Dept of Mechanical Engineering Seminar Report on Carbon Fiber

1. INTRODUCTION

Over the ages, as we have evolved, so has our engineering and researching skill sets.
Civil engineering being the very origin of engineering, has also witnessed many
transformations and breakthroughs in the construction technology thereby leading us to the
successful current times. Even today, we are constantly innovating, researching and
developing technology in pursuit of a sustainable future. Throughout this evolution,
researchers and engineers have found themselves in constant search for new and better
materials to optimally manage the performance-cost tradeoff in the construction sector.

Many new raw materials have been discovered and many ground-breaking composites
have been developed, of which not all but some have proved,;; be a phenomenal success.
Carbon is one of these materials, used in combination with other materials to form a composite.
The properties of carbon fibers, such as high stiffness, high tensile strength, low weight,
high chemical resistance, high temperature tolerance and low thermal expansion, makes
them one of the most popular materials in civil engineering.

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2. CARBON FIBRE

Carbon fiber, alternatively graphite fiber, carbon graphite or CF, is a material

consisting of fibers about 510 m in diameter and composed mostly of carbon atoms.
The carbon atoms are bonded together in crystals that are more or less aligned parallel to
the long axis of the fiber. The crystal alignment gives the fiber high strength-to-volume
ratio (makes it strong for its size). Several thousand carbon fibers are bundled together to
form a tow, which may be used by itself or woven into a fabric. The properties of carbon
fibers, such as high stiffness, high tensile strength, low weight, high chemical resistance,
high temperature tolerance and low thermal expansion, make them very popular in
aerospace, civil engineering, military, and motorsports, along with other competition
sports.

Fig 2.1 - Carbon fibres

Carbon fibres are produced by the PAN (poly acryl nitrite) or the pitch method.
The PAN seperates a chain of carbon atom from PAN through heating and oxidation
while the pitch method pulls out graphite threads through a nozzle from hot fluid pitch.

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3. HISTORY OF CARBON FIBER

In 1958, Roger Bacon created high-performance carbon fibers at the Union

Carbide Parma Technical Center, now GrafTech International Holdings, Inc., located
outside of Cleveland, Ohio.[1] Those fibers were manufactured by heating strands
of rayon until they carbonized. This process proved to be inefficient, as the resulting
fibers contained only about 20% carbon and had low strength and stiffness properties. In
the early 1960s, a process was developed by Dr. Akio Shindo at Agency of Industrial
Science and Technology of Japan, using polyacrylonitrile (PAN) as a raw material. This
had produced a carbon fiber that contained about 55% carbon.

The high potential strength of carbon fiber was realized in 1963 in a process
developed by W. Watt, L. N. Phillips, and W. Johnson at the Royal Aircraft
Establishment at Farnborough, Hampshire. The process was patented by the UK Ministry
of Defence then licensed by the National Research Development Corporation (NRDC) to
three British companies: Rolls-Royce, already making carbon fiber, Morganite
and Courtaulds. They were able to establish industrial carbon fiber production facilities
within a few years, and Rolls-Royce took advantage of the new material's properties to
break into the American market with its RB-211 aero-engine.

Public concern arose over the ability of British industry to make the best of this
breakthrough. In 1969 a House of Commons select committee inquiry into carbon fiber
prophetically asked: "How then is the nation to reap the maximum benefit without it
becoming yet another British invention to be exploited more successfully overseas?"
Ultimately, this concern was justified. One by one the licensees pulled out of carbon-
fiber manufacture. Rolls-Royce's interest was in state-of-the-art aero-engine applications.
Its own production process was to enable it to be leader in the use of carbon-fiber
reinforced plastics.

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4. PRODUCTION OF CARBON FIBER

Fig 4.1 Synthesis of carbon fiber

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Fig 4.2 - Synthesis of carbon fiber from polyacrylonitrile (PAN)

1) Polymerization of acrylonitrile to PAN,

2) Cyclization during low temperature process,
3) High temperature oxidative treatment of carbonization (hydrogen is removed).

After this, process of graphitization starts where nitrogen is removed and chains
are joined into graphite planes.

Carbon fiber can be either PITCH or PAN based. PITCH based fibres do not have
as great strength, lightness or mechanical properties as PAN based fibres, so are less
commonly used. The raw material for PAN based fibres is polyacrylonitrile, which is
commonly prepared using the Sohio process. Up until the 1960's / 70's, it was normally

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prepared from acetylene and HCN (Hydrogen Cyanide, but apart from the fact that HCN
is incredibly toxic to humans, a yield of only 60 - 65% was obtained. The Sohio process
was invented by the Standard Oil Company, Ohio in 1960 and involves an
amonoxidation reaction between propene and ammonia :-

The Sohio process improved upon the earlier one in several respects, namely that
it dramatically increased yield, produced less waste gases and water and was generally
more energetically, economically and environmentally efficient. Polymerisation of the
product then give polyacrylonitrile, a long chain polymer :-

Once this polymer has been produced, the manufacture of carbon fibre can
proceed. The first step of the process is to stretch the polymer so that it is parallel to what
will eventually become the axis of the fibre. Once this has been done, the polymer is
oxidised at 200-300oC in air, which removes hydrogen and adds oxygen to the molecule
and forms the basis of the hexagonal structure seen above

During this process, there is a colour change from the white chain polymer to the
black ring polymer. The polymer produced here is very high melting point and now thas
to be purified. To do this, a process called Carbonisataion is used. This involves heating
the polymer in a nitrogen rich environment, which expels impurities in the chain as
volatile by products, which are removed, until the polymer contains 92 - 100% carbon,
depending on the quality required for the fibre. temperatures ranging from 1000 -
2500oC are used, depending on the desired properties required in the fibre.

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Each of the fibres produced is about the fifth of the width of a human hair. The
final stages in the production of carbon fibre involve weaving the fibres into sheets or
tubes and embedding them in an epoxy resin. There are several different patterns of
weave, including plain, satin, twill or basket weave, again giving the fibres customizable
properties. The final stage of embedding in a resin is known as sizing and forms the final
composite which is then ready for further processing to form a variety of products

4.1. MANUFACTURING PROCESS

The raw material used to make carbon fiber is called the precursor. About 90% of
the carbon fibers produced are made from polyacrylonitrile (PAN). The remaining 10%
are made from rayon or petroleum pitch. All of these materials are organic polymers,
characterized by long strings of molecules bound together by carbon atoms. The exact
composition of each precursor varies from one company to another and is generally
considered a trade secret.

Fig 4.3 PAN fiber going through oxidation oven

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During the manufacturing process, a variety of gases and liquids are used. Some
of these materials are designed to react with the fiber to achieve a specific effect. Other
materials are designed not to react or to prevent certain reactions with the fiber. As with
the precursors, the exact compositions of many of these process materials are considered
trade secrets.

The process for making carbon fibers is part chemical and part mechanical. The
precursor is drawn into long strands or fibers and then heated to a very high temperature
with-out allowing it to come in contact with oxygen. Without oxygen, the fiber cannot
burn. Instead, the high temperature causes the atoms in the fiber to vibrate violently until
most of the non-carbon atoms are expelled. This process is called carbonization and
leaves a fiber composed of long, tightly inter-locked chains of carbon atoms with only a
few non-carbon atoms remaining.

Fig 4.4 Manufacturing process

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Plastics are drown into long strands or fibers and then heated to a very high
temperature without allowing it to come in contact with oxygen. Without oxygen, the
fiber cannot burn. Instead, the high temperature causes the atoms in the fiber to vibrate
violently until most of the non-carbon atoms are expelled.

Here is a typical sequence of operations used to form carbon fibers from

polyacrylonitrile (PAN):

4.1.1. Spinning

Acrylonitrile plastic powder is mixed with another plastic, like methyl acrylate or
methyl methacrylate, and is reacted with a catalyst in a conventional suspension
or solution polymerization process to form a polyacrylonitrile plastic.
The plastic is then spun into fibers using one of several different methods. In
some methods, the plastic is mixed with certain chemicals and pumped through
tiny jets into a chemical bath or quench chamber where the plastic coagulates and
solidifies into fibers. This is similar to the process used to form polyacrylic textile
fibers.
In other methods, the plastic mixture is heated and pumped through tiny jets into
a chamber where the solvents evaporate leaving a solid fiber.
The spinning step is important because the internal atomic structure of the fiber is
formed during this process.
The fibers are then washed and stretched to the desired fiber diameter.
The stretching helps align the molecules within the fiber and provide the basis for
the formation of the tightly bonded carbon crystals after carbonization.

4.1.2. Stabilizing

Before the fibers are carbonized, they need to be chemically altered to convert
their linear atomic bonding to a more thermally stable ladder bonding. This is
accomplished by heating the fibers in air to about 390-590 F (200-300 C) for
30-120 minutes. This causes the fibers to pick up oxygen molecules from the air
and rearrange their atomic bonding pattern.

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The stabilizing chemical reactions are complex and involve several steps, some of
which occur simultaneously. They also generate their own heat, which must be
controlled to avoid overheating the fibers.
Commercially, the stabilization process uses a variety of equipment and
techniques.
In some processes, the fibers are drawn through a series of heated chambers. In
others, the fibers pass over hot rollers and through beds of loose materials held in
suspension by a flow of hot air. Some processes use heated air mixed with certain
gases that chemically accelerate the stabilization.

4.1.3. Carbonizing

Once the fibers are stabilized, they are heated to a temperature of about 1,830-
5,500 F (1,000-3,000 C) for several minutes in a furnace filled with a gas
mixture that does not contain oxygen.
The lack of oxygen prevents the fibers from burning in the very high
temperatures.
The gas pressure inside the furnace is kept higher than the outside air pressure
and the points where the fibers enter and exit the furnace are sealed to keep
oxygen from entering.
As the fibers are heated, they begin to lose their non-carbon atoms, plus a few
carbon atoms, in the form of various gases including water vapor, ammonia,
carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, hydrogen, nitrogen, and others.
As the non-carbon atoms are expelled, the remaining carbon atoms form tightly
bonded carbon crystals that are aligned more or less parallel to the long axis of
the fiber. In some processes, two furnaces operating at two different temperatures
are used to better control the rate of heating during carbonization.

4.1.4. Treating the surface

After carbonizing, the fibers have a surface that does not bond well with the
epoxies and other materials used in composite materials.
To give the fibers better bonding properties, their surface is slightly oxidized.

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The addition of oxygen atoms to the surface provides better chemical bonding
properties and also etches and roughens the surface for better mechanical bonding
properties.
Oxidation can be achieved by immersing the fibers in various gases such as air,
carbon dioxide, or ozone; or in various liquids such as sodium hypochlorite or
nitric acid.
The fibers can also be coated electrolytically by making the fibers the positive
terminal in a bath filled with various electrically conductive materials.
The surface treatment process must be carefully controlled to avoid forming tiny
surface defects, such as pits, which could cause fiber failure.

4.1.5. Sizing

Fig 4.5 - The fibers are coated to protect them from damage during winding or weaving.
The coated fibers are wound onto cylinders called bobbins.

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After the surface treatment, the fibers are coated to protect them from damage during
winding or weaving. This process is called sizing.
Coating materials are chosen to be compatible with the adhesive used to form
composite materials.
Typical coating materials include epoxy, polyester, nylon, urethane, and others.
The coated fibers are wound onto cylinders called bobbins. The bobbins are loaded
into a spinning machine and the fibers are twisted into yarns of various sizes.

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5. PROPERTIES OF CARBON FIBRES

The most important factors determining the physical properties of carbon fiber
are degree of carbonization (carbon content, usually more than 92% by weight) and
orientation of the layered carbon planes (the ribbons). Fibers are produced commercially
with a wide range of crystalline and amorphous contents variations to modify the various
properties. Depending on the starting material and process of carbonization Carbon fiber
is modified to suit the end purpose. PAN or polyacrylonitrile is the most common
precursor for plastic composites.

1. High Strength to weight ratio

2. Good Rigidity
3. Corrosion resistant
4. Electrically Conductive
5. Fatigue Resistant
6. Good tensile strength but Brittle
7. Fire Resistance/Not flammable
8. High Thermal Conductivity
9. Low coefficient of thermal expansion
10. Non poisonous
11. Biologically inert
12. X-Ray Permeable
13. Self Lubricating
14. Excellent EMI (Electromagnetic Interference) Shielding Property
15. Relatively Expensive
16. Requires specialized experience and equipment to use.

1. Carbon Fiber has High Strength to Weight Ratio (also known as specific
strength)

Strength of a material is the force per unit area at failure, divided by its density.
Any material that is strong AND light has a favourable Strength/weight ratio. Materials
such as Aluminium, titanium, magnesium, Carbon and glass fiber, high strength steel

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alloys all have good strength to weight ratios. It is not surprising that Balsa wood comes
in with a high strength to weight ratio.

Table 5.1 - Specific Strength

Spectra fiber 3619

Kevlar 2514
Carbon Fibre 2457
Glass Fibre 1307
Spider Silk 1069
Carbon Epoxy Composite 785
Balsa axial load 521
Steel alloy 254
Aluminium alloy 222
polypropylene 89
Oak 87
Nylon 69

2. Carbon Fiber is very Rigid

\Rigidity or stiffness of a material is measured by its Young Modulus and

measures how much a material deflects under stress. Carbon fiber reinforced plastic is
over 4 times stiffer than Glass reinforced plastic, almost 20 times more than pine, 2.5
times greater than aluminium. Remember stress is force, strain is deflection such as
bending or stretching

3. Carbon fiber is Corrosion Resistant and Chemically Stable.

Although carbon fiber themselves do not deteriorate, Epoxy is sensitive to
sunlight and needs to be protected. Other matrices (whatever the carbon fiber is
imbedded in) might also be reactive.

4. Carbon fiber is Electrically Conductive

This feature can be useful and be a nuisance. In Boat building It has to be taken
into account just as Aluminium conductivity comes into play. Carbon fiber conductivity
can facilitate Galvanic Corrosion in fittings. Careful installation can reduce this problem.

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Carbon Fiber dust can accumulate in a shop and cause sparks or short circuits in
electrical appliances and equipment.

5. Fatigue Resistance is good

Resistance to Fatigue in Carbon Fiber Composites is good. However when

carbon fiber fails it usually fails catastrophically without much to announce its imminent
break. Damage in tensile fatigue is seen as reduction in stiffness with larger numbers of
stress cycles, (unless the temperature is high). Test have shown that failure is unlikely to
be a problem when cyclic stresses coincide with the fiber orientation. Carbon fiber is
superior to E glass in fatigue and static strength as well as stiffness.

The orientation of the fibers AND the different fiber layer orientation, have a
great deal of influence on how a composite will resist fatigue (as it has on stiffness). The
type of forces applied also result in different types of failures. Tension, Compression or
Sheer forces all result in markedly different failure results.

6. Carbon Fiber has good Tensile Strength

Table 5.2 Tensile Strength

Carbon steel 1090 1

High density polyethylene (HDPE) 37
Polypropylene 19.7-80
High density polyethylene 37
Stainless steel AISI 302 860
Aluminium alloy 2014-T6 483
Aluminium alloy 6063-T6 248
E-Glass alone 3450
E-Glass in a laminate 1500
Carbon fiber alone 4127
Carbon fiber in a laminate 1600
Kevlar 2757
Pine wood (parallel to grain) 40

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Tensile strength or ultimate strength, is the maximum stress that a material can
withstand while being stretched or pulled before necking, or failing. Necking is when the
sample cross-section starts to significantly contract. If you take a strip of plastic bag, it
will stretch and at one point will start getting narrow. This is necking. It is measured in
Force per Unit area. Brittle materials such as carbon fiber does not always fail at the
same stress level because of internal flaws. They fail at small strains. (in other words
there is not alot of bending or stretching before catastrophic failure)

Testing involves taking a sample with a fixed cross-section area, and then pulling
it gradually increasing the force until the sample changes shape or breaks. Fibers, such as
carbon fibers, being only 2/10,000th of an inch in diameter, are made into composites of
appropriate shapes in order to test.

7. Fire Resistance/Non Flamable

Depending upon the manufacturing process and the precursor material, carbon
fiber can be quite soft and can be made into or more often integreted into protective
clothing for firefighting. Nickel coated fiber is an example. Because carbon fiber is also
chemically very inert, it can be used where there is fire combined with corrosive agents.

8. Thermal Conductivity of Carbon Fiber

Table 5.3 Thermal conductivity of carbon fiber

Air .024
Aluminium 250
Concrete .4 - .7
Carbon Steel 54
Mineral Wool insulation .04
Plywood .13
Quartz 3
Pyrex Glass 1
Pine .12
Carbon Fiber Reinforced Epoxy 24

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9. Low Coefficient of Thermal Expansion

This is a measure of how much a material expands and contracts when the
temperature goes up or down.

Table 5.4 Thermal Expansion

Steel 7

Aluminium 13

Kevlar 3 or lower

Carbon Fiber woven 2 or less

Carbon fiber undirectional minus 1 to +8

Fiberglass 7-8

Brass 11

Carbon fiber can have a broad range of CTE's, -1 to 8+, depending on the
direction measured, the fabric weave, the precursor material, Pan based (high strength,
higher CTE) or Pitch based (high modulus/stiffness, lower CTE). Low Coefficient of
Thermal expansion makes carbon fiber suitable for applications where small movements
can be critical. Telescope and other optical machinery is one such application.

10. Non Poisonous,

11. Biologically Inert,

12. X-Ray Permeable

These quality make Carbon fiber useful in Medical applications. Prosthesis use,
implants and tendon repair, x-ray accessories surgical instruments, are all in
development. Although not poisonous, the carbon fibers can be quite irritating and long
term unprotected exposure needs to be limited. The matrix either epoxy or polyester, can
however be toxic and proper care needs to be exercised.

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13. Carbon Fiber is Relatively Expensive

Although it offers exceptional advantages of Strength, Rigidity and Weight

reduction, cost is a deterrent. Unless the weight advantage is exceptionally important,
such as in aeronautics applications or racing, it often is not worth the extra cost. The low
maintenance requirement of carbon fiber is a further advantage. It is difficult to quantify
cool and fashionable. Carbon fiber has an aura and reputation which makes consumers
willing to pay more for the cachet of having it. You might need less of it compared to
fiberglass and this might be a saving.

14. Carbon Fibers are brittle

The layers in the fibers are formed by strong covalent bonds. The sheet-like
aggregations readily allow the propagation of cracks. When the fibers bend they fails at
very low strain.

15. Carbon Fiber is not yet geared to Amateur techniques.

In order to maximize Carbon Fiber Characteristics, a relatively high level of

technical excellence must be achieved. Imperfections and air bubbles can significantly
affect performance. Typically, autoclaves, or vacuum equipment is required. Moulds and
mandrels are major expenses as well. The success of any amateur carbon fiber
construction will be closely linked to the skill and care taken.

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6. STRUCTURE

Fig 6.1 - A 6 m diameter carbon filament (running from bottom left to top right)
compared to a human hair.

Each carbon filament thread is a bundle of many thousand carbon filaments. A

single such filament is a thin tube with a diameter of 58 micrometers and consists
almost exclusively of carbon. The earliest generation of carbon fibers (e.g. T300, and
AS4) had diameters of 7-8 micrometers. Later fibers (e.g. IM6) have diameters that are
approximately 5 micrometers.

The atomic structure of carbon fiber is similar to that of graphite, consisting of

sheets of carbon atoms (graphene sheets) arranged in a regular hexagonal pattern. The
difference lies in the way these sheets interlock. Graphite is a crystalline material in
which the sheets are stacked parallel to one another in regular fashion. The
intermolecular forces between the sheets are relatively weak Van der Waals forces,
giving graphite its soft and brittle characteristics. Depending upon the precursor to make
the fiber, carbon fiber may be turbostratic or graphitic, or have a hybrid structure with
both graphitic and turbostratic parts present.

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7. CARBON-FIBER-REINFORCED POLYMER

Carbon-fiber-reinforced polymer or carbon-fiber-reinforced plastic (CFRP or

CRP or often simply carbon fiber), is a very strong and light fiber-reinforced polymer
which contains carbon fibers. The polymer is most often epoxy, but other polymers, such
as polyester, vinyl ester or nylon, are sometimes used. The composite may contain other
fibers, such as Kevlar, aluminium, or glass fibers, as well as carbon fiber. The strongest
and most expensive of these additives, carbon nanotubes, are contained in some
primarily polymer baseball bats, car parts and even golf clubs where economically
viable.

Although carbon fiber can be relatively expensive, it has many applications in

aerospace and automotive fields, such as Formula One. The compound is also used in
sailboats, modern bicycles, and motorcycles, where its high strength-to-weight ratio and
good rigidity is of importance. Improved manufacturing techniques are reducing the
costs and time to manufacture, making it increasingly common in small consumer goods
as well, such as laptops, tripods, fishing rods, hockey sticks, paintball equipment, archery
equipment, tent poles, racquet frames, stringed instrument bodies, drum shells, golf
clubs, helmets used as a paragliding accessory and pool/billiards/snooker cues. The
material is also referred to as graphite-reinforced polymer or graphite fiber-reinforced
polymer (GFRP is less common, as it clashes with glass-(fiber)-reinforced polymer). In
product advertisements, it is sometimes referred to simply as graphite fiber for short.

To make a carbon fiber sheet (also known as a composite), carbon fiber fabric is
saturated or infused with epoxy resins and heated at high temperatures. Shaped pieces
are made by layering several pieces of fabric over a mold, saturating them with resin and
heating it until the resin has infused through all layers.

The properties of CFRP depend on the layouts of the carbon fiber and the
proportion of the carbon fibers relative to the polymer. properties of carbon fibre
reinforced plastics (CFRP) differ so much from that of their matrix material, that a
relationship is barely discernible any more. CFRP materials are distinguished by there
extremely high strength and rigidity.

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Exceptional durability, high resistance to corrosion, low density, excellent damping

properties and a high resistance to impacts combined with exactly modifiable thermal
expansion to complement the complex characteristics profile. To be specific, it has a very
high modulus of elasticity exceeding that of steel; high tensile strength, which may reach 1000
ksi (7 GPa); low density: 114 Ib/ft3 (1800 kg/m3) and high chemical inertness. The main
disadvantage of carbon fibers is their catastrophic mode of failure. Since the carbon fibers are
brittle in nature. Also their relative cost is a big drawback. Since carbon fiber is a high quality
material that comes with a price to match.

Figure 7.1 Tail of an RC helicopter, made of CFRP

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Figure 7.2 Fabric made of woven carbon filaments

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8. ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES

8.1. ADVANTAGES

Carbon fiber composites stand out from the crowd for several reasons. Here are a few:

Lightweight carbon fiber is a low density material with a very high strength to
weight ratio
High tensile strength one of the strongest of all commercial reinforcing fibers
when it comes to tension, carbon fiber is very difficult to stretch or bend
Low thermal expansion carbon fiber will expand or contract much less in hot
or cold conditions than materials like steel and aluminum
Exceptional durability carbon fiber has superior fatigue properties compared
to metal, meaning components made of carbon fiber wont wear out as quickly
under the stress of constant use
Corrosion-resistance when made with the appropriate resins, carbon fiber is
one of the most corrosion-resistant materials available
Radiolucence carbon fiber is transparent to radiation and invisible in x-rays,
making it valuable for usage in medical equipment and facilities
Electrical conductivity carbon fiber composites are an excellent conductor of
electricity
Ultra-violet resistant carbon fiber can be UV resistant with use of the proper
resins
High stiffness and strength
Lightweight
Corrosion resistance
X-ray transparency
Low CTE (Coefficient of Thermal Expansion)
Chemical resistivity
Thermal and electrical conductivity

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8.2. DISADVANTAGES

Carbon fiber will break or shatter when its compressed, pushed beyond its
strength capabilities or exposed to high impact. It will crack if hit by a hammer.
Machining and holes can also create weak areas that may increase its likelihood of
breaking.
Relative cost carbon fiber is a high quality material with a price to match. While
prices have dropped significantly in the past five years, demand has not increased
enough to increase the supply substantially. As a result, prices will likely remain
the same for the near future.

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9. APPLICATION

Carbon-fiber-reinforced polymer (CFRP) has over the past two decades become
an increasingly notable material used in structural engineering applications Civil and
structural engineering applications differ from many of the other applications in several ways.
The loads are generally higher with the forces to be resisted of the order of tens, if not hundreds,
of tones. The loads are often of long duration (years not hours) and long term stiffness this often
being the governing criteria. it has also proved itself as cost-effective in a number of field
applications like strengthening concrete, masonry, steel, cast iron, and timber structures.
Its use in industry can be either for retrofitting to strengthen an existing structure or as an
alternative reinforcing (or pre-stressing material) instead of steel from the outset of a
project. The application fields of CFRP include bridges, buildings, tunnels, chimneys and other
like electrc poles, box culverts among others.

Out of these, applications in bridge and buildings occupy the majority of the whole
market. Recently more applications could be found in repairing tunnel lining. Retrofitting has
become the increasing by dominant use of the material in civil engineering, and applications
include increasing the load capacity of old structures (such as bridges) that were designed to
tolerate far lower service loads than they are experiencing today, seismic retrofitting is popular
in many instances as the cost of replacing the deficient structures can greatly exceed its
strengthening using CFRP.

Applied to reinforced concrete structures for flexure, CFRP typically has a large impact
on strength (doubling or more the strength of the section is not uncommon), but only a moderate
increase in stiffness. This is because the material used in this application is typically very strong.
As a consequence; only small cross sectional areas of the material are used. Small areas of very
high strength but moderate stiffness material will significantly increase strength, but not
stiffness.

CFRP can also be applied to enhance shear strength of reinforced concrete by

wrapping fabrics or fibers around the section to be strengthened. Wrapping around
sections (such as bridge or building columns) can also enhance the ductility of the
section, greatly increasing the resistance to collapse under earthquake loading. Such

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'seismic retrofit' is the major application in earthquake-prone areas, since it is much more
economic than alternative methods.

If a column is circular (or nearly so) an increase in axial capacity is also achieved
by wrapping. In this application, the confinement of the CFRP wrap enhances the
compressive strength of the concrete. However, although large increases are achieved in
the ultimate collapse load, the concrete will crack at only slightly enhanced load,
meaning that this application is only occasionally used.

The bridge piers, girder, plates and building beams, columns and plates are the
most common to be strengthened. Bridge and Chimney retrofitting applications have
witnessed great success owing to the use of carbon fiber reinforced polymer (CFRP)
composite technology. Approximately, a little less than a quarter of the world's bridges are
being classified as either functionally obsolete or structurally deficient. That does not mean
that the deficient bridges are unsafe; they are classified administratively to indicate they
require some form of maintenance or major rehabilitation to restore them to their original
condition or to their original load carrying capacity. Retrofitting is popular in many instances
as the cost of replacing the deficient structure can greatly exceed its strengthening using CFRP
Typically, a concrete bridge deck has a 25 to 40 years life span. Old concrete bridge decks
that were reinforced with unprotected steel reinforcement are deteriorating rapidly. The CFRP
composite deck systems have the potential to fill the need of bridge deck replacement and
extend the service life of existing structures. The advantages of a CFRP induced deck are -
lightweight, high strength and high performance, chemical and corrosion resistant, easy
construction and handling, rapid project delivery, and in most cases, high quality shop
fabrication.

The fiber wrap systems are also being used to repair deteriorated concrete piers, pier
caps, concrete arch, and damaged beams. Bonded concrete repair using CFRP laminates,
rods and wet lay-up fabrics is also a very popular repair technique. The surface mounted
composites have been used in numerous concrete bridge strengthening and repair applications.
This technique is cost effective, easily to design, install and inspect. Composites here are
applied to the soffit of existing concrete decks.

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Carbon fiber's chimney repair applications are also very important. The aged
chimneys require some repair and strengthening to continue their safe operation today. CFRP
chimney liners been in service up to 20 years have proven CFRP survival at high temperature,
resistance to chemicals, structural reliability, low life-cycle cost, and low maintenance. Beam,
Column and Slab strengthening is another very important application of Carbon Fiber composites.
In flexural reinforced concrete members, the addition of carbon fibers improves the modulus of
rupture (bending strength). Also, there is evidence that carbon fibers can be effective
replacements for shear steel stirrups commonly used in RCC beams and other structural
elements such as shear keys and corbels. Two techniques can be adopted to strengthen the
beams. First one is to paste CFRP plates to the bottom (generally the tension face) of a beam.
This increases the strength of beam, deflection capacity of beam and stiffness.
Alternatively CFRP sheets can be pasted in U shape around the sides and bottom
of a beam, resulting in higher shear resistance.

Columns in building can be wrapped with CFRP for achieving higher strength. The
technique works by restraining the lateral expansion of the column. Slabs may be strengthened
by pasting CFRP strips at their bottom (tension face). This will result in better performance,
since the tensile resistance of slabs is supplemented by the tensile strength of CFRP In the case of
beams and slabs, the effectiveness of CFRP strengthening depends on the performance of the
resin chosen for bonding.

Pre-stressing carbon fiber reinforced polymers

By means of pre-stressing capacity, the stiffness of strengthened structures can be improved

greatly for the sake of delaying the onset of cracking, reducing the deflection, relieving the
strain in internal reinforcement, etc. In the early stage of CFRP pre stressing technique, CFRP
plate was often chosen as pre-stressing material to strengthen the structures owing to its fixed
shape, but this fixed shape often affects the bonding quality greatly because of the unevenness of
the concrete surface. Not just CFRP plate, even the CFRP sheet is similar in nature, because
it must be impregnated by resin before its regidification and only then it can be tensioned
and bonded to the structural surfaces. Also, external pre-stressed cables have proved to be a
good alternative for steel cables with good durability and first rate behavior in creep and
relaxation. These pre-stressing techniques also have a few disadvantages and are thus
undergoing research for betterment.

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Dept of Mechanical Engineering Seminar Report on Carbon Fiber

Figure 9.1 CFRP applied to existing structures as a pre stressing material

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Dept of Mechanical Engineering Seminar Report on Carbon Fiber

10. FUTURE OF CARBON FIBERS

The future of Carbon Fiber is very bright, with vast potential in many different
industries. Among them are:

Alternate Energy Wind turbines, compressed natural gas storage and

transportation, fuel cells
Fuel Efficient Automobiles Currently used in small production, high
performance automobiles, but moving toward large production series cars
Construction and Infrastructure Light weight pre-cast concrete, earth quake
protection
Oil Exploration Deep Sea drilling platforms, buoyancy, umbilical, choke, and
kill lines, drill pipes

In order to fully develop carbon fibers in these industries and others, carbon fiber
manufacturers need to continue to increase their capacity and change their mindset so
that they are committed to the commercialization concept. The ideal conditions that
would allow the carbon fiber industry to reach its vast potential are if carbon
manufacturers:

Target new applications

Develop new and lower cost technology
Reinvest profits with long term objectives in mind no small operators focusing
on low volume, high price
Fully understand suppliers costs and future strategy
Identify and focus on market drivers
Work to aggressively reduce costs
Consolidate so that weaker players help strengthen the stronger ones
Share incremental improvements to help support market growth
Understand that the primary competitors to carbon fibers are other materials, not
other carbon fiber manufacturers

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Dept of Mechanical Engineering Seminar Report on Carbon Fiber

11. CONCLUSION

One big restriction on making extensive use of carbon fibers is their considerably
high cost. While prices have dropped significantly in the past five years, demand has not
increased enough to increase the supply substantially. As a result, prices will likely remain
the same for the near future. One way to manage this drawback is by making use of FRP
hybrid systems. Since FRP composite materials have a higher initial cost, hybrid FRP systems
that combine the high stiffness and/or high compression strength of conventional materials
have proven to be effective. For example, to reduce the cost, aramid FRP may be used in a
component where the tensile stresses are high and carbon FRP may be used in the section
undergoing compressive stresses, as both are excellent in respective properties. Similarly,
combination of glass FRP and other such types, depending on the structure requirement,
might prove cost effective.

Using carbon fiber reinforcement bars may also become a reality in near future, as it
undergoes intense research worldwide. Most countries including India still haven't properly
developed the design and construction specifications for carbon fiber integration in the
current technology.

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REFERENCES

1) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon-fiber-reinforced_polymer
2) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_(fiber)
3) http://srjcstaff.santarosa.edu/~yataiiya/E45/PROJECTS/Properties%20of%20Car
bon%20Fiber.pdf
4) http://srjcstaff.santarosa.edu/~yataiiya/E45/PROJECTS/Carbon%20Fiber.pdf
5) http://ansatte.hin.no/ra/MatLinks/carbonfiber_overview.pdf
6) http://www.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/742765.pdf
7) http://www.nal.res.in/pdf/kemrock.pdf

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