Machining PDF
Machining PDF
Machining PDF
In MACHINING, the shape, size, finish and accuracy are obtained by removing the
excess material from the workpiece surface.
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Prof. S.K. Choudhury, Mechanical Engineering Department, IIT Kanpur
Advantages and Disadvantages of Machining
Variety of work materials can be machined.
o Most frequently used to cut metals
Used to create a
round hole, usually
by means of a
rotating tool (drill
bit) with two
cutting edges
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Prof. S.K. Choudhury, Mechanical Engineering Department, IIT Kanpur
Chip Formation
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Prof. S.K. Choudhury, Mechanical Engineering Department, IIT Kanpur
Machining Conditions in Turning
Feed Rate - fr
fr = N f
f = feed per rev
Depth of Cut - d
D Df
d= o
2
Machining Time - Tm
L
Spindle Speed - N Tm =
fr
L = length of cut
v Material Removal Rate - MRR
N=
Do
MRR = v f d
v = cutting speed
Do = outer diameter
Prof. S.K. Choudhury, Mechanical
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Engineering Department, IIT Kanpur
Cutting Tools & Types of Machining
Orthogonal Cutting
Oblique Cutting
Orthogonal Cutting
Cutting edge is straight, parallel to the original
plane surface at the work piece and perpendicular
to the direction of cutting.
Oblique Cutting
Cutting edge of the tool is inclined to the line
normal to the cutting direction. In actual
machining, Turning, Milling etc/ cutting
operations are oblique cutting
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Prof. S.K. Choudhury, Mechanical Engineering Department, IIT Kanpur
Tool Angles
0 or negative rake angles employed on carbide,
ceramic and similar hard tools
Increases tool forces, but keeps the tool in
compression and provides added support to the
cutting edge
Particularly important in making intermittent cuts
and in absorbing impact during initial toolworkpiece
contact
Rake angles: 5 15 degrees for HSS; Lower for
harder materials.
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Prof. S.K. Choudhury, Mechanical Engineering Department, IIT Kanpur
Tool Angles
Flank Angle
Minimizes rubbing of flank faces with the
machined surface
Higher values of flank angle will reduce
rubbing but also weaken the tool
Flank angles have no influence on cutting
forces and power. So angles large enough to
avoid rubbing is generally chosen
Angle: 5 12 degrees for HSS; higher for
softer and lower for brittle material
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Prof. S.K. Choudhury, Mechanical Engineering Department, IIT Kanpur
Tool Angles
Cutting Edge Angles:
Provided to clear the cutting edge from the machined surface
To Reduce tool chatter
Affects tool life as well as surface finish
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Prof. S.K. Choudhury, Mechanical Engineering Department, IIT Kanpur
Tool Parameter
Nose radius
Improves tool life and surface finish.
Large nose radius
Increases cutting forces and power
Causes chatter (self-excited vibration)
Recommended value: 1 3 mm
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Prof. S.K. Choudhury, Mechanical Engineering Department, IIT Kanpur
Single-Point Tool Geometry
in Coordinate System (ASA)
Semi-continuous - saw-
tooth appearance
Cyclical chip forms with
alternating high shear
strain then low shear
strain
Associated with difficult-
to-machine metals at
high cutting speeds
(a) Schematic illustration of the action of a chip breaker. Note that the chip breaker decreases the
radius of curvature of the chip. (b) Chip breaker clamped on the rake face of a cutting tool.
(c) Grooves in cutting tools acting as chip breakers.
(a) Schematic illustration of a turning operation showing depth of cut, d, and feed, f.
Cutting speed is the surface speed of the workpiece at the Fc, is the cutting force, Ft is
the thrust or feed force (in the direction of feed, Fr is the radial force that tends to push
the tool away from the workpiece being machined. Compare this figure with Fig. 20.11
for a two-dimensional cutting operation.
F - Frictional force between the tool and chip F, N, Fs, and Fn cannot be
N - Normal force directly measured
- Friction angle;
Fs - Shear force
Fn - Normal force to shear Forces acting on the tool
FC - Cutting force that can be measured:
Ft - Thrust force Cutting force Fc and Thrust
Shear plane angle force Ft
Rake angle
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Prof. S.K. Choudhury, Mechanical Engineering Department, IIT Kanpur
Forces Acting on Chip
(a) Friction force F and Normal force to friction N
(b) Shear force Fs and Normal force to shear Fn
Coefficient of friction between tool
and chip F
=
N
Fs
Shear stress acting along the shear plane S =
As
t ow
where As = area of the shear
Prof. S.K.plane
Choudhury, Mechanical As =
Engineering Department, IIT Kanpur sin 32
Merchants Circle Diagram
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Prof. S.K. Choudhury, Mechanical Engineering Department, IIT Kanpur
,
Merchants First Equation
Shear force, FS along the shear plane can be written as:
Where, is the width of the workpiece under cutting, t1 is the uncut thickness,
and S is the shear strength of the work material
is the Shear Plane Angle, which is the
angle between the shear plane and the
velocity vector.
As per nature of taking path of least resistance, during cutting takes a value such that least amount of
energy is consumed, or P = Min.
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Prof. S.K. Choudhury, Mechanical Engineering Department, IIT Kanpur
Shear Stress and Normal Stress
Shear Stress, Where, is the area of shear plane
Normal Stress:
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Prof. S.K. Choudhury, Mechanical Engineering Department, IIT Kanpur
Shear Strain in Chip Formation
Forces in Drilling
Forces in Milling
MILLING DRILLING
TURNING
BROACHING PLANING
SAWING
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Prof. S.K. Choudhury, Mechanical Engineering Department, IIT Kanpur
Tool Wear & Tool Life
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Prof. S.K. Choudhury, Mechanical Engineering Department, IIT Kanpur
Tool Wear & Tool Life
The progressive wear of a cutting
tool first occurs on the flank face in
the form of a wear land due to
rubbing against the newly machined
surface known as FLANK WEAR.
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Prof. S.K. Choudhury, Mechanical Engineering Department, IIT Kanpur
Tool Wear & Tool Life
A tool that no longer performs the desired function (and not unable to cut at
all) is said to be reached the end of its usual life or failed. At this point the
tool is resharpened and used again.
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Prof. S.K. Choudhury, Mechanical Engineering Department, IIT Kanpur
Tool Wear & Tool Life
where v = cutting speed; T = tool life; and n and C are parameters that depend
on feed, depth of cut, work material, tooling material, and the tool life
criterion used
n is the slope of the plot
C is the intercept on the speed axis
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Prof. S.K. Choudhury, Mechanical Engineering Department, IIT Kanpur
Tool Wear & Tool Life
The variables, Speed, Feed and Depth of cut affect the
material removal rate and hence have a direct effect on
the production cost.
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Prof. S.K. Choudhury, Mechanical Engineering Department, IIT Kanpur
Tool Wear & Tool Life
Effect of Tool Geometry: Rake angle
Increasing the Rake Angle reduces the cutting force and the
cutting temperature resulting in increased tool life.
However, for large rake angle, tool edge is weakened
resulting in increased wear due to chipping of the cutting
edge.
Increased wear is also due to larger temperature since the
tool becomes thinner and the area available for heat
conduction reduces.
These conditions give an optimum rake angle which gives
the maximum tool life.
Higher is the strength of workpiece material, lower is the
value of optimum rake angle.
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Prof. S.K. Choudhury, Mechanical Engineering Department, IIT Kanpur
Tool Wear & Tool Life
Effect of Tool Geometry: Flank angle
Increasing the Flank Angle reduces rubbing between tool
and the workpiece and hence improves the tool life.
However, too high a value of flank angle weakens the tool
and reduces its life.
Optimum value of flank angles is also affected by the feed
rates. Higher is the feed rate, lower is the optimum value.
The flank angle, therefore, should be low if higher feed
values are to be used.
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Prof. S.K. Choudhury, Mechanical Engineering Department, IIT Kanpur
Tool Wear & Tool Life
Tool and Work Material
Tool material must be at least 35% to 58% harder than the
work material.
High strain rate of deformation and elevated temperature of
the work material further complicate the situation.
With the increase in machining speed, the temperature of
both the tool and the work material increases, resulting in a
lowered effective hardness of the tool. Unfortunately, the
expected fall in the hardness in the work material is
neutralized by the higher rate of deformation.
In general, harder the work material, higher will be the tool
wear rate and lower will be the tool life.
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Prof. S.K. Choudhury, Mechanical Engineering Department, IIT Kanpur
Tool Materials
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Prof. S.K. Choudhury, Mechanical Engineering Department, IIT Kanpur
Lathe Machine
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Prof. S.K. Choudhury, Mechanical Engineering Department, IIT Kanpur
Tool-work interaction
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Prof. S.K. Choudhury, Mechanical Engineering Department, IIT Kanpur
Operations Performed on Lathe
(Other than Turning)
Facing: Tool is fed radially inward to create a flat surface
Boring: The tool is fed parallel to the axis of rotation on the inside
diameter of an existing hole
Drilling: Drill is fed into the rotating work along its axis
(b)Chuck
(a)Holding the work between centers
(c)Collet
(d)Face plate
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Prof. S.K. Choudhury, Mechanical Engineering Department, IIT Kanpur
Boring
Difference between boring and turning:
Boring is performed on the inside diameter of an existing hole.
Turning is performed on the outside diameter of an existing cylinder
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Prof. S.K. Choudhury, Mechanical Engineering Department, IIT Kanpur
Shaping and Planing
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Prof. S.K. Choudhury, Mechanical Engineering Department, IIT Kanpur
Drilling
Used for making (drilling) internal holes
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Prof. S.K. Choudhury, Mechanical Engineering Department, IIT Kanpur
Drilling Through or Blind Holes
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Prof. S.K. Choudhury, Mechanical Engineering Department, IIT Kanpur
Machining Operations Related to Drilling
Form of end
milling in which
the outside
periphery of a flat
part is cut
Another form of
end milling used to
mill shallow pockets
into flat parts
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Prof. S.K. Choudhury, Mechanical Engineering Department, IIT Kanpur
Down Milling
Cutting starts at the surface
where the chip is at its
thickest.
High impact forces require
rigid setup
Cutting force tends to push
the work piece down reducing
clamping requirements
Less chatter
Not suitable for work piece
with hard, abrasive scales, as
in hot worked metals, forgings
and castings.
Excessive tool wear
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Prof. S.K. Choudhury, Mechanical Engineering Department, IIT Kanpur
Milling Machines
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Prof. S.K. Choudhury, Mechanical Engineering Department, IIT Kanpur
Broaching