Chimpanzee Care Manual PDF

Chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes) Care Manual
Created by the
AZA Ape Taxon Advisory Group
in Association with the
AZA Animal Welfare Committee
Chimpanzee (Pan Troglodytes) Care Manual
Chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes) Care Manual

Published by the Association of Zoos and Aquariums
Formal Citation:
AZA Ape TAG 2010. Chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes) Care Manual. Association of Zoos and Aquariums,
Silver Spring, MD.
Original Completion Date:
December 8, 2009
Authors and Significant Contributors:
Steve Ross, Ph.D. Lincoln Park Zoo
Jennie McNary, Los Angeles Zoo
See Appendix F for a full list of contributors and reviewers from the AZA Chimpanzee SSP.
Reviewers:
Linda Brent, Ph.D., Chimp Haven, Inc.
Maria Finnigan, Perth Zoo, ASMP Chimpanzee Coordinator
Steve Ross, Ph.D., Lincoln Park Zoo
Candice Dorsey, Ph.D., AZA Director, Animal Conservation
Debborah Colbert, Ph.D., AZA VP, Animal Conservation
Paul Boyle, Ph.D., AZA Sr. VP Conservation and Education
See Appendix F for a full list of contributors and reviewers from the AZA Chimpanzee SSP.
Chimpanzee Care Manual Project Consultant:
Joseph C.E. Barber, Ph.D.
AZA Staff Editors:
Candice Dorsey, Ph.D., Director, Animal Conservation
Disclaimer: This manual presents a compilation of knowledge provided by recognized animal experts
based on the current science, practice, and technology of animal management. The manual assembles
basic requirements, best practices, and animal care recommendations to maximize capacity for
excellence in animal care and welfare. The manual should be considered a work in progress, since
practices continue to evolve through advances in scientific knowledge. The use of information within this
manual should be in accordance with all local, state, and federal laws and regulations concerning the
care of animals. The recommendations are not exclusive management approaches, diets, medical
treatments, or procedures, and may require adaptation to the specific needs of individual animals and
particular circumstances in each institution. Commercial entities and media identified are not necessarily
endorsed by AZA. The statements presented throughout the body of the manual do not represent
standards of care unless specifically identified as such in clearly marked sidebar boxes.
Association of Zoos and Aquariums 2

Table of Contents
Introduction ............................................................................................................................................... 5
Taxonomic Classification ...................................................................................................................... 5
Genus, Species, and Status................................................................................................................. 5
General Information............................................................................................................................... 5
Chapter 1. Ambient Environment ........................................................................................................ 8
1.1 Temperature and Humidity ............................................................................................................ 8
1.2 Light................................................................................................................................................... 9
1.3 Water and Air Quality...................................................................................................................... 9
1.4 Sound and Vibration ..................................................................................................................... 10
Chapter 2. Habitat Design and Containment .................................................................................. 13
2.1 Space and Complexity.................................................................................................................. 13
2.2 Safety and Containment............................................................................................................... 18
Chapter 3. Transport ............................................................................................................................. 24
3.1 Preparations................................................................................................................................... 24
3.2 Protocols......................................................................................................................................... 26
Chapter 4. Social Environment........................................................................................................... 28
4.1 Group Structure and Size ............................................................................................................ 28
4.2 Influence of Others and Conspecifics ........................................................................................ 29
4.3 Introductions and Reintroductions .............................................................................................. 30
Chapter 5. Nutrition ............................................................................................................................... 32
5.1 Nutritional Requirements.............................................................................................................. 32
5.2 Diets ................................................................................................................................................ 32
5.3 Nutritional Evaluations.................................................................................................................. 36
Chapter 6. Veterinary Care .................................................................................................................. 37
6.1 Veterinary Services....................................................................................................................... 37
6.2 Identification Methods................................................................................................................... 37
6.3 Transfer Examination and Diagnostic Testing Recommendations........................................ 38
6.4 Quarantine...................................................................................................................................... 38
6.5 Preventive Medicine...................................................................................................................... 41
6.6 Capture, Restraint, and Immobilization...................................................................................... 45
6.7 Management of Diseases, Disorders, Injuries and/or Isolation.............................................. 47
Chapter 7. Reproduction ...................................................................................................................... 51
7.1 Reproductive Physiology and Behavior ..................................................................................... 51
7.2 Artificial Insemination.................................................................................................................... 52
7.3 Pregnancy and Parturition ........................................................................................................... 53
7.4 Birthing Facilities ........................................................................................................................... 54
7.5 Assisted Rearing ........................................................................................................................... 54
7.5 Contraception................................................................................................................................. 58
Chapter 8. Behavior Management ..................................................................................................... 61
8.1 Animal Training.............................................................................................................................. 61
8.2 Environmental Enrichment........................................................................................................... 62
8.3 Staff and Animal Interactions ...................................................................................................... 64
8.4 Staff Skills and Training................................................................................................................ 65
Chapter 9. Program Animals............................................................................................................... 67
9.1 Program Animal Policy ................................................................................................................. 67

9.2 Institutional Program Animal Plans ............................................................................................ 67

9.3 Program Evaluation ...................................................................................................................... 68
Chapter 10. Research............................................................................................................................ 69
10.1 Known Methodologies ................................................................................................................ 69
10.2 Future Research Needs............................................................................................................. 70
Acknowledgements ............................................................................................................................... 72
References ............................................................................................................................................... 73
Appendix A: Accreditation Standards by Chapter........................................................................ 80
Appendix B: Acquisition/Disposition Policy................................................................................... 83
Appendix C: Recommended Quarantine Procedures .................................................................. 87
Appendix D: Program Animal Position Statement........................................................................ 89
Appendix E: Developing an Institutional Program Animal Policy ............................................ 91
Appendix F. AZA Chimpanzee SSP Steering Committee and Advisors.................................. 95
Appendix G. Necropsy Protocol for Great Apes............................................................................ 96
Appendix J: Apes in Media and Commercial Performances.................................................... 105
White Paper: Apes in Media and Commercial Performances..................................................... 105

Introduction
Preamble
Association of Zoos and Aquariums (AZA) accredited institutions are required to comply with all relevant
local, state, and federal wildlife laws and regulations in addition to all AZA accreditation standards.
AZA accreditation standards, relevant to the topics discussed in this manual, are highlighted in boxes
such as this throughout the document (Appendix A).
AZA accreditation standards are continuously being raised or added. Staff from AZA-accredited
institutions are required to know and comply with all AZA accreditation standards, including those most
recently listed on the AZA website (www.aza.org) which might not be included in this manual.
Taxonomic Classification
Table 1: Taxonomic classification for chimpanzees.
Classification Taxonomy
Kingdom Animalia
Phylum Chordata
Class Mammalia
Order Primates
Suborder Hominidae
Family Homininae
Genus, Species, and Status

Table 2: Genus, species, and status information for chimpanzees.
Genus Species Common Name USA Status IUCN Status AZA
Program
Pan troglodytes Chimpanzee Endangered/Threatened Endangered SSP
General Information
The information contained within this Animal Care Manual (ACM) provides a compilation of animal
care and management knowledge that has been gained from recognized species experts, including AZA
Taxon Advisory Groups (TAGs), Species Survival Plan Programs (SSPs), biologists, veterinarians,
nutritionists, reproduction physiologists, behaviorists and researchers. They are based on the most
current science, practices, and technologies used in animal care and management and are valuable
resources that enhance animal welfare by providing information about the basic requirements needed
and best practices known for caring for ex situ chimpanzee populations. This ACM is considered a living
document that is updated as new information becomes available and at a minimum of every five years.
Information presented is intended solely for the education and training of zoo and aquarium personnel
at AZA-accredited institutions. Recommendations included in the ACM are not exclusive management
approaches, diets, medical treatments, or procedures, and may require adaptation to meet the specific
needs of individual animals and particular circumstances in each
institution. Statements presented throughout the body of the AZA Accreditation Standard
manuals do not represent specific AZA accreditation standards of (1.1.1) The institution must comply with all
care unless specifically identified as such in clearly marked relevant local, state, and federal wildlife
sidebar boxes. AZA-accredited institutions which care for laws and regulations. It is understood
chimpanzees must comply with all relevant local, state, and that, in some cases, AZA accreditation
standards are more stringent than
federal wildlife laws and regulations; AZA accreditation standards existing laws and regulations. In these
that are more stringent than these laws and regulations must be cases the AZA standard must be met.
met (AZA Accreditation Standard 1.1.1).
The ultimate goal of this ACM is to facilitate excellent chimpanzee management and care, which will
ensure superior chimpanzee welfare at AZA-accredited institutions. Ultimately, success in our
chimpanzee management and care will allow AZA-accredited institutions to contribute to chimpanzee
conservation, and ensure that chimpanzees are in our future for generations to come. Additional
guidelines and recommendations for the care and management of chimpanzees in zoos and aquariums

that supplement the information provided in this manual can be found in Care and Management of
Captive Chimpanzees (Brent 2001).
Natural History: The genus Pan is composed of two species: Pan paniscus (the bonobo) and Pan
troglodytes (the common chimpanzee). Chimpanzees were once widespread across much of Africa from
the southern and western edges of the Sahara to the Cape of Good Hope but are now concentrated in
the forests and savannas around the equatorial belt. They have been extirpated in many areas and are
currently found in 22 countries in Africa including: Angola, Burkina Faso, Burundi, Cameroon, Central
African Republic (CAR), Congo, Cte d'Ivoire, Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), Equatorial Guinea,
Gabon, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea Bissau, Liberia, Mali, Nigeria, Rwanda, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Sudan,
Tanzania, and Uganda (Butynski 2001; Nishida et al. 2001).
Chimpanzees live in a variety of habitats associated with the tropical rainforest belt of equatorial
Africa. Rainforests typically grow in the lowland areas close to the equator, and have an annual rainfall of
at least 60in (1500mm), and a dry season of no more than four months (Oates 1986). Previously, Pan
troglodytes was thought to exist solely in a dense primary rain forest habitat, but more recent studies
(Itani 1979) have demonstrated that the species uses a wide variety of habitats, from deep forest to open
mixed forest-savanna, from lowlands to relatively high altitudes, with equally diverse strategies for
meeting nutritional and reproductive needs. This gives evidence to the extreme flexibility and adaptability
of the species (Fulk and Garland 1992).
Chimpanzees and humans share a close evolutionary history, along with the other great apes (Figure
1). Chimpanzees (along with bonobos) are the species most genetically similar to humans. Depending
on the form of analysis, humans and chimpanzees share up to 99.4% of their genetic structure. Because
of this degree of similarity, some of argued that chimpanzees be reclassified in the Genus Homo, along
with human beings (Wildman et al. 2003). This particular taxomonic classification has not been widely
accepted presently. Note also that chimpanzees are genetically more similar to humans than they are to
gorillas.
Figure 1: Great Ape Phylogenetic Tree
Note the order of divergence. Gibbons, then orangutans, then gorillas split off
from what eventually becomes the human lineage. The chimpanzee/bonobo
line splits from the human line approximately 6 million years ago.
Graphic courtesy of Great Ape Trust:

www.greatapetrust.org/primates/index.php
The animal care guidelines and recommendations within this document focus exclusively on Pan
troglodytes. This species is found in four geographically distinct regions of equatorial Africa: P. t. verus in
western Africa, P. t. vellerosus, in eastern Nigeria/western Cameroon, P. t. troglodytes in central Africa,
and P. t. schweinfurthi in eastern Africa (Yerkes 1943; Reynolds and Reynolds 1965; Napier and Napier
1967; Wolfheim 1983; Tuttle 1986; Boyd and Silk 1997).
Physical Description: Chimpanzees are large bodied, robust primates with black or brownish black hair,
and pink skin on their bare faces, hands and feet that darkens with sun and age. Chimps have opposable
thumbs. They do not have tails; however infants are born with white tail tufts that disappear as they
mature. There is little sexual dimorphism between males and females, but males tend to be slightly
larger. Standing bipedally, they measure between 3 and 5 feet tall and weigh between 60 150 pounds,
with Western Chimpanzees and chimpanzees in zoos being larger than others. Both sexes have large,
strong teeth with large canines set into heavy jaws. Chimpanzees have flat noses and heavy brow
ridges.

The subspecies have been distinguished mainly by geographic range, but some physical differences
have also been described. These physical distinctions are more pronounced at birth and subside with
age. The degree in which there is individual variation in presentation of the physical distinctions, and the
changes associated with age, make identifying the subspecies difficult without precise geographic
information or genetic evaluation. The AZA Chimpanzee SSP Program does not manage the zoo
population at the subspecies level. However, some other regional associations, such as the European
Association of Zoos and Aquarias (EAZA) European Endangered species Programme (EEP) manage to
the subspecies level. The Japanese Association of Zoological Gardens and Aquariums (JAZGA) had
previously attempted to manage at the subspecies level but agreed that this was not feasible and has
since switched to a single species management paradigm.
Morbeck and Zihlman (1989) published a comparison of body measurements, using data from
chimpanzees at Gombe Stream National Park (Tanzania) and a set of other values from captive
chimpanzees and other field sites. Though not comprehensive, these data can provide some reference
ranges for particular morphological measures.
Conservation status: Common chimpanzees are Endangered under a strict application of the IUCN
Red List Criteria and are listed in Appendix 1 of CITES. In parts of West Africa, their subpopulations have
become small and highly fragmented. Therefore, the two most western subspecies can be readily
categorized as Endangered, especially given the long generation time of the great apes. The central and
eastern subspecies are hunted as bushmeat in many areas, although in East Africa hunting remains at a
relatively low level. Logging also disturbs the forest habitat of many central chimpanzee populations.
Interestingly, chimpanzees are split-listed under the USFW Endangered Species Act (ESA) in which
wild chimpanzees are classified as endangered but captive born chimpanzees are classified as simply
threatened. As such, captive born chimpanzees are able to be commercialized (bred, sold and
purchased as pets) and used in invasive biomedical research.

Chapter 1. Ambient Environment
1.1 Temperature and Humidity

Animal collections within AZA-accredited zoos and aquariums AZA Accreditation Standard
must be protected from weather detrimental to their health (AZA
Accreditation Standard 1.5.7). Chimpanzees can tolerate a range (S1.5.7) The animal collection must be
protected from weather detrimental to
of temperatures, but should be allowed choice and control their health.
whenever possible to select a temperature range that makes them
most comfortable. Outdoor enclosures should provide areas with protection from sun, rain, and winds.
Appropriate area might include an available indoor enclosure, tree cover, constructed shelters, or tarps
erected outside the reach of the chimpanzees. To a lesser degree, hills, landscaping, and rock
outcroppings can provide protection from the elements as well, but they should not be considered
adequate on their own. There should be an adequate number of sheltered areas (e.g., one for every 3-4
individuals) to ensure that dominant animals do not prevent other group members from having access.
Consideration should be given to the spacing of preferred areas, such as shelters, in order to reduce
conflict between individuals competing for these resources.
Cold weather: Individuals should be allowed access to heated areas when the temperature drops below
50F (10C). Localized warm areas can be provided using heated forced air, heated floors, heated rocks,
or radiant heaters. USDA regulations require that the ambient temperature of the indoor area should
never fall below 45F (7C) for more than four consecutive hours (AWR 2005), but the AZA Chimpanzee
SSP recommends that there should be 24-hour access to areas over 60F (15.6C) under normal
circumstances. Chimpanzees that are too cold will act in ways similar to humans shivering, self-
clasping, etc to show their discomfort.
Hot weather: The upper limits of temperatures that chimpanzees can tolerate are less well defined, but
85F (29C) does not appear to be detrimental to chimpanzees providing there is an adequate flow of
fresh air (Fulk and Garland 1992). Chimpanzees that are overheated pant and may be less active. In the
wild, chimpanzees spend more time on the ground during warm or dry months (Takemoto 2004), which
may serve to effectively maintain optimal body temperature and prevent water loss. Managers should be
aware of heat gradients within captive enclosures as elevated areas may be considerably warmer than
areas closer to the ground.
Opportunities for temperature regulation in hot conditions can also include the use of specific water
features, including shallow pools and streams (no greater than 2ft/61cm in depth), sprinklers, and misters.
Sprinkler mechanisms should be suitably protected from direct physical access by the chimpanzees.
Other cooling devices such as fans and cooling coils may also serve to offer temperature gradients within
the enclosures provided to the animals, and access to these gradients are important for chimpanzees in
warmer weather.
Humidity: Natural chimpanzee habitat ranges from very humid (low-altitude rainforests) to quite arid
(such as the northern limits of chimpanzee range in Senegal and Tanzania). These latter ranges show
huge fluctuations in humidity throughout the year (Goodall 1986). In zoos and aquariums indoor humidity
levels should range between 30-70%, which matches levels
AZA Accreditation Standard
measured at Gombe during the dry season (Clutton-Brock
1972). When humidity is excessive in zoo and aquarium (S10.2.1) Critical life-support systems for
the animal collection, including but not
environments due to ambient weather, chimpanzees should be limited to plumbing, heating, cooling,
provided with access to indoor areas where humidity can be aeration, and filtration, must be equipped
mitigated to a certain extent. Many of the strategies described with a warning mechanism, and
above for regulating temperature (e.g., sprinklers, fans, and emergency backup systems must be
available. All mechanical equipment
shade) are also useful in controlling the effect of high humidity. should be under a preventative
Sources of water should always be available to chimpanzees, maintenance program as evidenced
especially in conditions of low humidity. through a record-keeping system. Special
equipment should be maintained under a
Climate control systems: AZA zoos and aquariums with maintenance agreement, or a training
exhibits which rely on climate control must have critical life- record should show that staff members
support systems for the animal collection and emergency are trained for specified maintenance of
special equipment.
backup systems available, while all mechanical equipment

should be included in a documented preventative maintenance program. Special equipment should be

maintained under a maintenance agreement or records should indicate that staff members are trained to
conduct specified maintenance (AZA Accreditation Standard 10.2.1). That AZA Chimpanzee SSP
recommends a forced humidity HVAC system with double redundancy and 100% outside air return,
similar to systems placed in office buildings, schools, and hospitals, with the exception that the air return
levels are 100% to help minimize odors. This system is more redundant than systems placed in human-
only occupied buildings, since the animals cannot usually be easily moved to safety if an element of the
system fails.
Systems should be backed up by double redundancy in case of equipment failure. Maintenance
should be scheduled as recommended by the manufacturer. Systems should be equipped with alarms to
monitor hazardous chemical or gas leaks, fire and smoke, and failure of system and temperature range
indicators. Alarms should be set to dial out to specified, trained personnel for appropriate response.
1.2 Light
Careful consideration should be given to the spectral, intensity, and duration of light needs for all
animals in the care of AZA-accredited zoos and aquariums. Careful consideration should be given to the
spectral, intensity, and duration of light needs for chimpanzees in zoos and aquariums. Lighting levels
should be approached in the same manner as temperature, with a gradient of light intensity and spectrum
available throughout the enclosure. Some areas should have full-spectrum light conditions, and
chimpanzees should have the opportunity to select those areas if they desire. Skylights in indoor
enclosures can provide natural sunlight during the day, but may or may not allow true, full-spectrum light
to penetrate to the exhibit (i.e., glass can prevent/absorb UV light). Natural spectrum bulbs (preferred) or
fluorescent bulbs are required when animals do not have access to natural sunlight for extended periods
(greater than one week). Like humans, chimpanzees require vitamin D (see Chapter 5, section 5.1 for
additional information), which can be provided by natural spectrum light (wavelength band 290-315nm
with peak conversion at 297nm).
Light levels within indoor enclosures need to be adequate to allow animal caretakers to clean the
facility effectively, and view animals in all areas of the enclosure. The availability of supplemental lighting
(e.g., temporary spot lights) should be considered in the event of a medical emergency. Lighting fixtures
should generally be mounted outside of enclosures, and far enough away from the chimpanzees to avoid
being broken. Industrial-grade fixtures, such as those used in human correctional facilities, are
constructed to withstand excessive force in many circumstances, and have been used successfully in
indoor night rooms for chimpanzees. Where appropriate, fixtures should be mounted in waterproof and
shatterproof enclosures. Where florescent bulbs are used in animal caretaker work areas adjacent to the
chimpanzee enclosure, they should be inserted in a plastic sleeve to avoid breakage.
Chimpanzees are equatorial animals, and a 12-hour light-dark cycle is appropriate in most
circumstances. No reported ill effects have been reported for chimpanzees provided access to 9-14 hours
of lighted conditions per day, a condition that may be necessary for chimpanzees housed indoors during
the winter in northern climates. Chimpanzees may be somewhat adaptable in this regard. The use of
variable and programmable timers on lighting systems will allow chimpanzees to have longer periods of
light during the winter months
1.3 Water and Air Quality

AZA-accredited zoos and aquariums must have a regular
program of monitoring water quality for collections of aquatic
animals and a written record must document long-term water (S1.5.9) The institution must have a
quality results and chemical additions (AZA Accreditation regular program of monitoring water
quality for collections of fish, pinnipeds,
Standard 1.5.9). Monitoring selected water quality parameters cetaceans, and other aquatic animals. A
provides confirmation of the correct operation of filtration and written record must be maintained to
disinfection of the water supply available for the collection. document long-term water quality results
Additionally, high quality water enhances animal health and chemical additions.
programs instituted for aquatic collections.
Water quality: All water sources provided to chimpanzees should be cleaned on a regular basis to
ensure that they contain water that is safe to drink. The frequency of cleaning may be dependent on
animal usage and algae growth. Any chemicals used to disinfect pools and moats should be approved by

the veterinary staff for animal safety and effectiveness, and Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS)
maintained on grounds. Water from other drinking sources (e.g., lixits, etc.) should be routinely monitored
for quality using industry standardized methods.
Chimpanzees should have access to fresh clean drinking water throughout the day and night. Water
can be offered in containers of various shapes and sizes that are easily sanitized and refilled by hand or
automatically, or preferably by the use of an automatic ad libitum watering system. Water should be
available in multiple locations throughout the exhibit, and at heights accessible by all members of the
group. Lixits located too high on a wall may be beyond the reach of young chimpanzees, and alternative
sources of water should be provided for these individuals.
Air quality: The USDA regulations require that indoor areas should be sufficiently ventilated at all times
to provide for health and well-being, and to minimize odors, drafts, ammonia levels, and moisture
condensation (AWR 2005). Ventilation can be provided by windows, vents, fans, or air-conditioning.
Auxiliary ventilation should be provided when the ambient temperature is 85F (29.5C) or higher.
Ten to fifteen air changes per hour are recommended for small areas (such as holding areas), or
areas which contain high densities of animals. This same level should be used for areas with potential
contamination, such as sterile surgical areas, necropsy rooms, and waste storage areas. Air entering
animal areas should be fresh and should be exhausted without recirculation (i.e. 100% air exchange in
animal rooms or equivalent, if possible). Separate zoning of air systems, to prevent cross contamination,
should be part of any non-human primate facility.
1.4 Sound and Vibration

Sound and vibration sensitivity: Chimpanzees are particularly attuned to sounds at 1 kHz and 8 kHz.
Their sound sensitivity is very similar to that of humans (20 Hz-20 kHz) with the exception of a relative
loss of sensitivity in the midrange frequencies (between 2 and 4 kHz), which is in a range that is important
in human vocal communication. They are also less sensitive to relatively lower frequencies (below 250
Hz) compared to humans, but more sensitive to higher frequencies, similar to Old World and New World
monkey species. (Kajima 1987; Martnez 2004). Chimpanzees do have the ability to hear about one
octave higher than humans (Prescott 2006).
Consideration should be given to controlling sounds and vibrations that can be heard by chimpanzees
in zoos. When indoor areas that are typically designed with hard surfaces (for durability and ease of
cleaning) are used, the resulting acoustic environment can be very loud. It may be possible that the
concentration of sound through reverberation may lead to stimulation of apes during displays, but there
are no data to confirm this speculation. Anthony (1963) noted the lack of data on noise tolerance for
laboratory animals, and suggested creating an acoustic environment similar to the species natural
habitat. Special noise absorbing, cleanable materials are available. The use of strong plastic materials,
such as polypropylene, nylon, and lexan, for ape doors and door hardware, can reduce excessive noise
while still providing display opportunities for the apes. In addition, recorded natural soundscapes can be
added to mask the sounds of mechanical systems and increase auditory variety (Coe et al. 2001). Ideally
the animals should have the option to choose or avoid loud sounds within their environment. Auditory
enrichment is covered in section 8.2.
Potential sources of sound: There are several possible sources of sound in and around chimpanzees in
zoos:
Construction either in the chimp area or adjacent to, including the humans involved in the actual
construction work.
Mechanical equipment including heating and cooling equipment, air handlers, motors, water
pipes, automatic watering devices, any type of fans, cage washing machines, water feature
equipment such as pumps, filters, etc, horticultural equipment such as blowers, chain saws, lawn
mowers, etc.
Humans including staff and public.
Caging doors opening and closing.
Enclosure concrete or gunnite flooring and/or walls.
Other chimps.
Outside urban sounds including sirens, airplanes, trains, highway traffic, etc.

Miscellaneous noise from radios, TVs, loudspeakers, zoo amusement rides, telephones,
computers, video monitors, carts, etc.
Measuring, addressing and controlling sound: Construction should be scheduled around the
chimpanzees and scheduled at times when the chimpanzees can be properly housed as far as possible
from construction activities. For example, schedule necessary construction indoors during spring and
summer so that chimpanzees can be outdoors when the work occurs. All construction work should be
dependent on chimpanzees movements, i.e. work begins when animals are moved to other areas and
ends when chimpanzees must be moved back into the area.
Mechanical equipment should be housed in rooms with appropriate doors and walls such that noise
from the equipment is greatly reduced. Soundproofing equipment can be used on the doors to minimize
noise and the doors should be kept closed at all times. Sound dampening products such as blankets or
membranes can also be hung on walls and/or around equipment safely to reduce noise levels. Vents
coming from mechanical rooms should also be evaluated for the amount of noise coming through. Any
pipes, fans, etc., throughout the chimpanzee holding area should be monitored and evaluated routinely
for rattling, squeaking, scraping, etc. Insulating all pipes will reduce rattling noises, but extra wrapping
may be necessary in areas where pipes cross each other and may knock together. Regular preventative
maintenance on all equipment reduces mechanical noise such as belt squeaking, unbalanced fans and
noisy ducts.
Computers and other video equipment should be turned off when humans are not in the building and
covered overnight as well. Caregivers can assess the computer equipment in the area to determine if
further sound-proofing needs to be done. It is likely that this type of equipment is emitting high frequency
sounds which are inaudible to humans but can be heard by chimpanzees.
Humans working with or around the chimpanzees on a daily basis must be trained to realize how
much noise they inadvertently add to the animals environment. Much of the noise that the chimpanzees
are exposed to daily will be created by care staff in the course of their routine work. Noise from hosing,
raking, work radios, music radios, opening and closing cages, opening and closing doors, equipment
such as pressure washers and power tools, telephones, loud talking and yelling are all easy to reduce
and/or eliminate with increased awareness. Studies have shown that aggression increases in
chimpanzee social groups on days of higher keeper activity (Lambeth 1997).
Recognition of the benefits with auditory stimulation for human well-being has prompted recent
research into the value of sound enrichment including natural (species-typical) sounds of either
conspecifics or their natural environments or other sounds not typically found in the wild (i.e. music) (see
Wells 2009 for review). Radio broadcasts, a complex and variable auditory stimuli, has been shown to
reduce aggression, agitation and increase social affiliations in laboratory-raised chimpanzees (Howell et
al. 2003). Note that factors including the speed and nature of the stimulation should be considered when
assessing its utility as enrichment. Videan et al. (2007) showed that instrumental music was more
effective than vocal recordings in increasing social interactions in chimpanzees. Vocal music, in contrast,
decreased aggressive patterns of behavior. Additionally, the same study suggested that slower tempo
vocal music was more effective in reducing aggression in male animals than that with a faster tempo.
Together, these results suggest the possible benefits of enhanced auditory environments that should be
considered when housing chimpanzees.
Staff should be encouraged to view the chimpanzee enclosures as the chimpanzees home rather
than simply a work space and this seems to help humans be more conscious of their own noise levels.
Staff should also be encouraged to remain calm while working with the chimpanzees, even when the
animals themselves are quite loud, as chimpanzees can be when they are excited and/or upset, and
trying to shout above chimpanzee screaming is pointless and only creates more stress for everyone.
Working successfully with a group of upset chimpanzees generally takes acclimation for humans and
calmer, more experienced keepers can be invaluable guides to preparing and training less experienced
staff. Caregivers must understand that remaining calm around the chimpanzees is an absolute and at
times this may be very difficult. Staff can develop their own hand signals to use for communication during
these times, in order to be able to understand if doors need opening or closing, etc., when working with
the chimps. Work with loud tools should be done when the chimpanzees are not in the immediate area
and/or sound dampening blankets can be used if doing noisy work close by is unavoidable. Brooms can
be used instead of rakes, doors do not have to be slammed or they can be padded with foam if
necessary, and yelling and loud talking eliminated.

Additional variables: Individual chimpanzees, like individual humans, are likely to have varying
tolerances for noise, depending on their personal preferences and life experiences. There is nothing
definitive known about this, but chimpanzee keepers can observe the individuals that they work with and
get a good assessment of each chimpanzees tolerance levels.

Chapter 2. Habitat Design and Containment
2.1 Space and Complexity

Careful consideration should be given to exhibit design so AZA Accreditation Standard
that all areas meet the physical, social, behavioral and (S1.5.2) Animals should be displayed,
psychological needs of the species. Animals should be whenever possible, in exhibits replicating
displayed, whenever possible, in exhibits replicating their wild their wild habitat and in numbers sufficient
to meet their social and behavioral needs.
habitat and in numbers sufficient to meet their social and Display of single specimens should be
behavioral needs (AZA Accreditation Standard 1.5.2). avoided unless biologically correct for the
Chimpanzees live in a variety of habitats associated with the species involved.
tropical rainforest belt of equatorial Africa. Rainforests typically
grow in the lowland areas close to the equator, and have an annual rainfall of at least 60" (1500mm), and
a dry season of no more than four months (Oates 1986). Previously, Pan troglodytes was thought to exist
solely in a dense primary rain forest habitat, but more recent studies (Itani 1979) have demonstrated that
the species uses a wide variety of habitats, from deep forest to open mixed forest-savanna, from lowlands
to relatively high altitudes, with equally diverse strategies for meeting nutritional and reproductive needs.
This gives evidence to the extreme flexibility and adaptability of the species (Fulk and Garland 1992).
When designing chimpanzee enclosures, appropriately designed and placed furniture such as
climbing structures, trees, large rocks, termite mounds, shade and weather shelters, hiding places, or
dens, will enhance habitat complexity, reduce boredom, and encourage a variety of behaviors. The ability
to engage in climbing, swinging on limbs and vines, arboreal play, and probing for treats may be essential
to the normal physical development of infant and juvenile chimpanzees in zoos and aquariums (Coe et al.
2001). The space offered to the chimpanzees should promote species-appropriate behavior,
physical/mental development, social interactions, environmental complexity, psychological well-being,
behavioral enrichment, observation, visitor education, and the opportunity for the chimpanzees to have as
much control over their environment as possible (Fulk and Garland 1992). Chimpanzees are an active
species, and environments for chimpanzees in zoos and aquariums should encourage locomotion and
exploration, while also providing adequate areas for privacy and resting. A sample chimpanzee ethogram
is provided in Appendix K. Specifically, design consideration should be given to the following species-
appropriate behaviors:
Locomotion: In the wild, chimpanzees rarely move through the trees very far, and most travel occurs on
the ground (van Lawick-Goodall 1968). However, some individuals, especially youngsters, will brachiate
from branch to branch. The most common means of locomotion is a quadrapedal walk, with the hind legs
slightly flexed and the body inclined forward. Chimpanzees are also capable of bipedalism, but usually
use this method of locomotion only for short distances.
Both vertical and horizontal locomotion opportunities should be available in zoos and aquariums.
Whenever possible, the ability for chimpanzees to explore all three dimensions of the space should be
maximized. Multiple pathways and multiple strata should also be provided to increase the variability and
choices of locomotor patterns. A common design flaw in chimpanzee exhibits is to provide several
disparate opportunities for climbing without any cross-connections between them at high levels. In other
words, chimpanzees can simply climb up and down these features but do not have the opportunity to
climb move arboreally between them. It is recommended that elevated locomotion opportunities are
provided. In zoos and aquariums, there are no maximum heights for climbing structures, natural or
artificial, as long as safety considerations are met. For instance, very high climbing structures in an open-
air exhibit should be sufficiently far from the outer barrier to prevent individuals from making a leap from
the top of the structure and over the wall. A 20ft (6.1m) gap between structures and the outer wall should
be sufficient in the majority of situations, but other factors (angle of the potential jump, handholds to grab
on to, etc.) should be considered.
In a study of space use of zoo-housed chimpanzees, Ross and Lukas (2006) found that individuals
used all vertical tiers of a 25ft (7.6m) high space, but showed preferences for the area closest to the
ceiling. Likewise, they spent more time than expected in areas adjacent to doorways, vertical barriers,
and corners. As such, facilities should provide environments to cater to these preferences by providing a
complex environment with locomotor opportunities on multiple tiers, spaces with multiple areas of access,
and additional angled areas in which chimpanzees might feel protected or secure.

Displays: It is important to provide opportunities for chimpanzees to move, hit on, shake, or throw objects
in their environment as part of their species-appropriate displays. Care should be taken that these objects
are adequately fixed, or that they are not able to cause damage to the enclosure, other chimpanzees, or
to human staff or visiting public.
Foraging: In the wild, chimpanzees spend 50-60% of waking time foraging during the day. This includes
foraging on the ground for roots, tubers, and grasses, as well as arboreal foraging for fruit, nuts, and
tender foliage high above the ground. Many of the foods ingested by wild chimpanzees require some sort
of processing, such as cracking open nuts, removing spiny outer layers of fruits, and using tools to extract
termites or ants. Scattering and hiding food items in zoos and aquariums will greatly increase the time
that chimpanzees spend searching for, processing, and eating their food. In addition, providing climbing
structures that allow chimpanzees to mimic foraging in the trees, will increase the amount of time spent
foraging and will add an exercise opportunity. Providing artificial termite mounds or other devices
requiring the chimpanzee to retrieve food items (see Chapter 5, section 5.2) promotes foraging, and
effectively demonstrates their ability to use tools (Fulk and Garland 1992; Coe et al. 2001). Finally,
providing vegetation and trees for natural foraging is a strategy that can be used when sufficient space
(and therefore vegetation) is present to allow regeneration of the plant material. If natural vegetation is not
growing for chimpanzees in their enclosure, they should be supplied with browse or suitable vegetation
(see Chapter 5, section 5.2 for additional information on browse).
Resting and sleeping: In the wild, chimpanzees (with the exception of dependent infants) will construct a
tree nest made of vegetation at the end of each day. Nests are usually constructed at a height between
29.5 - 39.4ft (9-12m). Nests are normally only occupied for a single night, but occasionally are reused.
Wild chimpanzees spend half of their time in nests, and this should be viewed as an important component
of the chimpanzee environment in zoos and aquariums (Pruetz and McGrew 2001). Whether left out in
indoor/outdoor exhibits overnight, or shifted into holding areas, chimpanzees should be provided with
special nesting areas or raised sleeping platforms (Coe et al. 2001). However, if the substrate is
comfortable enough (i.e. deep mulch bedding, or adequate hay, straw, or burlap for nesting purposes),
chimpanzees may choose to sleep on the ground. Adequate opportunities for chimpanzees to construct
nests for resting should be offered by provision of browse, hay, straw, branches, blankets, or other
appropriate materials.
Exhibit design: Social structure and the dynamics of chimpanzee social behavior should be considered
when determining both the outdoor and indoor space requirements. In the wild chimpanzees live in a
complex fission-fusion society comprised of shifting associations of individuals or groups of chimpanzees
(Goodall 1986). One of the most challenging aspects of designing zoo and aquarium environments is to
incorporate design elements that allow and promote the complex and fluid social interactions that are
characteristic of each age class, sex, and type of individual (Coe et al. 2001). The following features
should be considered for inclusion into a chimpanzee facility to optimize the level of care, and address
some of the unique aspects of chimpanzee husbandry:
Weigh stations (see Chapter 8, section 8.1)
Urine collection areas to provide a means to assist in the on going evaluation of the health status
of each chimpanzee (see Chapter 8, section 8.1)
Nursery and hand-rearing facilities that provide the ability to raise an infant in close proximity to
the group (see Chapter 7, section 7.5)
Medical treatment areas where minor medical procedures can be accomplished without removing
the chimpanzee from the building (see Chapter 6, section 6.6)
Isolation areas for an individual or sub-set that may need to be separated temporarily from the
group (see Chapter 6, section 6.6)
Restraint devices that chimpanzees are trained to comfortably enter to reduce the need for
anesthesia (see Chapter 6, section 6.5)
Specialized research observation areas to enhance data collection, which is an integral part of
the management plan (see Chapter 10, section 10.1)
Caregiver service areas that allow for optimal levels of management (Fulk and Garland 1992)
Introduction areas with howdy areas with mesh barriers for visual and olfactory contact between
adjacent spaces (see Chapter 4, section 4.3)

Exhibit complexity: An underlying consideration for zoo and aquarium environments is complexity of
design. This refers to the overall variation in the environment (e.g., topography, trees, shade, sunny
areas, climbing structures, termite mounds, tall grass, bare areas, swampy areas, streams, pools, large
rocks, smooth areas, rough areas, and various sights and sounds). Designing features that mimic the
complexity and variety of experiences that wild chimpanzees have will greatly aid the promotion of
species-appropriate behaviors and development (Fulk and Garland 1992).
Enrichment: It is a USDA requirement that behavioral and environmental enrichment be provided (and
documented) to all non-human primates on a regular basis to promote the psychological well being of the
animals (AWR 2005). Providing enrichment during periods of confinement indoors is essential. Lack of
appropriate enrichment has been associated with an increase in social aggression and abnormal
behaviors in apes (Maple 1979; Clarke et al. 1982; Maple and Hoff 1982). Holding areas need to be able
to accommodate a variety of enrichment items, and to allow for frequent rotation of these items to
maintain a high degree of novelty that helps to promote psychological well-being (Fulk and Garland
1992), and also cleaning up after their use. There are no conclusive data to determine the optimal rate of
changing or varying enrichment initiatives, but unless reactions by the chimpanzees to novel
configurations prove to be stressful, enrichment should be rotated as often as practical. The provision of
multiple attachment points for ropes, vines, and other hanging enrichment (such as feeders and puzzles)
will facilitate these changes. Attention should also be given to safety and toxicity concerns when providing
any type of enrichment. Animal care, management, and veterinary staff should be consulted when
implementing new devices. See Chapter 8, section 8.2 for additional information on environmental
enrichment.
Control: In the wild, chimpanzees have a good deal of control over their environment. Although there is
relatively little empirical evidence to support it, there is growing sense that providing opportunities for
chimpanzees to control an increasing number of aspects of their environment in zoos and aquariums will
help to maximize their welfare. Elements of control might include being able to choose social partners or
microenvironments (e.g., access to outdoors, shade, or preferred locations), but can range to more
complex forms of control such as controlling heaters, water spritzers, music, and food scattering devices.
Visual barriers: Visual barriers are considered very important in the design of successful chimpanzee
exhibits. Visual barriers are important to block constant visual access to and from the public, as well as
from conspecifics. There are mixed results in studies on the effect of visitors on chimpanzee behavior and
well-being, but it is widely accepted that chimpanzees should have the opportunity to access areas of
their exhibit which are not easily viewable by the public. Visual barriers are also useful for providing
escape for individuals following aggressive encounters with conspecifics. The type and form of visual
barriers can vary widely from very tall grasses and bushes, semi-transparent burlap or nets, to solid walls
or rock formations. A variety of barriers are preferable. Undesirable effects on group dynamics have been
observed in zoos and aquariums, where the presence of large crowds of zoo visitors can suppress
affiliative behavior and increase aggression (Chamove et al. 1988; Wood 1998). Recommendations for
the design of primate enclosures to reduce such effects include increasing the height of the animal
enclosures, and lowering the public walkways (Chamove et al. 1988). Research with zoo-housed gorillas
demonstrated positive effects of camouflage netting that buffered visitor effects, and decreased
aggressive and abnormal behaviors in the animals (Blaney and Wells 2004).
Outdoor access: Access to outdoor environments has been promoted on several fronts as an important
element of long-term care of chimpanzees in zoos and aquariums. A study by Baker and Ross (1998)
comparing the behavior of pairs and trios of chimpanzees housed exclusively indoors, or with access to
the outdoors, found that those groups with access to outdoors showed significantly less abnormal
behavior (e.g., coprophagy, regurgitation and re-ingestion), less yawning (a tension-related behavior),
and more self-grooming. These results suggest that outdoor access has a major impact on chimpanzee
behavior, and the AZA Chimpanzee SSP recommends that all exhibits provide outdoor access for
chimpanzees for the majority of the year.
Individual preference: Finally, a key element in exhibit design is the ability to cater to a variety of
individual differences. For instance, The AZA Chimpanzee SSP advocates the provision of very tall
exhibit spaces (>20ft/6.1m), but there should also be consideration given to provision of climbing

structures and nesting sites for individuals who are unable to use those areas, such as the disabled or
elderly.
Exhibit substrates: The natural substrate of wild chimpanzee environments is a mix of soft and hard
materials (e.g., rocks, dirt, grass, and forest litter). Modern zoo and aquarium facilities have experimented
with natural substrates, including those with dirt, sand, hay, straw, and mulch. Deep-bedding floors
show great promise, as they are designed to promote species-typical foraging opportunities, while
providing a softer and more comfortable substrate that may have positive effects on behavior as well as
joint-related physical ailments. Deep-bedding substrates in use at AZA-accredited zoos typically consist
of a 1-3ft (0.3-0.9m) depth of bark mulch, of varying sized chips, which cover a solid floor with drainage.
Care of these substrates include wetting the surface to prevent it drying out (dusting), turning over the top
layer to keep it fresh, and supplementing the mulch as it gets packed down. Feces should be pick-
cleaned daily, but urine flows through to the drains beneath. Facilities with recent experience using this
system are finding that they require a full bedding change every 2-3 years for 2-3ft (0.6-0.9m) of depth.
The use of deep-bedding does not preclude the provision of extra bedding materials, and these
materials are especially important in a traditional hardscape area. In the wild, chimpanzees build a nest of
branches and leaves to sleep in at night. Providing chimpanzee in zoos and aquariums with items like
branches, straw, shredded paper, and blankets, allows them to simulate a natural nest and promotes
species-appropriate behavior, and these materials are an essential aspect of the zoo and aquarium
environment. Nesting and bedding materials should be routinely checked for feces and urine, and
changed regularly.
Water features: Water can be presented via drinking lixits, small streams, pools (<2ft/0.6m deep),
misters, waterfalls, and light water jets. These may be available constantly (i.e., running water), or
intermittently such as activation by human caretaker, or activated by the chimpanzees. Care should be
taken to place water sources in different areas of the exhibit, and at different heights to accommodate
both smaller and larger animals. All automatic or manually-operated water features should be checked
daily to ensure they are in proper working conditions
In general, adult chimpanzees tend to avoid deep water. Deep-water moats pose potential serious
hazards to chimpanzees since they do not swim, and their muscle-to-fat ratio does not allow them to float.
Chimpanzees have drowned even in shallow water. The AZA Chimpanzee SSP veterinary advisors
pathology report indicates that drowning has been a significant cause of death in the zoo and aquarium
chimpanzee population (Gamble et al. 2004). Water sources used in and around chimpanzee enclosures
should be <2ft (0.6m) deep, and more shallow if infants have access to the water. If moats are present,
care should be taken to have easy access points from which a chimpanzee could exit the water.
Exhibit size: It is difficult to estimate the appropriate space requirements for zoo and aquarium
chimpanzee enclosures. The USDA minimum standards for space requirements, for individuals or groups
of apes in research facilities that weigh over 55lbs (25kg), are 25.1ft2 (2.33m2) by 84" (213.36cm) high
(AWR 2005). Zoological facilities are required to increase that dimension for any individual weighing more
that 100lbs (50kg). As outlined below, more spacious enclosures are recommended.
Multiple factors affecting the quality of the space likely have significant influences on how
chimpanzees perceive the quantity of space. Many of these factors are discussed in this manual, but the
most prominent considerations include: 1) Quality and quantity of climbing structures; 2) Placement and
quantity of shade structures; 3) Placement and quantity of visual barriers; 4) Placement and quantity of
enrichment opportunities; and 5) Size and structure of social group. With these considerations listed, the
AZA Chimpanzee SSP proposes the following guidelines for appropriate exhibit space for chimpanzees:
Small groups (those of 5 or fewer individuals) should be provided with indoor and outdoor space
of at least 2000ft2 (185.8m2), and useable vertical heights of over 20' (6.1m).
Larger groups require larger exhibits with an additional 1000ft2 (92.9m2) for every additional
individual over a group size of 5. For instance, a new exhibit planning to house a group of 10
individuals should plan for an indoor/outdoor exhibit in which approximately 7000ft2 (650m2) are
available for the majority of the year.
It is important to note that there is no empirical evidence that the provision of too much space is
detrimental to chimpanzees, as they tend to use preferred areas of their environment (Ross et al.
2009). As such, provision of space far exceeding these guidelines is not only acceptable but
recommended under the premise that it provides more choices for the chimpanzees.

Enclosure areas, both indoor and outdoor, should include the ability to move large equipment in
and out to facilitate exhibit renovations that may require moving or replacing large trees, rocks, or
other exhibit furnishings.
The same careful consideration regarding exhibit size and
complexity and its relationship to the animals overall well-being AZA Accreditation Standard
must be given to the design and size all enclosures, including (S10.3.3) All animal enclosures (exhibits,
those used in exhibits, holding areas, hospital, and holding areas, hospital, and
quarantine/isolation) must be of a size
quarantine/isolation (AZA Accreditation Standard 10.3.3). The and complexity sufficient to provide for
size, arrangement, and use of space in the holding area will the animals physical, social, and
normally determine the number of chimpanzees that an psychological well-being; and exhibit
institution can safely maintain. There should be enough space enclosures must include provisions for the
behavioral enrichment of the animals.
and environmental complexity in the holding area to prevent
serious levels of aggression, and to provide for the
psychological needs of the chimpanzees (Coe et al. 2001). As with exhibits, it is difficult to estimate actual
dimensions for indoor enclosures. Fulk and Garland (1992) suggest a group with six adult or sub-adult
males and eight adult or sub-adult females, and dependent offspring, may have sufficient space with at
3 3
least two community enclosures that total at least 15,000ft (425m ), and six individual holding areas each
3 3
a minimum of 1,000ft (2.8m ) (Fulk and Garland 1992). The quantity of appropriate holding space will be
dependent on the exact configuration, the ability to subdivide areas, and the way in which that space is
utilized. In general, the AZA Chimpanzee SSP recommends 100ft2 (9.3m2) per individual, with ceiling
heights of at least 15' (4.6m) for temporary holding areas (i.e., bedrooms) in which the chimpanzees are
housed during sleeping hours or for temporary separations (e.g., cleaning, medical procedures,
introductions, etc.). It is also advisable to have some smaller areas with relatively low ceilings (5-8ft/1.5-
2.4m) for use during recovery from anesthesia. Finally, the configuration of indoor spaces is an important
consideration. One of the most important aspects is for indoor spaces (including holding) to be able to
form a circuit (roundabout), therein avoiding dangerous dead-ends in which vulnerable individuals can be
trapped and potentially injured by conspecifics.
Social considerations: It is essential to provide sufficient space to house chimpanzees in social
environments. However, under certain conditions, it may be necessary to isolate an individual from a
group for a finite period of time. The USDA recognizes the need for housing chimpanzees separately
when an individual becomes overly aggressive, or is debilitated as a result of age or other conditions, or
when an individual is suspected of a contagious disease. When housed separately, it is beneficial to allow
the animal visual and auditory access to other chimpanzees, unless it would prove to be detrimental to
their health, safety, or well-being (see Chapter 6, section 6.6 for additional information).
The absolute amount of space a group has available may affect the types of social interactions that
can take place. In the wild, population densities vary widely, and are affected by plant densities in the
various types of forests, the presence or absence of undergrowth, food distribution and fruiting patterns,
and other habitat features. Chimpanzees in the wild often travel in parties of 3-7 individuals, with
changing party composition over time. Party size may vary within similar habitat types due to the age,
sex, and reproductive status of the individual members of the group. Exhibit space needs to be large
enough to allow different types of parties to form, and for appropriate social interactions to occur in
various parties. Designing environments that allow relatively large groups to be housed will also help
promote the wide range of social interactions that are characteristic of the species, and help to promote
psychological well-being (Fulk and Garland 1992).
An important consideration for chimpanzee enclosures is the ability for any given individual to choose
its own inter-individual distance to conspecifics. Chimpanzees should have enough space to be able to
seclude themselves to a certain extent. This can be achieved not only by providing large spaces, but also
with appropriate visual barriers placed strategically throughout the space.
Enclosure cleaning: Maintaining a clean and safe living environment helps to prevent disease transfer.
The Animal Welfare Act requires that indoor primary enclosures be cleaned at least daily (AWR 2005).
Exhibits that are disinfected are usually done so by application of a phenolic disinfectant, sodium
hypochlorite, or a quaternary ammonium disinfectant. All surfaces that the chimpanzees come in contact
with (including transfer boxes and restraint equipment) should be scrubbed manually, and thoroughly

rinsed and dried with a squeegee. If possible, high-pressure water or steam cleaning twice monthly will
help remove buildup of organic material on surfaces (Lee and Guhad 2001).
Indoor enclosures: The indoor surfaces that the chimpanzees come into contact with should be designed
with cleaning protocols in mind. Many surfaces can be smooth and impervious to debris and moisture so
that cleaning and disinfecting is possible. Some indoor areas may have bedding as well, and cleaning
protocols will depend on the specific substrate that is present. Sharp edges should be avoided n the
design on indoor enclosures, and rough surfaces may make cleaning more labor-intensive. Construction
should be of durable material that can withstand regular cleaning and disinfection, as well as rough
handling by the chimpanzees. Surfaces that the chimpanzees come into contact with should be free of
rust and free of peeling or chipped paint. Wood is an acceptable material for climbing structures and
though it cannot be sanitized, it can be replaced when overly soiled.
Outdoor enclosures: The method for cleaning outdoor exhibits will vary with the type of substrate. Natural
indoor or outdoor exhibits with dirt or other absorbent substrates should be spot-cleaned on a regular
basis. This will ensure that the animal can avoid contact with feces and food waste, which reduces the
number of pathogens and pests. The use of biotic substrates, such as mulch floors, will help control
bacteria levels. The frequency of cleaning will depend on the size of the exhibit and the number of
animals. Porous materials such as rope, fire hose, or burlap should be frequently replaced or steam
cleaned.
Pools and moats: Pools and moats should be monitored on a regular basis to ensure that they contain
water that is safe to drink. The frequency of cleaning may be dependent on animal usage and algae
growth. Any chemicals used to disinfect pools and moats should be approved by the veterinary staff for
animal safety and effectiveness (see also Chapter 1, section 1.3).
More information: More information on the considerations of designing adequate space for chimpanzees
in light of their natural behavior patterns can be found in Chapter 1 (Pruetz and McGrew 2001) and
Chapter 2 (Coe et al. 2001) of The Care and Management of Chimpanzees (Brent 2001).
2.2 Safety and Containment

Animals housed in free-ranging environments should be AZA Accreditation Standard
carefully selected, monitored and treated humanely so that the
(S11.3.1) All animal exhibits and holding
safety of these animals and persons viewing them is ensured areas must be secured to prevent
(AZA Accreditation Standard 11.3.1). unintentional animal egress.
Animal exhibits and holding areas in all AZA-accredited
institutions must be secured to prevent unintentional animal AZA Accreditation Standard
egress (AZA Accreditation Standard 11.3.3). Exhibit design must
(S11.3.3) Special attention must be given
be considered carefully to ensure that all areas are secure and to free-ranging animals so that no undue
particular attention must be given to shift doors, gates, keeper threat is posed to the animal collection,
access doors, locking mechanisms and exhibit barrier dimensions free-ranging animals, or the visiting
and construction. public. Animals maintained where they
will be in contact with the visiting public
Containment barriers define the environment for the must be carefully selected, monitored,
chimpanzee, and separate them from humans. Safety for both the and treated humanely at all times.
visitor and the chimpanzee must be a top priority. Exhibits in
which the visiting public may have contact with animals must
have a guardrail/barrier that separates the two (AZA Accreditation AZA accreditation standard
Standard 11.3.6). (S11.3.6) Guardrails/barriers must be
Designing an environment that allows for high visibility, and constructed in all areas where the visiting
even fairly close proximity of the public to the chimpanzees, public could have contact with other than
handleable animals.
should be balanced against the need to protect them both (Fulk
and Garland 1992). Walls can be made of a variety of materials, such as wood, glass, metal, wire mesh,
or concrete. They should be constructed in a manner that will hold up to the activities of the chimpanzees,
and should not be climbable unless the exhibit is enclosed. A chimpanzees motivation to attempt to climb
or jump out of a contained area can be stimulated by many factors, including social pressure, surprise
from a loud noise, or even the chimpanzees natural intelligence and curiosity. An outdoor exhibit barrier
height of 17ft (5.2m) has proven adequate to contain chimpanzees in most cases. However, exhibits
should be designed to limit the ability to use trees, structures, or sloping hills to extend jumping heights

(Coe et al. 2001). Under the right conditions, chimpanzees are capable of jumping a horizontal distance
of 20ft (6m) (Coe et al. 2001). Adding a running display through nearby tree branches or structures will
increase this jumping distance.
Containment barriers: The containment barriers for a holding facility should consider the strength of the
chimpanzees, the reach distance of the chimpanzees, the need for a high degree of visibility, the need for
safe physical contact between the caregivers and the chimpanzees, and the need to be able to maintain a
clean, healthy environment. Materials such as concrete, welded wire, and solid metal plates can be used
successfully to meet the needs of providing optimal holding areas for chimpanzees. Steel bars are not as
commonly used because they allow the chimpanzees to reach through. Any barrier that allows
chimpanzees to reach through should be supplemented with a secondary barrier (additional mesh) or
sufficient space between the maximum reach of an animal and the proximity of humans (visitors or
caretakers) so that the chimpanzees cannot reach the humans.
All doors should be double-locked with robust padlocks in any combination, including one or more
locks securing the door to the frame, or using padlocks to secure doors via a remote mechanism. Keys
should only be distributed to qualified and trained animal personnel.
The USDA mandates that primary enclosures should be constructed and maintained so they: have no
sharp edges; protect the chimpanzees from injury; contain the chimpanzees securely and prevent
accidental opening of the enclosure; keep unwanted animals from entering the enclosure or having
physical contact with the chimpanzees; allow the chimpanzees to remain clean and dry; and provide
shelter and protections from temperature extremes and weather conditions unsuitable for chimpanzees
(AWR 2005). Consideration of the ways in which animal caretakers access the exhibit are important, and
access points should be provided at multiple areas of the exhibit, and with safety as a top priority.
Another consideration for barriers in chimpanzee enclosures is the degree to which they prevent
access by indigenous wildlife. In most chimpanzee exhibits, resident animals such as rabbits, squirrels,
and skunks are able to enter the chimpanzee exhibit. In most cases, this results in some form of
aggression from the chimpanzees, often resulting in the death (but more rarely the consumption) of the
wildlife (Ross et al. 2009). In some cases, this may be a source of zoonotic disease transmission
although those cases are relatively rare.
Water moats: Water moats have been used as a barrier for containing chimpanzees, however, they are
not recommended by the AZA Chimpanzee SSP. In general, adult chimpanzees tend to avoid water,
although there are exceptions. Shallow water is not an adequate barrier to prevent escape. Deep-water
moats pose potential serious hazards to chimpanzees, since they cannot swim and their muscle to fat
ratio does not allow them to float. Chimpanzees have drowned even in shallow water; water levels should
not exceed 2ft (0.6m) in depth to minimize this risk. Even in shallow water moats, hand holds or stepping
stones should be provided to allow chimpanzees to get out of the water and back into the enclosure
easily.
Security zones: Chimpanzees are extraordinary escape artists. Because chimpanzees may escape from
primary indoor enclosures, containment within secondary safe areas is essential. Subdividing
containment areas into separate safety zones is becoming a common practice. The highest security is the
area occupied by the chimpanzees. Secondary security areas outside of the primary containment area
need to be able to hold chimpanzees for the period of time it takes to retrieve the chimpanzees and
relocate them back into the primary safety area. These secondary areas need to be designed not only to
hold the chimpanzees, but also to keep them from getting hurt. In these secondary security areas, lamp
bulbs containing toxic materials or appliances that could cause electrocution should be avoided. All
fixtures should be mounted securely on walls. Mesh or dart ports should be provided to allow qualified
staff to immobilize the chimpanzees when necessary. Some facilities provide mesh ceilings to prevent
escaped chimpanzees from gaining access to air ducts, pipes, lights, and fire sprinklers. Tertiary security
areas are intended for qualified staff, researchers, or helpers. These areas include food preparation
areas, tool storage, and changing areas. Mechanical equipment rooms or other areas used by non-
qualified staff should be accessed from outside the exhibit (Coe et al. 2001).
Containment recommendations: Access to on-exhibit areas during evening hours can be a useful way
to provide chimpanzees with increased choices of movement and location, however; containment security
is of the utmost importance to maintain human and chimpanzee safety. Extra safety features should be
considered in order to utilize the space more often for the chimpanzees. Access to open air outdoor areas

overnight should include the use of high voltage wire for secondary containment. The power supply for
the electric wiring should be backed up by a solar panel that automatically continues the voltage in the
event of power failure. When given access to open air outdoor exhibit areas overnight, staff should be
extremely diligent about checking all items in the exhibit for structural soundness, ensuring that climbing
structures, enrichment devices and any trees are secure and stable. It is good practice to bring in all
chimpanzees at the end of the keepers working day, check the outdoor enclosure, and then give the
chimps access again if planning to allow them overnight access to the area. If severe weather is
predicted or threatening, or any weather that includes high winds, the chimpanzees should not be given
access to open air outdoor enclosures due to the danger of a tree blowing over in or into the exhibit.
Overnight access to indoor exhibit areas requires that keepers and other personnel treat the space as
if it were always occupied or going to be occupied in order to minimize the chance of safety breaches;
these areas should always remained locked and any tools or other equipment removed from the
enclosure and its near vicinity. Indoor exhibit areas that chimpanzees are given 24 hour access to should
be surrounded by the remainder of the building, thereby creating secondary containment on all sides.
Special care should be taken with indoor enclosures that have skylights or windows to make sure that
these are secure and cannot be reached with sticks, toys, tools or other items that chimpanzees may be
able to use. If able to possibly be reached by the chimpanzees, the skylights or windows should be
covered with heavy duty mesh or other material to prevent escape.
Simple signs can be created and placed in appropriate places for staff to easily see that indicate if the
chimpanzees are in the enclosure or not overnight; these help to reduce communication errors between
shifts of caregivers.
Pest control: Pest control should be considered as an important factor during exhibit design.
Cockroaches seek tight dark areas. Small openings, such as between steel barrier frames and masonry
walls, or penetrations into tubular steel frames, should be sealed. Mounting counters, cabinets, or shelves
away from walls, as well as maintaining open space around furnishings, gives pest species no where to
hide. The use of open shelving made of wire mesh also limits hiding places. Drain covers with tight fitting
mesh drain baskets help prevent movement of insects and rodents through the sewer systems. Many
features contribute to the creation of rodent habitat, both indoors and outdoors. Food availability is
probably the most critical factor. Since rodents are nocturnal by nature, removing food scraps at the end
of the day should help to limit rodent problems.
Emergency Safety: All emergency safety procedures must be
clearly written, provided to appropriate staff and volunteers, and
readily available for reference in the event of an actual (S11.2.3) All emergency procedures must
emergency (AZA Accreditation Standard 11.2.3). Staff training for be written and provided to staff and,
where appropriate, to volunteers.
emergencies must be undertaken and records of such training Appropriate emergency procedures must
maintained. Security personnel must be trained to handle all be readily available for reference in the
emergencies in full accordance with the policies and procedures event of an actual emergency. These
of the institution and in some cases, may be in charge of the procedures should deal with four basic
types of emergencies: fire,
respective emergency (AZA Accreditation Standard 11.6.2). weather/environment; injury to staff or a
visitor; animal escape.
Fire: Fire alarm systems are recommended. Alarms should
automatically call the Fire Department and appropriate
chimpanzee care and management personnel. Fire safety plans AZA Accreditation Standard
for chimpanzee holding should include safe doors to open and
(S11.6.2) Security personnel, whether
lead chimps to a secure outside enclosure at any time of the staff of the institution, or a provided
year. Plans may also include training overnight personnel who do and/or contracted service, must be
not regularly access the building in emergency protocols to trained to handle all emergencies in full
ensure chimpanzee safety, as these people will presumably be accordance with the policies and
procedures of the institution. In some
first on the scene in the event of a fire during hours in which cases, it is recognized that Security
animal care staff are not present. All chimpanzee personnel personnel may be in charge of the
should be trained to properly use fire extinguishers and fire respective emergency (i.e., shooting
extinguishers should be kept and maintained around the area.
Weather: A Disaster Supplies Kit (see list below) should be assembled and kept in the building and
checked and assessed quarterly. Chimpanzee holding facility buildings are typically constructed of thick,
concrete walls with few entrances or large windows, making them ideal safe places during extreme

weather events such as hurricanes and tornadoes. High ceilings and existing drains also increase the
possibility that the building is safe during severe weather.
Hurricane: Preparations for hurricanes in chimpanzee housing should be similar to human hurricane
preparation. All chimpanzees should be locked inside and preparations made to provide both the humans
who stay with the chimpanzees, and the chimpanzees themselves, fresh water and food for several days.
Severe thunderstorm or tornado: Preparations for severe thunderstorms or tornados in chimpanzee
housing should be similar to human severe thunderstorm or tornado preparation. All chimpanzees should
be locked inside. Care should be taken to move animals into areas away from large sheets of glass that
might shatter during high winds. After the tornado passes:
Watch out for fallen power lines and stay out of the damaged area.
Listen to the radio for information and instructions.
Use a flashlight to inspect your building for damage.
Do not use candles at any time.
Flood and earthquake: Know the areas potential risks for these events, and keep the Disaster Supplies
Kit on hand, along with food and water for all chimpanzees and caregivers.
Disaster Supplies Kit:
First aid kit and essential medications.
Canned food and can opener.
At least three gallons of water per person (for humans and chimpanzees)
Protective clothing, bedding, or sleeping bagsp (for humans and chimpanzees)
Battery-powered radio, flashlight, and extra batteries.
Special items for infant, elderly, or disabled individuals
Written instructions on how to turn off electricity, gas, and water if authorities advise you to do so
(a professional must turn natural gas service back on.)
Store supplies in a waterproof, easy-to-carry container, such as plastic tub with handles
*Information taken from Red Cross website, www.redcross.org
Emergency drills should be conducted at least once annually for each basic type of emergency to
ensure all staff is aware of emergency procedures and to identify potential problematic areas that may
require adjustment. These drills should be recorded and evaluated to ensure that procedures are being
followed, that staff training is effective and that what is learned is
used to correct and/or improve the emergency procedures. AZA Accreditation Standard
Records of these drills should be maintained and improvements
(S11.2.4) The institution must have a
in the procedures duly noted whenever such are identified. AZA- communication system that can be
accredited zoos and aquariums must have a communication quickly accessed in case of an
system that can be quickly accessed in case of an emergency emergency.
(AZA Accreditation Standard 11.2.4).
Institutions holding chimpanzees should have agreements with their local fire, police and other
emergency personnel regarding dangerous animal escapes, which will include chimpanzee. Institutions
can define acceptable parameters of responsibility for the escape. For example, within the zoo perimeter
zoo personnel are responsible, but outside zoo perimeter fences, the city and/or county emergency
response personnel have authority.
AZA-accredited zoos must also ensure that written protocols AZA Accreditation Standard
define how and when local police or other emergency agencies (S11.2.5) A written protocol should be
are contacted and specify response times to emergencies (AZA developed involving local police or other
Accreditation Standard 11.2.5). Because of the potential danger emergency agencies and include
response times to emergencies.
of a chimpanzee escape, response times should be within 10
minutes of notification.
Species specific attributes: AZA-accredited zoos and aquariums which care for potentially dangerous
animals must have appropriate safety procedures in place to prevent attacks and injuries by these
animals (AZA Accreditation Standard 11.5.3). In-situ, chimpanzees hunt, kill and consume other animals
both in groups and alone. Chimpanzees also may kill chimpanzees that are unknown to them both in
efforts to protect territory and in efforts to expand existing territory. Chimpanzees are highly intelligent,

agile and easily several times stronger than a human. Chimpanzees kept as pets have attacked and
severely injured human beings.
Safety procedures: It is recommended that caregivers have
protected contact only with chimpanzees. An exception would be AZA Accreditation Standard
in the case of an infant who is being hand reared (see guidelines (S11.5.3) Institutions maintaining
Section 7.5). potentially dangerous animals (sharks,
New chimpanzee caregivers must be thoroughly trained in whales, tigers, bears, etc.) must have
appropriate safety procedures in place to
chimpanzee behavior, as well as given instruction on the prevent attacks and injuries by these
preferences and personalities of each individual chimp they will animals. Appropriate response
be working with; it should be stressed that it takes time to build a procedures must also be in place to deal
trusting relationship with chimpanzees and each individual with an attack resulting in an injury. These
procedures must be practiced routinely
person and chimp will develop that relationship at their own pace. per the emergency drill requirements
Training of new staff should involved stages of actually contained in these standards. Whenever
dealing directly with the chimpanzees and progression should injuries result from these incidents, a
depend on both the chimpanzees and the keepers comfort level. written account outlining the cause of the
incident, how the injury was handled, and
If keepers are uncomfortable being near, feeding or shifting a description of any resulting changes to
chimpanzees it can create a potentially dangerous situation for either the safety procedures or the
the person and this factor should always be carefully considered physical facility must be prepared and
during staff training. Supervisors who are familiar with the maintained for five years from the date of
the incident.
chimpanzees should always be physically present during times of
new staff working with chimpanzees to be available if problems
occur, to answer questions and provide guidance.
Animal attack emergency response procedures: Animal attack emergency response procedures must
be defined and personnel must be trained for these protocols (AZA Accreditation Standard 11.5.3). If a
chimpanzee escapes into an unsecured area and attacks a human, the escaped chimp may be
considered a target of shoot to kill by zoo personnel. Zoo staff emergency response team should have a
protocol outlined dealing with escaped animals who are considered potentially dangerous enough to
shoot to kill in the case of certain events such as an escaped animal attacks a human, or an escaped
animal breaches zoo perimeter fence.
Each facility should follow AZA standards regarding emergency response, housing weapons,
tranquilizer guns and other capture equipment in designated areas for emergency response personnel to
obtain easily and quickly.
If shooting the chimpanzee to save the humans life is not a reasonable option due to proximity of
human(s), there are several options that may be appropriate:
Spraying the animal with a high pressure water hose to try to get the chimpanzee away from the
person being attacked.
Spraying the chimpanzee with a fire extinguisher and/or sound a loud noise, such sounding an air
horn, may divert the chimpanzees attention long enough for the human to get to safety.
Dropping a cargo net over the chimpanzee may entangle the animal, thus allowing the attacked
person, if able, to get away, or allowing other people to drag the human to safety.
Anyone attempting to divert the chimpanzees attention away from the human victim also risks being
attacked themselves, so great caution should be taken with any approach in this extremely dangerous
situation. Any attempts to wound the chimpanzee in order to stop the attack should be considered in light
of the fact that chimpanzees are much stronger than humans, and that the chimpanzee attacking already
is experiencing a tremendous surge of adrenaline that will make him even stronger.
Animal escape: If a chimpanzee escapes into a secured area or a staff member makes an error and is
caught in the enclosure with a chimpanzee, essentially the same response applies. It may be more
dangerous for anyone caught inside of what the chimpanzee considers his territory, and it is certainly
more dangerous if multiple chimpanzees are inside the enclosure with the human. Any human
encountering an escaped chimpanzee should exercise extreme caution if approached by the chimpanzee
and/or if necessary to stay in proximity to that chimpanzee. Remaining calm is of utmost importance, as
the chimpanzee may become (more) agitated based on the humans behavior.

Animal attack emergency drills should be conducted at least once annually to ensure that the
institutions staff know their duties and responsibilities and know how to handle emergencies properly
when they occur. It is recommended that a variety of scenarios be modeled during drills, including:
Single chimpanzee escapes into secure area (i.e. holding area)
Multiple chimpanzees escape into secure area (i.e. holding area)
Single chimpanzee escapes into unsecure area within the facility (i.e. staff area)
Multiple chimpanzees escape into unsecure area within the facility (i.e. staff area)
Single chimpanzee escapes into unsecure area outside the facility (i.e. outdoor visitor area)
Multiple chimpanzees escape into unsecure area outside the facility (i.e. outdoor visitor area)
Unknown number of chimpanzees escape into unknown area (i.e. missing chimpanzee(s))
Chimpanzee(s) escape and breach zoo boundaries (i.e. involvement of local law enforcement)
These situations can be modeled by the use of volunteers posing as escaped chimpanzees. Such
volunteers should be familiar with chimpanzee behavior to accurately model potential situations in real
time. These mock chimpanzees should be clearly marked as such for the drill. All drills need to be
recorded and evaluated to ensure that procedures are being followed, that staff training is effective, and
that what is learned is used to correct and/or improve the emergency procedures. Records of these drills
must be maintained and improvements in the procedures duly noted whenever such are identified (AZA
Accreditation Standard 11.5.3).
If an animal attack occurs and injuries result from the incident, a written account outlining the cause of
the incident, how the injury was handled, and a description of any resulting changes to either the safety
procedures or the physical facility must be prepared and maintained for five years from the date of the
incident (AZA Accreditation Standard 11.5.3).
Creating and maintaining a relationship with the local police force with jurisdiction in your immediate
area is an important precautionary step. Working with these agencies to discuss possible scenarios,
including if and when to take action and/or use lethal force can be very helpful.

Chapter 3. Transport
3.1 Preparations
Animal transportation must be conducted in a manner that AZA Accreditation Standard
adheres to all laws, is safe, and minimizes risk to the animal(s),
employees, and general public (AZA Accreditation Standard (S1.5.11) Animal transportation must be
conducted in a manner that is safe, well-
1.5.11). Safe chimpanzee transport requires the use of planned and coordinated, and minimizes
appropriate conveyance and equipment that is in good working risk to the animal(s), employees, and
order. general public. All applicable local, state,
and federal laws must be adhered to.
Transport container: The size of the container should be
related to the actual size of the chimpanzee for which the container is constructed. In general, it should
allow the chimpanzee to stand, turn, and lie down in a natural manner. If forklift spacers are required, they
should be 2in (5cm) thick, and should be provided when the total weight of the container and chimpanzee
is more than 132lb (60kg).
Materials: Container materials that can be used for young great apes include wood (although this is not
advisable for anything larger than small infants), metal, or wire mesh. For adult great apes, these
materials include metal, welded mesh, and muslin or other light material. All materials should be non-
toxic.
Frame: The container frame for young/sub-adult great apes should be made of strong materials that are
bolted or screwed together; for adult great apes, welded metal lined with smooth wood or other similar
material of a minimum thickness of 0.5in(1.2cm) is recommended. Additional strengthening braces should
be present on the sides of the container when the total weight is more than 132lb (60kg). All inside edges
should be smooth or rounded with no sharp projections, such as nails, on which the chimpanzee can
injure itself.
Sides and front: The sides of the container for young/sub-adult great ape should be wood or metal. The
front should consist of 1in (2.5cm) weld or chain link that should be attached to the frame with a steel strip
(staples should not be used). Behind the mesh, 4/5in (2cm) bore steel tubes should be sunk into the top
and bottom of the frame to a depth of approximately 1in (2.5cm), and at a distance of 3in (7.5cm) apart
center to center. The distance between bars and mesh should be such that the animal cannot poke its
fingers outside the container. A 2/3 solid panel with 1/3 mesh wire at its lower portion, and two 4in (10cm)
observation openings in the upper part, should be placed in front of the weld mesh/chain link. The other
three sides should be solid with ventilation openings. The ventilation openings should be small enough so
that any part of the chimpanzee cannot protrude from the container, and they should be covered with a
light material such as muslin.
For adult great apes, solid wood or lined metal is necessary. The front should consist of iron bars
spaced in such a manner that the animals cannot push its arms through the bars. The bars should have a
sheet of welded mesh fixed at a distance of 3in (7.5cm) in front of them. A wooden shutter with slots or
holes for ventilation should cover the whole front in order to reduce the amount of light inside the
container, as well as to reduce the disturbance to the animal, and to protect the handling personnel. The
other three sides, one of which is the door, should be solid with ventilation openings.
Handling: For all apes, handling and spacer bars should be provided on three sides of the container.
Floor: For all apes, the base of the container should be solid and leak proof. A grill should be securely
fixed and placed over a leak proof droppings tray to collect the excreta that falls onto it.
Roof: For all apes, the roof of the container should be solid, but with mesh ventilation openings.
Door: For young/sub-adult great apes, access into the container should be by a vertical sliding door at the
back that extends the whole height of the container. It should be fastened with tamper proof fasteners or
bolted shut after loading. A center batten should be provided across the whole width of the container,
including the door, which is put in place after the door is closed.

For adult great apes, a sliding door the same height and made of the same material as the container
should be placed in the rear of the container. It should have strong and secure means of fastening that
cannot be opened accidentally.
Ventilation: For sub-adult great apes, mesh ventilation openings approximately 1in (2.5cm) in diameter
should be provided along the base, in the upper 1/3 of the sides and rear, and on the top of the container.
Whenever openings are covered by mesh, care should be taken that there are no sharp edges present
within the container, and all edges should be covered with smooth material that is tamper proof. A muslin,
or similar material, curtain should cover all ventilation openings including the front.
For adult great apes, mesh ventilation openings, approximately 1in (2.5cm) in diameter should be
provided at heights that will give good ventilation at all levels but particularly when the animal is in a prone
position. Openings should cover the sides, rear and top, as well as the sliding shutter. All openings can
have exterior mesh screening. A muslin, or similar material, curtain should cover all ventilation openings
including the front.
The equipment must provide for the adequate containment, life support, comfort, temperature control,
food/water, and safety of the animal(s).
Number of people for transport: Three people are recommended for chimpanzee transport. Two of
these people should be very familiar with the chimpanzees personality and history (most likely a familiar
animal keeper), and one of the three should be a veterinarian. This also creates an adequate number of
people to rotate driving and monitoring duties. At least one person should be monitoring the chimpanzee
(visually or via monitor) at all times. The driver should not have monitoring responsibility to ensure safe
driving.
Chimpanzee transport supplies list:
2 gallons of water per chimp per 24 hour period
Treats that will fit through bars/mesh of crate
Produce
Biscuits that will fit through bars/mesh of crate
Juice
Blankets
Medications and med sheet
Cups
Pill crusher and pill splitter
Emergency kit
Vet box
Soap/hand sanitizer
Personal protective equipment (latex gloves, masks, tyvek suit)
Baby monitor
Thermometer to measure air temperature
USDA transfer form
Health certificate
Health records
State import permit
Credit card/cash
Road atlas
Important phone numbers
Vehicle registration and insurance card
Cell phone car charger
Extra vehicle keys
Lug wrench and jack
Spare tires for vehicle (and trailer if trailer used)
Jumper cables
Oil and coolant
Ramp for onloading and offloading crate if necessary

Emergency cooling/heating equipment

>generator or battery with fan or heater
>advisable not to transport chimpanzees for any distance in extreme temperatures or weather
Pre-shipment testing: See Chapter 6, section 6.3 for information on recommended medical tests to be
performed on chimpanzees prior to shipment. A Certificate of Veterinary Inspection, medical records,
and appropriate permits should accompany any chimpanzee in transit.
Safe transport also requires the assignment of an adequate number of appropriately trained personnel
(by institution or contractor) who are equipped and prepared to handle contingencies and/or emergencies
that may occur in the course of transport. Planning and coordination for animal transport requires good
communication among all affected parties, plans for a variety of emergencies and contingencies that may
arise, and timely execution of the transport. At no time should the animal(s) or people be subjected to
unnecessary risk or danger. Transport protocols should be well defined and clear to all animal care staff.
Emergency situations during transport: Emergency situations may occur during transport such as:
Two chimpanzees are crated together and one injures the other. See Section 3.2 for
recommendations on number of animals per crate
An overly sedated chimpanzee suffocates because of his position in crate and/or item in crate.
A chimpanzee becomes extremely agitated during transport, and collapses and/or injures self.
Vehicle develops mechanical problems/breaks down.
Preventing emergencies during transport: Chimpanzees being transported may be mildly sedated but
should be able to lift their own heads before departing, and always during transport unless they are small
and young enough to be safely physically moved if necessary for their own safety. Any chimpanzee that
appears very agitated prior to transport should be considered a candidate for pre-sedation and continued
mild sedation during transport. If the animal is unable to be calmed prior to leaving, consideration for
delaying the transport should be given so that staff can reassess and develop another plan for moving
that individual.
3.2 Protocols
Transport protocols should be well defined and clear to all animal care staff. Safe transport also requires
the assignment of an adequate number of appropriately trained personnel (by institution or contractor)
who are equipped and prepared to handle contingencies and/or emergencies that may occur in the
course of transport. At no time should the animal(s) or people be subjected to unnecessary risk or
danger.
Food and water: For all apes, separate feed and water containers should be provided, either revolving or
fixed. If fixed inside, the container they should be placed at a height that does not allow the chimpanzee
to sit upon them, and there should be an outside access for filling and emptying that does not allow the
chimpanzee any chance of escape. Water containers should be able to be filled safely and from the
outside of the container.
Bedding and substrate: For all apes, the floor of the container should be covered with absorbent
material, such as wood shavings, to the depth of at least 4-6in (10-15cm). The use of straw should be
avoided, but bedding can be provided on the top of a leak-proof tray. If a grill or slatted floor is not
suitable, there should be sufficient absorbent bedding material on the floor to absorb all of the excreta,
and sills should then be used in the front and the rear of the container.
Temperature, light, and sound: Primates are affected by temperature change, and severely affected by
temperature extremes. Care should be taken to ensure that they are not subjected to drafts. Most species
can withstand reasonable variations in temperature, but exposure to wind or to a draft can be fatal.
Therefore, consideration should be given not only to temperature changes, but also to the chill factors
involved. Primates should also not be exposed to direct heat, such as direct sunlight or against hot
radiators. Primates unavoidably subjected to extreme heat should be cooled with external fans (safely
placed away from the container) or other cooling devices, such as air conditioners, to prevent dehydration
or heat prostration.
During prolonged transit stops, when the ramp temperature exceeds approximately 68F (20C), the
aircraft compartment doors should be opened and, in extreme temperatures, ground equipment should be

used to ventilate the compartments. The different climatic factors prevailing during a journey should
always be considered when arranging the routing and carriage of live primates.
The many unfamiliar environments encountered by a chimpanzee during shipping can cause stress,
or cause the chimpanzee to become excited. In order to minimize outside stimulation, wooden slats or
shutters with ventilation openings can be placed on the outside of the shipping container. Ventilation
openings can also be covered with a light material such as muslin to reduce light levels.
Animal monitoring: The USDA requires that only one live chimpanzee can be transported in the same
container with the following exceptions: a mother and her nursing young can be transported together; an
established male/female pair, or a compatible pair of juveniles (AWR 2005). It is unadvisable to transport
more than two chimpanzees in a single container. When this is attempted, careful consideration should
be given to the relationship of the two chimpanzees.
Chimpanzees should be transported with a familiar caretaker or veterinarian. The USDA requires that
chimpanzees in transit by ground be inspected as often as circumstances allow, but not less than once
every four hours to make sure they have sufficient air for normal breathing, that the ambient temperature
is within appropriate limits, and that all standards are being complied with (AWR 2005). During air
transportation, chimpanzees should be inspected as often as circumstances allow, but not less than once
every four hours if the animal cargo area is accessible during flight. If the cargo area is not accessible, the
chimpanzee should be inspected whenever they are loaded or unloaded to make sure they have
sufficient air for normal breathing, that the ambient temperature is within appropriate limits, and that all
standards are being complied with. If the chimpanzee is obviously ill, injured, or in distress, it should not
be transported in commerce except to receive medical attention for the condition.
Most transportation today can be accomplished within 24-96 hours. If delays occur, it is not always
possible or feasible to move a chimpanzee to a temporary holding facility. Shifting a chimpanzee out of a
shipping container and having to get it back in may be more stressful than leaving it in the shipping
container and providing for its basic needs. If a known delay or layover of more than 72 hours is planned,
and there is a convenient facility with appropriate veterinary and care staff available, then it may be
beneficial to allow the chimpanzee access to temporary housing.
Post-transport release: Chimpanzees should be transported to the holding institution or quarantine
facility as soon as possible after being offloaded at their destination. The Center for Disease Control
(CDC) requires 90-day quarantine for chimpanzees coming into the United States. Appropriate
arrangements should be made ahead of time with a facility licensed to handle CDC quarantines. Many
facilities also require a quarantine period when accepting chimpanzees from other facilities. Appropriate
quarantine facilities should be available upon the arrival of the chimpanzee. See Chapter 6, section 6.3
for additional information on quarantine recommendations.

Chapter 4. Social Environment
4.1 Group Structure and Size

Careful consideration should be given to ensure that animal group structures and sizes meet the
social, physical, and psychological well-being of those animals and facilitate species-appropriate
behaviors.
Group structure: In the wild, the principal social organization of chimpanzees is reflected by highly fluid,
fission/fusion societies made up of shifting associations of individuals within a relatively stable unit-group
(Nashida 1968) or community (Goodall 1973), and whose 20 to over 100 members share a common
home range. The community constitutes a relatively closed social network within which the fluid
associations of individuals take place. A community typically has a dominant (alpha) male leader, and
there are also power-wielding coalitions among both males and females. Underlying the level of the
community, individuals come together to form temporary parties or bands that may stay together for a few
minutes or days. The most stable long lasting party is the association between a mother and her
dependent offspring, but these bands may include a great variety of structures, including all-male groups,
all-female groups, males and females with or without juveniles and adolescents, etc. Chimpanzees are
thought to be largely promiscuous, with several males following and mating with a female in estrus. In
another mating strategy, a male may enter a short-term relationship with a receptive female and prevent
other (lower-ranking) males from mating with her. Or an adult pair may establish a temporary, exclusive
consortship for periods up to three months.
The AZA Chimpanzee SSP recommends the maintenance of social groups that contain multi-male
groups with age and sex diversity. With appropriate staff and facilities, the recommended size of a social
group should meet or exceed 3 adult males and 5 mature females and dependent offspring. Institutions
are encouraged to house chimpanzees in multi-male/multi-female age stratified groups to resemble the
wild population. By housing chimpanzees in larger groups with various age/sex classes, the opportunities
to form, breakup, and reform parties of various sizes and compositions (a fundamental characteristic of
the chimpanzee fission/fusion social structure) can be accomplished. This provides the chimpanzees in
zoos and aquariums with opportunities to express behaviors closely associated with those various
parties, and in a similar manner to their wild conspecifics (Fulk and Garland 1992).
Females: Females in the wild spend the majority of their time in small groups consisting of an adult
female and her dependent offspring. They generally feed alone unless a particularly rich food patch
attracts most of the community to a single place. Pan troglodytes females generally emigrate from their
natal group, providing a means by which genetic diversity is maintained. Transfer usually occurs during
adolescence, but has been observed to occur in adult females. Females may even switch back and forth
between communities (Garland 1992).
Males: Housing several adult males together in zoos and aquariums can be a challenge (Bloomsmith and
Baker 2001), not only due to their intense competition for status and its benefits in the community
(Goodall 1973), but because females represent both the objects of competition as well as potential allies
(Bloomsmith and Baker 2001). However, forming multi-male, mixed-sex groups will stimulate a wider
variety of species-appropriate behaviors that may not be observed in groups containing only one male. In
zoos and aquariums, males are in continual proximity, and have little need to ally against external threats
(Bloomsmith and Baker 2001). Likewise, it has been shown that the presence of multiple adult males in
the group acts to buffer some of the disruptive effects of adolescent males in the group (Ross et al. 2009).
In the wild, males show high levels of sociality and strong coalitionary bonds with each other
(Bloomsmith and Baker 2001). There are significantly higher frequencies of affiliative relationships among
males than among females. A dominance hierarchy and its associated social dynamics are most evident
among males of a group. Males spend a great deal of time together, whether in feeding, patrolling, resting
or in social grooming (Garland 1992). Males clearly prefer each other as social partners, particularly as
grooming partners, as would be expected given their behavior in the wild (Fitch et al. 1989). From this
standpoint, and in order to provide a social life to excess males, formation of all-male or multi-male
groups is advisable (Bloomsmith and Baker 2001).
Single-sexed groups: Chimpanzees are best suited for mixed gender groups, however, forming all-male
groups has proven to be a successful way of providing males that are not housed with females with the

opportunity to form strong social bonds with other males, as is common among wild chimpanzees
(Goodall 1986). All-male groups generally include males of similar age (juveniles or adolescents or
adults) and body size. Successful male groups generally include individuals that have been socialized
and are gregarious in their interactions with humans and chimpanzees, exhibit relatively low levels of
abnormal behavior patterns, and exhibit low levels of aggression or fear of other chimpanzees (Fritz and
Howell 2001). It is recommended that all-male groups be housed outside the sensory (visual and
olfactory) range of females, if possible, to reduce the potential for aggression. There is no conclusive
evidence to suggest a maximum number of adult males that can coexist with each other, nor are there
good data on how these all-male groups differ behaviorally from mixed-sex groups. Additional research is
needed to gather more evidence on this topic.
Group size: The size of a wild chimpanzee community is directly tied to habitat features such as density,
forest type, and food availability. In general, the number of males and females in a wild group of
chimpanzees is fairly even. However, the sex ratio may vary among communities or even within a
community. Community sizes can range from 20-100 individuals of all age classes. Boesch (1996)
reviewed party size in different communities of wild chimpanzees and found that the average party size
numbered 5.7 individuals (range from 4.0 to 8.3).
Zoos and aquariums should make every effort to house chimpanzees in social groups that reflect the
social organization of groups found in the wild. Chimpanzee exhibits should consist of multi-male/multi-
female social groups. The recommend size of newly established groups is 3 males and 5 females (Fulk
2001). The size of groups held in zoo and aquarium environments will vary from institution to institution,
and may be limited not just by exhibit size, but also by the size and flexibility of the holding facilities.
Chimpanzees should never be housed alone for any extended period of time unless it is deemed to be
necessary for the physical or psychological well-being of that individual.
Changes in social behavior: Patterns of sociality may be affected by daily factors such as the estrus
condition of females. Generally, females exhibiting estrus swellings elicit greater social attention, and may
also influence intra-group competition between males. Likewise, there may be some differences in
behavior based on increasing age, such as decreased play and decreased activity.
Adolescence, specifically, is a time of important social change. As individuals move into sexual
maturity, they spend less time with their mothers and more time with other members of their group.
Females exhibit their first swellings and undergo social changes described above. Males may begin
exhibiting pestering behavior that serves to explore their place in the social hierarchy. Despite these
known behavioral patterns, a study of adolescent male chimpanzees in AZA-accredited zoos found no
differences in wounding levels between those groups housing adolescent males and those without
adolescent males (Ross et al. 2009).
4.2 Influence of Others and Conspecifics

Animals cared for by AZA-accredited zoos and aquariums are often found residing with other animals
of their species but may also be found residing with conspecifics. The presence of neighboring groups of
conspecifics may influence the behavior of chimpanzees in zoos and aquariums. Data from laboratory-
housed chimpanzees suggest that vocalizations, displays, and agonistic behavior increased when levels
of vocalizations from neighboring individuals were high (Baker and Aureli 1996). Similarly, Videan et al.
(2005) found that agonistic noises and vocalizations from neighboring social groups increased rates of
display behavior, and also that there was a significant relationship between grooming behavior and
grooming vocalizations between neighbors. Care should be taken to monitor carefully the behavior of
chimpanzees housed in facilities where they can see or hear other groups of chimpanzees.
Mixed-species enclosures: Chimpanzees have not been purposefully kept in mixed-species exhibits.
Given their omnivorous and aggressive nature, it is not surprising that that there are multiple accounts of
chimpanzees killing other species that happen to enter their exhibit area (such as squirrels, rabbits, birds,
and rats). There are also accounts of chimpanzees coexisting with some indigenous species such as
turtles and fish. One exception to this was the use of a canine companion for nursery-reared infant
chimpanzees (Thompson et al. 1991). Although the dogs presence seemed to have a largely positive
effect on the infants behavior in this study, there are few long-term data on the effects of this form of
alternative rearing strategy. Currently, mixed-species enclosures are not recommended for chimpanzees.

4.3 Introductions and Reintroductions

Managed care for and reproduction of animals housed in AZA-accredited zoos and aquariums are
dynamic processes. Animals born in or moved between and within institutions require introduction and
sometimes reintroductions to other animals. It is important that all introductions are conducted in a
manner that is safe for all animals and humans involved.
Introductions: Flexibility on the part of the keepers and the management staff should be an integral part
of any introduction plan. Planning meetings held prior to the introduction process should include members
of the zoos management staff, caregivers, researchers, veterinarians, maintenance personnel, and public
relations staff. The method of introduction should be discussed thoroughly, including alternative plans of
action (McNary 1992).
Introduction methods and the process of social group formation should begin with an assessment of
an individuals background, behavioral experience and characteristics, baseline behavior observations,
and behavioral records (Fritz and Howell 2001). The personalities, ages, and social experiences of each
chimpanzee, and their reactions to new situations, will be different. Some chimpanzees will not have had
the benefit of being raised by their mothers in large social groupings, and others may have spent their
early years in a nursery, a circus, or a private home, limiting their social experience (McNary 1992).
During the introduction process, constant monitoring of each chimpanzees behavior, either normal or
abnormal, is critical. Aberrant behaviors may develop or be accentuated by the introduction. Anxiety can
be displayed in a variety of ways, including stereotypic movements, exaggerated scratching, fear grins,
diarrhea, excessive hair plucking, obvious agitation, or withdrawal. Although such behaviors may
decrease in frequency as the group begins to settle, they are a timely reminder that an individual
chimpanzee may be having difficulty adjusting to this new situation. Each step of the introduction should
be evaluated carefully to assess the psychological and physical status of each chimpanzee (McNary
1992).
Introduction protocols: While introductions may vary in duration, the typical introduction procedure can
be described as follows. The animals to be introduced should be given an opportunity to see each other,
after which they can be provided with limited protected contact through a mesh barrier. Once affiliative
behaviors, dominance/subordinance behaviors, and/or reductions in aggressive gestures are observed,
managers can allow individuals into the same enclosure. Often, when a large group is being formed,
different combinations of the unfamiliar animals are introduced before the large group is housed together
(Bloomsmith and Baker 2001). Giving all individuals access to unfamiliar enclosures before the
introduction process begins may aid the introduction. Alternatively, a novel environment to all group
members can actually help reduce territorial behavior the key element is to avoid giving one party an
advantage over another. It is important to note that agonistic behavior ranging from displays (mild and
boisterous) to aggression (mild to severe) is very common during the introduction process. However, it is
equally important to note that most introductions are eventually successful (Fritz and Howell 2001).
The AZA Chimpanzee SSP advocates a restricted intervention strategy in which human caregivers
minimize their interference in the hierarchy reformation process during introductions. This strategy is
relevant during day-to-day management of the chimpanzees, but is especially important during the social
introduction process. The following information on minimum intervention management strategies has
been adopted from the Australasian Species Management Program (2005). One of the keys to successful
management of a large multi male/multi female group is allowing hierarchical disputes to run their natural
course (as far as possible) without intervention from animal management staff. This style of management
is referred to as restricted intervention and the main points are outlined below:
Multi-male groups are fundamental to chimpanzee social structure. There are more interactions
between males in a chimpanzee group (both aggressive and grooming interactions) than between
females or between males and females.
Male social hierarchy disputes are resolved by many means, including affiliative behaviors (e.g.,
grooming), and agonistic behaviors such as displays and physical aggression (e.g., fighting).
Males are responsible for most of this aggression, but females may also become involved
(Boehm 1992).
Fighting is often robust, and injuries ranging from minor scratches to serious wounds can occur.
In the wild, male chimpanzees tend to stay with the group even following unsuccessful challenges

to the alpha-male. Likewise, former alpha-males usually remain with the group even if deposed. It
is not necessary to separate chimpanzees just because there is a power struggle.
If keepers intervene too early, hierarchy issues are not resolved, and aggressive encounters are
repeated. Aggressive encounters should be seen as an integral part of chimpanzee society.
The policy of minimal intervention will require some fortitude on behalf of the animal managers.
Serious injuries might be minimized by appropriate enrichment, complex housing, and the
application of positive reinforcement training regimens. It is important for all staff members to
understand that there will likely be injuries in chimpanzee groups.
Fighting should be monitored and evaluated as it occurs. No protocols will cover all
contingencies. It some cases, intervention will be necessary and appropriate, but care should be
taken not to intervene unnecessarily. Consultation with managers and scientists experienced in
conducting social introductions and managing established groups is always advisable to help
determine where to draw the line in terms of interventions.
It is important to allow individual chimpanzees sufficient time to acclimate to new social partners. The
process may take time, particularly for fearful chimpanzees, or those with limited social experience.
Groups generally become stabilized within seven days, and establish social relationships within two
weeks (Fritz and Howell 2001). During the period of stabilization, the AZA Chimpanzee SSP recommends
that the group is kept together continuously, whenever possible, and not separated and reformed on a
regular basis. Individuals may continue to show high levels of excitement if they are temporarily
separated and re-introduced, and exhibit fear and aggression during times when the group is excited
(e.g., just prior to feeding). Once social relationships are established and group members form social
bonds and establish dominance hierarchies, fear and aggression are only occasionally observed in
compatible social groups (Fritz and Howell 2001).
Management of introductions: Positive reinforcement training has not been tested during chimpanzee
introductions (Bloomsmith and Baker 2001), but has proven to be an effective method for training
chimpanzees for both routine and non-routine husbandry procedures (see Chapter 8 section 8.1 for
additional information). Procedures outlined by McNary (1992) that have been useful in facilitating
introductions include:
Allowing the new chimpanzees time to explore and become familiar with any new area in the
absence of unfamiliar conspecifics.
Allowing the chimpanzees to have visual access to each other (e.g., through plexi-glass barriers,
nearby holding areas, or possibly even mirrors).
Allowing the chimpanzees tactile access to each other in a manner that allows touching and
smelling, without the animals being able to bite or grab (e.g., through heavy wire mesh installed
between two adjacent holding areas).
Allowing the chimpanzees physical access to each other.
Group formation may be accomplished in several ways, depending on the exhibit and holding area
capabilities, and the chimpanzees involved. These include:
Slowly adding individuals to a core group.
Expanding the one-on-one introduction process to include more individuals.
Introducing two or more smaller groups to each other.
Quickly introducing all of the chimpanzees together after they have gone through the initial
introduction phase. In some introductions of this type, a mild sedative has been given to the
chimpanzees in the group in hopes of minimizing aggression. This has been done with mixed
results and is not recommended.
The use of various enrichment items, browse, and low-value scattered food (e.g., cereal) may help to
dissipate aggression by keeping the chimpanzees occupied. Feeding the chimpanzees prior to the
introduction may also help them feel more relaxed. However, if a serious injury occurs during the
introductions that requires immediate medical attention, there is an increased risk for chimpanzees that
have recently eaten if anesthesia is needed. Equipment that may be useful during an introduction
includes a water hose with a high power nozzle, and a CO2 fire extinguisher to distract an individual long
enough for another to escape, or as a deterrent (Fritz and Howell 2001).

Chapter 5. Nutrition
5.1 Nutritional Requirements

A formal nutrition program is recommended to meet the AZA Accreditation Standard
behavioral and nutritional needs of all animals (AZA Accreditation (S2.6.2) A formal nutrition program is
Standard 2.6.2). Diets should be developed using the recommended to meet the behavioral and
recommendations of Nutrition Advisory Groups nutritional needs of all species and
(www.nagonline.net/feeding_guidelines.htm), AZA Taxon specimens within the collection.
Advisory Groups (TAGs), Species Survival Plan (SSPs)
Programs, as well as veterinarians. Diet formulation criteria should address the animals nutritional needs,
feeding ecology, as well as individual and natural histories to ensure that species-specific feeding
patterns and behaviors are stimulated.
Although daily human caloric needs can be a guide for chimpanzees, NRC guidelines were published
recently for non-human primates (NRC 2003). More research is needed to identify specific nutrient
requirements for chimpanzees.
Nutritional needs: As complete diets provided to chimpanzees (see section 5.2) should be balanced for
vitamins and minerals, routine supplementation is not generally necessary, although non-human primates
have a dietary requirement for vitamin C. Where supplementation is provided, human products can be
used by label direction. However, selection of products without excess iron (i.e., greatly exceeding the
2003 NRC guidelines) is important unless iron-deficiency anemia is specifically under treatment.
Vitamin D: In juveniles, documented cases of vitamin D deficiency (metabolic bone disease) have
occurred in chimpanzees housed exclusively indoors. Vitamin D requirements can be met with an
appropriate diet and/or UVB exposure, which may include routine outdoor access. When this is not
possible due to exhibit design or season, appropriate supplementation of calcium and vitamin D is
essential.
Pregnant females: Pregnant females may benefit from adjustments in their diet; however, there are no
definitive data to guide these changes. Managers might consult guidelines that address dietary
requirements for pregnant humans such as adding prenatal vitamins to best meet their needs for folic
acid and iron. Caloric intake may be increased during pregnancy (last trimester only) and lactation.
Seasonal changes: There are no definitive data to support the requirement to change the composition of
diets based on seasonal changes. Care should be taken to ensure that sufficient vitamin D is being
provided during extended indoor living that might result from cold winter conditions in northern climates.
Target ranges of nutrients for all life stages: This information is available in Nutrient Requirements of
Nonhuman Primates, Second Revised Edition, 2003 published by the National Research Council.
Energy requirement calculations: The maintenance energy requirement (MER) is the amount of
energy used by an animal in a thermoneutral environment, that is, at the optimal ambient temperature. It
represents the energy expended in obtaining and using food in an amount sufficient to maintain body
weight, but not to support growth, pregnancy or lactation. It is important to remember that the calculated
MER only represents an estimate of energy need. To calculate the MER of a given individual, body
weight in kg should be raised to the 0.75th power and then the resulting value multiplied by 100 to
estimate total kcal needed per day. For chimpanzees weighing
approximately 76.5 kg, this results in 1800 to 2600 kcal per day,
depending on conditions (NRC, 2003; page 45). The result is (S2.6.3) Animal diets must be of a quality
the approximate energy expenditure of a mature individual in a and quantity suitable for each animals
nutritional and psychological needs. Diet
day and can be used to estimate diets and nutritional needs. formulations and records of analysis of
appropriate feed items should be
5.2 Diets maintained and may be examined by the
Visiting Committee. Animal food,
The formulation, preparation, and delivery of all diets must especially seafood products, should be
be of a quality and quantity suitable to meet the animals purchased from reliable sources that are
psychological and behavioral needs (AZA Accreditation sustainable and/or well managed.
Standard 2.6.3). Food should be purchased from reliable,

sustainable and well-managed sources. The nutritional analysis of the food should be regularly tested and
recorded.
Sample diets: In the wild, chimpanzees primarily eat fruit, but their diets also include leaves, pith, seeds,
flowers, insects, and meat (Wrangham 1977; Goodall 1986). Insects and meat make up between 1-5% of
the diet. Although chimpanzees in zoos and aquariums receive enough protein in the form of commercial
primate diets, the amount of complex carbohydrates and fiber in their diets is generally less than wild
chimpanzees (Pruetz and McGrew 2001). While the variety of food types found in the diet of the wild
chimpanzee is not likely to be matched by chimpanzees in zoos and aquariums, some attempt should be
made to give chimpanzees in zoos and aquariums varied food types that resemble the diet of wild
chimpanzees as much as possible (Pruetz and McGrew 2001).
Chimpanzees should be fed a balanced diet that includes a mixture of vegetables, fruits, and
nutritionally complete dry food. A good quality complete food (biscuits) with mixed produce (vegetables,
fruits, greens) will compose the base diet, with minimal or no dairy and additional protein sources
provided. Providing a supply of browse is important whenever possible by seasonal availability.
A staple portion of the chimpanzee diet should be a 15-25% protein monkey biscuit with low calories
(<3 kcal/g if possible), high fiber (10-12%), and low fat (3-4%). In addition, a variety of other foods should
also be provided throughout the day at frequent intervals for enrichment, and to enhance nutrition (Lee
and Guhad 2001). Foraging and eating account for the largest proportion of a chimpanzees daytime
activity in the wild. Chimpanzees at Gombe eat during 47-60% of their waking day (Wrangham 1977), and
at Tai, chimpanzees eat for an average of 54% of their waking time (Boesch and Boesch 2000). In
contrast, adult females in mixed parties at Mahale spend only 30% of their time foraging and eating
(Matsumoto-Oda et al. 1998), perhaps indicating increased feeding competition in mixed parties, or
replacement of eating with other activities such as socio-sexual behavior (Pruetz and McGrew 2001).
The nutritional status of chimpanzees also influences many aspects of their health and behavior.
Nutritional requirements may vary depending on the individuals health, growth stage, activity, immune
status, or housing conditions. An approximation of chimpanzee nutritional requirements can be developed
using human RDA and Nonhuman Primate NRC tables (2003), however, these should be considered
rough estimates because a chimpanzees diet in the wild is much higher in fiber. Dietary fiber levels for
chimpanzees in zoos and aquariums are important, and overall levels provided may need to be
increased. This can be accomplished in several ways:
Offering all fruits raw and unpeeled, as fiber is often localized in the peels.
Replacing soft fruits (e.g., bananas, grapes, citrus fruits), which contain low fiber levels, with hard
fruits (e.g., apples, pears) or vegetables (e.g., yams, potatoes, squash), which contain relatively
more fiber. Overall, the fiber content of fresh produce is low. The most efficient way to increase
fiber intake is to feed a high fiber biscuit (see Milton and Demment 1988).
Increasing green produce in the diet, and/or adding browse on a daily basis.
Provision of hay, steel cut oatmeal, beet pulp, corn husks, and/or banana leaves.
Fruits are an important diet component for chimpanzees in the wild and in zoos and aquariums, and
may provide valuable behavioral stimulation. The domesticated fruits fed in zoos and aquariums contain
more simple sugars and less fiber, but similar available protein levels, than fruits obtained in natural
habitats. A variety of fresh fruits should be offered, with choice dictated by local or seasonal availability,
and with price a major consideration. Fruit should not exceed 25% of the total weight of the diet, and may
even contribute much less, providing approximately 5% of the dry matter. Greens in the form of locally
available browse plants, or dark green leafy produce (iceberg lettuce is acceptable but is not as good a
source of nutrients) should be offered in amounts up to 45-50% (as fed basis) of the total diet. Palatable
forage plants can even be incorporated into exhibits to allow natural foraging activity. Increased greens
would also provide natural sources of dietary fiber, protein, calcium, B vitamins, beta-carotene, and alpha-
tocopherol (vitamin E). All diet ingredients as consumed should meet the suggested guidelines in the
Nonhuman NRC (2003). The following table (Table 3) lists the percentage fiber of various fruits and
vegetables according to the USDA database:

Table 3: The fiber content of select fruits and vegetables based on 100g of each item (fresh weight).
Food item % Fiber content (fresh weight)
Bananas (no peel) 2.6
Oranges (no peel) 2.4
Oranges (with peel) 4.5
Apples 2.4
Pears 3.1
Grapes 0.9
Yams 4.1
Potatoes 2.2
Winter squash 1.5
Summer squash 1.1
Of additional interest is replicating wild chimpanzees interest in pith. In the wild, when available
chimpanzees spend the late afternoon sitting in a patch of elephant grass, stripping off the outer cover of
the stems (approximately the size of sugar cane) and eating the relatively soft pith or core. More
research is needed to determine how these food choices can be replicated in zoo environments (i.e. fresh
corn stalks, sugar cane).
Feeding schedule: Since the predominant daytime activity of wild chimpanzees is searching for and
consuming food, great effort should be made to increase the amount of time that chimpanzees in zoos
and aquariums spend in similar endeavors. The presentation of food is an obvious form of enrichment,
and can help increase foraging time and decrease aggression and abnormal behavior (Bloomsmith et al.
1988). Recommended feeding schedules should include multiple feedings throughout the day of a wide
variety of food. Seeking, processing, and ingesting food are vital components of chimpanzee daily life,
and so variability in food type and presentation should be a primary goal within chimpanzee management
programs in zoos and aquariums.
Food variety and presentation: The diet of wild chimpanzees includes fruits, leaves, pith, blossoms,
seeds, stems, bark, resin, honey, insects, eggs, and meat. Food intake varies by season, consisting on
an annual basis of about 60% fruits, 30% vegetation, and 5 - 10% animal matter. Termites are the most
frequently consumed animals, but chimpanzees also stalk, kill, and eat young hoofstock, baboons, and
other monkeys. Although providing live prey is not desirable in zoos and aquariums, a wide range of food
items can be provided to chimpanzees as long as the nutritional composition of the total diet is known.
Encouraging species-appropriate foraging has been a recognized aim of most enrichment programs.
For example, Bloomsmith and Lambeth (1995) used an unpredictable feeding schedule to reduce
inactivity and abnormal behavior in chimpanzees in zoos and aquariums. Taking into account the varied
aspects typical of eating and foraging by wild chimpanzees, such as the number and time of feeding
bouts per day, can enhance eating and foraging and reduce inactivity and excessive caloric intake in zoo
and aquarium animals (Pruetz and McGrew 2001).
The way that food is presented is an obvious a form of enrichment. Bloomsmith et al. (1988) found
that aggression and abnormal behaviors declined significantly when four feeding regimes were
simultaneously implemented with chimpanzees:
Monkey biscuits ad libitum
Presentation of foods with high process time (e.g., corn on the cob, celery, artichokes, sugar
cane).
Foraging foods (e.g., popcorn, sunflower seeds, peanuts) distributed over a grass substrate.
Availability of food in a puzzle feeder.
Providing foods that require processing was found to be the most successful technique for eliciting
long feeding bouts. Providing a variety of manipulatable objects to chimpanzees in zoos and aquariums
both increases the amount of time spent in foraging-type activities and increases their well-being (Mellen
and Shepherdson 1992). Designing structures that allow the chimpanzees to climb to obtain food may
mimic foraging in the trees; for example, fruits suspended from climbing structures and varied seasonally
to mimic seasonal fruiting of wild plants in the rain forest (Coe et al. 2001). The addition of browse
encourages processing and consumption of food items. Damen (1990) found that the addition of browse
increased foraging time from 3 - 17%, and resulted in a drastic decline in coprophagia. The provision of
feeding opportunities such as browse, puzzle feeders, and termite mounds, may increase the potential for

competition and conflict, but these situations can be managed by providing multiple sites for food
acquisition.
Puzzle feeders: Wild chimpanzees, especially adult females, make use of tools to acquire termites
(Goodall 1986). This predisposition has been used extensively in the development of artificial termite
mounds and puzzle feeders for chimpanzees in zoos and aquariums. In an evaluation of tool use, Nash
(1982) found that the presence of an artificial termite mound stimulated the exhibition of these wild
behaviors, and that the termite mound was most often utilized by younger chimpanzees. Similarly, Brent
and Eichberg (1991) found that the presence of a puzzle feeder decreased aggression, affiliative,
inactive, and self-directed behaviors; in this study, females used the puzzle boards more than males.
Maki et al. (1989) found that chimpanzees showed a significant decrease in abnormal behavior and
inactivity in the presence of termite fishing feeders. The provision of multiple feeders to preclude
aggressive competition, and the use of different types of feeders to cater to individual task preference, are
recommended. Maple and Finlay (1989) provide a review of a variety of puzzle feeders. The type of foods
available in termite mounds/puzzle feeders should also be varied (Mellen and Shepherdson 1992), and a
variety of novel food items have been offered, including barbecue sauce, jellies, syrup, honey,
applesauce, oatmeal, and various condiments. The ability to easily access and clean a device such as an
artificial termite mound should be considered in its design. The dental health impact of the foodstuffs
chosen should also be considered, as well as their caloric content, which should be included in the overall
nutrient evaluation of the diet. Please contact the AZA Chimpanzee SSP Coordinator for more information
on specific food companies for primate diets.
Current diets and schedules:
Diets should be tailored to meet individuals needs. Lactating, pregnant, and geriatric chimps may have
different nutritional needs than others. Diet changes should be made and assessed according to each
chimpanzees needs, consumption and behavior.
Nutrient analysis comparing to target nutrient ranges:
Any listed diet examples should be analyzed for nutrient composition; diets are not officially endorsed, but
rather have been successfully implemented, by the AZA Chimpanzee SSP.
Food preparation must be performed in accordance with all relevant federal, state, or local regulations
(AZA Accreditation Standard 2.6.1). Meat processed on site must be processed following all USDA
standards. When preparing food for chimpanzees, one should not
mix produce utensils and equipment with meat utensils and AZA Accreditation Standard
equipment. The shelf life of primate biscuits is limited to 6 months (S2.6.1) Animal food preparations must
from the date of manufacture due to the loss of Vitamin C in the meet all local, state/provincial, and federal
product. regulations.
If browse plants are used within the animals diet or for
enrichment, all plants must be identified and assessed for safety. AZA Accreditation Standard
The responsibility for approval of plants and oversight of the (S2.6.4) The institution should assign at
program should be assigned to at least one qualified individual least one person to oversee appropriate
(AZA Accreditation Standard 2.6.4). The program should identify browse material for the collection.
if the plants have been treated with any chemicals or near any point sources of pollution and if the plants
are safe for the species. If animals have access to plants in and around their exhibits, there should be a
staff member responsible for ensuring that toxic plants are not available.
Browse plants: The Association of Zoological Horticulture (www.azh.org) has a searchable database of
acceptable browse species. If plants are considered toxic to pets, it is safe to assume that chimpanzees
should not consume them either. The American Society for Prevention of Cruelty to Animals website,
maintains a list of plant species that are toxic to dogs and cats (www.aspca.org/pet-care/poison-
control/plants/). The Humane Society of the United States also has a comprehensive list of poisonous
plants on their website:
(www.hsus.org/pets/pet_care/protect_your_pet_from_common_household_dangers/common_poisonous
_plants.html). Also consult Burrows and Tyrl (2006) for a complete overview of poisonous plants.
Chemical sprays or pollution: All plant species offered to chimpanzees or grown in their enclosure
should be free of chemical sprays such as herbicide, pesticides, insecticides. If there is any doubt about
the presence or previous presence of these types of chemicals the plant should not be offered. All plants

that are determined to be free of chemical contamination should always be thoroughly rinsed with clean
water before offering to chimpanzees
5.3 Nutritional Evaluations

Body size evaluations: The degree of variation in body size of chimpanzees is relatively small once
factors of sex, age, and health (e.g., obesity) are removed. As a result, there are no conclusive dietary
recommendations for chimpanzees of different size. Further research will help clarify this issue.
Health issues: For adults, obesity is a substantial risk factor for cardiac disease, and is inconsistent with
good long-term health. It is important to include calories obtained from enrichment and operant
conditioning sources as part of the balanced diet. Judicious use of sugar free or low sugar products will
assist in maintaining appropriate weight and body condition. Regular weighing (e.g., several times yearly)
is critical to long-term nutritional maintenance and weight loss when indicated. Foods high in sodium and
fat are linked to cardiac disease in humans, and a similar relationship can be expected in chimpanzees.
Poor diet can also be a contributing factor in the development of diabetes, and there are several reported
cases of diabetic chimpanzees that require substantial health and diet management, including regular
insulin injections. Consultation with a clinical nutrition (veterinary or human) specialist will provide
guidance in these specific cases, and positive reinforcement techniques can be used to reliably obtain
blood and urine samples to monitor glucose levels (Laule et al. 1996).
Tools and methods used for clinical nutritional evaluation: Evaluate body condition using numerical
scale; body weight; evaluate individuals diet consumption to ensure that a balanced diet is being taken
and that the chimpanzee is not being selective.

Chapter 6. Veterinary Care

6.1 Veterinary Services AZA Accreditation Standard
Veterinary services are a vital component of excellent animal
care practices. A full-time staff veterinarian is recommended, (S2.1.1) A full-time staff veterinarian is
recommended. However, the Commission
however, in cases where this is not practical, a consulting/part- realizes that in some cases such is not
time veterinarian must be under contract to make at least twice practical. In those cases, a
monthly inspections of the animal collection and to any consulting/part-time veterinarian must be
emergencies (AZA Accreditation Standard 2.1.1). Veterinary under contract to make at least twice
monthly inspections of the animal
coverage must also be available at all times so that any collection and respond as soon as
indications of disease, injury, or stress may be responded to in a possible to any emergencies. The
timely manner (AZA Accreditation Standard 2.1.2). All AZA- Commission also recognizes that certain
accredited zoos and aquariums should adopt the guidelines for collections, because of their size and/or
nature, may require different
medical programs developed by the American Association of Zoo considerations in veterinary care.
Veterinarians (AAZV):
www.aazv.org/associations/6442files/zoo_aquarium_vet_med_gu AZA Accreditation Standard
idelines.pdf.
(S2.1.2) So that indications of disease,
Veterinary drugs: Protocols for the use and security of drugs injury, or stress may be dealt with
used for veterinary purposes must be formally written and promptly, veterinary coverage must be
available to the animal collection 24 hours
available to animal care staff (AZA Accreditation Standard 2.2.1). a day, 7 days a week.
Procedures should include, but are not limited to: a list of persons
authorized to administer animal drugs, situations in which they
are to be utilized, location of animal drugs and those persons with AZA Accreditation Standard
access to them, and emergency procedures in the event of (S2.2.1) Written, formal procedures must
accidental human exposure. be available to the animal care staff for
the use of animal drugs for veterinary
Continued work is needed to compile a comprehensive list of purposes and appropriate security of the
drugs commonly used for chimpanzee care and management, drugs must be provided.
including storage, administration and hazards of all possible
pharmaceutical interventions. Working with the sanctuary and AZA Accreditation Standard
laboratory communities, the AZA Chimpanzee SSP is working to (S1.4.6) A staff member must be
compile this information for future use. designated as being responsible for the
Animal recordkeeping is an important element of animal care institution's animal record-keeping
and ensures that information about individual animals and their system. That person must be charged
with establishing and maintaining the
treatment is always available. A designated staff member should
institution's animal records, as well as
be responsible for maintaining an animal record keeping system with keeping all animal care staff
and for conveying relevant laws and regulations to the animal members apprised of relevant laws and
care staff AZA Accreditation Standard 1.4.6). Recordkeeping regulations regarding the institution's
animal collection.
must be accurate and documented on a daily basis (AZA
Accreditation Standard 1.4.7). Complete and up-to-date animal AZA Accreditation Standard
records must be duplicated and retained in a fireproof container
within the institution (AZA Accreditation Standard 1.4.5) as well as (S1.4.7) Animal records must be kept
current, and data must be logged daily.
be duplicated and stored at a separate location (AZA
Accreditation Standard 1.4.4). Each institution should refer to and AZA Accreditation Standard
adhere to institutional guidelines for recordkeeping and
(S1.4.5) At least one set of the
management and maintain a working knowledge of all relevant institutions historical animal records must
laws and regulations for your area. be stored and protected. Those records
should include permits, titles, declaration
forms, and other pertinent information.
6.2 Identification Methods
Ensuring that animals are identifiable through various means AZA Accreditation Standard
increases the ability to care for individuals more effectively.
(S1.4.4) Animal records, whether in
Animals must be identifiable and have corresponding ID numbers electronic or paper form, including health
whenever practical, or a means for accurately maintaining animal records, must be duplicated and stored in
records must be identified if individual identifications are not a separate location.
practical (AZA Accreditation Standard 1.4.3).

AZA member institutions must inventory their population at least annually and document all animal
acquisitions and dispositions (AZA Accreditation Standard 1.4.1). Transaction forms help document that
potential recipients or providers of the animals should adhere to the AZA Code of Professional Ethics, the
AZA Acquisition/Disposition Policy (see Appendix B), and all
relevant AZA and member policies, procedures and guidelines. In AZA Accreditation Standard
addition, transaction forms must insist on compliance with the
applicable laws and regulations of local, state, federal and (S1.4.3) Animals must be identifiable,
whenever practical, and have
international authorities. All AZA-accredited zoos and aquariums corresponding ID numbers. For animals
must abide by the AZA Acquisition and Disposition policy maintained in colonies or other animals
(Appendix B) and the long-term welfare of animals should be not considered readily identifiable, the
considered in all acquisition and disposition decisions. All species institution must provide a statement
explaining how record keeping is
owned by an AZA institution must be listed on the inventory, maintained.
including those animals on loan to and from the institution (AZA
Accreditation Standard 1.4.2). The Regional Studbook for
chimpanzees uses three primary identifiers: (a) Studbook number: assigned by the Studbook Keeper;
local ID number (assigned by the holding institution; and (c) House name. Only the first of these three is
assured to be consistent through the lifetime of the chimpanzees and as such, is the most reliable method
of identification.
6.3 Transfer Examination and Diagnostic Testing (S1.4.1) An animal inventory must be
Recommendations compiled at least once a year and include
The transfer of chimpanzees between AZA-accredited zoos data regarding acquisitions and
dispositions in the animal collection.
and aquariums or Certified Related Facilities (CRFs) due to SSP
recommendations occurs often as part of as concerted effort to
preserve these species. These transfers should be done as
altruistically as possible and the costs associated with specific (S1.4.2) All species owned by the
institution must be listed on the inventory,
examination and diagnostic testing for determining the health of including those animals on loan to and
these animals should be considered. from the institution. In both cases,
Quarantine facilities must be able to safely house notations should be made on the
chimpanzee(s) for the duration of their quarantine period. All inventory.
safety and health requirements of regular housing must be
maintained in quarantine quarters but because of the short-term duration of a chimpanzees stay, the
available space may be smaller. As such, extra attention should be paid to creating a stimulating
environment for the chimpanzee especially if that individual is housed alone. In some cases, when
appropriate and safe quarantine facilities are not available at the receiving institutions, quarantine may be
conducted at a nearby institution with appropriate coordination of the veterinary staffs of the sending,
receiving and intermediary facilities.
6.4 Quarantine
AZA institutions must have holding facilities or procedures (S2.7.1) The institution must have holding
for the quarantine of newly arrived animals and isolation facilities facilities or procedures for the quarantine
of newly arrived animals and isolation
or procedures for the treatment of sick/injured animals (AZA facilities or procedures for the treatment
Accreditation Standard 2.7.1). All quarantine, hospital, and of sick/injured animals.
isolation areas should be in compliance with AZA
standards/guidelines (S2.7.3; Appendix C). All quarantine AZA Accreditation Standard
procedures should be supervised by a veterinarian, formally (S2.7.3) Quarantine, hospital, and
written and available to staff working with quarantined animals isolation areas should be in compliance
(AZA Accreditation Standard 2.7.2). If a specific quarantine with standards or guidelines adopted by
the AZA.
facility is not present, then newly acquired animals should be
kept separate from the established collection to prohibit physical AZA Accreditation Standard
contact, prevent disease transmission, and avoid aerosol and
drainage contamination. If the receiving institution lacks (S2.7.2) Written, formal procedures for
quarantine must be available and familiar
appropriate facilities for quarantine, pre-shipment quarantine at to all staff working with quarantined
an AZA or AALAS accredited institution may be applicable. animals.
Local, state, or federal regulations that are more stringent than
AZA Standards and recommendation have precedence.

AZA institutions must have zoonotic disease prevention

procedures and training protocols established to minimize the risk AZA Accreditation Standard
of transferable diseases (AZA Accreditation Standard 11.1.2) with
(S11.1.2) Training and procedures must
all animals, including those newly acquired in quarantine. be in place regarding zoonotic diseases.
Keepers should be designated to care only for quarantined
animals if possible. If keepers must care for both quarantined and resident animals of the same class,
they should care for the quarantined animals only after caring for the resident animals. Equipment used to
feed, care for, and enrich animals in quarantine should be used only with these animals. If this is not
possible, then all items must be appropriately disinfected, as designated by the veterinarian supervising
quarantine before use with resident animals.
Quarantine protocols: The purpose of quarantine is protection of the existing animals and their
personnel from the introduction of infectious agents from the newly arriving animal(s). The quarantine
period (30-60 days) is accomplished by separation of the new animals from the existing group, and
screening them for known diseases. The depth of this screening will vary with the previous history of the
individual animal and its collection source. In situations where minimal prior screening has been
accomplished, it is important to consider longer quarantine intervals (60-90 days), and for those animals
from private facilities or the wild, this extension is mandatory (in imported animals), and can be increased
to 90-120 days. If additional mammals of the same order are introduced into the chimpanzee quarantine
area, the minimum quarantine period must begin over again. However, the addition of mammals of a
different order to those already in quarantine will not require the re-initiation of the quarantine period.
Increased attention to enrichment is necessary when chimpanzees are housed singly during quarantine
periods of any length (see section 6.6 for additional information).
As part of the quarantine evaluation, the group that the quarantined animal will enter should have
known status for the infectious agents of concern. This is managed through routine physical examinations
and documented in their medical history. For the new animal, quarantine begins with a thorough review of
the medical records and social history of the individual, its source group, and collection history. Medical
records for each animal should be accurately maintained and easily available during the quarantine
period. Prior to departure from the sending institution, the chimpanzee should receive a complete
examination (see Table 4) that should also be reviewed by the receiving institution veterinarian and
curator before departure. Within two weeks of arrival at the new facility, the chimpanzee should be
immobilized for a repeated physical examination (see Table 4). When parasites are identified by fecal
flotation, appropriate treatment regimens should be prescribed. A combination of the pre-shipment and
quarantine examinations provide the minimum of two physical examinations during this period. However,
longer quarantine intervals will include repeated examinations every 3-4 weeks.

Table 4: Recommended annual/quarantine physical examination for chimpanzees

Procedure Notes
Physical examination Including a systemic evaluation using tools to extend senses of examiner as needed
Dental examination Including necessary prophylaxis
Accurate weight ---
Blood collection - CBC, chemistry panel, blood typing, viral serology, serum banking (all ages)
- Thyroid panel for adults (>15 years)
- Cholesterol, lipid panel, cardiac disease markers for geriatrics (>30 years)
Rectal culture For Salmonella, Shigella, Campylobacter, Yersinia
Mycobacterial testing Intradermal skin test, lavage-gastric, tracheal, bronchial, and/or Primagam
Imaging - Radiographs (thoracic, preferably abdominal) recommended for all ages

- Abdominal ultrasound for adults (>15 years)
- Echocardiography for geriatrics (>30 years)
Viral screening - Simian Immunodeficiency Virus (SIV)

- Simian Foamy Virus (SFV)
- Cytomegalovirus (CMV)
- Herpes Simplex Virus 1 and 2 (HSV-1, HSV-2)
- Influenza A and B (Flu A and Flu B)
- Parainfluenza 1, 2, and 3
- Respiratory Syncitial Virus (RSV)
- Simian Adenovirus (SA-8)
- Measles
- Human Varicella Zoster (HVZ)
- Epstein Barr Virus (EBV)
- (Optional) Hepatitis A and Hepatitis B, Encephalomyocarditis (EMC)
Immunization See section 6.4
During the quarantine period, specific diagnostic tests should be conducted with each animal if
possible or from a representative sample of a larger population (e.g., birds in an aviary or frogs in a
terrarium) (see Appendix C). A complete physical, including a dental examination if applicable, should be
performed. Animals should be evaluated for ectoparasites and treated accordingly. Blood should be
collected, analyzed and the sera banked in either a -70C freezer or a frost-free -20C freezer for
retrospective evaluation. Fecal samples should be collected and analyzed for gastrointestinal parasites
and the animals should be treated accordingly. Vaccinations should be updated as appropriate, and if the
vaccination history is not known, the animal should be treated as immunologically naive and given the
appropriate series of vaccinations.
A tuberculin testing and surveillance program must be
established for animal care staff as appropriate to protect both
the health of both staff and animals (AZA Accreditation Standard (S11.1.3) A tuberculin testing and
surveillance program must be established
11.1.3). Depending on the disease and history of the animals, for appropriate staff in order to ensure the
testing protocols for animals may vary from an initial quarantine health of both the employees and the
test to yearly repetitions of diagnostic tests as determined by the animal collection.
veterinarian. Animals should be permanently identified by their
natural markings or, if necessary, marked when anesthetized or restrained (e.g., tattoo, ear notch, ear
tag, etc.). Release from quarantine should be contingent upon normal results from diagnostic testing and
two negative fecal tests that are spaced a minimum of two weeks apart. Medical records for each animal
should be accurately maintained and easily available during the quarantine period.
The AZA Chimpanzee SSP and associated veterinary advisors are working on a comprehensive
compendium of referential normal values for use during quarantine periods. You may also use MedArks
(www.isis.org/CMSHOME/content/MedARKS) to obtain approximate ranges of these values.

List of quarantine procedures to prevent zoonotic disease transmission: Use of personal protective
equipment including latex gloves, surgical masks, gowns or surgical scrubs worn only in the quarantine
area, and a footbath placed for use upon entering and leaving the quarantine area
Disinfection techniques: Disinfection techniques for equipment and devices are similar to
recommendations for all other nonhuman primates.
Necropsy: With any chimpanzee death, a full necropsy (gross AZA Accreditation Standard
and histopathology) is necessary to advance understanding of the
(S2.5.1) Deceased animals should be
species medical management, baseline anatomy, and for necropsied to determine the cause of
appropriate care of the remaining group members. Although death. Disposal after necropsy must be
every living organism dies at some point, animals which die done in accordance with local/federal
during the quarantine period should have a necropsy performed laws.
to determine the cause of death and the subsequent disposal of
the body must be done in accordance with any local or federal laws (AZA Accreditation Standard 2.5.1).
Necropsies should include a detailed external and internal gross morphological examination and
representative tissue samples form the body organs should be submitted for histopathological
examination. A standardized necropsy protocol for great apes (provided by the American Association of
Zoo Veterinarians) is detailed in Appendix G.
Pathology reports should be submitted to the AZA Chimpanzee SSP veterinary advisor for evaluation
and comparison with other deaths and pathology. Cardiac disease of many causes, with leading of
myocardial fibrosis (scarring) have increased in importance as cause of mortality in the last 5-10 years.
Investigation into diagnostic approaches and case management for this species will be ongoing.
6.5 Preventive Medicine

AZA-accredited zoos and aquariums should have an AZA Accreditation Standard
extensive veterinary program that must emphasize disease
(S2.4.1) The veterinary care program
prevention (AZA Accreditation Standard 2.4.1). The American must emphasize disease prevention.
Association of Zoo Veterinarians (AAZV) has developed an
outline of an effective preventative veterinary medicine program that should be implemented to ensure
proactive veterinary care for all animals:
(www.aazv.org/associations/6442/files/zoo_aquarium_vet_med_guidelines.pdf).
An appropriate chimpanzee health care program includes proper animal husbandry and veterinary
care based on these current professional standards, and addresses the complete physical and behavioral
well-being of the animals. Since chimpanzees have a close taxonomic relationship to humans, they are
susceptible to many human diseases. Close contact between the public and chimpanzees in the zoo and
aquarium setting may lead to inadvertent exposure to disease for either group. Sub-clinical infectious
disease and carrier animals can occur in chimpanzee colonies that can be transmitted not only to nave
conspecifics, but also human caregivers. A successful preventive medicine program therefore addresses
the health of both the chimpanzee and the animal care staff.
Veterinary care with a strong preventive medicine program will minimize responsive medicine needs.
Caregivers should monitor the individual health of each chimpanzee to facilitate a healthy environment.
The basic components of a sound program include: quarantine (see section 6.3), review of individual and
group medical histories, daily keeper observations and reports to veterinarians, routine physical
examinations, immunization, parasite control, proper nutrition, and monitoring for new medical problems.
Daily observation: Daily observations of chimpanzee health and behavior are critical to maintaining
good chimpanzee health on a daily basis. Careful inspections of each individual, how it relates to its
conspecifics, appetite, eliminations, and detecting signs of injury or disease should be made by keepers
preferably multiple times or by multiple keepers each day. At these times, medications and supplements
can be provided as prescribed by the attending veterinarians. To complete this process, a written record
should document these observations, and should be provided to the veterinarians within 12 hours of
completion. Operant conditioning programs should be planned to include behaviors associated with daily
management routines and veterinary procedures, such as, weighing, oral inspection, injection
presentation, and auscultation (see Chapter 8, section 8.1 for additional information on operant
conditioning approaches).

Routine physical examination: Physical examination of all animals in a group is recommended at 18-24
month intervals, preferably in a dedicated veterinary hospital within the zoo and aquarium, or in a
designated space within the holding facility. This procedure will require full sedation or anesthesia of the
animals for their safety and that of their caretakers (see section 6.5). Once the animal is induced and
stabilized, full examinations should include both visual assessment and palpation systematically (see
Table 4 section 6.3). Examinations should also include thoracic auscultation, deep trans-abdominal
palpation, rectal palpation, and use of an appropriate instrument to examine eyes, ear canals, nasal
passages, and the vaginal vault for female chimpanzees.
Dental care: Dental examination can be facilitated by consultation with a dentist or veterinary dentist.
Human dental charts can assist with monitoring long-term problems or routine dental health. Dental
cleaning can be opportunistically coordinated with the routine physical examination, and supplemented by
operant conditioning that includes tooth brushing. Gingival tissues should be closely monitored for
development of periodontal disease; low-dose, daily doxycycline has provided effective assistance in
resolution of this condition in humans, and is documented in great apes. Broken teeth or teeth with
exposed root canals should be evaluated for extraction or endodontic treatment (root canal) by a dental
specialist. Management of a group should not include removal or alteration of teeth to facilitate
introductions or to minimize wounding.
Blood collection: Blood collection is accomplished typically from the femoral, saphenous, or cephalic
veins, and is used for complete blood count (CBC), serum chemistry panel, viral serology (see Table 4
section 6.3), blood typing and serum banking for all ages, thyroid assessment, cholesterol, triglycerides,
and lipoprotein concentrations, and cardiac markers for adults, especially those over 30 years of age.
Representative serum values from a study of captive chimpanzees can be found in Howell et al. 2003.
Fecal samples: Fecal samples or rectal cultures should be collected routinely for cultures of Shigella,
Salmonella, Campylobacter, and Yersinia, and if collection history is present, Clostridium toxins. This
culture panel should be assessed in animals with refractile diarrhea or diarrhea with other clinical signs of
systemic illness.
Medical imaging: Radiographs of the thorax and abdomen should be imaged in two views (lateral and
dorsoventral/anteroposterior) with the limbs extended from the view. Any skeletal areas of concern or
prior injury should be imaged. Abdominal ultrasound should be routinely performed, with rectal ultrasound
or other advanced imaging scheduled when needed diagnostically. Due to increasing identification of
cardiac disease in this species, complete cardiac assessment is important, and should include an EKG,
blood pressure measurement, and echocardiography. This cardiac ultrasound is most successful,
especially in older, obese animals, using trans-esophageal echocardiography (TEE). Recording of these
dynamic imaging procedures will be helpful for long-term monitoring. A frequent clinical sign of cardiac
disease in male chimpanzees is dependent scrotal edema, and so particular attention to this feature is
important during the physical assessment.
Mycobacterial testing: Mycobacterial (tuberculosis) testing should be thorough, particularly in groups of
unknown history or with known mycobacterial history. It should include minimally an intradermal testing
with mOT (mammalian old tuberculin) with a saline or APPD (avian purified protein derivative) in a
contralateral location. The usual location for test administration is the palpebrae for ease in reading the
test at 24-hour intervals for three days; however, naturally unhaired, thin skin (such as the areolae), or
shaved and minimally thickened skin can be utilized with animals trained to present these body parts.
Additionally, during the annual examination, a lavage should be collected for mycobacterial culture at an
experienced laboratory; this sample can be a gastric, tracheal, or, most ideally, bronchoalveolar in origin.
Thoracic radiographs should be closely inspected for characteristic lesions of lymph node enlargement,
as this bacterial infection is routinely found as a respiratory disease from inhalation of Mycobacteria
tuberculosis, or lymphoid infection in atypical mycobacterosis. Whole, heparinized blood can be submitted
for interferon testing (Primagam) for evaluation of serologic evidence of mycobacterial infection.
Vaccination: Vaccinations should be considered for each animal and group based on collection history,
risk of exposure, and current human prophylaxis guidelines. Pediatricians and infectious disease
specialists can serve as both a reference and possibly a source of these products. Separate protocols for
juveniles and adults should be developed and maintained. Vaccinations that should be considered
minimally include measles, polio, and tetanus. Hand-raised infants may require additional vaccinations as

compared to mother-reared infants, due to increased direct exposure to human caregivers. Chimpanzees
with routine exposure to free-ranging mammalian wildlife should receive extra-label rabies prophylaxis.
Whenever possible, killed vaccination products should be utilized for vaccinating chimpanzees, rather
than modified-live (MLV) products. This choice will minimize adverse vaccination events, particularly
those due to reactivation of disease agents. It is particularly important to note that neither efficacy nor
safety has been confirmed formally for these vaccination products in chimpanzees, or any great ape
species, and so they are used in an extra-label manner. However, with the extensive administrations that
have occurred in AZA institutions to date, no particular species sensitivities have been identified. It is still
recommended to heed warnings that accompany human guidelines, such as not administering rubella
vaccinations to pregnant or non-contracepted, reproductively active females.
Even in proven vaccination protocols, routine adverse vaccination events can occur either
immediately as anaphylactic shock, or as delayed hypersensitivity. Anaphylaxis occurs within minutes of
the vaccination, with extreme life-threatening signs of collapse, cardiovascular arrest, inability to breathe,
and death; it is typically reversible with epinephrine administered parenterally. Delayed reactions occur
within hours of the vaccination, and include hives or rash, facial swelling, or itching. These reactions can
be controlled with antihistamines. In the 24-48 hours following a vaccination, particularly in juveniles,
other clinical signs can be seen that are not adverse reactions, but related to the immune stimulation,
including lameness associated with the limb injected, general malaise, anorexia, and lethargy. These
signs typically resolve without treatment, but may respond favorably to routine non-steroidal anti-
inflammatory drugs (NSAID) administration.
Parasite control: Routine monitoring for endoparasites by fecal flotation should be performed at least
twice yearly to monitor seasonal variation. At each evaluation, two samples, separated by several days
should be collected to monitor for intermittent shedding. Evaluations should include sedimentation and
direct fecal smears for more complete assessment. During quarantine periods, fecal samples should be
evaluated by at least three samples taken at weekly intervals. Based on these results, and the baseline
history of the group and collection, specific antiparasitic treatment can be prescribed. References for
human infections are the preferred information source for treatment regimens. It is important to use
effective doses, ensure complete compliance by selection of appropriate vehicles, and repeat the dose at
appropriate intervals. Post-treatment monitoring is necessary to determine long-term treatment needs.
Over-treatment or ineffective treatment regimens can contribute to persistent diarrhea through disrupted
gastrointestinal bacterial flora. Complete elimination of endoparasites is often not the expected goal, but
rather control of clinical signs and reduction of endoparasitic numbers.
Particular helminths of importance to the common chimpanzee include Enterobius sp. (pinworms) and
Strongyloides sp. that may require repeated (even monthly) anthelminthic control for 12-18 months.
Diagnosis of Enterobius may be suggested by intense anal itching, but may not be apparent on routine
fecal flotation. During anesthesia for evaluation, clear adhesive tape can be applied to the anus and
perineum to retrieve eggs and make a confirmatory diagnosis. Rotating anthelminthic products can be
considered for recalcitrant infections.
Protozoal populations of note include Balantidium coli and Troglodytella species. Although these
protozoal infections rarely produce clinical disease in chimpanzees, they may need management if these
animals are in close contact with other great ape species. Routine disinfection of impervious surfaces and
replacement of naturalistic substrates is important for control of endoparasites. As chimpanzees can be
prone to coprophagy, daily removal of fecal material is strongly recommended, and increased provision of
environmental enrichment can assist with reduced completion of parasite life cycles.
Medical management of neonates: Ideally, all healthy infants should be left with their mothers for
nursing and social rearing. The most common illnesses associated with chimpanzee neonates are
hypothermia, dehydration, electrolyte imbalance, entercolitis, respiratory disease, and urological
disturbances. Some neonates may have a primary illness due to prematurity, infectious disease, or
congenital defect, and may also be neglected. Neonates requiring nursery care or treatment should be
housed in an incubator until the infant can maintain its own body temperature (Lee and Guhad 2001).
Specifics of incubator variables should follow closely to those appropriate for human infants, and all
efforts should be made to have an incubator positioned nearby for easy access. Veterinarians should be
prepared to intervene in the case of weak neonates, by sedation of the dam. In the event of a neonatal
fatality, all attempts should be made to retrieve the body promptly to permit full necropsy, to identify

congenital problems or maternal-neonatal incompatibility, which may assist with future reproduction
efforts.
Medical management of geriatrics: With advanced age in chimpanzees, veterinarians and nutritionists
should tailor diets to provide for changing nutritional needs and to maintain good body condition.
Common age-related health issues in geriatric chimpanzees include renal disease or cardiac failure, and
these may require further specific adaptations of the diet through supplements or restrictions. Physicians
or medical nutritionists are particularly helpful in assessing more complex individual needs. Well-
monitored exercise programs are important to maintain good health in the geriatric animal. Daily exhibit
use may require furniture adaptation to accommodate arthritic or less agile animals. Altered mental state
or agility in geriatric animals may require adaptation to enrichment activities as well.
With the expectation of increasing medical concerns in geriatric animals, and the necessity to initiate
prompt treatment to minimize long-term deleterious effects, it is important that routine physical
examinations continue, or even increase in frequency, for these individuals. Veterinarians should be
aware of the increased anesthetic risks with geriatric animals, but not permit them categorically to
dissuade sound health care programs.
Zoonotic disease control: As stated in the Chapter 6.4, AZA
institutions must have zoonotic disease prevention procedures
and training protocols established to minimize the risk of (S11.1.2) Training and procedures must
transferable diseases (AZA Accreditation Standard 11.1.2) with be in place regarding zoonotic diseases.
all animals. Keepers should be designated to care for only
healthy resident animals, however if they need to care for both quarantined and resident animals of the
same class, they should care for the resident animals with a change of clothing between these facilities,
and preferably with a shower between the two facilities. A shower is required if staff have to return to the
collection animals. Equipment used to feed, care for, and enrich the healthy resident animals should only
be used with those animals.
Zoonotic disease is important for both chimpanzees and their caretakers. It is important to monitor
chimpanzee health regularly through a preventive medicine schedule for the safety of the conspecifics
and involved humans. Similarly, caretakers and other in-contact staff should participate in institutional
health programs, including an annual re-evaluation of mycobacteriosis status through skin testing or
interview, where skin reaction occurs or prior vaccination is known. This should include personnel that
work indirectly with non-human primates in handling their biomaterials or veterinary care. Recommended
guidelines on non-human primate handling, developed by the AZA Animal Health Committee and the
American Association of Zoo Veterinarians (AAZV) should be reviewed for institutional application;
vaccination prophylaxis for staff in accordance with Centers for Disease Control (CDC) guidelines should
be considered at each institution.
Humans that are ill should not work directly with non-human primates, or prepare their diets. When
this is not possible, full personal protective equipment (facemask and barrier gloves) should be worn. For
daily food management, Hazard Analysis Critical Control Points (HACCP) methods should be instituted in
the central nutrition area and individual non-human primate kitchens. This includes handling, washing,
storage, preparation, and provision of foodstuffs to the animals.
Respiratory diseases are some of the more common causes of illness in non-human primates. Staff
should be encouraged to work with an occupational health provider to monitor their own health, remain
vaccinated, and fully understand the risks of working with non-human primates. Staff veterinarians can
provide an information source to these physicians, particularly in times of increased human risk, such as
illness or during pregnancy. Veterinary care of chimpanzees is similar to good medical care and
preventive health of a human. Routine evaluation of staff should
be included in the health assessment of these primates. Reports AZA Accreditation Standard
generated annually by the veterinary advisors highlight changes
(1.5.5) For animals used in offsite
in protocols of preventive medicine and disease concerns for this programs and for educational purposes,
species, and should be consulted in addition to this document. the institution must have adequate
Animals that are taken off zoo/aquarium grounds for any protocols in place to protect the rest of the
purpose have the potential to be exposed to infectious agents that collection from exposure to infectious
agents.
could spread to the rest of the institutions healthy population.
AZA-accredited zoos and aquariums must have adequate
protocols in place to avoid this (AZA Accreditation Standard 1.5.5).

Also stated in Chapter 6.4, a tuberculin testing and

surveillance program must be established for animal care staff, as AZA Accreditation Standard
appropriate, to protect the health of both staff and animals (AZA (S11.1.3) A tuberculin testing and
Accreditation Standard 11.1.3). Depending on the disease and surveillance program must be established
history of the animals, testing protocols for animals may vary from for appropriate staff in order to ensure the
health of both the employees and the
an initial quarantine test, to annual repetitions of diagnostic tests animal collection.
as determined by the veterinarian. To prevent specific disease
transmission, vaccinations should be updated as appropriate for
the species.
Facilities housing chimpanzees should adhere to all federal, state and other regulatory agencies that
define cleaning and decontamination procedures for your institution. Care should be taken to monitor the
potential toxicity level of all cleaning materials and allow appropriate ventilation and/or drying times as
necessary.
6.6 Capture, Restraint, and Immobilization
The need for capturing, restraining and/or immobilizing an
animal for normal or emergency husbandry procedures may be (S2.3.1) Capture equipment must be in
required. All capture equipment must be in good working order good working order and available to
and available to authorized and trained animal care staff at all authorized, trained personnel at all times.
times (AZA Accreditation Standard 2.3.1).
Restraint: Physical (or manual) restraint can be very stressful to chimpanzees and dangerous for the
humans trying to hold the animal. Manual restraint is not recommended. The AZA Chimpanzee SSP
recommends a formal positive-reinforcement training program to facilitate, among other things, crating of
the animals, and the ability to hand-inject chimpanzees (Schapiro et al. 2005). Recent research has
shown these procedures are less stressful than those in which the subject does not have the opportunity
for choice and control, such as darting (Lambeth et al. 2006). When voluntary injection cannot be
accomplished, other means may be necessary.
Chemical immobilization: Induction of anesthesia in chimpanzees is routinely accomplished by
intramuscular injection of a sedative(s) following an appropriate (12-24 hour) fasting interval. In a 2006
survey of attending veterinarians in AZA-accredited institutions holding chimpanzees (n=40), 88%
responded to queries about induction regimens, supplementation, adjustment of protocols for known
cardiac patients, intubation frequency, reversibility of anesthetic protocols, and changes in protocols over
the last decade. Information from this survey is summarized below.
Typical immobilization agents for chimpanzees included telazol (tiletamine-zolazepam), ketamine, or
combination of these products with medetomidine. Occasionally, xylazine, benzodiazepenes (diazepam
or midazolam), or butorphanol were utilized in the combinations or as premedications. The following table
(Table 5) provides a list of suggested anesthesia protocols for chimpanzees.

Table 5: Anesthesia protocols used at AZA-accredited institutions holding chimpanzees

Frequency
Drug combination Dose (mg/kg)
utilized*
Telazol (T) alone T: 1.5-3 15%
T: 3-6 34%
Ketamine (K) alone K: 2-5 9%
K: 8-10 9%
Telazol (T) and Ketamine (K) T: 1-3; K: 1-3 3%
Telazol (T) and Medetomidine (Me) T: 2; Me: 0.02-0.03 9%
Ketamine (K) and medetomidine (Me) K: 2; Me: 0.015-0.025 9%

K: 2-5; Me: 0.03-0.04 18%
K: 5-7; Me: 0.025-0.07 25%
Ketamine (K) and Midazolam (Mi) K: 4-5; Mi: 0.05-0.1 3%
Medetomidine (Me), Butorphanol (B), and Midazolam (Mi) Me: 0.015; B: 0.085: Mi: 0.06 3%
Medtomidine (Me), Butorphanol (B), and Ketamine (K) Me: 0.015; B: 0.15-0.3; K: 1.5 3%
*Of the 35 responding veterinarians, this is the percentage of veterinarians using this regimen. In some cases, veterinarians
provided 2 or more routine induction protocols.
Following administration of the sedative, staff should wait until they are confident that the subject is
unconscious. Such assurance may be gained by looking for reactions to loud calls, or perhaps a light
poke with a long object such as a broomstick. If there is no reaction to these stimuli, two staff should
enter the animal area together, leaving at least one alternate escape route available, and a third staff
member should be watching the procedure from outside the animal area with access to emergency
materials (radio, door operators). The staff members in direct proximity to the anesthetized chimpanzee
should administer secondary restraint by applying a net or cargo net over the subject. This net should be
sturdy enough to facilitate carrying the animal to the gurney or other mobile wheeled device. Further
attempts to gauge the chimpanzees level of consciousness should be made before any substantive
physical contact (i.e. picking up) is made. Once there is complete assurance that the subject is
unconscious, only then should the subject be picked up by multiple staff members. Assurance should be
made that the head does not loll back or strike walls or floors during transport. The chimpanzee should
remain in the netting until fully intubated and under maintained chemical immobilization.
Supplementation protocols: The long-term maintenance of the anesthetic event will be determined by
the nature of the veterinary procedure, and can be accomplished by supplemental parenteral agents or
inhalant methods. It is strongly encouraged that in procedures longer than 30 minutes (i.e., most standard
physical examinations), chimpanzees be intubated and maintained by inhalant agents such as isoflurane
or sevoflurane in oxygen. Other typical supplementation agents and doses identified by the survey are
listed in the following table (Table 6):
Table 6: Supplemental agents for anesthesia
Drug Dose (mg/kg) Frequency utilized**
Telazol 1-2 9%
1-2 50%
Ketamine
3-4 13%
Propofol 1-2 3%
Diazepam or midazolam 0.1 3%
** Of the 35 responding veterinarians, this is the percentage of veterinarians using this regimen.
Cardiac issues: Revision of the induction protocol should be considered for animals with cardiac disease
or risk factors for cardiac disease, such as obesity, advanced age (>30 years), or undocumented cardiac
health in older adults. Possible revisions that should be considered include: using the lowest dose of
anesthetic agent; the use of ketamine alone as a primary induction agent; avoiding the use of alpha-2

agonists (e.g., xylazine or medetomidine); or discontinuing elective sedations in known cardiac disease
patients.
Reversal: Medetomidine induction can be reversed intra-procedurally, or at the conclusion of the
procedure, with 5mg of atipamezole for each 1mg of medetomidine utilized. All but one institution using
medetomidine reversed the sedation in this manner. Institutions using xylazine utilized yohimbine
(0.13mg/kg) to reverse the sedation. Where butorphanol or midazolam are utilized, narcan or flumazenil
respectively can be used for reversal.
Anesthetic monitoring: Intra-procedural monitoring of heart rate and rhythm, pulse quality, capillary refill
time (CRT), breathing (respiration depth and rate), and body temperature, is the minimal assessment
necessary during an anesthetic event for chimpanzees. Close monitoring should be ongoing throughout
the procedure. For protracted procedures, it is recommended that EKG, pulse oximetry, and blood gases
be added as monitoring tools. Although re-positioning will occur due to the procedure needs, lateral
recumbency typically provides improved anesthetic maintenance.
During recovery, chimpanzees should be positioned in lateral recumbency to minimize risk of
aspiration if regurgitation, vomiting, or heavy salivation occurs. It may be helpful to maintain this position
with hay or blankets placed along the animals dorsum, with the head slightly elevated but the mouth
directed downwards.
6.7 Management of Diseases, Disorders, Injuries and/or Isolation

AZA-accredited zoos and aquariums should have an
extensive veterinary program that manages animal diseases, AZA Accreditation Standard
disorders, or injuries and has the ability to isolate these animals in
(2.4.2) Keepers should be trained to
a hospital setting for treatment if necessary. Staff should be recognize abnormal behavior and clinical
trained for meeting the animals dietary, husbandry, and symptoms of illness and have knowledge
enrichment needs, as well as in restraint techniques, and of the diets, husbandry (including
recognizing behavioral indicators animals may display when their enrichment items and strategies), and
restraint procedures required for the
health becomes compromised (AZA Accreditation Standard animals under their care. However,
2.4.2). Protocols should be established for reporting these keepers should not evaluate illnesses nor
observations to the veterinary department. Hospital facilities prescribe treatment.
should have x-ray equipment or access to x-ray services (AZA
Accreditation Standard 2.3.2), contain appropriate equipment and AZA Accreditation Standard
supplies on hand for treatment of diseases, disorders or injuries,
and have staff available that are trained to address health issues, (S2.3.2) Hospital facilities should have x-
ray equipment or have access to x-ray
manage short and long term medical treatments and control for services.
zoonotic disease transmission.
Traumatic injuries: Traumatic wounds are not uncommon in socially housed chimpanzees. These
injuries can result from normal hierarchy disputes as juveniles mature, during introductions of new group
members, or in groups with stable membership. Behavioral assessments of groups and individuals are
important to minimize long-lasting injuries or delays in introductions. Operant conditioning may facilitate
resolution of this social altercation, but other emergency procedures should be prepared in the event of
serious altercations
When serious traumatic wounds result, anesthesia is often required for direct management (see
section 6.5), including thorough cleaning, debridement, and lavage. Primary closure of the wound should
be considered by depth and effect on a particular area, with caution not to entrap infectious debris or
create an anaerobic environment. Post-operative lavage or topical treatment of open wounds may be
possible with operant conditioning, and can use diluted antiseptics (such as chlorhexidine or povidone-
iodine) or topical agents.
Therapeutic agents: Human reference texts and formularies are excellent sources for dose
recommendations for chimpanzees, given the consistent size of adult chimpanzees both with humans
and each other (i.e., typically 110-198lb/50-90kg total body weight). This permits the approach of dosage
by animal rather than by body weight. The exception is pediatric patients, where a dose rate (mg/kg) is
more appropriately applied.

Veterinarians may legally obtain any human or animal drug that is approved by the FDA. However,
none of these products are approved for use in chimpanzees, nor have they been evaluated formally for
safety or efficacy, so all applications are an extra-label use.
Antimicrobials: Antibiotic and antifungal therapy should be evaluated individually, and be based
on bacterial culture and sensitivity whenever possible. It is important to utilize these products
judiciously and appropriately to minimize antimicrobial resistance. For example, these agents
should be administered only for control of confirmed secondary bacterial infections when a
respiratory viral infection is present.
Anthelminthics: As with antimicrobials, antiparasitic products should be targeted to the specific
parasite. Helminths have been treated by benzimidazoles (e.g., fenbendazole or mebendaozole),
avermectins (ivermectin), and pyrantel pamoate. Protozoal infections have been addressed by
metronidazole and doxycycline.
Analgesics: Pain control is an increasingly common component of complete veterinary care for all
non-human primate species. It should be considered for chronic or acute needs. Chronic needs
would include arthritis management. Balanced analgesia requires pharmaceutic doses be
maintained at minimum effective doses to reduce adverse effects. This balance can be achieved
through anti-inflammatories (non-steroidal, steroidal), nutraceuticals, and environmental
adaptations (e.g., comfort, heat source, furniture changes). Acute or short-term needs, such as
operative sources, will impact timing and duration of pharmaceutic administration. Balanced use
of non-steroidal anti-inflammatories (e.g., aspirin, ibuprofen, and acetaminophen) with narcotics
(e.g., butorphanol, buprenorphine, codeine, tramadol, and fentanyl) will assist with optimum pain
control.
Hereditary diseases: Chimpanzees can and do present almost all of the same hereditary diseases and
disorders as do humans. In most cases, human specialists should be contacted for specific treatment
regimens.
Behavioral indicators of compromised health: Chimpanzees who are experiencing health problems
may display any of the following: increased lethargy, reduced social activity and lack of appetite. In
general, any sign that if displayed in a human indicates ill health should also apply to chimpanzee. It is
important to note that like all wild animals, chimpanzees will mask outward signs of pain and illness so if
there are observable physical indicators of illness, it is likely that the individual chimp is experiencing high
levels of discomfort.
Protocols to follow if staff notes these behavioral indicators: Report to supervisors and/or facility
veterinarian as per individual facility protocol. Animal care staff should be specific about their observed
potential indicators of compromised health and make it clear if they are concerned that the situation is an
emergency.
Diseases, disorders or injuries which are typical: Heart disease and renal failure are common causes
of mortality in chimpanzees. Respiratory illness, parasitic infections, and traumatic injuries (typically
inflicted by another group member) are also commonly seen. See Sections 6.4 and 6.6 for more
information.
Hospitalization and isolation: Under normal conditions, it is essential to provide the space required to
house chimpanzees in social environments. However, under certain conditions (e.g., disease outbreaks,
quarantine), it may be necessary to isolate an individual from a group for finite periods of time. Given the
importance of social relations for this species, it is not surprising that individual caging has measurable
(and usually negative) effects on chimpanzees. Chimpanzees react negatively to isolation housing in
which there is no visual or auditory contact with conspecifics (see Capitanio 1986).
In general, chimpanzees raised without appropriate socialization develop a broad range of
stereotypies and self-directed behaviors, such as rocking, swaying and eye-poking (Davenport and
Menzel 1963; Walsh et al. 1982), and react poorly to novel objects and environments, indicating their
inability to cope with such circumstances (Menzel 1964). The effects of isolation rearing extend to
adulthood as well, including inadequate maternal behavior (Davenport 1979) and enduring abnormal
behaviors.
Individual housing later in life has also been related to higher levels of abnormal behaviors. Brent et
al. (1989) noted significant changes in behavior in chimpanzees that were moved to individual caging for

a research protocol, including decreased levels of environmental manipulation and vocalizations, and
increased stereotypical behavior such as rocking, pacing, and spinning. Baker (1996) reported that
although individually-housed chimpanzees demonstrated roughly the same levels of abnormal behavior
as pair-housed chimpanzees, the degree of severity of these behaviors differed. Individually-housed
chimpanzees showed behaviors such as self-aggression that were rarely evident in socially-housed
animals. Given the relationship between abnormal behavior patterns and individual caging, and the
detrimental effects of individual housing on the social, maternal, and reproductive behavior of
chimpanzees, every effort should be made to limit or eliminate individual housing.
When individual housing has to be used (e.g., during treatment of an infectious agent), an expanded
enrichment program should be implemented to alleviate the boredom and stress associated with socially,
and often physically restricted environments. Some of the most practical and useful enrichments increase
social opportunities (e.g., placing individually-housed chimpanzees within visual, olfactory or auditory
range of other chimpanzees), use time consuming feeding devices (see Chapter 5, section 5.2), offer a
variety of novel objects (and especially destructible items), increase goal oriented behavior with tool using
tasks or computer video tasks, and increase environmental stimulation with a variety of sensory
enrichments (Brent 2001). Social attention from human keepers and trainers might also have a positive
effect.
The use of television has been suggested as a possible enrichment initiative for chimpanzees
(Rumbaugh et al. 1989). Bloomsmith et al. (1990) found that the use of videotapes appears to be more
effective for singly housed animals. While not all chimpanzees attend to TV, for those who demonstrate
an interest, it can serve as a form of enrichment.
More information: Additional information on the management of individually-housed chimpanzees can
be found in Brent (2001).
AZA-accredited zoos and aquariums must have a clear
process for identifying and addressing animal welfare concerns AZA Accreditation Standard
within the institution (AZA Accreditation Standard 1.5.8) and (S1.5.8) The institution must develop a
should have an established Institutional Animal Welfare clear process for identifying and
Committee. This process should identify the protocols needed for addressing animal welfare concerns
animal care staff members to communicate animal welfare within the institution.
questions or concerns to their supervisors, their Institutional
Animal Welfare Committee or if necessary, the AZA Animal Welfare Committee. Protocols should be in
place to document the training of staff about animal welfare issues, identification of any animal welfare
issues, coordination and implementation of appropriate responses to these issues, evaluation (and
adjustment of these responses if necessary) of the outcome of these responses, and the dissemination of
the knowledge gained from these issues.
Given the wide variety of zoos and aquariums that house chimpanzees, the AZA Ape TAG and
Chimpanzee SSP cannot provide specific recommendations for the best approaches to take to
communicate animal welfare issues effectively within every institution. All animal caretakers that work with
chimpanzees should be aware of institutional protocols in place for them to identify, communicate, and
hopefully address potential animal welfare issues that are associated with the care and management of
these animals.
Euthenasia and necropsy: As stated in Chapter 6.4, all living
organism will die at some point. As care givers for the animals AZA accreditation standard
residing in our zoos and aquariums, it is vital that we provide the (S2.5.1) Deceased animals should be
best care possible for them until the time their health deteriorates necropsied to determine the cause of
to a point where euthanasia is the most humane treatment, or the death. Disposal after necropsy must be
animal dies on its own. Euthanasia should be considered for done in accordance with local/federal
laws.
progressively deteriorating quality of life, intractable disease
without cure, or irreparable trauma. Options for humane
euthanasia include barbiturate or sedative overdose as dictated by the American Veterinary Medical
Association (AVMA) Guidelines for Euthanasia. Necropsies should be conducted on deceased animals
to determine their cause of death and the subsequent disposal of the body must be done in accordance
with any local, state, or federal laws (AZA Accreditation Standard 2.5.1). Necropsies should include a
detailed external and internal gross morphological examination and representative tissue samples form

the body organs should be submitted for histopathological examination. A standardized necropsy protocol
for great apes (provided by the American Association of Zoo Veterinarians) is detailed in Appendix G.
Pathology reports should be submitted to the AZA Chimpanzee SSP veterinary advisor for evaluation and
comparison with other deaths and pathology.

Chapter 7. Reproduction
7.1 Reproductive Physiology and Behavior

It is important to have a comprehensive understanding of the reproductive physiology and behaviors
of the chimpanzees in our care. This knowledge facilitates all aspects of reproduction, artificial
insemination, birthing, rearing, and even contraception efforts that AZA-accredited zoos and aquariums
strive to achieve.
Females: In the wild, females exhibit their first estrous swelling when they are 8.5-9.5 years old (Tutin
1980). However, in zoos and aquariums this may occur several years earlier. In their demographic
comparison of wild chimpanzees in Gombe and AZA Chimpanzee SSP managed populations in zoos,
Earnhardt et al. (2003) found that AZA Chimpanzee SSP females commonly reproduce at a much
younger age than females in the Gombe population. Although menarche typically does not occur for 1-1.5
years after the first swelling, chimpanzee females in zoos and aquariums have given birth as early as 5.6
years of age (Earnhardt et al. 2003). The sharpest contrast is between the 5-10 year old age group, with
54.7% of first births occurring in this cohort in zoos and aquariums, but 0% in the wild.
The conspicuous genital swelling of the female chimpanzee increases in size and turgidity in
response to hormonal changes corresponding with impending ovulation. The genital swelling is the critical
link between the endogenous hormonal environment and the expression of sociosexual behavior
(Bettinger and DeMatteo 2001). The normal (menstrual) cycle is 36 days, with a 72-hour menses. Grossly
visible blood in the urine is inconsistently observed, although hematuria can be detected by reagent
strips, and may be used to track cycles for individual females. Sexually mature female chimpanzees also
develop marked swelling of the perianal and perineal tissues due to interstitial fluid accumulation that
fluctuates with hormonal influences. This genital swelling (intumesence) increases to peak size and
turgidity during the follicular phase of the cycle. Lutenizing hormone (LH) increases causing ovulation to
occur during the last 24-28 hours of maximal swelling. The luteal phase, following ovulation, is
characterized by reduction of swelling as the estrogen concentrations decline and progesterone
concentrations rise. Perineal intumesensce is a distinct visual marker of receptivity and potential fertility
with marked impact on sociosexual behavior. During peak swelling, females demonstrate more assertive
behavior. Young adolescent females are more likely to solicit copulation than are older females.
Males: The youngest male to reproduce in the Gombe population was 12.9 years of age (Earnhardt et al.
2003). In zoos and aquariums, males have been known to successfully father offspring as young as six
years of age. Although maturity in the wild does not usually begin until three years after the time of the
first sexual development, males in zoos and aquariums attain adult hormone levels at around seven
years, and adult weight and dentition around 8-9 years (Kraemer et al. 1982).
Estrous swellings are highly attractive to male chimpanzees. Males tend to spend a significantly
increased amount of time in proximity to females that are swollen. Copulation may occur at any time
during the females estrous cycle, including during pregnancy and menstruation. In addition to the degree
of the females swelling, other factors may also influence the likelihood of copulation, such as age, time of
day, and level of excitement. Either sex may initiate copulation, but it is most commonly initiated by males
in both the wild and in zoos and aquariums. Copulation strategies by the males vary, but may include
consorting with a female out of sight of the rest of the group. Group males of all ranks interact
preferentially with intumesent females and their offspring. Competition between males, concurrent with
agonistic behaviors, will occur with increased frequency in the presence of cycling females.
Separation of mother/offspring: In the wild, offspring may typically stay with their mothers for at least
six years, sometimes longer. At the age of adolescence, females may transfer from one community to
another. In zoos and aquariums, it may be easier to introduce a young female developing her first sexual
swellings to a new group before she is at the age where established females may consider her
competition for the males attention. It is also important to remember the potential threat from the
resident adults if the young female is carrying an infant when she is introduced (there is a risk of
infanticide). In addition, an adolescent male may be considered a threat to an adult male as well. This is
considered an extremely difficult age to introduce a male. If breeding recommendations call for the
emigration of a young chimpanzee from one group to another, it is recommended that young
chimpanzees, in particular males, be transferred and introduced in a new group by the age of 5, when

they are still considered juveniles, and their presence may not seem so threatening (McNary 1992). In all
cases, the relative risks of the social introduction should be weighed against the relative benefits for both
the immigrant and resident individuals.
Youngsters should stay in their natal group for at least 2-3 years, or as long as is necessary. There
appears to be no evidence of negative effects of staying too long in the natal group other than the
difficulty of integration at a later age (see above), and the necessity to avoid inbreeding. Chimpanzee
communities in the wild are frequently multi-generational. In zoos and aquariums, multi-generational
groups have been formed over years usually by the introduction of new breeding males to a group, to
avoid daughters breeding with fathers, or the use of reliable birth control. It is has been documented that
mother-raised infants show greater adult social and sexual competence when reared in the presence of
cycling females in a group.
Reproductive hormone monitoring: Chimpanzees exhibit an approximately 36-day menstrual cycle that
can be monitored by two external features: genital swelling and menstrual blood (Yerkes and Elder 1936;
Elder 1938; Young and Yerkes 1943; Graham et al. 1972; Nadler et al. 1985). The genital swelling, which
encompasses the labia and perianal region, results from an accumulation of interstitial fluid (Yerkes and
Elder 1936; Clark and Birch 1948), and fluctuates in size and turgidity in response to changing levels of
ovarian hormones (Allen et al. 1936; Fish et al. 1941; Clark and Birch 1948; Graham et al. 1972;
McArthur et al. 1981; Nadler et al. 1985). Menstrual bleeding, which lasts about 3 days, may be observed
by close visual observation of the labia. The use of a Hemastik to detect hemoglobin in a urine sample
can confirm menstruation; however, due to the sensitivity of this test, false positives may occur (Bettinger
and DeMatteo 2001). Approximately 10 days before the mid-cycle estrogen peak, the genitals swell to
maximal size and turgidity. The luteinizing hormone (LH) surge and ovulation occurs during the last 1-2
days of the maximal swelling (Elder 1938; Graham et al. 1972; Graham 1981; Nadler et al. 1985).
Regression of the genital swelling is usually associated with decreasing levels of estrogen and increasing
levels of progesterone (Graham et al. 1972; McArthur et al. 1981; Nadler et al. 1985).
Type of conception typically achieved: Natural conception is the recommended form of conception for
chimpanzees. Artificial insemination (AI) techniques have been successfully implemented with this
species (Martin et al. 1978) including conception from cryopreserved sperm collected postmortem
(Kusunoki et al. 2001).
Problems or issues known to occur with mating and/or conception: Nursery-reared chimpanzees
especially males, frequently do not exhibit normal sexual behavior and may overly orient to humans
and/or masturbate instead of copulate (Bloomsmith et al. 1991). Some females refuse to copulate by
evading the male if possible. Only about 30% of recommending breeding pairs produced viable offspring
in the last 10 years, due mostly to behavioral problems or incompatibilities. Future research is required to
improve this success rate.
Pregnancy: Diagnosis of pregnancy can be accomplished by testing urine, usually from the first morning
voiding, using over-the-counter human pregnancy test kits. Pregnancy can subsequently be confirmed
using ultrasonography after four months.
Pregnant females should be maintained with the group throughout the pregnancy under normal
circumstances. Managers should monitor the behavior of the group to the pregnant female as the
pregnancy advances. In almost all circumstances, the birth of the infant should occur in the home
environment and with the social group present. The presence of youngsters and adolescents may
increase the risk of aggression to the newborn but the benefit of reducing social stress most often
outweighs that risk.
7.2 Artificial Insemination

The practical use of artificial insemination (AI) with animals was developed during the early 1900s to
replicate desirable livestock characteristics to more progeny. Over the last decade or so, AZA-accredited
zoos and aquariums have begun using AI processes more often with many of the animals residing in their
care. AZA Studbooks are designed to help manage animal populations by providing detailed genetic and
demographic analyses to promote genetic diversity with breeding pair decisions within and between our
institutions. While these decisions are based upon sound biological reasoning, the efforts needed to
ensure that transports and introductions are done properly to facilitate breeding between the animals are
often quite complex, exhaustive, and expensive, and conception is not guaranteed.

AI has become an increasingly popular technology that is being used to meet the needs identified in
the AZA Studbooks without having to re-locate animals. Males are trained to voluntarily produce semen
samples and females are being trained for voluntary insemination and pregnancy monitoring procedures
such as blood and urine hormone measurements and ultrasound evaluations. Techniques used to
preserve and freeze semen has been achieved with a variety, but not all, taxa and should be investigated
further.
Chimpanzees have been bred using artificial insemination techniques (Martin et al. 1978) including
the use of frozen sperm collected postmortem (Kusonoki et al. 2001). The AZA Chimpanzee SSP is
supportive of institutional efforts to facilitate artificial insemination, especially with unrepresented
individuals; however, official recommendations will be made solely on natural conception. Semen can be
collected using an artificial vagina (Bowsher et al. 1992) and positive reinforcement techniques.
7.3 Pregnancy and Parturition

It is extremely important to understand the physiological and behavioral changes that occur
throughout an animals pregnancy. It is highly recommended that institutions contact the AZA Ape TAGs
Birth Management Subcommittee when a chimpanzee pregnancy is confirmed. This group will provide
information to plan for all possible outcomes of a pregnancy, including mother-rearing, hand-rearing,
surrogate-rearing, and re-socializing. Chimpanzees should be maintained within their family group
throughout their pregnancy, during parturition, and during the immediate post-natal bonding period. In
some cases, such as the presence of a particularly troublesome adolescent, it may be necessary to
separate the pregnant female temporarily, but it is strongly recommended that the female remain with
other conspecifics if at all possible. Chimpanzees that are pregnant or with young should not be subjected
to social introductions with unfamiliar conspecifics.
Pregnancy can be monitored with urinary human chorionic gonadotrophin tests, and concurrently
confirmed with ultrasonography. Gestation has been reported in the range of 227 + 12 days (see Chapter
7, section 7.3 for additional information). It is recommended that reproductively active females receive
oral folic acid supplementation at 400mcg/day for the month prior to conception, in order to minimize
neural tube defects. This vitamin is routinely provided in most adult human vitamin supplementations.
Routine iron supplementation during pregnancy is not needed to prevent anemia in either the dam or
fetus, but may be provided in known cases of iron-deficiency anemia of the dam. Pregnant females
should receive iron supplementation during the last trimester of pregnancy when fetal blood formation is
greatest (Beard 2000).
Serial serum levels of gonadotropins, prolactin and sex steroids in the non-pregnant and pregnant
chimpanzees were studied by Reyes et al. (1975). They reported that serum levels of FSH, LH, chorionic
gonadotropin (CG), prolactin, estrone (E1), estradiol-17Beta (E2), estriol (E3) and progesterone were
measured at 2-3 day intervals in 4 chimpanzees through 2-3 menstrual cycles, and serially through
subsequent pregnancies. The hormone patterns of the menstrual cycles were similar to those in humans,
with high levels of FSH in the early follicular phase, followed by rising E2 concentrations to a peak (up to
35 ng/dl) at or just before a midcycle LH/FSH peak. In most cycles there was a secondary E2 rise and
progesterone rose to values above 500 ng/dl during the luteal phase. There was no consistent pattern in
prolactine levels through 3 menstrual cycles. A simultaneous increase in E2 and LH/CG levels and a fall
in FSH about 10 days postovulation indicated fertilization and implantation. Other early signs of
pregnancy were persistent luteal range progesterone concentrations and rising levels of E1 and E3. Peak
CG levels (56-154 IU/ml) occurred 30-50 days after the midcycle LH/FSH peak, followed by a decline and
then a small secondary rise to (to 1 IU/ml) before term. E1, E2 and E3 levels rose more rapidly after 80
days to a peak at term (E1: 180-300 ng/dl; E2: 500-800 ng/dl; and E3:400-1000 ng/dl). Progesterone
levels showed one peak coincident with the CG peak, and a secondary rise after about 80 days to
maximal values at term of 49-120 ng/ml. Prolactin levels increased during pregnancy with irregular
fluctuations (7-127 ng/ml). These findings indicate that the hormonal patterns during pregnancy in the
chimpanzee are remarkably similar to those in humans.
There is relatively little published data on the behavior of pregnant female chimpanzees and
associated group interactions. More detailed accounts of these circumstances will help define future
management considerations to improve the health and welfare of mothers and offspring. Predicting
parturition is also a difficult endeavor and rife with mythology and unsubstantiated methodology. There
are accounts of females socially separating from the group, becoming irritable, less active and changing
eating patterns, but none of these have been empirically evaluated. Given the association of human

activity and chimpanzee behavior (Lambeth et al. 1997) it was postulated that zoo chimpanzees might be
more likely to give birth on less-crowded weekdays than busy weekends (Alford et al. 1992) however, a
recent analysis of parturition dates for zoo-housed chimpanzees discounted this effect (Wagner and Ross
2008), showing that zoo-housed chimpanzees are no more likely to give birth on any particular day of the
week.
7.4 Birthing Facilities

As parturition approaches, animal care staff should ensure that the mother is comfortable in the area
where the birth will take place. In almost all circumstances, the mother should be allowed to give birth in
her home enclosure and with the rest of the social group present. As such, there is not a separate
birthing facility per se. Ensure that this area is baby-proofed by ensuring that there are no small
openings in which the baby may get stuck. Any pools or water-elements should be drained for at least
the first 6 months and kept shallow for the first couple years to prevent accidental drowning. An over-
abundance of bedding material should be provided around the time of parturition and maintained at a high
level throughout the first year as mother-infant nesting is particularly important. The temperature of the
facility should be carefully monitored and colder microclimates (i.e. drafty areas) should be eliminated
when possible.
7.5 Assisted Rearing

In the wild, female chimpanzees maintain close relationships with their offspring for a relatively long
period of infancy and juvenile development. Most mothers have their infants in constant, or nearly
constant, contact until the infants first break contact with the mother between 6-12 months. Around 4-5
years of age, youngsters begin to sleep separately from their mothers, and will forage independently
(Clark 1977). However, the maternal bond remains strong for many more years, and young chimpanzees
will maintain a close association with their mothers until the age of 8-11 years when they achieve some
degree of adult-like independence. Although social maturity tends to happen earlier for chimpanzees in
zoos and aquariums, these facts underscore the importance of the mother-infant relationship.
The AZA Chimpanzee SSP recommends that in virtually all circumstances, mothers have the
opportunity to rear their infants themselves and without human intervention. The rare circumstances of
human intervention include maternal abuse, neglect, or significant illness or injury to the mother or infant.
In these conditions, where the life of the mother or infant is in danger, managers should intervene. In
some circumstances, the infant may be able to be reintroduced to the mother soon after the initial
separation, and mother-rearing may be continued. However, in cases of life-threatening abuse or neglect,
alternative rearing strategies should be considered. It is recommended that the first alternative to mother-
rearing is to re-socialize the infant with other chimpanzees as soon as it is safely possible. Ideally this
would be with a surrogate mother in the natal group, but it is also possible that an unfamiliar surrogate
could suffice.
In many cases, the adequacy of the mothers care is not clear. Institutions should stay in close
contact with the AZA Chimpanzee SSP to receive advice on whether particular behaviors are deemed
enough to pull the baby into a temporary human-rearing situation. New mothers may not want to carry
the baby all the time, and will occasionally put the newborn on the ground by itself. While this behavior is
not preferable is does not necessarily brand the mother as neglectful. Note how the mother reacts when
the baby cries or is in apparent danger (perhaps due to proximity to another chimpanzee). If the mother
returns to collect the infant in these circumstances, there is reason for optimism. If the infant appears not
to be getting fed on a regular basis (once every 1-3 hours), there may be reason to supplement his diet
by bottle-feeding through the mesh if possible. In one recent case, a mother ignored her newborn and as
a result the infant was not getting fed enough. The mother was anesthetized and the infant placed on the
nipple. When the mother awoke, the bond was established and there was no need for human rearing
intervention (S. Tanner, personal communication).
The age at which to introduce an infant to a potential surrogate will vary with the infants health and
personality, as well as the surrogates health, personality, and maternal skill. This introduction can occur
as early as 6 months of age. Before this time, the infant will likely have to be reared by human caregivers.
Managers should be in touch with the AZA Ape TAGs Birth Management Subcommittee to discuss
potential surrogates, contemporary hand-rearing strategies, and other re-socializing information.

A hand-rearing protocol should meet both the physical needs of the infant as well as the
psychological and social needs of the infant (Porton 1992). In general, the recommendations for hand-
rearing an infant chimpanzee requires:
24-7 care
Rearing in the presence of conspecifics for early reintroduction
Species-specific handling of infant (mimicking a mother chimp)
Institutional commitment to follow through with the rearing process until full re-integration is
complete
Nursery environment: An off-exhibit nursery should be used, as having a nursery on public view may
affect public perception of ape infants and encourage primates as pets. The nursery area should be made
primate-proof (i.e., no accessible containers, foods, or hazardous or breakable materials). It is essential
to have a small kitchen and bathroom in proximity to the nursery, and these areas should contain a
refrigerator, microwave, sink, and storage (washer and dryer are optional). The entrance area to the
nursery should be equipped with a footbath. This is a staging area where animal caretakers leave shoes
and street clothes, and change into scrubs. Sanitary protocols should be used at all times. Keepers
should wash their hands before entering the nursery, after changing diapers, before preparing food, and
at all other appropriate times. Hospital scrubs or gown, surgical mask and foot covers should be worn
when an infant is pulled. When an infants health is stabilized, the mask is optional. Animal caretakers
that are ill should not be in the nursery.
An isolette should be available for potential intensive care. If used, keepers should maintain continual
contact with the infant by placing hands on the infant through isolette openings. The area outside the
isolette should have sufficient climbing opportunities (mesh and climbing structures) for strengthening
motor skills, and a scale is necessary for obtaining daily weight data.
Pre-birth preparations: One month before the impending birth, management preparations should begin.
The nursery area should be cleaned and disinfected in case it is needed. Appropriate milk-substitute
formulas should be ordered (e.g., Enfamil and Similac, or the soy-based Isomil if the infant is allergic to
milk protein or lactose see Porton 1992). Small quantities of 5% glucose, sterile water, and Pedialyte
should also be purchased, as these may be necessary to mix with or substitute for formula. At this time, it
is also recommended to create a tentative staffing schedule for three 8-hour shifts that provide 24-hour
coverage. Twenty-four hour care should be provided from the time the infant is pulled from the dam until it
is returned to the mother or a surrogate.
Record keeping: Record keeping is an integral part of the nursery protocol. Keepers should record
behaviors, development of motor skills, food consumption, sleep patterns, and milestone information such
as tooth eruption. Information on the stool (e.g., color, consistency, and amount) should also be recorded.
The first two weeks after the infant has been pulled, vitals should be taken between each bottle-feeding,
while the infant is in a quiet mode or asleep. If the infant is active, this procedure is too stressful for both
infant and caretakers. By the third week, and if the infant is stable, vitals should be taken once each shift
at approximately the same time each day. Taking vitals consistently establishes a pattern. When there is
a deviation to this pattern, it may be an indication that something is wrong. A follow up on unstable vitals
can lead to early diagnosis, treatment, and a quicker recovery. These records also give a guideline for
future nursery infants. When the infant sleeps through the night, vitals can be discontinued on this shift.
Table 7 provides a sample of vital information to be recorded during hand-rearing.

Table 7: Information to be recorded in routine infant assessments during hand-rearing

Procedure Notes
Weight Taken each morning before feeding by placing infant on its stomach. The diaper should
be removed. Infant can hold blanket for security if additional weight is subtracted.
Resting respiration Infants breathing should be visually watched, or hand placed on back or stomach.
Breaths for 15 seconds should be counted using a watch or clock, and multiplied by 4 for
respirations per minute.
Resting pulse Infant stethoscope should be used on infants chest; and each heath beat counted for 15
seconds and total multiplied by 4 for pulse per minute.
Resting temperature A digital thermometer should be used to take temperature under the arm. Veterinarians
should be alerted, and measures taken more frequently, when temperatures over 100F
(37.8C) are recorded.
Girth With diaper off, a measuring tape with centimeters should be used to circle the waist.
Top of tape should touch bottom of navel. When performed consistently, procedure can
be used to indicate gastric distension.
Caregivers should be alert for physical and physiological signs of concern, such as loose stools,
constipation, increased girth size, increase in temperature, cough/congestion, nasal mucous, changes in
normal pulse or respiration, dull hair coat, weight loss, and a white coating on the tongue. Behavioral
indicators of concern include the infant not gripping the keeper, excessive clinging, loss of appetite,
lethargy, decrease in activity, and excessive vocalizations. In these cases, a veterinarian should be
notified immediately.
Feeding protocol: The infant should be bottle-fed formula every 2-3 hours for approximately 3 months.
Small amounts of human infant electrolyte solution (e.g., Pedialyte) (about the volume of the formula)
can be fed in-between feedings if the infant becomes hungry. Bottle-feedings can be given once every 4
hours as solid foods are added. If infants are to be introduced to a surrogate female, the infant should be
fed a bottle through wire mesh as early as 2 months old. This will help the infant become comfortable with
this type of feeding, as this is the only way the infant can be fed after the introduction to the surrogate.
The infant should be held close to the caretakers heart, and fed slowly to prevent aspiration. This nursing
position emulates the normal ventral/ventral (V/V) position of the dam, but will change as the infant gets
older.
Solid foods: Before solid foods are offered, the infant can be shown animal caretakers or conspecifics
eating, or if necessary, video of other apes eating. Having food around in the exhibit to be smelled and
touched, even if not eaten, should be part of the learning process. Solids foods can be fed when interest
is shown and the infants teeth begin to erupt. Large pieces of raw carrot and celery may be offered for
teething. Soaked primate biscuits in formula can be given first, followed by soft vegetables and fruit (such
as cooked sweet potatoes, cooked carrots, and bananas). Approximately 1-2g of each new food can be
offered until acceptance, and then portions can be increased in 5g increments. During feeding, the infant
should be held in an upright position. Small bites should be smashed between fingers and put in the
infants mouth. Soft species-appropriate food vocalizations (grunts) can be made during eating. When the
infant has mesh access to the other chimpanzees, food can be scattered along both sides of the mesh.
The infant can watch the other chimpanzees eat and hear them vocalize while eating near them. When
keepers are hand-feeding the group, they can also feed the infant through the mesh.
Human-animal interactions: For the first few weeks of life, the infant should be carried constantly to
provide warmth and contact. It should be held close to the left side of the keepers chest, near the heart.
The keeper should hold or stay in close contact with the infant while performing nursery tasks. If anything
necessitates removing the infant from the keepers body (diaper change, weighing etc.), it should be
placed in a safe location on its stomach, holding a fuzzy toy or blanket.
As the infant becomes older and aware of its surroundings, it should be given the choice to climb off
and move around. Even then, the keeper should remain close through touching and voice contact. When

there is a staff change, the transfer should be calm and slow. The infant will become more accepting of
any new experience or situation because of its close contact with the keeper.
When interacting with the infant, the animal keepers should be quadrupedal as much as possible.
This allows the infant an opportunity to grab the keepers arms or legs so they can locomote together. As
the infant grows older, the infant can be carried on the keepers backs as they crawl around. Kneepads
should be worn by the keepers to prevent joint discomfort.
Socialization: It has been suggested that infants being nursery-reared are better socialized later in life
when raised with conspecifics. King and Mellen (1994) reported that early rearing experience is a key
factor in predicting future reproductive success. Infants removed from their mothers before two years of
age frequently failed to exhibit functional reproductive behavior as adults. Chimpanzees reared in social
isolation frequently failed to exhibit the appropriate behaviors that could eventually be incorporated into
copulatory behavior (Rogers and Davenport 1969; Davenport and Rogers 1970). In contrast, infants
housed in groups with females experiencing menstrual cycles, and/or displays of copulatory behavior,
showed an increased likelihood of exhibiting normal copulatory behavior as adults. These studies suggest
that early learning can strongly influence the eventual expression of functional reproductive behavior
(Bettinger and DeMatteo 2001).
There are conflicting reports regarding how early rearing experience influences the subsequent
development of maternal competency. King and Mellen (1994) reported that early experience affected
reproductive and maternal competence in zoo-housed chimpanzees, while Toback et al. (1992) reported
no effect of rearing history on maternal competence. Bloomsmith et al. (1991) indicated that at least 18
months with the mother seemed critical. Variables such as parity, alloparenting, opportunity, and length of
time spent with her mother may also influence a female chimpanzees tendency to exhibit competent
maternal care of her infant (Bettinger and DeMatteo 2001).
The infant has the best chance of becoming socialized if it is introduced to conspecifics at an early
age. This may require that zoos and aquariums cooperate by sending out or receiving infants that need to
be hand-reared. Peer companionship allows the infants to safely socialize with conspecifics while still
dependent on human care (Porton 1992). Due to the strong bond that develops in male chimpanzees,
infant males raised together should remain together to form the core of a breeding group as adults
(McNary 1992). Note that peer-rearing by itself (i.e., only peer-rearing) should be used only if no
appropriate surrogate can be identified. Careful attention should be given to providing the young
chimpanzee with a stimulating and challenging environment. The AZA Chimpanzee SSP strongly
advocates that an area within the actual ape facility should be set aside or constructed for the infant so
they can grow up near adults at an early age (Porton 1992).
Re-socialization and reintroductions: It is crucial for a hand-reared infant to develop a normal
repertoire of species-appropriate social behaviors early on. If possible, socialization back to the mother
should be done within 6 months. It may be necessary to apply operant condition techniques to train the
mother to allow an infant of this age to be bottle-fed. If an infant cannot be reintroduced to its mother, and
is to be introduced to another group member or another group, this should be done as early as 18 months
(McNary 1992).
It is critical to evaluate the appropriateness of pairings with these young infants. Ultimately, if there is
no individual in a group who responds to the infants needs, and the infants psychological well-being is at
stake, then the infant may need to be introduced to another group. The initial introduction of these
younger infants should be to a female who has demonstrated a strong propensity for maternal care or, in
the absence of this, an adult or adolescent female who has shown strong aunting behavior towards
siblings or other young chimpanzees in the group (McNary 1992).
During re-socialization attempts, contact with the caregiver staff will be important to the infant for
security, but should be gradually decreased as the surrogate mother takes over. The infant should be
allowed access to an area where it cannot be reached by the adult chimpanzees. The process may be
slowed down if the infant begins to show signs of duress. Loss of appetite, sudden changes in normal
behavior patterns, excessive temper tantrums, and constant loose stools could all be signs that the infant
may need a rest from the introduction process. Even an infant who has remained energetic and
enthusiastic will need an occasional time out to relax (McNary 1992).

7.5 Contraception
Many animals cared for in AZA-accredited zoos and aquariums breed so successfully that
contraception techniques are implemented to ensure that the population remains at a healthy size.
The three general approaches to prevent reproduction are: 1) separation of the sexes, 2) reversible
contraception, and 3) permanent sterilization. The decision to perform any permanent contraception
should be made in coordination with the AZA Chimpanzee SSP. Since chimpanzees are a social species,
separation of the sexes is not generally recommended. The following information summarizes reversible
contraception and permanent sterilization methods for chimpanzees. More details on products,
application, and ordering information can be found on the AZA Wildlife Contraception Center (WCC)
webpage: www.stlzoo.org/contraception.
Surgical sterilization can provide an effective, low cost form of contraception, but in many cases a
reversible short-term method may be preferred. Reversible contraceptives such as implants, pills,
injectables, and intrauterine devices (IUD), can provide control of reproduction with select individuals
while maintaining species-typical behavior within a group. Not all reversible contraceptives permit the
maintenance of normal behavior. It is important to balance the efficacy, safety, and method of delivery for
a contraceptive with the particular animals age, reproductive status, and the potential ramifications of the
regimes on social behavior (Bettinger and DeMatteo 2001). Because of the profound effects on the
normal sociosexual behavior of chimpanzees, genital swelling should not be completely eliminated by the
contraceptive option elected. In considering contraceptive options, both genders should be evaluated to
permit prevention of pregnancy while minimizing impact on group behavior. It is important to consider
reversibility and safety of these options as well as the tendency of weight gain observed with the
hormonal methods of contraception.
Oral contraceptives: Oral contraceptives (birth control pills) are the same products utilized for human
females with a combination of synthetic progestin and estrogen (see Table 8). It is important to note that
the human menstrual cycle is shorter at 28 days, but the typical to higher-dose products can be
prescribed successfully for chimpanzees at this dose frequency. Oral contraceptives are reported with a
<4% failure rate in chimpanzees. In addition to good contraception, these products are rapidly cleared by
the body following discontinuation, and so are rapidly reversible. In some cases, minimal to moderate
impact on the cyclic intumesence is seen in females on this method of contraception with various degrees
of swelling and breeding behavior possible. However, without a pill-free or placebo week, as with newer
products such as Seasonale, swelling and sexual behavior are more likely to be suppressed. It is critical
that the female receive this product daily, consistently at the same time of day, and completely without
refusal, for optimal pregnancy prevention. Chimpanzees can be experts at secreting pills offered, and so
complete consumption should be assured, and the training maintained by utilizing the package placebos.
When a pill is missed, a second dose should be administered promptly, and if one day is entirely missed,
two doses should be offered within 24 hours to maintain efficacy. A side effect of concurrent antibiotic
administration, particularly by the oral route, may be reduced efficacy of oral contraceptives.
Concern in regard to oral contraceptives administered during the postpartum interval is limited to its
impact on lactation rather than passage of active hormones through the milk to the offspring. By waiting
until the infant is one year of age or demonstrating substantial solid food intake, the impact of possible
reduction of milk is minimized. If birth control for adult females is absolutely necessary during this first
year of age, low-dose progesterone oral contraceptives or other progestin-only method such as Depo-
Provera or MGA implants can be used, and then the female rotated to the more standard estrogen-
progestin combination pill after this time.

Table 8: Birth control pill brands used in female chimpanzees reported to the AZA Wildlife Contraception Center
Brand name Composition (mg)
Combination Pills
Lo-Ovral 0.3 Norgestrel / 0.03 Ethinyl estradiol
Ortho-Novum 1/35 1.0 Norethindrone / 0.035 Ethinyl estradiol
Ortho-Novum 1/50 1.0 Norethindreon / 0.05 Ethinyl estradiol
Ortho-Novum 7/7/7 0.5-1.0 Norethindrone / 0.035 Ethinyl estradiol
Ovcon 35 0.4 Norethindrone / 0.035 Ethinyl estradiol
Ovcon 50 1.0 Norethindrone / 0.05 Ethinyl estradiol
Necon 1/35 1.0 Norethindrone / 0.035 Ethinyl estradiol
Necon 1/50 1.0 Norethindrone / 0.05 Mestranol
Ovral 28 0.5 Norgestrel / 0.05 Ethinyl estradiol
Ovranette 1.5 Levonorgestrel / 0.03 Ethinyl estradiol
Modicon 28 0.5 Norethindrone / 0.035 Ethindyl estradiol
Loestrin 1/20 1.0 Norethindrone / 0.02 Ethinyl estradiol
Mercilon 1.5 Desogestrel / 0.02 Ethinyl estradiol
Microgynon 30 1.5 Levonorgestrel / 0.03 Ethinyl estradiol
Alesse 28 0.1 Levonorgestrel / 0.02 Ethinyl estradiol
Yasmin 3.0 Drospirenone / 0.03 Ethinyl estradiol
Progesterone Only Pills

Femulen 0.5 Ethynodiol Diacetate
Micronor 0.35 Norethisterone
Nor-QD 0.35 Norethindrone
Microlut 0.3 Levonorgestrel
Synthetic progestins: Parenteral progesterone analogues (MGA implants and intramuscular Depo-
Provera) share the same contraceptive mechanism of interference with fertilization by thickening cervical
mucus, interrupting gamete transport, and disruption of implantation. It is important to note that ovulation
and cycling can occur, and the degree of suppression is dose dependent. The AZA WCC database
maintains that 29% of the female chimpanzees have utilized a solid silastic implant (melengestrol acetate,
MGA) with a 4% failure rate, while the Norplant (levogestrol) implant is no longer utilized in human
medicine due to repeated failures as the product approaches the end of its five-year cycle. Although
these products are good contraceptives, and do not require daily medication events, a surgical procedure
is required to place some of these products, except the Depo-Provera injection. Implants should be
routinely checked as in place by palpation during training, or scanning a transponder microchip placed
within implant. Unlike the oral contraceptives, the parenteral progesterones tend to gradually eliminate
perineal intumesence with accompanying negative social side effects, although the return of visible
cycling can be used as a marker of reduced contraceptive efficacy.
Depo-Provera: The recommended dose is 2.5-5mg/kg body weight every 2-3 months, respectively.
Although the majority of females on Depo-Provera do not exhibit genital swelling, a few females have
been reported to exhibit reduced levels of swelling. The onset of genital swelling in a female on Depo-
Provera should alert managers that the female is no longer receiving contraceptive protection and may
have resumed cycling (Bettinger and DeMatteo 2001). Time to reversal varies greatly among females and
can be as long as 2 years. It may be best used as an interim contraceptive method.
Implanon: This single-rod implant containing another synthetic progestin etonogestrel was recently
approved for sale in the U.S. It may be effective for as long as 3 years, but replacement every 2 years is a
more cautious recommendation.
MGA implant: The MGA (melengestrol acetate) is specifically formulated for each species, and contained
in a single silastic implant inserted intramuscularly or subcutaneously between the scapulae. Although
some genital swelling may occur, it is more common for chimpanzee subjects on MGA not to exhibit
swelling. Females have been reported to resume normal cycling within a few weeks, and pregnancy can
occur quickly following the removal of an MGA implant (Bettinger and DeMatteo 2001) though it may take
longer.

Mechanical contraception: Mechanical contraception (intrauterine devices or IUDs) causes irritation to

the endometrium to prevent implantation of an embryo. Anesthesia and meticulous procedure is required
to place these devices and the retrieval threads have to be cut short to prevent voluntary removal. Higher
contraception failures are reported with IUD use, including spontaneous expulsion of the devices,
particularly from young, nulliparous animals.
Permanent sterilization: Permanent sterilization of females can be accomplished by ovariohysterectomy
(OHE) and tubal ligation. OHE should be considered in only those females with reproductive tract
pathology. The chimpanzee pelvic canal is very deep, and splitting the pelvic symphsis may be required
to access the uterus fully during an OHE. In situations where uterine fibromas (leiomyomas) are present,
complete removal of the ovaries is necessary to prevent recurrence with potential fatal consequences.
Gonadotropin releasing hormone (GNRH) agonists: Both genders may be contracepted with a new
experimental contraceptive category, gonadotropin releasing hormone (GnRH) agonists (Suprelorin:
deslorelin; and Lupron Depot: leuprolide acetate). These products act by first over-stimulating then
suppressing FSH and LH from the anterior pituitary gland through receptor down-regulation. It is
important to note that the initial effect of these products is to stimulate the reproductive system, so
adequate contraception should be in place during the stimulation phase. Ultimately, contraception occurs
with a subsequent decrease in testosterone and sperm production for males that is expected with a
concurrent reduction in aggression. This side effect may allow another use of these products in group
aggression management. Decrease in estrogen and progesterone with ovulation suppression is expected
in the female. Success and failure rate has not been determined yet for chimps, nor is the impact on
normal sociosexual behavior known. Further research is warranted for the use of this contraceptive in
chimpanzees of both sexes.
Male contraception: Male contraceptive efforts have the advantages of minimizing impact on the groups
cycling females, including preventing their weight gains. Male contraception is also a consideration for
multi-male breeding groups to permit selection of paternity.
Permanent/semi-permanent contraception: Permanent or semi-permanent contraception can be
accomplished through vasectomy that severs the vas deferens to prevent sperm passage from the testes
to the penile urethra. Note that the testicular side of the vas deferens should be sutured to prevent
recanalization. As this is not castration, which is only recommended in testicular pathology, hormonal
profiles remain intact so the male libido and sexual interactions should be unaffected. With appropriate
surgical technique, the deliberate reversibility of the technique can be improved while preventing
unintentional, spontaneous recanalization and return to fertility. Although this procedure requires
immobilization and surgery, it is routine in approach. Vasectomies should be performed by a veterinarian
experienced in the procedure, as there have been several cases of failed procedures. Histological
confirmation of sperm in the vas deferens is advisable. Reversibility has yet to be confirmed possible in
chimpanzees.
Vas plugs: Vas plugs of silastic material have only been used in a few animals with inconsistent results.
Concerns of permanent sterility even following removal, or failure to block transfer of viable sperm to the
urethra have both been encountered.

Chapter 8. Behavior Management
8.1 Animal Training

Classical and operant conditioning techniques have been used to train animals for over a century.
Classical conditioning is a form of associative learning demonstrated by Ivan Pavlov. Classical
conditioning involves the presentation of a neutral stimulus that will be conditioned (CS) along with an
unconditioned stimulus that evokes an innate, often reflexive, response (US). If the CS and the US are
repeatedly paired, eventually the two stimuli become associated and the animal will begin to produce a
conditioned behavioral response to the CS.
Operant conditioning uses the consequences of a behavior to modify the occurrence and form of that
behavior. Reinforcement and punishment are the core tools of operant conditioning. Positive
reinforcement occurs when a behavior is followed by a favorable stimulus to increase the frequency of
that behavior. Negative reinforcement occurs when a behavior is followed by the removal of an aversive
stimulus to also increase the frequency of that behavior. Positive punishment occurs when a behavior is
followed by an aversive stimulus to decrease the frequency of that behavior. Negative punishment occurs
when a behavior is followed by the removal of a favorable stimulus also to decrease the frequency of that
behavior.
AZA-accredited zoos and aquariums are expected to utilize reinforcing conditioning techniques to
facilitate husbandry procedures and behavioral research investigations.
The use of positive reinforcement training as an animal care and management tool offers many
benefits for chimpanzees and staff. One of the greatest benefits is to gain the voluntary cooperation of the
chimpanzees in husbandry, veterinary, and research procedures. The fear associated with these
procedures, as well as the need for restraint and anesthesia, can be significantly reduced. Greater choice
and control can be provided to trained chimpanzees, contributing to their psychological well-being (Laule
and Whittaker 2001). Examples of key behaviors to be trained are:
Station: Chimpanzee holds place at a specified location, which may be identified with a station
marker such as a colored piece of PVC tubing that is distinguishable from other markers in use.
Shifting: Chimpanzee moves from one location to another upon command. This may be
prompted with station markers, laser pointers, or other indicators.
Body present: Chimpanzee provides access to specific body parts through a mesh barrier to
allow a keepers touch or visual inspection without interference. Common body items that are
easily trained are shoulder, head, ear, arm, leg, back, and open mouth.
Cooperative feeding: A dominant chimpanzee holds its location while a conspecific is fed. In
most cases, the dominant animal is provided their meal first, and is then reinforced additionally for
not interfering with the other feeding.
Injection: Chimpanzee is trained to tolerate the presence of a syringe and needle to the point of
the blunted end touching his shoulder. This training can progress to the point of faux injections
that simulate real medical procedures, and actual injections.
Using operant conditioning techniques, chimpanzees can be desensitized to frightening or painful
events, such as receiving an injection, so that the event becomes less frightening and less stressful
(Laule and Whittaker 2001). Voluntary cooperation reduces the need for physical restraint and/or
anesthesia, and the accompanying risks associated with those events (Bloomsmith 1992; Reinhardt et al.
1995). The following trained behaviors are recommended for advanced chimpanzee husbandry
programs:
Blood draws and injections: Many facilities are designed to accommodate blood draws by the
use of a steel or strong plastic pipe sleeve attached to enclosure barriers. Chimpanzees can be
trained to insert their arms into the sleeve and allow blood draws or injections. These sleeves can
be removed when not in use (Coe et al. 2001). The use of the sleeve allows the staff access to
the chimpanzee in a relatively safe manner. Chimpanzees can also be trained to present body
parts against a mesh barrier to accommodate vaccines, anesthesia, and insulin injections.
Medical procedures: Chimpanzees can be trained to cooperate during medical procedures,
such as presenting the chest for the use of a stethoscope, or an ear for the use of a thermometer.
Additionally, chimpanzees can be trained to present their belly so that ultrasounds can be
performed.

Scales: Weighing individuals periodically can help detect illness or physiological changes that
can affect overall health. Weighing stations may be built-in features within runways, or
freestanding scales may be rolled into place. A scale attached to a climbing rope can also be
used. Using these approaches, weights can be obtained without sedating the chimpanzees (Coe
et al. 2001).
Urine collection: A regular collection of urine can be used to monitor the reproductive cycle,
stress, and other health indicators of chimpanzees. Urine collection can be facilitated by the
construction of a trough or specialized drain that chimpanzees can be trained to use (Coe et al.
2001), or by providing areas where chimpanzees can be trained to urinate on command into a
small receptacle held by the trainer.
Animal management and enclosure design: Specific enclosure designs recommended to promote
successful training programs within chimpanzee facilities should include:
Good visual access of animals in all areas
Multiple access points to animals both on and off exhibit
Multiple shifting points to allow access to animals as they are moved through the facility
Built in mounts for husbandry and medical apparatus, such as blood collection sleeves or urine
collection pans
Large mesh access points for safe treatment of wounds or delivery of injections
Multiple and connected off-exhibit areas with no dead ends (Laule 1995)
A safe means to provide close contact between caregivers and apes should be devised for each
situation. Ports that can be opened during training sessions can provide more access to the
chimpanzees. The type of barrier will also affect access. Some trainers prefer mesh with openings as
large as 3" x 3" (7cm x 7cm) so that objects of this size can be passed through. However, 2" x 2" (5cm x
5cm) mesh is more commonly provided. Each institution should accept responsibility for the possible risks
inherent in their choice of materials and opening sizes (Coe et al. 2001).
8.2 Environmental Enrichment

Environmental enrichment, also called behavioral enrichment, refers to the practice of providing a
variety of stimuli to the animals environment, or changing the environment itself to increase physical
activity, stimulate cognition, and promote natural behaviors (specifically prosocial behavior such as social
grooming and playing, increased activity and exploration). Stimuli, including natural and artificial objects,
scents, and sounds are presented in a safe way for the animals to interact with. Some suggestions
include providing food in a variety of ways (i.e., frozen in ice or in a manner that requires an animal to
solve simple puzzles to obtain it), using the presence or scent/sounds of other animals of the same or
different species, and incorporating an animal training (husbandry or behavioral research) regime in the
daily schedule.
It is recommended that an enrichment program be based on current information in biology, and
should include the following elements: goal-setting, planning and
approval process, implementation, documentation/record- AZA accreditation standard
keeping, evaluation, and subsequent program refinement.
(S1.6.1) The institution must have a
Environmental enrichment programs should ensure that all formal written enrichment program that
environmental enrichment devices (EEDs) are safe and are promotes species-appropriate behavioral
presented on a variable schedule to prevent habituation AZA- opportunities.
accredited zoos and aquariums must have a formal written
enrichment program that promotes species-appropriate
behavioral opportunities (AZA Accreditation Standard 1.6.1). AZA accreditation standard
Enrichment programs should be integrated with veterinary (S1.6.2) The institution must have a
care, nutrition, and animal training programs to maximize the specific staff member(s) or committee
assigned for enrichment program
effectiveness and quality of animal care provided. AZA- oversight, implementation, training, and
accredited zoos and aquariums must have specific staff interdepartmental coordination of
members assigned to oversee, implement, train, and coordinate enrichment efforts.
interdepartmental enrichment programs (AZA Accreditation
Standard 1.6.2).

There are several sources of good information on potential chimpanzee enrichment interventions.
Contact the Chimpanzee SSP Coordinator for more information. Appendix H shows an example of an
approved enrichment list. Note that each form of enrichment is categorized for use within a standardized
enrichment schedule (see Appendix I).
The following information on chimpanzee enrichment is closely adapted from the section written by
Mellen and Shepherdson (1992) within the Chimpanzee Husbandry Manual (Fulk and Garland 1992).
Husbandry routine: Husbandry routines (e.g., cleaning regime, feeding schedule, moving of animals),
when varied from day-to-day, can be an interesting and enriching component of the chimpanzees
environment in zoos and aquariums. Whenever possible, the management of chimpanzees should
include the principle that they be allowed to control a substantial part of their daily routine and events,
(e.g., who they are with/not with, where they are, when and what they eat) (Rumbaugh et al. 1989).
Manipulatable objects: (permanent and temporary): Since the predominant daytime activity of wild
chimpanzees is searching for and consuming food (approximately 50-60% of their time), great efforts
should be made to increase the amount of time chimpanzees in zoos and aquariums spend in similar
endeavors. Providing a variety of manipulable objects to chimpanzees both increases the amount of time
spent in foraging-type activities (e.g., with food retrieval devices such as termite mounds), and
presumably increases their well-being. It may be the case that naturalistic objects are preferred in exhibit
areas; while in off-exhibit areas, no such restrictions are deemed necessary (McMillan et al. 1991). Note
that any objects provided to the chimpanzees should be carefully checked to ensure they are safe for
use. For instance, sharp edges should be removed, holes in which limbs or fingers might become stuck
should be altered, and all materials used should be assured to be non-toxic.
In an evaluation of great ape enclosures, Wilson (1982) measured the influence of a number of
factors on the behavior of apes, namely: enclosure size, usable surface area, frequency of feeding,
number of animals per enclosure, and number and type of objects available. The factors most closely
associated with activity were the number of companions and the presence of objects. These results once
again support the view that size alone is not the most important component of a successful exhibit.
Rather, the social environment, the presence of manipulatable objects, and an imaginative and varied
husbandry routine appear to be more important.
The effect of a variable schedule of reinforcement has been shown with many species and with
feeding schedules for chimpanzees specifically (Bloomsmith and Lambeth 1995). The same approach
should be taken with scheduling enrichment. Enrichment provided on a variable schedule (different times
on different days) may be more effective than if it were presented every day at the same time.
Novelty: The responses of chimpanzees to enrichment initiatives are subject to habituation. Resistant
enrichment initiatives are those that have an inherent amount of complexity/variability, and those that
permit chimpanzees to perform some natural activity (e.g., nesting, foraging) (van Hooff 1967).
Presumably, the greater the number and variety of novel objects presented at any one time, the lower the
rate of habituation. Menzel (1971) found that interest in novel objects that were portable and/or flexible
sustained interest longer in young chimpanzees than items that were neither. Interestingly (and not
surprisingly), destructible toys are more effective in maintaining interest than continual exposure to
indestructible toys (Bloomsmith et al. 1990), and these are often utilized more by young animals than by
adults. Items such as cardboard boxes, long sheets of paper towel, carpet rolls, etc., when presented
irregularly, can sustain interest and use. Destructible toys may be effective in eliciting use because they
offer continual changes in shape and size as they are destroyed, resulting in some level of novelty over
time (Brent 2001). Naturalistic objects are preferred by some institutions in the exhibit area; in off-exhibit
areas, no such restrictions are deemed necessary (McMillan et al. 1991). Some zoos have no such
distinctions. See Schapiro et al. (1991) for a review of use of manipulatable objects as enrichment
devices.
Sensory enrichment:
Auditory: There is growing attention paid to the behavioral effects of sensory enrichment (stimuli designed
to trigger one or more of an animals senses such as vision, sound, sight or smell). The relatively
common practice of playing radio broadcasts within auditory range of chimpanzees was found to reduce
aggression and increase social affiliations in chimpanzees (Howell et al. 2003). Videan et al. (2007)
demonstrated that instrumental music was more effective than vocal music in increasing social

interactions between laboratory-housed chimpanzees. Furthermore, they found that the speed of the
music influenced chimpanzee behavior: slower tempo vocal music was more effective in reducing
aggression in male chimpanzees than faster tempo music. There is relatively little, if any evidence, that
there is an enriching effect to playing natural sounds (i.e., those mimicking chimpanzee environments:
jungle noises, etc.) and it is possible that these types of stimulation may even have some negative effects
such as those shown with zoo-housed gorillas (Wells et al. 2006). While some auditory stimulation may
be enriching, what may be more important is the way in which that sound may reduce other, potentially
negative, ambient noise.
Olfactory: The chimpanzee sense of smell is approximately equivalent to that of humans. While not as
important as for some other species, there are potential behavior-altering effects to enriching the olfactory
environment for chimpanzees. The essential oils of peppermint and/or rosemary have been found to
increase the activity level of chimpanzees (Struthers and Campbell 1996). However, Ostrower and Brent
(2000) found that the application of pleasant (i.e., vanilla, orange, peach) and unpleasant (i.e., moth
balls, cigar smoke, limburger cheese) odors to fleece cloths elicited no more attention from chimpanzees
than did cloths without any added olfactory substances. While olfactory stimulation should not be
overlooked as a method of enhancing chimpanzee environments, there is little evidence that broad or
clearly positive effects should be expected.
Visual: There has been substantial work on the value of video images as enrichment for chimpanzees.
Brent et al. (1989) found that such images reduced some stereotypic behaviors. In another similar study,
chimpanzees were found no more likely to watch video of conspecifics or humans than those that were
less biologically relevant (Bloomsmith et al. 1990; Bloomsmith and Lambeth 2000). Another common
visual stimuli is mirrors, and there is some evidence of behavioral benefit in providing such enrichment
(Lambeth and Bloomsmith 1992; Brent and Stone 1996). Note that convex mirrors were used in many of
these studies and seem to provide the benefit of allowing chimpanzees to see outside the usual visual
scope of their enclosure (i.e., down hallways or into adjacent cages). Finally, the impact of color on
chimpanzee behavior has been investigated recently, although the results of this field of study are still
unambiguous. Zoo-housed chimpanzees have been shown to prefer blue and green colored stimuli to
the same objects colored red (Wells et al. 2008) and anxiety-related pacing has been found to be
mitigated by green-lighting in zoo-housed chimpanzees (Fritz et al. 1995).
8.3 Staff and Animal Interactions

Animal training and environmental enrichment protocols and techniques should be based on
interactions that promote safety for all involved. Caregiver-chimpanzee interaction is inevitable during the
course of the daily care of the chimpanzees. The relationship that forms between caregivers and
chimpanzees influences all aspects of care. The form that relationship takes will depend on a variety of
factors, including knowledge of the species, understanding of what the job entails, attitudes and
expectations of the caregivers, the behavior of individual chimpanzees, and the tools and techniques a
caregiver has to accomplish daily tasks. Bloomsmith et al. (1999) found that both training and less
formalized non-training interactions between keepers and apes had some behavioral benefit (e.g.,
decreased agonism and abnormal behaviors, and increased play) during interactions, and in some cases
these benefits extended beyond the actual interaction session.
As outlined in Chapter 4, section 4.3, the AZA Chimpanzee SSP advocates a minimum intervention
strategy. While this is framed in context of social introductions above, these guidelines are important
during day-to-day management as well.
Protected contact: The AZA Chimpanzee SSP and AZA Ape TAG recommend protected contact for
managing adult apes; there should always be a protective barrier between the ape and the human
caregiver. The reasons for this are threefold: 1) safety concerns for the keeper (directed and accidental
injuries), 2) short and long-term effects of extended human interaction on the apes (such as maternal,
sexual and behavioral effects), and 3) the influence of human interaction on public perception of apes
(and their feasibility as pets). Some facilities, both within and outside of AZA, practice free contact with
adult apes, but the AZA Chimpanzee SSP recommends that free contact not be part of the regular
management strategy for adult apes. In cases where keepers have to have direct contact with apes (such
as in a nursery-rearing scenario), the AZA Chimpanzee SSP recommends that these interactions take
place with appropriate zoonotic considerations, and not within view of the public.

Safe management protocols: The following list provides recommendations and best practices for the safe
management of chimpanzees in zoos and aquariums:
Detailed Standard Operating Procedures should be written for all daily care protocols that include
specific safety requirements.
Checks and double-checks of all locks, doors, exhibits, and holding facilities should be
performed. Locking devices that allow for visual determination of whether a lock or door is
secured or not should be installed.
A procedure for counting chimpanzees in a given area before they are transferred from one area
to another should be developed. In most cases, having two keepers working together when
chimpanzees are transferred can increase the effectiveness of the transfer. All staff should be
aware of the actual reach distance in any area of close proximity to the chimpanzees. No
assumptions should be made about the locations of the chimpanzees when shifting or entering an
exhibit or holding area. All doubt should be eliminated by double-checking the enclosures. Blind
spots or areas of decreased visibility in the holding area should be addressed, and caretakers
should be aware of these areas in the exhibit.
A brightly colored line should be painted down the keeper aisle at the maximum reach distance
from the bottom of the containment barrier. This will serve as a reminder to the keepers that the
chimpanzees are capable of reaching out and grabbing anything within that line. Lighting in dark
areas should be increased, and when possible, video or mirrors installed to provide visual access
to blind spots to ensure that a chimpanzee is not hiding. Radios or other devices must be
provided to the staff to ensure communication in the event of an emergency.
Enclosures should be examined for large rocks, sticks, or other debris that could potentially be
used as a weapon, or a means to escape from the exhibit. All containment barriers and facility
structures should be inspected daily, and timely repair of any potential hazards should be
performed.
A program for effective communication should be implemented (see also Chapter 6, section 6.6).
This should include a communication system for ensuring that pertinent information is
communicated among the staff and supervisors, a system for notifying the appropriate staff in the
event of an emergency, and the coordination of the safety program for the chimpanzee area with
the safety program of the institution. Emphasis should be placed on establishing and maintaining
a high level of alertness among those caring for the chimpanzees.
Access to any chimpanzee area should be limited to those individuals trained in the proper safety
and care procedures, or supervised by those individuals. A secondary containment area should
be established to allow any keeper a means of protection in the event of an escape (see also
Chapter 2, section 2.2).
Facilities should be designed with the facilitation of operant conditioning training in mind. As such
there should be sufficient mesh panels allowing protected contact between keepers/trainers and the
chimpanzees. These panels should be as numerous as possible to increase the flexibility of training
opportunities, including, if possible, panels at varying heights.
Interactions between keepers/trainers and the chimpanzees should be done with a protective barrier
in place. Furthermore, care should be taken to reduce the likelihood of zoonotic disease transmission.
Use of masks and latex gloves are recommended when appropriate. Trainer/keepers that are
experiencing any illness should abstain from interacting with the apes through mesh. Likewise, care
should be taken to reduce the risk of physical injury as chimpanzees are known to grab fingers, hair, and
clothing through the protective barrier. As such, loose-fitting clothing and jewelry should be restrained,
replaced or removed and long-hair should be netted, tied back or netted. Care should be taken to be
aware of the location of chimpanzees hands and mouth at all times during training sessions. A
commonly used strategy during training is to request that the chimpanzees stay in contact with a target
(often a small plastic item such as a pvc elbow joint, which is easily clipped onto the mesh) with their
hand. Inserting fingers through the mesh incurs significant risk of biting and as such, we advise that
human body parts stay on their side of the mesh.
8.4 Staff Skills and Training

Staff members should be trained in all areas of animal behavior management. Funding should be
provided for AZA continuing education courses, related meetings, conference participation, and other

professional opportunities. A reference library appropriate to the size and complexity of the institution
should be available to all staff and volunteers to provide them with accurate information on the behavioral
needs of the animals with which they work.
A well-trained staff that is knowledgeable in species-specific and typical chimpanzee behavior
patterns is a prerequisite for accurate observations and daily monitoring, and especially for data collection
during the process of introductions and group formation. Staff should have a good working knowledge of
chimpanzee behavior to be able to articulate and track the progress of introductions and social
interactions before, during, and following the initial introduction and group formation period (Fritz and
Howell 2001). Staff should receive training on chimpanzee natural history, behavior, anatomy,
occupational health, enrichment, and positive reinforcement training. Additionally, it is critical that all staff
be able to reliably identify each individual chimpanzee, and be aware of their individual characteristics
and personality traits.
By far the most important element in developing a training program is the ability of the staff to apply
positive reinforcement techniques effectively. Training is a skill that takes time and practice to develop. At
least one individual should have sufficient training skills in problem solving for difficult situations as they
arise, as well as to coordinate and oversee training activities (Laule and Whittaker 2001).
The AZA Chimpanzee SSP maintains a website (www.chimp-ssp.org) which is an excellent resource
on programmatic initiatives, information about chimpanzees as well as links to other information sources.

Chapter 9. Program Animals
9.1 Program Animal Policy

AZA recognizes many public education and, ultimately, conservation benefits from program animal
presentations. AZAs Conservation Education Committees Program Animal Position Statement
(Appendix D) summarizes the value of program animal presentations.
For the purpose of this policy, a program animal is described as an animal presented either within or
outside of its normal exhibit or holding area that is intended to have regular proximity to or physical
contact with trainers, handlers, the public, or will be part of an ongoing conservation education/outreach
program.
Program animal presentations bring a host of responsibilities, including the welfare of the animals
involved, the safety of the animal handler and public, and accountability for the take-home, educational
messages received by the audience. Therefore, AZA requires all accredited institutions that give program
animal presentations to develop an institutional program animal policy that clearly identifies and justifies
those species and individuals approved as program animals and details their long-term management plan
and educational program objectives.
AZAs accreditation standards require that the conditions AZA Accreditation Standard
and treatment of animals in education programs must meet (S1.5.4) A written policy on the use of live
standards set for the remainder of the animal collection, animals in programs should be on file.
including species-appropriate shelter, exercise, sound and Animals in education programs must be
maintained and cared for by trained staff,
environmental enrichment, access to veterinary care, nutrition, and housing conditions must meet
and other related standards (AZA Accreditation Standard 1.5.4). standards set for the remainder of the
In addition, providing program animals with options to choose animal collection, including species-
among a variety of conditions within their environment is appropriate shelter, exercise, social and
environmental enrichment, access to
essential to ensuring effective care, welfare, and management. veterinary care, nutrition, etc. Since some
Some of these requirements can be met outside of the primary of these requirements can be met outside
exhibit enclosure while the animal is involved in a program or is of the primary enclosure, for example,
being transported. For example, housing may be reduced in size enclosures may be reduced in size
provided that the animals physical and
compared to a primary enclosure as long as the animals psychological needs are being met.
physical and psychological needs are being met during the
program; upon return to the facility the animal should be returned
to its species-appropriate housing as described above.
The AZA Chimpanzee SSP does not consider chimpanzees, of any age, as program animals. As
mentioned in section 8.3, we advocate that protected contact be used for any interactions with
chimpanzees. Furthermore, the AZA has adopted an important stance on the presentation of animals,
specifically with reference to great apes in entertainment (Appendix J).
9.2 Institutional Program Animal Plans

AZAs policy on the presentation of animals is as follows: AZA is dedicated to excellence in animal
care and welfare, conservation, education, research, and the presentation of animals in ways that inspire
respect for wildlife and nature. AZAs position is that animals should always be presented in adherence to
the following core principles:
Animal and human health, safety, and welfare are never
compromised. AZA accreditation standard
Education and a meaningful conservation message are (S1.5.3) If animal demonstrations are a
integral components of the presentation. part of the institutions programs, an
The individual animals involved are consistently education and conservation message
maintained in a manner that meets their social, physical, must be an integral component.
behavioral, and nutritional needs.
AZA-accredited zoos and aquariums which have designated
program animals are required to develop their own Institutional Program Animal Policy that articulates
and evaluates the program benefits (see Appendix E for recommendations). Program animals should be
consistently maintained in a manner that meets their social, physical, behavioral, and nutritional needs.
Education and conservation messaging must be an integral component of any program animal
demonstration (AZA Accreditation Standard 1.5.3).

Animal care and education staff should be trained in program AZA Accreditation Standard
animal-specific handling protocols, conservation and education
messaging techniques, and public interaction procedures. These (S1.5.5) For animals used in offsite
programs and for educational purposes,
staff members should be competent in recognizing stress or the institution must have adequate
discomfort behaviors exhibited by the program animals and be protocols in place to protect the rest of the
able to address any safety issues that arise. collection from exposure to infectious
Program animals that are taken off zoo or aquarium grounds agents.
for any purpose have the potential to be exposed to infectious
agents that could spread to the rest of the institutions healthy AZA Accreditation Standard
population. AZA-accredited zoos and aquariums must have
(S10.3.3) All animal enclosures (exhibits,
adequate protocols in place to avoid this (AZA Accreditation holding areas, hospital, and
Standard 1.5.5). quarantine/isolation) must be of a size
Careful consideration must be given to the design and size of and complexity sufficient to provide for
all program animal enclosures, including exhibit, off-exhibit the animals physical, social, and
psychological well-being; and exhibit
holding, hospital, quarantine, and isolation areas, such that the enclosures must include provisions for the
physical, social, behavioral, and psychological needs of the behavioral enrichment of the animals.
species are met and species-appropriate behaviors are facilitated
(AZA Accreditation Standards 10.3.3; 1.5.2).
Animal transportation must be conducted in a manner that is
lawful, safe, well-planned and coordinated, and minimizes risk to AZA Accreditation Standard
the animal(s), employees, and general public (AZA Accreditation (S1.5.2) Animals should be displayed,
Standard 1.5.11). whenever possible, in exhibits replicating
their wild habitat and in numbers sufficient
to meet their social and behavioral needs.
9.3 Program Evaluation Display of single specimens should be
AZA-accredited zoos and aquariums which have Institutional avoided unless biologically correct for the
Program Animal Plan are required to evaluate the efficacy of the species involved.
plan routinely (see Appendix E for recommendations). Education
and conservation messaging content retention, animal health and AZA Accreditation Standard
well-being, guest responses, policy effectiveness, and
(S1.5.11) Animal transportation must be
accountability and ramifications of policy violations should be conducted in a manner that is safe, well-
assessed and revised as needed. planned and coordinated, and minimizes
risk to the animal(s), employees, and
general public. All applicable local, state,
and federal laws must be adhered to.

Chapter 10. Research
10.1 Known Methodologies

AZA believes that contemporary animal management, AZA Accreditation Standard
husbandry, veterinary care and conservation practices should be
based in science, and that a commitment to scientific research, (S5.3) Institutions should maximize the
generation of scientific knowledge gained
both basic and applied, is a trademark of the modern zoological from the animal collection. This might be
park and aquarium. AZA-accredited zoos and aquariums have the achieved by participating in AZA
invaluable opportunity, and are expected to, conduct or facilitate TAG/SSP sponsored research when
research both in in-situ and ex-situ settings to advance scientific applicable, conducting original research
projects, affiliating with local universities,
knowledge of the animals in our care and enhance the and/or employing staff with scientific
conservation of wild populations. This knowledge might be credentials.
achieved by participating in AZA Taxon Advisory Group (TAG) or
Species Survival Plan (SSP) sponsored research, conducting original research projects, affiliating with
local universities, and/or employing staff with scientific credentials (AZA Accreditation Standard 5.3).
Chimpanzees are highly endangered in the wild, are biologically more similar to humans than any
other species, and exhibit among the broadest behavior and cognitive repertoires of any animal housed in
zoological settings. For these three reasons, research and conservation of and for chimpanzees should
be prioritized. Chimpanzees, including all subspecies and hybrids of Pan troglodytes (but not including
Pan paniscus) are cooperatively managed by the AZA Chimpanzee SSP. Along with other ape taxa, the
AZA Chimpanzee SSP falls under the oversight of the AZA Ape TAG. Due to their behavioral similarities,
the AZA Gorilla SSP, Bonobo SSP, Orangutan SSP and Gibbon SSP work closely together to identify
shared goals and resources.
Because chimpanzees are housed in a wide variety of settings, there are numerous potential
collaborating institutions and resources (see Table 9). Here we list some of the more prominent
conservation organizations, though inclusion on this list does not infer endorsement of collaboration by
the AZA Chimpanzee SSP or AZA. For more information on other resources and collaborative facilities,
contact the AZA Chimpanzee SSP Coordinator.
Table 9: Great Ape Resources and Collaborative Facilities
Chimpanzee Conservation
Goualougo Triangle Ape Project www.congo-apes.org
Bossou-Nimba Chimpanzee Research Project www.greenpassage.org/indexE.rhtml
Gombe Stream Research Center www.janegoodall.org/chimpanzees-gsrc
Budongo Conservation Field Station www.budongo.org
Fongoli Savanna Chimpanzee Project http://savannachimp.blogspot.com/
Kibale Chimpanzee Project www.fas.harvard.edu/~kibale/
Mahale Mountains Chimpanzee Research Project http://jinrui.zool.kyoto-u.ac.jp/others/WelcomeE.html
Ta Chimpanzee Project www.eva.mpg.de/primat/files/chimps.htm
Research investigations, whether observational, behavioral, physiological, or genetically based, should
have a clear scientific purpose with the reasonable expectation that they will increase our understanding
of the species being investigated and may provide results which benefit the health or welfare of animals in
wild populations. Many AZA-accredited zoos and aquariums incorporate superior positive reinforcement
training programs into their routine schedules to facilitate sensory, cognitive, and physiological research
investigations and these types of programs are strongly encouraged by the AZA.
Examples of research conducted with chimpanzees:

Bipedalism Human-animal interactions
Brain imaging Language
Cognition Laterality
Culture Nutrition
Development Observational behavior
Ecology Physiology
Endocrinology Symbolic representation
Enrichment Theory of Mind
Epidemiology Tool-use
Facial recognition Touch Screen
Genetics Training
Genome Vocalizations
Habitat use Diseases
Handedness
AZA-accredited zoos and aquariums are required to have a
clearly written research policy that identifies the types of
research being conducted, methods used, staff involved, (S5.2) Institutions must have a written
policy that outlines the type of research
evaluations of the projects, the animals included, and guidelines that it conducts, methods, staff
for the reporting or publication of any findings (AZA Accreditation involvement, evaluations, animals to be
Standard 5.2). Institutions must designate e a qualified individual involved, and guidelines for publication of
designated to oversee and direct its research program (AZA findings.
Accreditation Standard 5.1). If institutions are not able to conduct
in-house research investigations, they are strongly encouraged AZA Accreditation Standard
to provide financial, personnel, logistical, and other support for (S5.1) Research activities must be under
priority research and conservation initiatives identified by Taxon the direction of a person qualified to make
Advisory Groups or Species Survival Plans. informed decisions regarding research.
Institutions should adhere to research standards set by AZA,
their local, state, and federal legislation as well as their own internal policy. Research with chimpanzees
should always consider the potential effect on individual wellbeing as well as group dynamics. Because
chimpanzees are housed at a wide variety of facilities (zoos, sanctuaries, research facilities, private
ownership), care should be given to selecting appropriate research partners and the care that they
provide for their chimpanzees. We recommend that multi-institutional studies get research review and
endorsement from the AZA Chimpanzee SSP and/or AZA Ape TAG. We recommend that research
projects do not endorse or otherwise facilitate (financially or otherwise) chimpanzees held in private
ownership.
10.2 Future Research Needs
This Animal Care Manual is a dynamic document that will need to be updated as new information is
acquired. Knowledge gaps have been identified throughout the Manual and are included in this section to
promote future research investigations. Knowledge gained from areas will maximize AZA-accredited zoos
and aquariums capacity for excellence in animal care and welfare as well as enhance conservation
initiatives for the species.
Chapter 1. Ambient Environment
Section 1.4 Sound and Vibration: It may be possible that the concentration of sound through
reverberation may lead to stimulation of apes during displays, but there are no data to confirm this
speculation.
Chapter 4. Social Environment
Section 4.1. Group Size and Structure: There is no conclusive evidence to suggest a maximum number of
adult males that can coexist with each other in single-sexed groups, nor are there good data on how
these all-male groups differ behaviorally from mixed-sex groups. Additional research is needed to gather
more evidence on this topic.
Chapter 5. Nutrition:
Section 5.1 Nutritional Requirements: Although daily human caloric needs can be a guide for this species,
NRC guidelines were published recently for non-human primates (NRC 2003). More research is needed
to identify specific nutrient requirements for chimpanzees. The degree of variation in body size of
chimpanzees is relatively small once factors of sex, age, and health (e.g., obesity) are removed. As a
result, there are no conclusive dietary recommendations for chimpanzees of different size. Further
research will help clarify this issue.
Chapter 7. Reproduction
Section 7.5 Contraception: Both genders may be contracepted with a new experimental contraceptive
category, gonadotropin releasing hormone (GnRH) agonists (Suprelorin: deslorelin; and Lupron Depot:
leuprolide acetate). These products act by first over-stimulating then suppressing FSH and LH from the
anterior pituitary gland through receptor down-regulation. Ultimately, contraception occurs with a
subsequent decrease in testosterone and sperm production for males that is expected with a concurrent
reduction in aggression. This side effect may produce another use of these products in group aggression
management. Decrease in estrogen and progesterone with ovulation suppression is expected in the
female. Success and failure rate has not been determined yet for chimpanzees, nor is the impact on
normal sociosexual behavior known. Further research is warranted for the use of this contraceptive in
chimpanzees of both sexes.
Other Research Needs
Policy and private-ownership. Chimpanzees live in a variety of settings besides zoological parks, many of
which are relatively unregulated in terms of standards of care, including pet ownership, entertainment
facilities, circuses, seller/breeders and unaccredited zoos. The care of the animals is virtually
undocumented and research into these areas should take place. Likewise, planning for the future policy
change in which private ownership is legislatively prohibited in an important consideration. Development
of strategic planning to expand sustainable housing options for chimpanzees is a critical issue to be
investigated.
Behavior and well-being: Future research is needed on the behavioral management of chimpanzees, and
on the psychological well-being of chimpanzees in zoos and aquariums. The management of large social
groups including managing aggression, modeling fission/fusion social organization in zoos and
aquariums, introductions of young, nursery-reared chimpanzees to large social groups, and the effects of
reduced reproduction on behavior all require further study. To promote the psychological well-being of
zoo-housed chimpanzees it is important to evaluate the effects of zoo visitors on chimpanzee welfare, to
develop and study more types of enrichment that are cognitively challenging to chimpanzees, including
evaluating positive reinforcement training, and to study the effects of choice and control over the
environment on chimpanzee welfare.
**The 2009-2013 AZA Chimpanzee SSP Action Plan identifies the following as potential research topics
of importance;
Developing nutritional guidelines for the aged chimpanzee and special needs chimpanzees, in
addition to the general chimpanzee population
Personality research and investigation into how chimpanzee personality should be incorporated
into management decisions, breeding decisions and promoting welfare.
Use of novel contraception methods (such as gonadotropin releasing hormone agonists) for
efficacy, as well as for influence on aggressive and sociosexual behavior.
Develop information on a descriptive tool for evaluating the progress of introductions.
Management of large social groups including managing aggression, modeling fission/fusion social
organization in captivity, introductions of young, nursery-reared chimpanzees to large social
groups, and the effects of reduced reproduction on parental behavior.
Promoting the psychological well-being of zoo-housed chimpanzees by evaluating the effects of
zoo visitors on chimpanzee welfare, studying enrichment that is cognitively challenging,
evaluating positive reinforcement training, and studying the effects of choice and control over the
environment on chimpanzee well-being
Geriatric management of chimpanzees
Keeper emotions and the effects on chimpanzee behavior

Acknowledgements
Thanks go to all internal reviewers (AZA Ape TAG and Chimpanzee SSP members, AZA Animal Health
Committee; AZA Nutrition Advisory Group) and the members of the Association of Zoos and Aquariums
for their time and effort in creating, reviewing, and using the Chimpanzee Care Manual. Special thanks go
to the external reviewers, Maria Finnigan (Australasian Species Management Program Chimpanzee
Species Coordinator), and Linda Brent (Director, Chimp Haven), for taking the time to share their
expertise.

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Appendix A: Accreditation Standards by Chapter

The following specific standards of care relevant to chimpanzees are taken from the AZA
Accreditation Standards and Related Policies (AZA 2009) and are referenced fully within the chapters of
this animal care manual:
General Information
(1.1.1) The institution must comply with all relevant local, state, and federal wildlife laws and regulations.
It is understood that, in some cases, AZA accreditation standards are more stringent than existing laws
and regulations. In these cases the AZA standard must be met.
Chapter 1
(1.5.7) The animal collection must be protected from weather detrimental to their health.
(10.2.1) Critical life-support systems for the animal collection, including but not limited to plumbing,
heating, cooling, aeration, and filtration, must be equipped with a warning mechanism, and
emergency backup systems must be available. All mechanical equipment should be under a
preventative maintenance program as evidenced through a record-keeping system. Special
equipment should be maintained under a maintenance agreement, or a training record should show
that staff members are trained for specified maintenance of special equipment.
(1.5.9) The institution must have a regular program of monitoring water quality for collections of fish,
pinnipeds, cetaceans, and other aquatic animals. A written record must be maintained to document
long-term water quality results and chemical additions.
Chapter 2
(1.5.2) Animals should be displayed, whenever possible, in exhibits replicating their wild habitat and in
numbers sufficient to meet their social and behavioral needs. Display of single specimens should be
avoided unless biologically correct for the species involved.
((10.3.3) All animal enclosures (exhibits, holding areas, hospital, and quarantine/isolation) must be of a
size and complexity sufficient to provide for the animals physical, social, and psychological well-
being; and exhibit enclosures must include provisions for the behavioral enrichment of the animals.
(11.3.3) Special attention must be given to free-ranging animals so that no undue threat is posed to the
animal collection, free-ranging animals, or the visiting public. Animals maintained where they will be in
contact with the visiting public must be carefully selected, monitored, and treated humanely at all
times.
(11.3.1) All animal exhibits and holding areas must be secured to prevent unintentional animal egress.
(11.3.6) Guardrails/barriers must be constructed in all areas where the visiting public could have contact
with other than handleable animals.
(11.2.3) All emergency procedures must be written and provided to staff and, where appropriate, to
volunteers. Appropriate emergency procedures must be readily available for reference in the event of
an actual emergency. These procedures should deal with four basic types of emergencies: fire,
weather/environment; injury to staff or a visitor; animal escape.
(11.6.2) Security personnel, whether staff of the institution, or a provided and/or contracted service, must
be trained to handle all emergencies in full accordance with the policies and procedures of the
institution. In some cases, it is recognized that Security personnel may be in charge of the respective
emergency (i.e., shooting teams).
(11.2.4) The institution must have a communication system that can be quickly accessed in case of an
emergency.
(11.2.5) A written protocol should be developed involving local police or other emergency agencies and
include response times to emergencies.
(11.5.3) Institutions maintaining potentially dangerous animals (sharks, whales, tigers, bears, etc.) must
have appropriate safety procedures in place to prevent attacks and injuries by these animals.
Appropriate response procedures must also be in place to deal with an attack resulting in an injury.
These procedures must be practiced routinely per the emergency drill requirements contained in
these standards. Whenever injuries result from these incidents, a written account outlining the cause
of the incident, how the injury was handled, and a description of any resulting changes to either the

safety procedures or the physical facility must be prepared and maintained for five years from the
date of the incident.
Chapter 3
(1.5.11) Animal transportation must be conducted in a manner that is safe, well-planned and coordinated,
and minimizes risk to the animal(s), employees, and general public. All applicable local, state, and
federal laws must be adhered to.
Chapter 5
(2.6.2) A formal nutrition program is recommended to meet the behavioral and nutritional needs of all
species and specimens within the collection.
(2.6.3) Animal diets must be of a quality and quantity suitable for each animals nutritional and
psychological needs. Diet formulations and records of analysis of appropriate feed items should be
maintained and may be examined by the Visiting Committee. Animal food, especially seafood
products, should be purchased from reliable sources that are sustainable and/or well managed.
(2.6.1) Animal food preparations must meet all local, state/provincial, and federal regulations.
(2.6.4) The institution should assign at least one person to oversee appropriate browse material for the
collection.
Chapter 6
(2.1.1) A full-time staff veterinarian is recommended. However, the Commission realizes that in some
cases such is not practical. In those cases, a consulting/part-time veterinarian must be under contract
to make at least twice monthly inspections of the animal collection and respond as soon as possible
to any emergencies. The Commission also recognizes that certain collections, because of their size
and/or nature, may require different considerations in veterinary care.
(2.1.2) So that indications of disease, injury, or stress may be dealt with promptly, veterinary coverage
must be available to the animal collection 24 hours a day, 7 days a week.
(2.2.1) Written, formal procedures must be available to the animal care staff for the use of animal drugs
for veterinary purposes and appropriate security of the drugs must be provided.
(1.4.6) A staff member must be designated as being responsible for the institution's animal record-
keeping system. That person must be charged with establishing and maintaining the institution's
animal records, as well as with keeping all animal care staff members apprised of relevant laws and
regulations regarding the institution's animal collection.
(1.4.7) Animal records must be kept current, and data must be logged daily.
(1.4.5) At least one set of the institutions historical animal records must be stored and protected. Those
records should include permits, titles, declaration forms, and other pertinent information.
(1.4.4) Animal records, whether in electronic or paper form, including health records, must be duplicated
and stored in a separate location.
(1.4.3) Animals must be identifiable, whenever practical, and have corresponding ID numbers. For
animals maintained in colonies or other animals not considered readily identifiable, the institution
must provide a statement explaining how record keeping is maintained.
(1.4.1) An animal inventory must be compiled at least once a year and include data regarding acquisitions
and dispositions in the animal collection.
(1.4.2) All species owned by the institution must be listed on the inventory, including those animals on
loan to and from the institution. In both cases, notations should be made on the inventory.
(2.7.1) The institution must have holding facilities or procedures for the quarantine of newly arrived
animals and isolation facilities or procedures for the treatment of sick/injured animals.
(2.7.3) Quarantine, hospital, and isolation areas should be in compliance with standards or guidelines
adopted by the AZA.
(2.7.2) Written, formal procedures for quarantine must be available and familiar to all staff working with
quarantined animals.
(11.1.2) Training and procedures must be in place regarding zoonotic diseases.
(11.1.3) A tuberculin testing and surveillance program must be established for appropriate staff in order to
ensure the health of both the employees and the animal collection.
(2.5.1) Deceased animals should be necropsied to determine the cause of death. Disposal after necropsy
must be done in accordance with local/federal laws.
(2.4.1) The veterinary care program must emphasize disease prevention.

(1.5.5) For animals used in offsite programs and for educational purposes, the institution must have
adequate protocols in place to protect the rest of the collection from exposure to infectious agents.
(2.3.1) Capture equipment must be in good working order and available to authorized, trained personnel
at all times.
(2.4.2) Keepers should be trained to recognize abnormal behavior and clinical symptoms of illness and
have knowledge of the diets, husbandry (including enrichment items and strategies), and restraint
procedures required for the animals under their care. However, keepers should not evaluate illnesses
nor prescribe treatment.
(2.3.2) Hospital facilities should have x-ray equipment or have access to x-ray services.
(1.5.8) The institution must develop a clear process for identifying and addressing animal welfare
concerns within the institution.
Chapter 8
(1.6.1) The institution must have a formal written enrichment program that promotes species-appropriate
behavioral opportunities.
(1.6.2) The institution must have a specific staff member(s) or committee assigned for enrichment
program oversight, implementation, training, and interdepartmental coordination of enrichment efforts.
Chapter 9
(5.3) A written policy on the use of live animals in programs should be on file. Animals in education
programs must be maintained and cared for by trained staff, and housing conditions must meet
standards set for the remainder of the animal collection, including species-appropriate shelter,
exercise, social and environmental enrichment, access to veterinary care, nutrition, etc. Since some
of these requirements can be met outside of the primary enclosure, for example, enclosures may be
reduced in size provided that the animals physical and psychological needs are being met.
(1.5.3) If animal demonstrations are a part of the institutions programs, an education and conservation
message must be an integral component.
Chapter 10
(5.3) Institutions should maximize the generation of scientific knowledge gained from the animal
collection. This might be achieved by participating in AZA TAG/SSP sponsored research when
applicable, conducting original research projects, affiliating with local universities, and/or employing
staff with scientific credentials.
(5.2) Institutions must have a written policy that outlines the type of research that it conducts, methods,
staff involvement, evaluations, animals to be involved, and guidelines for publication of findings.
(5.1) Research activities must be under the direction of a person qualified to make informed decisions
regarding research.

Appendix B: Acquisition/Disposition Policy

I. Introduction: The Association of Zoos and Aquariums (AZA) was established, among other reasons, to
foster continued improvement in the zoological park and aquarium profession. One of its most important
roles is to provide a forum for debate and consensus building among its members, the intent of which is
to attain high ethical standards, especially those related to animal care and professional conduct. The
stringent requirements for AZA accreditation and high standards of professional conduct are unmatched
by similar organizations and also far surpass the United States Department of Agriculture's Animal and
Plant Health Inspection Service's requirements for licensed animal exhibitors. AZA member facilities must
abide by a Code of Professional Ethics - a set of standards that guide all aspects of animal management
and welfare. As a matter of priority, AZA institutions should acquire animals from other AZA institutions
and dispose of animals to other AZA institutions.
AZA-accredited zoological parks and aquariums cannot fulfill their important missions of conservation,
education and science without living animals. Responsible management of living animal populations
necessitates that some individuals be acquired and that others be removed from the collection at certain
times. Acquisition of animals can occur through propagation, trade, donation, loan, purchase, capture, or
rescue. Animals used as animal feed are not accessioned into the collection.
Disposition occurs when an animal leaves the collection for any reason. Reasons for disposition vary
widely, but include cooperative population management (genetic or demographic management),
reintroduction, behavioral incompatibility, sexual maturation, animal health concerns, loan or transfer, or
death.
The AZA Acquisition/Disposition Policy (A/D) was created to help (1) guide and support member
institutions in their animal acquisition and disposition decisions, and (2) ensure that all additions and
removals are compatible with the Association's stated commitment to "save and protect the wonders of
the living natural world." More specifically, the AZA A/D Policy is intended to:
Ensure that the welfare of individual animals and conservation of populations, species and
ecosystems are carefully considered during acquisition and disposition activities;
Maintain a proper standard of conduct for AZA members during acquisition and disposition
activities;
Ensure that animals from AZA member institutions are not transferred to individuals or
organizations that lack the appropriate expertise or facilities to care for them.
Support the goal of AZAs cooperatively managed populations and associated programs,
including Species Survival Plans (SSPs), Population Management Plans (PMPs), and Taxon
Advisory Groups (TAGs).
The AZA Acquisition/Disposition Policy will serve as the default policy for AZA member institutions.
Institutions may develop their own A/D Policy in order to address specific local concerns. Any institutional
policy must incorporate and not conflict with the AZA acquisition and disposition standards.
Violations of the AZA Acquisition/Disposition Policy will be dealt with in accordance with the AZA
Code of Professional Ethics. Violations can result in an institution's or individual's expulsion from
membership in the AZA.
II. Group or Colony-based Identification: For some colonial, group-living, or prolific species, such as
certain insects, aquatic invertebrates, schooling fish, rodents, and bats, it is often impossible or highly
impractical to identify individual specimens. These species are therefore maintained, acquisitioned, and
disposed of as a group or colony. Therefore, when this A/D Policy refers to animals or specimens, it is in
reference to both individuals and groups/colonies.
III. Germplasm: Acquisition and disposition of germplasm should follow the same guidelines outlined in
this document if its intended use is to create live animal(s). Ownership of germplasm and any resulting
animals should be clearly defined. Institutions acquiring or dispositioning germplasm or any animal parts
or samples should consider not only its current use, but also future possible uses as new technologies
become available.
IV(a). General Acquisitions: Animals are to be acquisitioned into an AZA member institutions collection if
the following conditions are met:

1. Acquisitions must meet the requirements of all applicable local, state, federal and international
regulations and laws.
2. The Director or Chief Executive Officer of the institution is charged with the final authority and
responsibility for the monitoring and implementation of all acquisitions.
3. Acquisitions must be consistent with the mission of the institution, as reflected in its Institutional
Collection Plan, by addressing its exhibition/education, conservation, and/or scientific goals.
4. Animals that are acquired for the collection, permanently or temporarily, must be listed on
institutional records. All records should follow the Standards for Data Entry and Maintenance of
North American Zoo and Aquarium Animal Records Databases.
5. Animals may be acquired temporarily for reasons such as, holding for governmental agencies,
rescue and/or rehabilitation, or special exhibits. Animals should only be accepted if they will not
jeopardize the health, care or maintenance of the animals in the permanent collection or the animal
being acquired.
6. The institution must have the necessary resources to support and provide for the professional care
and management of a species, so that the physical and social needs of both specimen and species
are met.
7. Attempts by members to circumvent AZA conservation programs in the acquisition of SSP animals
are detrimental to the Association and its conservation programs. Such action may be detrimental
to the species involved and is a violation of the Association's Code of Professional Ethics. All AZA
members must work through the SSP program in efforts to acquire SSP species and adhere to the
AZA Full Participation policy.
8. Animals are only to be acquired from sources that are known to operate legally and conduct their
business in a manner that reflects and/or supports the spirit and intent of the AZA Code of
Professional Ethics as well as this policy. Any convictions of state, federal, or international wildlife
laws should be reviewed, as well as any previous dealings with other AZA-accredited zoos and
aquariums.
9. When acquiring specimens managed by a PMP, institutions should consult with the PMP manager.
10. Institutions should consult AZA Wildlife Conservation and Management Committee (WCMC)-
approved Regional Collection Plans (RCPs) when making acquisition decisions.
IV(b). Acquisitions from the Wild: The maintenance of wild animal populations for education and wildlife
conservation purposes is a unique responsibility of AZA member zoos and aquariums. To accomplish
these goals, it may be necessary to acquire wild-caught specimens. Before acquiring animals from the
wild, institutions are encouraged to examine sources including other AZA institutions or regional
zoological associations.
When acquiring animals from the wild, careful consideration must be taken to evaluate the long-term
impacts on the wild population. Any capture of free-ranging animals should be done in accordance with all
local, state, federal, and international wildlife laws and regulations and not be detrimental to the long-term
viability of the species or the wild or captive population(s). In crisis situations, when the survival of a
population is at risk, rescue decisions are to be made on a case-by-case basis.
V(a). Disposition Requirements living animals: Successful conservation and animal management efforts
rely on the cooperation of many entities, both within and outside of AZA. While preference is given to
placing animals within AZA member institutions, it is important to foster a cooperative culture among
those who share the primary mission of AZA-accredited facilities. The AZA draws a strong distinction
between the mission, stated or otherwise, of non-AZA member organizations and the mission of
professionally managed zoological parks and aquariums accredited by the AZA.
An accredited AZA member balances public display, recreation, and entertainment with demonstrated
efforts in education, conservation, and science. While some non-AZA member organizations may meet
minimum daily standards of animal care for wildlife, the AZA recognizes that this, by itself, is insufficient to
warrant either AZA membership or participation in AZA's cooperative animal management programs.
When an animal is sent to a non-member of AZA, it is imperative that the member be confident that the
animal will be cared for properly.
Animals may only be disposed of from an AZA member institution's collection if the following
conditions are met:

1. Dispositions must meet the requirements of all applicable local, state, federal and international
regulations and laws.
2. The Director or Chief Executive Officer of the institution is charged with the final authority and
responsibility for the monitoring and implementation of all dispositions.
3. Any disposition must abide by the Mandatory Standards and General Advisories of the AZA Code
of Professional Ethics. Specifically, "a member shall make every effort to assure that all animals in
his/her collection and under his/her care are disposed of in a manner which meets the current
disposition standards of the Association and do not find their way into the hands of those not
qualified to care for them properly."
4. Non-domesticated animals shall not be disposed of at animal auctions. Additionally, animals shall
not be disposed of to any organization or individual that may use or sell the animal at an animal
auction. In transactions with AZA non-members, the recipient must ensure in writing that neither the
animal nor its offspring will be disposed of at a wild animal auction or to an individual or
organization that allows the hunting of the animal.
5. Animals shall not be disposed of to organizations or individuals that allow the hunting of these
animals or their offspring. This does not apply to individuals or organizations which allow the
hunting of only free-ranging game species (indigenous to North America) and established long-
introduced species such as, but not limited to, white-tailed deer, quail, rabbit, waterfowl, boar, ring-
necked pheasant, chukar, partridge, and trout. AZA distinguishes hunting/fishing for sport from
culling for sustainable population management and wildlife conservation purposes.
6. Attempts by members to circumvent AZA conservation programs in the disposition of SSP animals
are detrimental to the Association and its conservation programs. Such action may be detrimental
to the species involved and is a violation of the Association's Code of Professional Ethics. All AZA
members must work through the SSP program in efforts to deacquisition SSP species and adhere
to the AZA Full Participation policy.
7. Domesticated animals are to be disposed of in a manner consistent with acceptable farm practices
and subject to all relevant laws and regulations.
8. Live specimens may be released within native ranges, subject to all relevant laws and regulations.
Releases may be a part of a recovery program and any release must be compatible with the AZA
Guidelines for Reintroduction of Animals Born or Held in Captivity, dated June 3, 1992.
9. Detailed disposition records of all living or dead specimens must be maintained. Where applicable,
proper animal identification techniques should be utilized.
10. It is the obligation of every loaning institution to monitor, at least annually, the conditions of any
loaned specimens and the ability of the recipient to provide proper care. If the conditions and care
of animals are in violation of the loan agreement, it is the obligation of the loaning institution to
recall the animal. Furthermore, an institution's loaning policy must not be in conflict with this A/D
Policy.
11. If live specimens are euthanized, it must be done in accordance with the established policy of the
institution and the Report of the American Veterinary Medical Association Panel on Euthanasia
(Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 218 (5): 669-696, 2001).
12. In dispositions to non-AZA members, the non-AZA member's mission (stated or implied) must not
be in conflict with the mission of AZA, or with this A/D Policy.
13. In dispositions to non-AZA member facilities that are open to the public, the non-AZA member must
balance public display, recreation, and entertainment with demonstrated efforts in conservation,
education, and science.
14. In dispositions to non-AZA members, the AZA members must be convinced that the recipient has
the expertise, records management practices, financial stability, facilities, and resources required to
properly care for and maintain the animals and their offspring. It is recommended that this
documentation be kept in the permanent record of the animals at the AZA member institution.
15. If living animals are sent to a non-AZA member research institution, the institution must be
registered under the Animal Welfare Act by the U.S. Department of Agriculture Animal and Plant
Health Inspection Service. For international transactions, the receiving facility should be registered
by that country's equivalent body with enforcement over animal welfare.
16. No animal disposition should occur if it would create a health or safety risk (to the animal or
humans) or have a negative impact on the conservation of the species.

17. Inherently dangerous wild animals or invasive species should not be dispositioned to the pet trade
or those unqualified to care for them.
18. Under no circumstances should any primates be dispositioned to a private individual or to the pet
trade.
19. Fish and aquatic invertebrate species that meet ANY of the following are inappropriate to be
disposed of to private individuals or the pet trade:
a. species that grow too large to be housed in a 72-inch long, 180 gallon aquarium (the largest tank
commonly sold in retail stores)
b. species that require extraordinary life support equipment to maintain an appropriate captive
environment (e.g., cold water fish and invertebrates)
c. species deemed invasive (e.g., snakeheads)
d. species capable of inflicting a serious bite or venomous sting (e.g., piranha, lion fish, blue-ringed
octopus)
e. species of wildlife conservation concern
20. When dispositioning specimens managed by a PMP, institutions should consult with the PMP
manager.
21. Institutions should consult WCMC-approved RCPs when making disposition decisions.
V(b). Disposition Requirements dead specimens: Dead specimens (including animal parts and
samples) are only to be disposed of from an AZA member institution's collection if the following conditions
are met:
1. Dispositions of dead specimens must meet the requirements of all applicable local, state, federal
and international regulations and laws.
2. Maximum utilization is to be made of the remains, which could include use in educational programs
or exhibits.
3. Consideration is given to scientific projects that provide data for species management and/or
conservation.
4. Records (including ownership information) are to be kept on all dispositions, including animal body
parts, when possible.
5. SSP and TAG necropsy protocols are to be accommodated insofar as possible.
VI. Transaction Forms: AZA member institutions will develop transaction forms to record animal
acquisitions and dispositions. These forms will require the potential recipient or provider to adhere to the
AZA Code of Professional Ethics, the AZA Acquisition/Disposition Policy, and all relevant AZA and
member policies, procedures and guidelines. In addition, transaction forms must insist on compliance with
the applicable laws and regulations of local, state, federal and international authorities.

Appendix C: Recommended Quarantine Procedures

Quarantine facility: A separate quarantine facility, with the ability to accommodate mammals, birds,
reptiles, amphibians, and fish should exist. If a specific quarantine facility is not present, then newly
acquired animals should be isolated from the established collection in such a manner as to prohibit
physical contact, to prevent disease transmission, and to avoid aerosol and drainage contamination.
Such separation should be obligatory for primates, small mammals, birds, and reptiles, and attempted
wherever possible with larger mammals such as large ungulates and carnivores, marine mammals, and
cetaceans. If the receiving institution lacks appropriate facilities for isolation of large primates, pre-
shipment quarantine at an AZA or AALAS accredited institution may be applied to the receiving
institutions protocol. In such a case, shipment must take place in isolation from other primates. More
stringent local, state, or federal regulations take precedence over these recommendations.
Quarantine length: Quarantine for all species should be under the supervision of a veterinarian and
consist of a minimum of 30 days (unless otherwise directed by the staff veterinarian). Mammals: If during
the 30-day quarantine period, additional mammals of the same order are introduced into a designated
quarantine area, the 30-day period must begin over again. However, the addition of mammals of a
different order to those already in quarantine will not have an adverse impact on the originally quarantined
mammals. Birds, Reptiles, Amphibians, or Fish: The 30-day quarantine period must be closed for each of
the above Classes. Therefore, the addition of any new birds into a bird quarantine area requires that the
30-day quarantine period begin again on the date of the addition of the new birds. The same applies for
reptiles, amphibians, or fish.
Quarantine personnel: A keeper should be designated to care only for quarantined animals or a keeper
should attend quarantined animals only after fulfilling responsibilities for resident species. Equipment
used to feed and clean animals in quarantine should be used only with these animals. If this is not
possible, then equipment must be cleaned with an appropriate disinfectant (as designated by the
veterinarian supervising quarantine) before use with post-quarantine animals.
Institutions must take precautions to minimize the risk of exposure of animal care personnel to
zoonotic diseases that may be present in newly acquired animals. These precautions should include the
use of disinfectant foot baths, wearing of appropriate protective clothing and masks in some cases, and
minimizing physical exposure in some species; e.g., primates, by the use of chemical rather than physical
restraint. A tuberculin testing/surveillance program must be established for zoo/aquarium employees in
order to ensure the health of both the employees and the animal collection.
Quarantine protocol: During this period, certain prophylactic measures should be instituted. Individual
fecal samples or representative samples from large numbers of individuals housed in a limited area (e.g.,
birds of the same species in an aviary or frogs in a terrarium) should be collected at least twice and
examined for gastrointestinal parasites. Treatment should be prescribed by the attending veterinarian.
Ideally, release from quarantine should be dependent on obtaining two negative fecal results spaced a
minimum of two weeks apart either initially or after parasiticide treatment. In addition, all animals should
be evaluated for ectoparasites and treated accordingly.
Vaccinations should be updated as appropriate for each species. If the animal arrives without a
vaccination history, it should be treated as an immunologically naive animal and given an appropriate
series of vaccinations. Whenever possible, blood should be collected and sera banked. Either a -94F
(-70C) frost-free freezer or a -4F (-20C) freezer that is not frost-free should be available to save sera.
Such sera could provide an important resource for retrospective disease evaluation.
The quarantine period also represents an opportunity to, where possible, permanently identify all
unmarked animals when anesthetized or restrained (e.g., tattoo, ear notch, ear tag, etc.). Also, whenever
animals are restrained or immobilized, a complete physical, including a dental examination, should be
performed. Complete medical records should be maintained and available for all animals during the
quarantine period. Animals that die during quarantine should have a necropsy performed under the
supervision of a veterinarian and representative tissues submitted for histopathologic examination.
Quarantine procedures: The following are recommendations and suggestions for appropriate quarantine
procedures for chimpanzees:

Required:
1. Direct and floatation fecals as described above
2. A minimum of 2 negative tuberculin tests using a tuberculin containing at least 1,500
units/0.1ml (e.g., Mammalian Human Isolate, Coopers Animal Health) or other appropriate
regimen as necessary for the species in question
3. CBC/sera chemistry panel
4. Culture of feces for Salmonella/Shigella/Campylobacter
5. For appropriate species (e.g., Old World monkeys) serology for Herpesvirus simiae (Herpes
B)
Strongly Recommended:
1. Chest radiographs
2. Appropriate viral panels (SIV, retrovirus type D)
3. Urinalysis

Appendix D: Program Animal Position Statement

The Conservation Education Committee (CEC) of the Association of Zoos and Aquariums supports
the appropriate use of program animals as an important and powerful educational tool that provides a
variety of benefits to zoo and aquarium educators seeking to convey cognitive and affective (emotional)
messages about conservation and wildlife. Utilizing these animals allows educators to strongly engage
audiences. As discussed below, the use of program animals has been demonstrated to result in
lengthened learning periods, increased knowledge acquisition and retention, enhanced environmental
attitudes, and the creation of positive perceptions concerning zoo and aquarium animals.
Audience engagement: Zoos and aquariums are ideal venues for developing emotional ties to wildlife
and fostering an appreciation for the natural world. However, developing and delivering effective
educational messages in the free-choice learning environments of zoos and aquariums is a difficult task.
Zoo and aquarium educators are constantly challenged to develop methods for engaging and teaching
visitors who often view a trip to the zoo as a social or recreational experience (Morgan and Hodgkinson
1999). The use of program animals can provide the compelling experience necessary to attract and
maintain personal connections with visitors of all motivations, thus preparing them for learning and
reflection on their own relationships with nature.
Program animals are powerful catalysts for learning for a variety of reasons. They are generally
active, easily viewed, and usually presented in close proximity to the public. These factors have proven to
contribute to increasing the length of time that people spend watching animals in zoo exhibits (Wolf and
Tymitz 1981; Bitgood, Patterson and Benefield, 1986, 1988). In addition, the provocative nature of a
handled animal likely plays an important role in captivating a visitor. In two studies (Povey and Rios 2001;
Povey 2002), visitors viewed animals three and four times longer while they were being presented in
demonstrations outside of their enclosure with an educator than while they were on exhibit. Clearly, the
use of program animals in shows or informal presentations is effective in lengthening the potential time
period for learning and overall impact.
Program animals also provide the opportunity to personalize the learning experience, tailoring the
teaching session to what interests the visitors. Traditional graphics offer little opportunity for this level of
personalization of information delivery and are frequently not read by visitors (Churchman 1985; Johnston
1998). For example, Povey (2001) found that only 25% of visitors to an animal exhibit read the
accompanying graphic; whereas, 45% of visitors watching the same animal handled in an educational
presentation asked at least one question and some asked as many as seven questions. Having an animal
accompany the educator allowed the visitors to make specific inquiries about topics in which they were
interested.
Knowledge acquisition: Improving our visitors' knowledge and understanding regarding wildlife and
wildlife conservation is a fundamental goal for many zoo educators using program animals. A growing
body of evidence supports the validity of using program animals to enhance delivery of these cognitive
messages as well.
MacMillen (1994) found that the use of live animals in a zoomobile outreach program significantly
enhanced cognitive learning in a vertebrate classification unit for sixth grade students.
Sherwood et al. (1989) compared the use of live horseshoe crabs and sea stars to the use of
dried specimens in an aquarium education program and demonstrated that students made the
greatest cognitive gains when exposed to programs utilizing the live animals.
Povey and Rios (2002) noted that in response to an open-ended survey question (Before I saw
this animal, I never realized that), visitors watching a presentation utilizing a program animal
provided 69% cognitive responses (i.e., something they learned) versus 9% made by visitors
viewing the same animal in its exhibit (who primarily responded with observations).
Povey (2002) recorded a marked difference in learning between visitors observing animals on
exhibit versus being handled during informal presentations. Visitors to demonstrations utilizing a
raven and radiated tortoises were able to answer questions correctly at a rate as much as eleven
times higher than visitors to the exhibits.
Enhanced environmental attitudes: Program animals have been clearly demonstrated to increase
affective learning and attitudinal change.

Studies by Yerke and Burns (1991) and Davison et al. (1993) evaluated the effect live animal
shows had on visitor attitudes. Both found their shows successfully influenced attitudes about
conservation and stewardship.
Yerke and Burns (1993) also evaluated a live bird outreach program presented to Oregon fifth-
graders and recorded a significant increase in students' environmental attitudes after the
presentations.
Sherwood et al. (1989) found that students who handled live invertebrates in an education
program demonstrated both short and long-term attitudinal changes as compared to those who
only had exposure to dried specimens.
Povey and Rios (2002) examined the role program animals play in helping visitors develop
positive feelings about the care and well-being of zoo animals.
As observed by Wolf and Tymitz (1981), zoo visitors are deeply concerned with the welfare of zoo
animals and desire evidence that they receive personalized care.
Conclusion: Creating positive impressions of aquarium and zoo animals, and wildlife in general, is crucial
to the fundamental mission of zoological institutions. Although additional research will help us delve
further into this area, the existing research supports the conclusion that program animals are an important
tool for conveying both cognitive and affective messages regarding animals and the need to conserve
wildlife and wild places.

Appendix E: Developing an Institutional Program Animal Policy

Membership in AZA requires that an institution meet the AZA Accreditation Standards collectively
developed by our professional colleagues. Standards guide all aspects of an institution's operations;
however, the accreditation commission has asserted that ensuring that member institutions demonstrate
the highest standards of animal care is a top priority. Another fundamental AZA criterion for membership
is that education be affirmed as core to an institutions mission. All accredited public institutions are
expected to develop a written education plan and to regularly evaluate program effectiveness.
The inclusion of animals (native, exotic and domestic) in educational presentations, when done
correctly, is a powerful tool. CEC's Program Animal Position Statement (Appendix D) describes the
research underpinning the appropriate use of program animals as an important and powerful educational
tool that provides a variety of benefits to zoo and aquarium educators seeking to convey cognitive and
affective messages about conservation and wildlife. Ongoing research, such as AZA's Multi-Institutional
Research Project (MIRP) and research conducted by individual AZA institutions will help zoo educators to
determine whether the use of program animals conveys intended and conflicting messages and to modify
and improve programs accordingly.
When utilizing program animals our responsibility is to meet both our high standards of animal care
and our educational goals. Additionally, as animal management professionals, we must critically address
both the species' conservation needs and the welfare of the individual animal. Because "wild creatures
differ endlessly," in their forms, needs, behavior, limitations and abilities (Conway 1995), AZA, through its
Animal Welfare Committee, has recently given the responsibility to develop taxon-specific animal welfare
standards to the Taxon Advisory Groups (TAG) and Species Survival Plan Program (SSP). Experts
within each TAG or SSP, along with their education advisors, are charged with assessing all aspects of
the taxons biological and social needs and developing animal care standards that include specifications
concerning their use as program animals.
However, even the most exacting standards cannot address the individual choices faced by each
AZA institution. Therefore, each institution is required to develop a program animal policy that articulates
and evaluates program benefits. The following recommendations are offered to assist each institution in
formulating its own Institutional Program Animal Policy.
The policy development process: Within each institution, key stakeholders should be included in the
development of that institution's policy, including, but not limited to representatives from:
The Education Department
The Animal Husbandry Department
The Veterinary and Animal Health Department
The Conservation and Science Department
Any animal show staff (if in a separate department)
Departments that frequently request special program animal situations (e.g., special events,
development, marketing, zoo or aquarium society, administration)
Additionally, staff from all levels of the organization should be involved in this development (e.g.,
curators, keepers, education managers, interpreters, volunteer coordinators).
To develop a comprehensive Program Animal Policy, we recommend that the following components
be included:
I. Philosophy: In general, the position of the AZA is that the use of animals in up close and personal
settings, including animal contact, can be extremely positive and powerful, as long as:
The use and setting is appropriate.
Animal and human welfare is considered at all times.
The animal is used in a respectful, safe manner and in a manner that does not misrepresent or
degrade the animal.
A meaningful conservation message is an integral component. Read the AZA Board-approved
Conservation Messages.
Suitable species and individual specimens are used.
Institutional program animal policies should include a philosophical statement addressing the above,
and should relate the use of program animals to the institution's overall mission statement.

II. Appropriate settings: The Program Animal Policy should include a listing of all settings both on and
off site, where program animal use is permitted. This will clearly vary among institutions. Each institution's
policy should include a comprehensive list of settings specific to that institution. Some institutions may
have separate policies for each setting; others may address the various settings within the same policy.
Examples of settings include:
On-site programming
Informal and non-registrants:
On-grounds programming with animals being brought out (demonstrations, lectures, parties,
special events, and media)
Children's zoos and contact yards
Behind-the-scenes open houses
Shows
Touch pools
Formal (registration involved) and controlled settings:
School group programs
Summer Camps
Overnights
Birthday parties
Offsite and outreach:
PR events (TV, radio)
Fundraising events
Field programs involving the public
School visits
Library visits
Nursing Home visits (therapy)
Hospital visits
Senior Centers
Civic Group events
In some cases, policies will differ from setting to setting (e.g., on-site and off-site use with media).
These settings should be addressed separately, and should reflect specific animal health issues,
assessment of stress in these situations, limitations, and restrictions.
III. Compliance with regulations: All AZA institutions housing mammals are regulated by the USDAs
Animal Welfare Act. Other federal regulations, such as the Marine Mammal Protection Act, may apply.
Additionally, many states, and some cities, have regulations that apply to animal contact situations.
Similarly, all accredited institutions are bound by the AZA Code of Professional Ethics. It is expected that
the Institution Program Animal Policy address compliance with appropriate regulations and AZA
Accreditation Standards.
IV. Collection planning: All AZA-accredited institutions should have a collection planning process in
place. Program animals are part of an institution's overall collection and must be included in the overall
collection planning process. The AZA Guide to Accreditation contains specific requirements for the
institution collection plan. For more information about collection planning in general, please see the
Collection Management pages in the Members Only section of the AZA website (www.aza.org). The
following recommendations apply to program animals:
1. Listing of approved program animals (to be periodically amended as collection changes).
Justification of each species should be based upon criteria such as:
a. Temperament and suitability for program use
b. Husbandry requirements
c. Husbandry expertise
d. Veterinary issues and concerns
e. Ease and means of acquisition / disposition
f. Educational value and intended conservation message
g. Conservation Status
h. Compliance with TAG and SSP guidelines and policies

2. General guidelines as to how each species (and, where necessary, for each individual) will be
presented to the public, and in what settings
3. The collection planning section should reference the institution's acquisition and disposition
policies.
V. Conservation education message: As noted in the AZA Accreditation Standards, if animal
demonstrations are part of an institution's programs, an educational and conservation message must be
an integral component. The Program Animal Policy should address the specific messages related to the
use of program animals, as well as the need to be cautious about hidden or conflicting messages (e.g.,
petting an animal while stating verbally that it makes a poor pet). This section may include or reference
the AZA Conservation Messages.
Although education value and messages should be part of the general collection planning process,
this aspect is so critical to the use of program animals that it deserves additional attention. In addition, it is
highly recommended to encourage the use of biofacts in addition to or in place of the live animals.
Whenever possible, evaluation of the effectiveness of presenting program animals should be built into
education programs.
VI. Human health and safety: The safety of our staff and the public is one of the greatest concerns in
working with program animals. Although extremely valuable as educational and affective experiences,
contact with animals poses certain risks to the handler and the public. Therefore, the human health and
safety section of the policy should address:
Minimization of the possibility of disease transfer from non-human animals to humans, and vice-
versa (e.g., hand washing stations, no touch policies, use of hand sanitizer).
Safety issues related to handlers' personal attire and behavior (e.g., discourage or prohibit use of
long earrings, perfume and cologne, not eating or drinking around animals, smoking etc.).
AZAs Animal Contact Policy provides guidelines in this area; these guidelines were incorporated into
accreditation standards in 1998.
VII. Animal health and welfare: Animal health and welfare are the highest priority of AZA-accredited
institutions. As a result, the Institutional Program Animal Policy should make a strong statement on the
importance of animal welfare. The policy should address:
General housing, husbandry, and animal health concerns (e.g. that the housing and husbandry
for program animals meets or exceeds general standards and that the needs of the individual
animal, such as enrichment and visual cover, are accommodated).
The empowerment of handlers to make decisions related to animal health and welfare; such as
withdrawing animals from a situation if safety or health is in danger of being compromised.
Requirements for supervision of contact areas and touch tanks by trained staff and volunteers.
Frequent evaluation of human/animal interactions to assess safety, health, welfare, etc.
Ensure that the level of health care for the program animals is consistent with that of other
animals in the collection.
VIII. Taxon specific protocols: The AZA encourages institutions to provide taxonomically specific
protocols, either at the genus or species level, or the specimen, or individual, level. Some taxon-specific
guidelines may affect the use of program animals. To develop these, institutions refer to the Conservation
Programs Database. Taxon-specific protocols should address:
How to remove the individual animal from and return it to its permanent enclosure.
How to crate and transport animals.
Signs of stress, stress factors and discomfort behaviors.
Situation specific handling protocols (e.g., whether or not animal is allowed to be touched by the
public, and how to handle in such situations)
Guidelines for disinfecting surfaces, transport carriers, enclosures, etc.
Animal facts and conservation information.
Limitations and restrictions regarding ambient temperatures and or weather conditions.
Time limitations (including animal rotation and rest periods, as appropriate, duration of time each
animal can participate, and restrictions on travel distances).

The numbers of trained personnel required to ensure the health and welfare of the animals,
handlers and public.
Taxon-specific guidelines on animal health.
IX. Logistics, and managing the program: The Institutional Policy should address a number of logistical
issues related to program animals, including:
Where and how the program animal collection will be housed, including any quarantine and
separation for animals used off-site.
Procedures for requesting animals, including the approval process and decision making process.
Accurate documentation and availability of records, including procedures for documenting animal
usage, animal behavior, and any other concerns that arise.
X. Staff training: Thorough training for all handling staff (keepers, educators, and volunteers, and
docents) is clearly critical. Staff training is such a large issue that many institutions may have separate
training protocols and procedures. Specific training protocols can be included in the Institutional Program
Animal Policy or reference can be made that a separate training protocol exists. It is recommended that
the training section of the policy address:
Personnel authorized to handle and present animals.
Handling protocol during quarantine.
The process for training, qualifying and assessing handlers including who is authorized to train
handlers.
The frequency of required re-training sessions for handlers.
Personnel authorized to train animals and training protocols.
The process for addressing substandard performance and noncompliance with established
procedures.
Medical testing and vaccinations required for handlers (e.g., TB testing, tetanus shots, rabies
vaccinations, routine fecal cultures, physical exams, etc.).
Training content (e.g., taxonomically specific protocols, natural history, relevant conservation
education messages, presentation techniques, interpretive techniques).
Protocols to reduce disease transmission (e.g., zoonotic disease transmission, proper hygiene
and hand washing requirements, as noted in AZA's Animal Contact Policy).
Procedures for reporting injuries to the animals, handling personnel or public.
Visitor management (e.g., ensuring visitors' interact appropriately with animals, do not eat or drink
around the animal, etc.).
XI. Review of institutional policies: All policies should be reviewed regularly. Accountability and
ramifications of policy violations should be addressed as well (e.g., retraining, revocation of handling
privileges, etc.). Institutional policies should address how frequently the Program Animal Policy will be
reviewed and revised, and how accountability will be maintained.
XII. TAG and SSP recommendations: Following development of taxon-specific recommendations from
each TAG and SSP, the institution policy should include a statement regarding compliance with these
recommendations. If the institution chooses not to follow these specific recommendations, a brief
statement providing rationale is recommended.

Appendix F. AZA Chimpanzee SSP Steering Committee and Advisors

(Current as of 12/31/09)
Name Position Institution

Steve Ross Chair Lincoln Park Zoo
Lisa New Vice Chair Knoxville Zoo
Rebecca Gullott Secretary Maryland Zoo
Leslie Field Sacramento Zoo
Jennifer Ireland North Carolina Zoo
Liz Harmon Kansas City Zoo
Jennie McNary Los Angeles Zoo
Terry Wolf Lion Country Safari
Ingrid Porton Saint Louis Zoo
Lee Ann Rottman Lowry Park Zoo
Syd Tanner Little Rock Zoo
Jennifer Davis Oklahoma City Zoo
Hollie Colahan Houston Zoo
Kay Backues Veterinary Co-advisor Tulsa Zoo
Tammie Bettinger Sanctuary Advisor Disneys Animal Kingdom
Mollie Bloomsmith Research Advisor Yerkes Primate Research Center
Todd Bowsher Contraception Advisor Dallas Zoo
Kathryn Gamble Veterinary Co-advisor Lincoln Park Zoo
Elizabeth Lonsdorf In-situ advisor Lincoln Park Zoo
Terri Hunnicutt Husbandry Advisor Saint Louis Zoo
Lorraine Smith Legislative Advisor

Appendix G. Necropsy Protocol for Great Apes

Adapted from the American Association of Zoo Veterinarians (AAZV) Standardized Necropsy Report for
Great Apes and Other Primates. Contact AAZV (www.aazv.org) for unedited standardized necropsy
report. Original, unedited necropsy form available from the American Association of Zoo Veterinarians
(AAZV, 581705 White Oak Road, Yulee, FL 32097; Telephone: 904-225-3275).
STANDARDIZED NECROPSY REPORT FOR GREAT APES AND OTHER PRIMATES
WORK SHEET
Pathology # _____________Species_______________ Date___________
Animal #/Name __________________ Sex _______ Age(DOB)___________
Date of Death/Euthanasia ______________ Time ________ (am/pm)
Method of euthanasia _______________
Time and date of necropsy ___________ Duration of necropsy ______
Post mortem state _________________ Nutritional state _________
Pathologist or prosector and institution:_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
Gross diagnoses:
________________________________________________________________________________________
Abstract of clinical history:
__________________________________________________________________________________________
Please check tissues submitted for histopathology.
External Examination (note evidence of trauma, exudates, diarrhea etc):
_____Hair coat:
_____Skin:
_____Scent glands:
_____Mammary glands and nipples:
_____Umbilicus (see neonatal/fetal protocol):
_____Subcutis (note: fat, edema, hemorrhage, parasites):
______Mucous membranes (note: color, exudates):
Ocular or nasal exudate?:
_____Eyes and ears:
____ External genitalia:
_____Oral cavity, cheek pouches and pharynx:
Dentition:
_____Tongue:
Musculoskeletal System:
Note fractures, dislocations, malformations?:
____ Bone growth plate (rib, distal femur, sternabra)
_____Muscles:
_____Bone marrow (femur):
_____Joints (note any exudates or arthritis):
_____Spinal column (examine ventral aspect when viscera removed)
Examination of the neck region

_____Larynx:
_____Laryngeal air sac (see protocol for great apes):
_____Mandibular and parotid salivary glands:
_____Thyroids and parathyroids:
_____Cervical/cranial lymph nodes:
_____Esophagus:

Thoracic Cavity:
Note any effusions, adhesions, or hemorrhage:
Note amount, color and any lesions in mediastinal and coronary fat:
_____Thymus
_____Heart (see attached protocol):
_____Great vessels:
_____Trachea and bronchi
_____Lungs:
_____Esophagus:
_____Lymph nodes:
Abdominal Cavity:
Note any effusions, adhesions, or hemorrhage:
Note amount, color or lesions in omental, mesenteric and perirenal fat:
_____Liver and gall bladder:

_____Stomach:
_____Pancreas:
_____Duodenum:
_____Jejunum:
_____Ileum:
_____Cecum and (in apes) appendix:
_____Colon and rectum:
_____Lymph nodes:
_____Kidneys and ureters:
_____Adrenals:
_____Gonads:
_____Uterus:
_____Bladder and urethra:
_____Male accessory sex glands (prostate and seminal vesicles):
_____Umbilical vessels, round ligaments of bladder in neonates:
_____Abdominal aorta and caudal vena cava:
Nervous System:
_____Meninges:
_____Brain:
_____Pituitary:
_____Trigeminal (gasserian) ganglia:
_____Spinal cord (please note to which lumbar segment the cord extends):
_____Brachial plexus and sciatic nerves:
Is there an identifiable pineal gland?
WEIGHTS AND MEASUREMENTS (if at all possible, in grams, kilograms and cm, please):
Body weight:______________________________________________
Lymphoid tissue:
R. axillary LN _________ L. axillary LN _________
R. inguinal LN _________ L. inguinal LN ________
Jejunal LN _____________
Spleen _________________ Thymus _________________
Abdominal Organs:
Liver __________________
R. kidney ______________ L. kidney ______________
R. adrenal _____________ L. adrenal _____________
R. ovary _______________ L. ovary ______________
uterus _______________________________________________
placenta (weigh and measure disc(s)):

Thoracic Organs:
Heart wt.__________________ Thymus (above)
Height:_________________ Circumference at coronary groove:________
Left Vent.thickness__________ Rt. vent.thickness____________
Septum______________
Lt. AV valve circ.________ Rt. AV valve circ._________
Aortic valve circ.________ Pulmonary v. circ._________
R. lung ________________ L. lung _______________
Other:
Brain __________________ Tumors? ________________
R. testes (wt.)____________ L. Testes ______________
Length x dia.___________ ____________________
Penis (length x diameter) ___________________________
STANDARDIZED BODY MEASUREMENTS FOR NONHUMAN PRIMATES INCLUDING APES:

crown rump length (linear)___________________________________
crown rump length (curvalinear)______________________________
cranial circumference (above brow ridge)____________________
Length of head (tip of jaw to top of crest)_________________
width of brow ridge_________________________________________
chest circumference (at nipples)____________________________
abdominal circumference (at umbilicus)______________________
Left arm: Shoulder-elbow:___________________________________
elbow-wrist:______________________________________
wrist-tip of middle finger:_______________________
pollex:__________________________________________
Right arm: Shoulder elbow:_________________________________
elbow- wrist:____________________________________
wrist-tip of middle finger:______________________
pollex:__________________________________________
Left leg: hip-knee:___________________________________________
knee-ankle:________________________________________
ankle-tip of big toe:______________________________
heel-tip of big toe:_______________________________
hallux:__________________________________________
Right leg: hip-knee:________________________________________
knee-ankle:_______________________________________
ankle-tip of big toe:_____________________________
heel-tip of big toe:________________________________
hallux:__________________________________________
ANCILLARY DIAGNOSTICS (CHECK IF PERFORMED, GIVE RESULTS IF AVAILABLE, NOTE LOCATION IF

STORED, OR TO WHOM SENT):
Cultures:
bacterial:
fungal:
viral:
Heart blood:
serum:
filter paper blot:
Parasitology:
feces:
direct smears:
parasites:
Tissues fixed in 10% formalin (list tissues or specific lesions other than those checked above):
Tissue fixed for EM:_________________ Tissue frozen:________
Impression smears:____________________________________________

Comments (interpretation of gross findings):
NONHUMAN PRIMATE POST MORTEM EXAMINATION

Collection of tissues
Tissues to be fixed in 10% neutral buffered formalin should be less than 0.5cm thick to ensure penetration of
formalin for fixation. Initial fixation should be in a volume of fixative 10 times the volume of the tissues. Agitation
of the tissues during the first 24 hours is helpful to prevent pieces from sticking together and inhibiting fixation.
Once fixed tissues may be transferred to a smaller volume for shipment.
Labeling of specimen
If pieces are small or not reaily recognizable (e.g., individual lymph nodes) they can be fixed in cassettes or
embedding bags or wrapped in tissue paper labeled with pencil or indelible ink. Another alternative is to submit
lymph nodes with attached identifiable tissue, e.g., axillary with brachial plexus, inguinal with skin, bronchial with
bronchus, etc. Sections from hollow viscera or skin can be stretched flat on paper (serosal side down) and
allowed to adhere momentarily before being placed in formalin with the piece of paper. The paper can be
labeled with the location from which the tissue came. The formalin container should be labeled with the animals
name or number, the age and sex, the date and location, and the name of the prosector.
Tissues to be preserved
From the skin submit at least one piece without lesions, a nipple and mammary gland tissue, scent gland, any
lesions and subcutaneous or ectoparasites.
Axillary and or inguinal lymph nodes may be submitted whole from small animals and should be sectioned
transversely through the hilus in large primates.
Mandibular, and/or parotid salivary glands should be sectioned to include lymph node with the former and ear
canal with the latter.
Thyroids, if it is a small primate, may be left attached to the larynx and submitted with the base of tongue,
pharynx, esophagus as a block. In larger primates, take sections transversely through the thyroids trying to
incorporate the parathyroids in the section.
Trachea and esophagus and laryngeal air sac sections may be submitted as a block.
Cervical lymph nodes may be submitted whole if small or sectioned transversely.
A single sternebra should be preserved as a source of bone marrow. A marrow touch imprint may be made
from the cut sternebra and air dried for marrow cytology.
Section of thymus or anterior pericardium should be taken perpendicular to the front of the heart.
Heart: weigh and measure heart after opening but before sectioning. Please fix longitudinal sections of left
and right ventricles with attached valves and atria in large animals and the whole heart opened and cleaned of
blood clots in smaller animals. In tiny animals the heart may be fixed whole after cutting the tip off the apex.
Lungs: if possible inflate at least one lobe by instilling clean buffered formalin into the bronchus under slight
pressure. Fix at least one lobe from each side and preferably samples from all lobes. In little animals the entire
"pluck" may be fixed after perfusion and sampling for etiologic agents.
Gastrointestinal Track: Take sections of all levels of the GI track including: gastric cardia, fundus and pylorus
(or presaccus, saccus, tubular stomach and pylorus in colobines); duodenum at the level of the bile duct with
pancreas attached; anterior, middle and distal jejunum; ileum; ileocecocolic junction with attached nodes; cecum
and (in apes) appendix; ascending, transverse and descending colon. Open loops of bowel to allow exposure of
the mucosa and allow serosa to adhere momentarily to a piece of paper before placing both bowel section and
paper in formalin; or gently inject formalin into closed loops.
Liver: Take sections from at least two lobes, one of which should include bile ducts and gall bladder.
Spleen: Make sure sections of spleen are very thin if the spleen is congested; formalin does not penetrate as
far in very bloody tissues.
Mesenteric (jejunal) nodes: section transversely; colonic nodes may be left with colon sections.
Kidneys: Take sections from each kidney: Cut the left one longitudinally and the right one transversely so
they will be identifiable (or label). Please make sure the sections extend from the capsule to the renal pelvis.
Adrenals: small adrenals may be fixed whole but larger ones should be sectioned (left longitudinal and right
transversely) making sure to use a very sharp knife or new scalpel blade so as not to squash these very soft
glands.
Bladder: sections should include fundus and trigone. Please make sure to include round ligaments (umbilical
arteries) in neonates.
Male gonads and accessory sex glands: Section the prostate with the urethra and seminal vesicles
transversely. Section testes transversely. If testes are being collected perimortem for sperm retrieval, try to
arrange to take small sections before the gonads are manipulated.
Female reproductive organs: Fix the vulva, vagina, cervix, uterus and ovaries from small and medium sized

primates as a block (after making a longitudinal slit to allow penetration of formalin). Rectum and bladder
(opened) can also be included in this block. In somewhat larger animals make a longitudinal section through the
entire track. In great apes make transverse sections of each part of the track and the ovaries. (See reproductive
track protocols from the contraception advisory group if animals are to be included in their database).
Gravid females: weigh and measure placenta and fetus. Perform a post mortem examination of the fetus.
Take sections of placental disc(s) from periphery and center and from extraplacental fetal membranes. Take
sections of major organs and tissues of fetus (see fetal protocol).
Nervous system: The brain should be fixed whole, or, if too large for containers, may be cut in half
longitudinally (preferred) or transversely through the midbrain. It should be allowed to fix for at least a week
before sectioning transversely (coronally) into 0.5-1.0cm slabs to look for lesions. Submit the entire brain if
possible and let the pathologist do the sectioning, otherwise submit slabs from medulla, pons and cerebellum,
midbrain, thalamus and hypothalamus, prefrontal, frontal, parietal and occipital cortex including hippocampus
and lateral ventricles with choroid plexus (Note: limited sectioning is advised if the brain is to go to the great ape
brain project).
Pituitary and pineal gland: Fix the pituitary whole. Put pituitary in an embedding bag if it is small. If the pineal
gland is identifiable, fix it whole. Also remove and fix the Gasserian (trigeminal) ganglia.
Spinal chord - if clinical signs warrant, remove the cord intact and preserve it whole or in anatomic segments
(e.g., cervical, anterior thoracic etc.) (please note to which lumbar vertebra the cord extends)
Bone marrow: Take bone marrow by splitting or sawing across the femur, to get a cylinder and then make
parallel longitudinal cuts to the marrow. Try to fix complete cross sections or hemisections of the marrow.
Additional sections for fixation: Take sections of any and all lesions, putting them in embedding bags if they
need special labeling.
NOTE: It is better to save "too many" tissues than to risk missing essential lesions or details.
CARDIAC EXAMINATION FOR GREAT APES (AND OTHER PRIMATES IN WHICH

CARDIAC DISEASE IS PRESENT)
Examine heart in situ.
Check for position, pericardial effusions or adhesions. Collect for culture or fluid analysis if present.
Remove heart and entire thoracic aorta with "pluck".
Examine heart again. Check the ligamentum (ductus) arteriosus for patency. Check position of great vessels.
Open pulmonary arteries to check for thrombi.
Remove heart and thoracic aorta from the rest of the "pluck". Examine for presence of coronary fat. Examine
external surfaces especially coronary vessels. Note relative filling of atria and state of contracture (diastole or systole
at death) and general morphology (the apex should be fairly pointed)
Measure length from apex to top of atria. Measure circumference at base of atria (around coronary groove).
Open the heart:
Begin at the tip of the right auricle and open the atrium parallel to the coronary groove continuing into the vena
cava. Remove blood clot and examine the AV valves. Cut into the right ventricle following the caudal aspect of the
septum and continuing around the apex to the anterior side and out the pulmonary artery. Remove postmortem clots
and examine inner surface.
Open left atrium beginning at the auricle and continuing out the pulmonary vein. Remove any clots and examine
valves. Open the left ventricle starting on the caudal aspect and following the septum as for the right ventricle. When
you reach the anterior aspect, clear the lumen of blood and identify the aortic outflow. Continue the incision around
the front of the heart and into the aorta, taking care to cut between the pulmonary artery and the auricle. Open the
entire length of the thoracic aorta.
Remove all postmortem clots. You may gently wash the heart in cool water or dilute formalin to better visualize
the internal structures and valves. Sever the thoracic aorta from the heart just behind the brachiocephalic arteries.
Examine intima and adventitia and section aorta for formalin. Sever the pulmonary vessel and vena cava close to the
heart.
Weigh and measure the heart and record.
Measure thickness of right and left ventricular free walls and the septum septum (on the left side, do not measure
directly through a papillary muscle). Measure the circumference of the right and left AV valves and the aortic and
pulmonary valves using a pliable measuring tape (or use a piece of string and measure the string on a straight ruler).
Take sections for histopathology:
Sections should include:
Longitudinal sections of left and right ventricles AV valves and atria.
Sections of myocardium from left and right ventricles including coronary vessels. Sections of papillary
muscles.
Sections from the septum at the vase of the AV valves (area of conduction system).

Fix the entire heart, if possible, by immersion in 10% buffered formalin for more detailed examination by a cardiac
pathologist.
Other vessels:
Make sure to examine the abdominal aorta, iliac arteries and popliteal arteries (frequent sites of aneurysms
in humans). Note the location and severity of fibrous plaques, fatty streaks and atherosclerotic plaques and
presence of mineralization or thrombosis (a diagram of lesion location would be helpful).
POSTMORTEM EXAMINATION OF PRIMATE FETUSES AND NEONATES

External examination of the fetus:
Weigh the fetus and make body measurements.
Measure the placental disc(s) and weigh the placenta. Note umbilical length and vascular patterns on the
placenta. Note presence of hair, freshness of the carcass (if dam is dead, is the decomposition of the fetus
consistent with that of the dam) and any evidence of meconium staining.
Internal examination of the fetus:
Follow the general primate necropsy protocol.
Make sure to note whether ductus arteriosus and foramen ovale are patent. Note also whether the lungs are
aerated and to what extent.
Note dentition / erupted teeth.
Identify umbilical vein and arteries and check for inflammation. Make sure to save umbilicus and round
ligaments of the bladder (umbilical arteries) for histology.
Make sure to save a growth plate (e.g., costochondral junction or distal femur) in formalin.
Cultures:
Take as many of the following as possible: Stomach content or swab of the mucosa; lung; spleen or liver;
placental disc and extra-placental membranes. Do both aerobic and anaerobic cultures if possible.
POST MORTEM EXAMINATION OF THE AIR SACS OF ORANGUTANS AND OTHER PRIMATES
Examine the skin over the air sac for signs of fistulae or scars. Note thickness of the skin and presence of fat
or muscle overlying the air sac..
Incise the air sac through the skin on the anterior aspect.
Note color and texture of air sac lining.
Note presence or absence of exudate.
Note presence or absence of compartmentalization by connective tissue and presence of diverticulae.
Note extent of air sacs (e.g., under clavicle, into axilla, etc.)
Identify and describe the opening(s) from the larynx into the air sac (e.g., single slit-like opening, paired oval
openings etc.). Note any exudate.
Note the location, size and shape of the opening in the larynx (e.g., from lateral saccules or centrally at the
base of the epiglottis). Note length of any connecting channel between larynx and airsac and direction a
probe should take to go from inside the larynx to the air sac.
Cultures:
Please culture several different sites within the air sacs (we need data to determine normal flora and if
infections are "homogeneous" or compartmentalized).

Appendix H: Example Enrichment List for Chimpanzees

Approved Enrichment List
Category A - Scents and Spices Category B - Change in Diet Presentation

Allspice Mint Cooked fruit
Basil Nutmeg Cooked vegetables
Bay leaves Onion Diced fruit
Catnip Oregano Diced vegetables
Chives Pepper Dried fruit
Cilantro Rosemary Dried vegetables
Cinnamon Sage Food floating in water
Citrus zest Tabasco Food frozen in ice
Cloves Tea Frozen fruit
Dill Thyme Frozen vegetables
Diluted Essential Oils Grated produce
Extracts Mashed potatoes
Fennel Pureed produce
Garlic Whole fruit
Hunting scents Whole vegetables
Lavender Skewered on branches
Category C - Food Items Category D - Browse

Ice treats Alder Hibiscus
Kool-Aid - sugar free (can be used for ice treats) Amelanchier Linden
Jello - sugar free Apple Mulberry
Applesauce (see forage sheet for amount) Arborvitae Pear
Jam - sugar free (see forage sheet for amount) Aspen Poplar
Raisins (see forage sheet for amount) Bamboo Raspberry
Frozen blueberries (see forage sheet for amount) Blackberry Redbud
Cereal - sugar free (see forage sheet for amount) Box Elder Rose
Pasta (see forage sheet for amount) Cottonwood Silver Maple
Popcorn - air popped (see forage sheet for amount) Dogwood Snowberry
Rice (see forage sheet for amount) Elm Sugar Maple
Steel Cut Oatmeal (see forage sheet for amount) Ficus Willow
Grapevine (also see Browse List on LPZ
Honey (1-2 x's per month, 1 TBSP per animal) Intranet)
Peanut butter (1-2 x's per month, 1 TBSP per animal) Grass Hay
Peanuts (10 per animal) Hackberry
Sunflower Seeds (1 TBSP per animal) Hawthorn
Crickets (10 per animal)
Waxworms (10 per animal)
Mealworms (10 per animal)
Category E - Occupational Category F - Attached Furniture

Stream of water from hose or sprinkler Bamboo wind chimes hung
Termite mound (non-study periods only) Black rubber tubs hung
Food in brown paper bags Boomer balls hung

Food buried in browse Cargo nets hung

Food buried in substrate 15 gallon barrel hung *
Food in burlap (prevent ingestion of burlap) 30 gallon barrel hung *
Food in gourds 55 gallon barrel hung *
Food in puzzle feeders Hammock hung *
Food wrapped in large greens / browse leaves Pallets hung *
Food in baskets * Ropes hung *
Kids activity toys * (prevent ingestion) Spools hung *
Bubbles (must have MSDS for approval) * Tires hung *
(All hung furniture must be done safely to prevent
Crayola chalk & crayons (Chimpanzees only) * entrapment)
Crayola washable finger paint (Chimpanzees only) *
Category G - Manipulable Objects Category H - Paper

Black rubber tubs (prevent ingestion) Cardboard boxes*
Boomer balls Cardboard tubes* (NO toilet paper rolls)
Branches (non-toxic) Paper bags*
(Only brown boxes, paper bags, tubes with no printing
Grapevine balls & with
staples, stickers, tape removed can be used on
Grapevine wreaths exhibit)
15 gallon barrel * Paper cones *
30 gallon barrel * Shredded paper *
55 gallon barrel * Phone book pages *
Kiddy pools * (prevent ingestion)
Kids activity toys * (prevent ingestion)
Spools * (prevent ingestion)
Tires * (prevent ingestion)
Combs * (prevent ingestion)
Deckbrushes * (prevent ingestion)
Hairbrushes * (prevent ingestion)
Toothbrushes * (prevent ingestion)
Kong toys * (prevent ingestion)
Category I - Approved Source Substrate Category O - Other Sensory Items

Branches (non-toxic) Auditory
Grass clippings Plastic mirror * (prevent ingestion)
Grass Hay Alpaca hair (properly cleaned per SMRH protocol)
Leaf litter (non-toxic) Snake sheds (properly cleaned per SMRH protocol)
Blankets * (NOT JoJo's troop) (prevent ingestion
Peat moss others)
Sand Burlap (prevent ingestion)
Sheets * (NOT JoJo's troop) (prevent ingestion
Snow others)
Sod Tablecloths* (prevent ingestion)
Sphagnum moss (Only brown, tan & green tablecloths used on exhibit)
Straw
Top soil
Wood shavings (non-toxic)
Wood wool * Non-naturalistic items. To be used only in holdings
or Auxiliary exhibit. If used in holdings, make sure
Category J - Keepers' choice the items cannot be taken back into A, B, C exhibits.

Appendix I: Example of Enrichment Calendar
Sunday Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday
1 E 2 F or A 3 G or B
4 D 5 I 6 J 7 H 8 O 9 A 10 B
11 D 12 C 13 E 14 H 15 F or J 16 G or C 17 I
18 D 19 J 20 O 21 H 22 A 23 B 24 C
25 D 26 E 27 F or A 28 H 29 G or B 30 I 31 J
DIRECT OBSERVATION INDIRECT OBSERVATION

5 Significant interaction (>5 minutes & returned) A Significant contact
4 Minimal interaction (<5 minutes) B Contact (knocked over, moved)
3 Looked at / No interaction C No evidence of contact
2 Fled from / Avoided
1 No reaction

Appendix J: Apes in Media and Commercial Performances

White Paper: Apes in Media and Commercial Performances
Approved by the AZA Board of Directors in July 2008
www.aza.org/white-paper-apes-in-media-and-commercial-performances/
Policy on the Presentation of Animals

The Association of Zoos & Aquariums (AZA) is dedicated to excellence in animal care and welfare,
conservation, education, research, and the presentation of animals in ways that inspire respect for wildlife
and nature. AZAs position is that animals should always be presented in adherence to the following core
principles:
1. Animal and human health, safety, and welfare are never compromised.
2. Education and a meaningful conservation message are integral components of the presentation.
3. The individual animals involved are consistently maintained in a manner that meets their social,
physical, behavioral, and nutritional needs.
Apes in Media and Commercial Performances

Apes, including chimpanzees, gorillas, bonobos, orangutans, and gibbons, are intelligent, sensitive, long-
lived and highly social animals. As humans closest living relatives, they are fascinating, and ape infants
are magnetically appealing. These attributes have made apes popular as performers in commercial
entertainment and advertising programs. But this popularity and attractiveness masks the often cruel and
dangerous practices commonly required to make apes compliant in such appearances.
This White Paper presents a brief summary of the justification for:
Eliminating the use of apes as performers in commercial entertainment.
Establishing standards to ensure that public presentations and interpretive programs portray apes
respectfully and accurately represent the biology and conservation status of apes.
Rationale
1. An ape infant normally remains with its mother for several years in a group environment, learning
social skills essential for development of normal adult behaviors. But apes destined to be performers
or photographic props are typically removed from their mother shortly after birth and, thus, are denied
opportunities for normal social and psychological development. This has several commercial
advantages to an owner. Infants removed in this manner will be appealing and remain submissive for
handling by humans for several years. Mothers whose infants are removed will resume sexual cycling
and produce another profitable infant quickly.
But apes raised by humans in the absence of other members of their species will not normally acquire
the skills to be socially and sexually competent as juveniles and adults. They may never readjust to life
in a normal social group, and thus they are usually relegated to social and sexual isolation, which often
leads to abnormal behaviors such as self-mutilation. For these reasons, it typically is not feasible to
involve these individuals in conservation-based breeding programs.
2. Although endearing as infants, apes generally become physically powerful and unpredictable as they
near adulthood. Their continued use as performers or props is potentially very dangerous to their
handlers and audiences. Thus, handlers of ape performers often must use food deprivation, physical
abuse, continuous tranquilization, or even electric shock to maintain control. Additionally, the animals
may be modified to reduce their ability to cause harm, for example by removing their teeth. It should be
noted that the apparent smile of a performing chimpanzee is actually a well-documented expression
of fear. Such physical and psychological effects are difficult to alleviate even if the ape is rescued and
placed in a caring environment. More often however, when ape performers become too difficult to
handle, they lose their commercial value and are sold to roadside menageries with inexpert handlers

and often inhumane conditions.
3. Dressing apes in human clothing, or training them to engage in unnatural (usually human) behaviors,
while entertaining to some, inaccurately portrays their biology and conservation status. Since
conservation efforts rely on informed public opinion, these practices serve to undermine
communications vital to achieving conservation. The use of apes in advertisements and other
commercial performances can lead people to conclude falsely that apes make good pets.
4. Because apes and humans are genetically so similar, both are susceptible to many of the same
communicable diseases. Close and unprotected contact between performing apes, their handlers, and
audiences can threaten all with viral, bacterial, and parasite infection.
In summary, the use of apes in media and commercial performances should be eliminated.

Appendix K: Sample Behavioral Ethogram

Adapted from Ross (2009)
Behavior Code Definition Modifiers
Contact Aggression CA Aggressive behaviors that must involve some physical contact Recipient individual
between individuals. Includes, wrestling, lunge hit, grab, bite, and
scratch. May include pilo-erection.
Receive contact RC Receiving any of the above behaviors. Actor individual
aggression
Display DP Aggressive behavior without any clear and identifiable recipient. None
May include pilo-erection, and such behaviors as beating on or
moving inanimate objects, stomping, slapping, swaying, hooting,
chest-beat, or running. If these behaviors are directed towards an
individual, score as non-contact aggression (NC).
Non-contact NC Aggressive behaviors directed to another individual, that do not Recipient individual
aggression include any physical contact. Includes lunge, rush, and threats.
Receive non-contact RN Receiving any of the above non-contact aggression behaviors Actor individual
aggression
Submissive behavior SB Includes crouching, bobbing, fleeing, avoiding, fear grimacing, None
bared teeth screaming and pant grunting.
Mount MT Includes any component of a series of sexual behaviors including Recipient individual
mounting, being mounted, thrusting, being thrust-mounted, and
complete copulation. Ventral surface of one animal may be in
contact with dorsal/ventral surface of another briefly or for
extended period. May occur with or without full penetration. Also
includes unsuccessful copulations due to incorrect orientation or
unreceptive partner.
Sexual examination SX Visual, oral or manual inspection of the ano-genital region of Recipient individual
another individual or self. This should not be confused with
grooming or manipulation of the anus to obtain feces.
Receive sexual RX Receiving sexual examination (see above) Actor individual
examination
Masturbation MS Using a body part, object, or part of the cage to stimulate own None
genitals. Be sure to separate this from grooming of the genitals or
manipulation of the genitals to obtain feces.
Other Sexual OS Other sexual behaviors not named above. May include sexual Recipient individual
solicit, sexual present, or individual-specific behaviors related to a
state of oestrus, such as rapid tapping of the posterior.
Coprophagy CO Deliberate ingestion of feces. Can be from themselves or another None
individual.
Regurgitation and RR Deliberate regurgitation accomplished by various methods None
reingestion including lowering head to the ground, bobbing head, or more
subtle techniques. The vomitus may be retained within the mouth
or expelled into hand or substrate before being reingested.
Urophagy UR Deliberate ingestion of urine. Can be from themselves or another
individual.
Self-pluck PK Pulling out own hair; may be ingested. None
Hair-pluck HP Pulling out another animal's hair; may be ingested. Recipient individual
Receive pluck RP Recipient of the above behavior Actor Indv
Idiosyncratic body IB Repeated and sustained manipulation of a specific area of own None
manipulation body, such as eye-poking, self-patting or ear-covering.
Idiosyncratic body- IM Repeated and sustained movement of body, such as rocking or None
movement head-bobbing, with a definitive repetitive pattern.
Social Play SP Non-aggressive interactions involving two or more animals. Never Play partner
accompanied by pilo-erection or agonism; may be accompanied by
play-face and/or laughing. Includes rough-and-tumble play (fast-
paced, vigorous locomotion, wrestling, hitting, pulling, chasing,
biting, etc.), quiet play (slower-paced, gentle-tickling, finger and toe
manipulation, etc.) and also includes social play initiation.
Social Groom SG Picking through hair or at skin of another individual and removing Grooming partner
debris with hands and/or mouth. Does not include pulling hair.

Receive social groom RG Receiving social groom (see above). If two individuals are mutually Grooming partner
grooming, score SG.
Self-directed behavior SF Picking through own hair or skin and removing debris with hand None
and/or mouth. Does not include pulling hair or scratching.
Scratching SC Raking of fingernails over skin; may be smaller movements of None
hand, or larger sweeping scratching involving arm movement.
Solitary Play PA Individual may play quietly by itself with hands, fingers and toes, None
other body parts, or an object may be handled and be the focus of
play. The individual may be tossing, holding, wearing, carrying,
chewing or making other contact with the object while making
playful movements. May be either boisterous or quiet. May also
include active play involving swing, dangling, leaping, somersaults,
running, gamboling, pirouetting and bouncing. Vigorous
locomotion or rotation of the whole body or its parts is typical.
Feed/Forage FF Individual is handling, manipulating or ingesting food items such as None
primate chow, biscuits, fruits, vegetables, natural vegetation, or
enrichment. Includes foraging through bedding or other materials
in search of desired food items.
Drink DK Individual is ingesting water. May be from nipple lixit, ground None
source, waterfall or standing water pool. Does not include
ingestion of urine.
Horizontal Locomotion HL Individual changes location in horizontal space by walking, running, None
crawling, etc. The change in location must be greater than one
body length.
Vertical Locomotion VL Individual changes location in vertical space by climbing, sliding, None
jumping, etc. The change in location must be greater than one
body height.
Object manipulation OE Individual visually examines or manipulates various items. A Object
and examination modifier is selected to delineate the form/function of the
manipulation:
Fishing (use of an item to probe an opening).
Hammering (use of a solid object to strike another solid
object)
Food (manipulation or examination of a food item that
does not include ingestion)
Browse (manipulation or examination of sticks, hay, straw,
mulch, twigs. Not in the context of fishing or nest-
building)
Environment (manipulation or examination of physical
environment including walls, glass, trees, mesh, etc.)
Nest (manipulation of materials to construct or modify a
nest site).
Enrichment (manipulation of items that are clearly
supplementary enrichment items added to the
environment (boxes, toys, etc. but not food)
Animal (manipulation or examination of an animal dead
or alive such as a squirrel or rabbit)
Manipulation of food items is scored as feed/forage (FF), unless

those food items are clearly not being ingested (ie. manipulating
banana peel without eating it). May include picking up, pushing,
examining, picking at, licking, scratching, pulling, ripping, and/or
shaking.
Innapropriate Infant IA Individual handles infant in rough or inappropriate manner such as Individual being handled
handling dragging infant by the leg. Subject does not have to be the mother
of the infant. This behavior is non-aggressive in natureotherwise
score as contact aggression towards infant.
Carry other CR Individual bears the full weight of another individual and is moving. Individual being carried
Stationary individuals will not be scored as carrying. Can be
carrying other on the back, head, side or other body parts as long
as the individual being carried is completely off the ground.

Be carried BC Individual is off the ground and completely upon another moving Individual doing to the
individual. carrying
Nursing NU Individual has infant at breast and is allowing the infant to suckle. None
Suckle SU Individual has mouth in contact with mothers nipple and is None
receiving or attempting to receive milk.
Attention to keeper AK Individual maintains gaze directed towards keeper area. Must be None
area maintained for longer than 3 seconds. Ape must be within 1 meter
of the barrier.
Attention to public area AP Individual maintains gaze directed towards member of the public. None
Must be maintained for longer than 3 seconds. Ape must be within
1 meter of the glass/public barrier. If keeper or staff is in the public
area and is the object of attention, score as this behavior (AP).
Attention to exhibit AE Individual maintains gaze directed into immediately adjacent exhibit None
space such as from the indoor dayroom, through the glass into the
outdoor yard.
Inactive IN Individual is not moving and not active in any other behaviors None
listed. Eyes may be open or closed.
Out of view OV Individuals behavior is not able to be identified due to visual None
obstruction.

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Chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes) Care Manual

Chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes) Care Manual

Association of Zoos and Aquariums 2

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9.2 Institutional Program Animal Plans ............................................................................................ 67

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Genus, Species, and Status

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Figure 1: Great Ape Phylogenetic Tree

Graphic courtesy of Great Ape Trust:

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Chapter 1. Ambient Environment

1.1 Temperature and Humidity

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should be included in a documented preventative maintenance program. Special equipment should be

1.3 Water and Air Quality

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1.4 Sound and Vibration

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Chapter 2. Habitat Design and Containment

2.1 Space and Complexity

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2.2 Safety and Containment

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Emergency cooling/heating equipment

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Chapter 4. Social Environment

4.1 Group Structure and Size

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4.2 Influence of Others and Conspecifics

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4.3 Introductions and Reintroductions

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5.1 Nutritional Requirements

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5.3 Nutritional Evaluations

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Chapter 6. Veterinary Care

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