished as "early-make" or NOEM, which means
that the contacts close before the button or switch is fully engaged.
Normally-closed (NC) contacts disconnect the circuit when the relay is activated; the circuit
is connected when the relay is inactive. It is also called a Form B contact or "break" contact.
NC contacts may also be distinguished as "late-break" or NCLB, which means that the
contacts stay closed until the button or switch is fully disengaged.
Change-over (CO), or double-throw (DT), contacts control two circuits: one normally-open
contact and one normally-closed contact with a common terminal. It is also called a Form C
contact or "transfer" contact ("break before make"). If this type of contact utilizes a "make
before break" functionality, then it is called a Form D contact.

The following designations are commonly encountered:

SPST Single Pole Single Throw. These have two terminals which can be connected or
disconnected. Including two for the coil, such a relay has four terminals in total. It is
ambiguous whether the pole is normally open or normally closed. The terminology
"SPNO" and "SPNC" is sometimes used to resolve the ambiguity.
SPDT Single Pole Double Throw. A common terminal connects to either of two
others. Including two for the coil, such a relay has five terminals in total.
DPST Double Pole Single Throw. These have two pairs of terminals. Equivalent to
two SPST switches or relays actuated by a single coil. Including two for the coil, such a
relay has six terminals in total. The poles may be Form A or Form B (or one of each).
DPDT Double Pole Double Throw. These have two rows of change-over terminals.
Equivalent to two SPDT switches or relays actuated by a single coil. Such a relay has
eight terminals, including the coil.

35
Applications:

Amplifying a digital signal, switching a large amount of power with a small operating
power. Some special cases are:
o A telegraph relay, repeating a weak signal received at the end of a long wire
o Controlling a high-voltage circuit with a low-voltage signal, as in some types of
modems or audio amplifiers,
o Controlling a high-current circuit with a low-current signal, as in the starter
solenoid of an automobile,
Detecting and isolating faults on transmission and distribution lines by opening and
closing circuit breakers (protection relays),

Isolating the controlling circuit from the controlled circuit when the two are at different
potentials, for example when controlling a mains-powered device from a low-voltage
switch. The latter is often applied to control office lighting as the low voltage wires are
easily installed in partitions, which may be often moved as needs change. They may also
be controlled by room occupancy detectors to conserve energy, Logic functions. For
example, the Boolean AND function is realized by connecting normally open relay
contacts in series, the OR function by connecting normally open contacts in parallel. The
change-over or Form C contacts perform the XOR (exclusive or) function. Similar
functions for NAND and NOR are accomplished using normally closed contacts. The
Ladder programming language is often used for designing relay logic networks.

36
 Chapter 3
Circuit and Operation

3.1 How the Circuit Functions:

A voltage stabilizer is a device which is used to sense inappropriate voltage levels and correct
them to produce a reasonably stable output at the output where the load is connected.
Here we will study the design of a simple automatic mains AC voltage stabilizer which can be
applied for the above purpose. Referring to the figure we find that the whole circuit is
configured with the single op amp IC 741. It becomes the control section of the whole design.

The IC is wired as a comparator, we all know how well this mode suits the IC 741 and other op
amps. It's two inputs are suitable rigged for the said operations.

Pin #2 of the IC is clamped to a reference level, created by the resistor R1 and the zener diode,
while pin #3 is applied with the sample voltage from the transformer or the supply source. This
voltage becomes the sensing voltage for the IC and is directly proportional to the varying AC
input of our mains supply.

The preset is used to set the triggering point or the threshold point at which the voltage may be
assumed to be dangerous or inappropriate. We will discuss this in the setting up procedure
section.

The pin #6 which is the output of the IC, goes high as soon as pin #3 reaches the set point and
activates the transistor/relay stage.

In case the mains voltage crosses a predetermined threshold, the ICs non inverting detects it and
its output immediately goes high, switching ON the transistor and the relay for the desired
actions.

The relay, which is a DPDT type of relay, has its contacts wired up to a transformer, which is an
ordinary transformer modified to perform the function of a stabilizer transformer.

Its primary and secondary windings are interconnected in such a manner that through
appropriate switching of its taps, the transformer is able to add or deduct a certain magnitude of
AC mains voltage and produce the resultant to the output connected load.

37
The relay contacts are appropriately integrated to the transformer taps for executing the above
actions as per the commands given by the op amp output.

So if the input AC voltage tends to increase a set threshold value, the transformer deducts some
voltage and tries to stop the voltage from reaching dangerous levels and vice versa during low
voltage situations.

3.2 Circuit Diagram:

Fig: Circuit diagram of voltage stabilizer.

Approximate Voltage Outputs for the Given Inputs:

INPUT------OUTPUT
200V -------- 212V
210V -------- 222V
220V -------- 232V
225V -------- 237V
230V -------- 218V
240V -------- 228V
250V -------- 238V

Operation:
The proposed simple automatic voltage stabilizer circuit may be set up with the following steps:
Initially do not connect the transformers to the circuit. Using a variable power supply, power the
circuit across C1, the positive goes to the terminal of R1 while the negative goes to the line of
38
D2s cathode. Set the voltage to about 12.5 voltage and adjust the preset so that the output of the
IC just becomes high and triggers the relay. Now lowering the voltage to about 12 volts should
make the op amp trip the relay to its original state or make it de-energized. Repeat and check the
relay action by altering the voltage from 12 to 13 volts, which should make the relay flip flop
correspondingly. Your setting up procedure is over. Now you may connect both the
transformer to its appropriate positions with the circuit. Our simple home made mains voltage
stabilizer circuit is ready. When installed, the relay trips whenever the input voltage crosses 230
volts, bringing the output to 218 volts and keeps this distance continuously as the voltage
reaches higher levels. When the voltage drops back to 225, the relay gets de-energized pulling
the voltage to 238 volts and maintains the difference as the voltage further goes down. The
above action keeps the output to the appliance well between 200 to 250 volts with fluctuations
ranging from 180 to 265 volts.

3.3 Circuit Design & Implementation:

39
 Chapter 4
Discussion and Conclusion

4.1 Utilities:
* Over-voltage protection

* Under-voltage protection

* Protection against transients

* High reliability

* High performance

* Low cost

* protection to load from frequent turning ON & OFF by providing time delay. Under-voltage
relay, in case the mains voltage starts fluctuating in the vicinity of under or over voltage preset
points.

* It can be used to protect loads such as refrigerator , T.V and VCR from undesirable over and
under line voltages.

4.2 Limitation:

When installed, the relay trips whenever the input voltage crosses 230 volts, bringing the
output to 218 volts and keeps this distance continuously as the voltage reaches higher
levels.

When the voltage drops back to 225, the relay gets de-energized pulling the voltage to
238 volts and maintains the difference as the voltage further goes down.

The above action keeps the output to the appliance well between 200 to 250 volts with
fluctuations ranging from 180 to 265 volts.

40
4.3 Conclusion:
It is an inexpensive automatic voltage stabilizer circuit, which is fabricated using transistors and
other discrete components. It can be used to protect loads such as refrigerator, TV and VCR
from undesirable over and under line voltages, as well as surges caused due to sudden failure/
resumption of mains power supply. A voltage stabilizer is a device which is used to sense
inappropriate voltage levels and correct them to produce a reasonably stable output at the output
where the load is connected. Here we will study the design of a simple automatic mains AC
voltage stabilizer which can be applied for the above purpose. Referring to the figure we find
that the whole circuit is configured with the single op amp IC 741. It becomes the control
section of the whole design. The IC is wired as a comparator, we all know how well this mode
suits the IC 741 and other op amps. It's two inputs are suitable rigged for the said operations.
Referring to the figure we find that the whole circuit is configured with the single op amp IC
741. It becomes the control section of the whole design. The IC is wired as a comparator, we all
know how well this mode suits the IC 741 and other op amps. It's two inputs are suitable rigged
for the said operations. Now you may connect both the transformer to its appropriate positions
with the circuit. Our simple voltage stabilizer circuit is ready.

First start with great thank to almighty, we take this opportunity to express our profound
gratitude and deep regards to our guide Ashraful Arefin for his exemplary guidance, monitoring
and constant encouragement throughout the course of this project. I cant say thank you enough
for his tremendous support and help. I feel motivated and encouraged every time we attend his
meeting. Without his encouragement and guidance this project would not have materialized. We
sincerely thank the respected teachers and faculty members of Northern University Bangladesh
as they have tremendous contribution behind our progress. Last but not least we wish to avail
ourselves of this opportunity, express a sense of gratitude and love to our friends and our
beloved parents for their manual support, strength and help and for everything.

41
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1. http://www.diy-electronic-projects.com/p183-High-and-low-voltage-cut-off-with-time-delay

2. http://electronicseverywhere.blogspot.com/2010/11/overunder-voltage-cut-off-with-on-
time.html

3. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/

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5.
http://books.google.com.bd/books?id=NunPn6rRTAC&pg=PA81&dq=diode+cathode+anode+n
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oxide+relay+contact&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=silver-oxide%20relay%20contact&f=false

10. http://www.todaysengineer.org/2003/May/history.asp

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=false

12.
http://www.ieeeghn.org/wiki/index.php/Milestones:Invention_of_the_first_Transistor_at_Bell_T
elephone_laboratories,_Inc.,_1947

13. http://spectrum.ieee.org/energy/renewables/winner-super-cahrged

42

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