Micro Tub Ulos

The Preprophase Band of
Microtubules: Its Function as a

Cytokinetic Apparatus in Higher Plants
Yoshinobu Mineyuki
Department of Biological Science, Faculty of Science, Hiroshima University,
Kagamiyama 1-3-1, Higashi-Hiroshima 739-8526, Japan
Features, development, and functions of preprophase bands (PPBs) of microtubules

(MTs) are reviewed. The PPB is an array of cortical MTs in higher plants that appears in
G Pand prophase and predicts where the cell plate will be inserted (the division site).
Experimental obliteration of the PPB causes misplacement of cell plate insertion,
suggesting that the PPB is a determinant of the ultimate division site. Its development
contains two elementary processes: Broad PPB formation first fixes the axis of division
polarity in the cell, and PPB narrowing then defines the precise division site. The PPB
disappears at the prophaselprometaphasetransition stage, but it leaves information in
some yet unidentified form at the division site. This information assists correct insertion of
cell plates and maturation of new cell walls after cytokinesis. Several kinds of molecules
are reported to occur in PPBs, but their roles are not yet understood. Actin and cyclin-
dependent kinase homologs are suggested to be involved in the band narrowing MT,
which is essential for PPBs to mature at the division site. Other possible functions of the
PPB, such as premitotic nuclear positioning and prophase spindle orientation, are also
reviewed.
KEY WORDS: Actin, Cyclin-dependentkinase, Cytokinesis, Division site, Microtubule,
Plant cell, Preprophase band. 0 1999 Academic Press.
1. Introduction
The preprophase band (PPB) of microtubules (MTs) is a unique band of

cortical MTs encircling the nucleus in premitotic cells of higher plants
lnrernarional Review of C'ylology. Val. I87 1 Copyright 0 1999 by Academic Press.

0074-7696199 $30 00 All rights of reproduction in any form reserved.
2 YOSHINOBU MlNEYUKl
(Fig. 1). It is located in the cell cortex where fusion of the future cell plate
occurs at the end of mitosis. Using the electron microscope (EM), many
examples of PPBs were observed and the following possible functions of
PPBs have been proposed (Newcomb, 1969; Pickett-Heaps, 1974; Hepler
and Palevitz, 1974; Gunning and Hardham, 1982; Gunning, 1982): (i) a
source of tubulinslMTs for mitotic spindles (Pickett-Heaps and Northcote,
1966a); (ii) establishment of the division site (Pickett-Heaps and Northcote,
1966b); (iii) response of the premitotic cell to factors inducing polarization
FIG. 1 Mature PPBs in late prophase cells of onion root tips. (a) Stereo pair images of tubulin
immunotluoresccnce taken by a confocal laser scanning microscope. Note that the mature
PPB positions are a t right angles to the prophase spindle axis (arrows). Arrowhcads show
MTs connecting the PPB to the spindle pole region. Scale bar = 10 pm. (b) An electron
micrograph of a cross section of a mature PPB. CW, cell wall; N, nucleus. Large arrows
indicated smooth ER, and small arrows indicate small vesicles. Scale bar = 0.5 pm (photographs
by A. Nogami).
THE PREPROPHASE BAND OF MICROTUBULES 3
(Pickett-Heaps, 1969a,b,c, 1974); (iv) premitotic nuclear migration and/or
nuclear orientation (Burgess and Northcote, 1967; Jarosch, 1989, 1990);
(v) premitotic nuclear anchoring (Mineyuki and Furuya, 1986); (vi) mitotic
spindle orientation (Burgess and Northcote, 1967); (vii) localized cell wall
deposition (Packard and Stack, 1976; Galatis and Mitrakos, 1979);
(viii) guidance of edges of the growing cell plate (Gunning et al., 1978b);
(ix) prevention of the initiation of ingrowing cleavage furrow (OBrien,
1983); and (x) deposition of the MT-organizing center (MTOC) after cell
division (Hepler and Palevitz, 1974; Gunning et al., 1978b; Gunning, 1980).
PPB studies were systematically reviewed by Gunning (1982). Since then,
two reviews have appeared (Gunning and Wick, 1985; Wick, 1991). Ad-
vances in immunofluorescence microscopy (IFM), video and confocal mi-
croscopy, and microinjection techniques enable us to examine three-dimen-
sional localization of components of PPBs in cells (Lloyd et al., 1992;
Gunning, 1992; Mineyuki, 1993) and to observe the behavior of associated
molecules directly in a living cell (Zhang et al., 1990; Hepler el al., 1993).
The aim of this review is to present recent views of PPBs and their roles,
summarizing about 30 years of research on the topic.
II. The Division Site
A. Terminology
1. Division Site
Sometimes the term division site is used ambiguously as a place where
cell division takes place. In this review, the division site in higher plants is
defined as the cortical region where fusion of cell plate and parental cell
walls occurs at the end of cytokinesis (Gunning, 1982). In animals the
corresponding division site is the site where the cleavage furrow begins to
form at the cell surface.
2. Preprophase
The term preprophase was first introduced by Pickett-Heaps and North-
cote (1966a) to describe the stage of cell division cycle in which there is
visible activity or organization in preparation for cell division, i.e., formation
of the PPB. Pickett-Heaps (1969a) tried to define the stage of preprophase
in terms of the stage of chromosome condensation and characteristic ap-
pearance of the nucleolus and of a PPB. Although the idea that preprophase
equates with early prophase was implicit in some early E M works (Cron-
shaw and Esau, 1968; Esau and Gill, 1969; Roberts et aL, 1985; Apostolakos
and Galatis, 198Sa; Bakhuizen et al., 1985; Simmonds, 1986), many others
have described PPBs in interphase cells using a wide range of materials.
The early appearance of the PPB was confirmed by IFM (Wick and Duniec,
1983, 1984; Mineyuki et al., 198%). Now many workers agree that PPBs
are seen in most prophase cells and some interphase cells (see Section V).
It is therefore not appropriate to use the term preprophase to refer to a
specific stage of the cell cycle, such as the stage between G2 and prophase.
The term preprophase must be defined as a stage of a cell in which there
is a visible activity or organization related to the division site establishment,
i.e., formation of the PPB in higher plants and other kinds of apparatus
comparable to a PPB in lower plants.
3. Position versus Orientation

In this review, the terms position and orientation are used in the
narrow sense. For example, while the orientation of the cell plate is the same
in symmetrical transverse division (Fig. Sa) and asymmetrical transverse
division (Fig. 5b), the position of the cell plate is different in the two situa-
tions.
6. Division Site Regulation and Plant Morphogenesis
Many descriptive studies (Sinnott, 1960) documented the importance of

division site regulation in morphogenesis. This view has been questioned
since 1062 because some organogenesis can occur in the absence of cell
divisions (Haber, 1962; Lyndon, 1990) or in mutants with altered division
planes (Trass et al., 1995; Smith et al., 1996). However, the early view seems
to be true in the case of terminal cell differentiation (e.g., in stomatal
differentiation). Thus, the earliest sign of stomatal differentiation in onion
is the appearance of asymmetrical distribution of nucleus and cytoplasm
in the parental epidermal cell (Figs. 2b and 3). This cell divides asymmetri-
cally to produce a small apical cell, called the guard mother cell (GMC)
(Fig. 2c). Then, the GMC divides longitudinally to form two guard cells
(GCs) (Fig. 2e). When the nucleus in the epidermal cell is displaced by
basipetal centrifugation, the cell divides to form a small basal cell (Figs.
2g and 2h). However, neither the large apical cell nor the small basal cell
starts to differentiate (Fig. 2i). In order to differentiate a stoma, the apical
cell must divide again (Bunning and Biegert, 1953). A similar requirement
for asymmetrical division and subsequent cell differentiation is known in
pollen grain development (Bunning, 19.52).
C d e
a
Apical end 11
I GC GC
GC
Basal ei
lQ
9 h I
FIG. 2 Diagram illustrating Biinning and Biegerts (1953) observation on the stomatogenesis
of onion seedlings (a-f) and the experimental manipulation of stomatal differentiation using
basipetal centrifugation (a-g-h-i-j). (a) Elongated epidermal cell of cotyledon. The nucleus
(N) is in the center of the cell. (b) The nucleus migrates to the apical end. (c) The cell divides
asymmetrically to give rise to a small apical cell and a large basal cell. (d) The apical cell
(GMC; guard mother cell) grows. (e) The GMC divides longitudinally to give rise to two
guard cells (GCs). (f) The GCs grow and the intercellular space between these cells develops
to become a stomatal pore. (8) The elongated epidermal cell is centrifuged basipetally to
displace the nucleus to the basal part of the cell. (h) The nucleus divides in the basal part of
the cell to form a small basal cell and a large apical cell. (i) Neither the small basal cell nor
the large apical cell differentiates; they remain as epidermal cells. GMC and G C are shown
hatched. An arrow in front of the nucleus in a shows the direction of the nuclear migration.
An arrow with a small letter g shows the direction of the centrifugation (330-600 g for 30 min).
C. The Division Site Is Determined before Karyokinesis
The cytokinetic apparatus that establishes the division plane is quite differ-
ent in the plant and animal kingdoms. Insertion of the final division plane
in animal cells (cleavage furrow) is carried out by a contractile ring, an
array of actomyosin encircling the cell cortex (Mabuchi, 1986), whereas in
higher plants cell plate formation is achieved by a phragmoplast in which
MTs play an essential role (Gunning, 1982). While cleavage furrows start
on the cell surface and grow centripetally, cell plates usually originate in
the middle of the cell, between daughter nuclei, and grow centrifugally.
FIG.3 Asymmetrical PPBs in GMC formation of onion cotyledon epidermis. Tubulin immuno-
fluorcscence images of prophase cells with a migrating nucleus (a) and with a nucleus after
migration (c) (reproduced with permission from Mineyuki et aL, 1991. J . Plant Physiol. 138,
p. 645, Fig. Sc). (b) Hoechest fluorescence of the prophase nucleus in a. Note that the nuclear
migration in this cell takes place in midprophase. The longitudinal axis of the cotyledon is
vertically oricnted in the micrographs and the apical end of the cell is positioned toward the
top of the page. Brackets mark the cell limits. Note MTs that appear to link the perinuclear
MTs with the narrow PPB in the migrating nucleus (a) and that the distal pole is appressed
to the apical wall when the nucleus has reached the distal end of the cell (c). Nu, nucleus.
Scale bar = 10 ym. See detail in Mineyuki and Palevitz (1990) and Mineyuki ct al. (1991a).
The process of determination of the division site is also quite different

between animals and plants. Figure 4 shows differences between a sand
dollar egg and a Tradescantiu stamen hair cell after experimentally displac-
ing the mitotic apparatus to the distal region of the cell. Rappaports
(1986a,b) experiment shows that in sand dollar eggs, a mitotic apparatus
can cause a cleavage furrow to form any region of the cell cortex, and the
furrowing site is restricted only by the geometrical position of the mitotic
1 t
t
1.1.1
Animal Plant
FIG. 4 Effects of the displacement of mitotic apparatus on the position of the division plane
in the animal and plant cell. (Left) An animal case and (right) a plant case. Each panel shows
a sequence of events from metaphase (top), through anaphase just after the experimental
relocation of the mitotic apparatus and telophase, to the end of cytokinesis (bottom). (Animal)
Experiments with sand dollar (Echinarachnius parma) eggs (Rappaport and Rappaport, 1985;
this diagram is redrawn from Rappaport, 1986a, Fig. 2). When a sand dollar egg is confined
in a capillary (82-pm inner diameter) so that it is reshaped into a cylinder and the mitotic
apparatus is oriented parallel to the capillary axis, the sand dollar egg can divide normally
and a furrow forms midway between the asters. However, when the mitotic apparatus at early
anaphase is relocated by pushing the cell pole inward using a microneedle (direction is shown
by a transversely oriented arrow), the furrow that appears before experimental manipulation
disappears and the new furrow begins midway between asters of the relocated mitotic appara-
tus, and the cleavage furrow completes there. (Plant) Experiments with Tradescantia stamen
hair cell (Ota, 1961). A stamen hair cell divides in the middle of the cell in the normal
condition. When a stamen hair cell is centrifuged (35506. or less for 15 min) to displace the
mitotic apparatus in metaphase or early anaphase (right arrow shows the direction of the
centrifugation), cell plate formation starts between the daughter nuclei; however, the daughter
nuclei and the cell plate gradually move to the central part of the cell. Because the movement
of cell plate edge is faster than the nuclear movement, the growing cell plate is often U-shaped,
and finally the edge of the cell plate meets the site where it would have been inserted if there
had been no centrifugal treatment.
apparatus (at the limited stage of anaphase) within the cell. On the contrary,
Otas (1961) experiment suggests that the division site is predetermined
before displacement of the mitotic apparatus, i.e., before metaphase.
Ill. Features of the PPB
A. The PPB Is Positioned at the Ultimate Division Site
Documentation on positional consistency between PPBs and the division

site has accumulated for a variety of cell types. Figure 5 shows spatial
FIG. 5 Spatial relationship among PPBs (left), metaphase spindles (center), and cell plates
(right). (a) Symmetrical transverse division. (b) Asymmetrical transverse division. (c) Symmet-
rical longitudinal division of onion GMC. (d) Asymmetrical division to produce a grass SC.
PPB, preprophase band; MA, mitotic apparatus; CP, cell plate.
relationship among PPBs, metaphase spindles, and cell plates in four differ-
ent cell types. Because the orientation of an equatorial plane does not
always match that of a cell plate, a question arose whether a PPB predicts
the position of a metaphase equatorial plane or that of a cell plate. Using
onion GMCs, in which a cell plate is inserted longitudinally while the spindle
initially orients obliquely, Palevitz and Hepler (1974a) clearly demonstrated
that the PPB predicts the position of the cell plate but not the position of
the equatorial plane (Fig. 5c).
A partial inconsistency between the PPB and the final cell plate arrange-
ment has been found in divisions for triangular and lens-shaped subsidiary
cell and leaf hair cell formation of grasses (Galatis et al., 1983, 1984b; Cho
and Wick, 1989), in Marchantiu superficial thallus cells with incomplete
PPBs (Apostolakos and Galatis, 1985a,b),and in floating stomata of Anemia
(Galatis et al., 1986). However, their cell plate divergence can be explained
by the disturbance of premitotic polarity and/or space limitation, and thus
the generalization that the PPB site predicts where the attachment site of
the cell plate with the parental walls will be remains true.
B. PPB Orientation under Altered Cell Polarity

Mispositioning and/or misorientation of cell plates occurs in cells whose
PPB formation is interrupted by experimental (Mineyuki and Palevitz,
1990; Mineyuki et al., 1991b; Murata and Wada, 1991a) or genetic (Traas
et al., 1995) manipulations, indicating that PPBs are prerequisite for the
correct positioning of cell plates. However, it remained an open question
whether cell divisions with irregularly oriented division planes have PPBs.
An answer has been provided recently by means of two different ap-
proaches. Stomatogenesis in the hypocotyl of dark-grown Cucumis can be
induced by a pulsed red light treatment. Although the GMC does divide,
the orientation of its division is altered and irregularly oriented stomata
are produced. In this GMC division, PPBs are formed but their orientation is
also irregular, suggestingthat maloriented GMC division is due to preceding
abnormal orientation of PPBs (Kazama and Mineyuki, 1993,1997). Abnor-
mal orientation of PPBs and division plane is also seen in a maize mutant
tangled I (L. Smith, personal communication).
C. Fine Structure of the PPB

The structure of a PPB is illustrated in Figure 6. The width of a mature
PPB is usually 2-4 pm, but broader PPBs have been reported (e.g., suspen-
sion and protoplast culture cells: Simmonds et al., 1983; Simmonds and
FIG. 6 A diagram illustrating a PPB. (a) A late prophase cell. (h) A midlongitudinal section
o f a. (c) A midtransverse section of a. (d) The enlarged PPB regions (enclosed by a rectangle)
in h. ( e ) The cell just after cytokinesis. Cell plate attaches to the former PPB region. N,
nucleus; CP, cell plate; CW, cell wall; AF, actin filament; MT, microtuhule; PM, plasma
membrane; V, vesicle.
Setterfield, 1986; Falconer and Seagull, 1985; Gorst et al., 1986; GMCs:
Busby and Gunning, 1980; Galatis, 1982; Cho and Wick, 1989; Mullinax
and Palevitz, 1989; Galatis et al., 1982). The width of mature PPBs is
different among cell types even in the same tissue and it can also be changed
by the environmental conditions. While a mean width of asymmetrical
PPBs to produce GMCs is 4 pm, that of symmetrical PPBs is 6 p m in onion
epidermis (Mineyuki and Palevitz, 1990). While the mean width of PPBs
in the dark-induced cell division of Adinnturn protonemata is 13.3 pm, that
in blue light-induced cell division is 9.5 pm (Murata and Wada, 1989).
While protoplasts of Helianfhus cultured in liquid have a narrow PPB,
those in agarose beads have only broad PPBs (Caumont ef al., 1997).
The MT number in a cross section of a PPB varies from a single layer
with <20 MTs (epidermal cells in capsule of Funnria; Sack and Paolillo,
1985) to >10 MT layers with >250 MTs (onion root; Nogami et al., 1996).
The depth of PPBs in a cross section varies from <0.15 pm to 2.6 pm. A
comparative study on MT numbers of PPBs among Triticum species of
different ploidy levels suggests that the number of MTs increases with the
number of chromosomes (Eleftheriou, 1985b). Heavy water can induce
the formation of additional MTs in a PPB (Burgess and Northcote, 1969;
Hardham and Gunning, 1978).
A PPB consists predominantly of overlapping relatively short MTs (aver-
age length, 2.7 pm) (Hardham and Gunning, 1977). C - or S-shaped MT
profiles are reported in transverse section of a PPB (Burgess and Northcote,
1967; Galatis et al., 1984b). Depletion and the shortening of MTs can be
induced by MT drugs, high pressure, or cold treatment. Although C-shaped
termination is not frequent in the short MTs induced by colchicine or
high pressure, cold treatment produces more C-shaped MT terminations
(Hardham and Gunning, 1977).
While the majority of MTs in PPBs follows the contours of the plasma
membrane (PM) closely, others curve into the cytoplasm (Pickett-Heaps
and Northcote, 1966a; Burgess, 1970b). MTs between perinuclear MTs
and PPBs are reported by EM (Burgess, 1970b; Bakhuizen et al., 1985;
Eleftheriou, 1985a, 1996; Mineyuki and Furuya, 1986; Schnepf, 1984) and
by IFM (Tiwari et al., 1985; Wick and Duniec, 1983, 1984; Mineyuki and
Palevitz, 1990; Mineyuki et al., 1991a; Nogami et al., 1996; BaluSka et al.,
1996).
MT-MT and MT-PM cross bridges in PPBs are seen (Pickett-Heaps
and Northcote, 1966a; Burgess and Northcote, 1967; Galatis and Aposto-
lakos, 1977; Hardham and Gunning, 1978; Schnepf, 1973). In leguminous
stomatogenesis, MT-PM linkage is often seen in GMCs (Galatis et al.,
1982), whereas it is infrequent in the nondifferential and early divisions
(Galatis and Mitrakos, 1979). In a number of cases, a cross bridge either
to the PM or to an adjacent MT occurred on the terminating profile of
MTs. Occasionally, two bridges connected a single MT profile to PM, and
cross bridges between MTs and vesicles are also reported (Hardham and
Gunning, 1978).
Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (ER) may occur at the periphery of the
PPB, but no structural link between ER and MTs has been reported (Bur-
gess and Northcote, 1967, 1968; Galatis and Mitrakos, 1979; Galatis et al.,
1982). In Triticum roots, smooth E R is seen in the early PPB stage but it
is almost absent in the later stage (Burgess and Northcote, 1968). Small
electron-dense vesicles, which sometimes appear to fuse with the PM, are
seen in a PPB (Burgess and Northcote, 1968; Packard and Stack, 1976;
Gunning et al., 1978a; Galatis and Mitrakos, 1979; Galatis, 1982; Galatis
et al., 1982; Eleftheriou, 1996). The vesicles are positive to the periodic
acid-thiocarbohydrazide-silver proteinate reaction, the reaction against
polysaccaride (Galatis, 1982), and in onion the density of vesicle contents
corresponds closely to the density of the cell walls (Packard and Stack,
1976). These vesicles and the smooth ER still exist when MTs are depleted
by colchicine treatment (Burgess and Northcote, 1969). Coated vesicles in
a PPB are reported only in leguminous GMCs (Galatis and Mitrakos, 1979;
Galatis et al., 1982).
IV. Occurrence of the PPB
In order to determine whether PPBs appear only in certain specialized

types of cells, Gunning et al. (1978a) examined all types of cell divisions
in Azolla roots and concluded that PPBs exist in every category of cell
division in the meristem. Observations summarized in Table I imply that
PPBs occur in meristems and meristemoids during vegetative growth and
in wound-induced cell divisions of higher plants.
PPBs are absent in microsporogenesis (Van Lammeren et al., 1985; Ho-
gan, 1987), in the first asymmetrical mitosis (Heslop-Harrison, 1968; Tera-
saka and Niitsu, 1990), in other mitosis in pollen grain development (Bur-
gess, 1970a; Terasaka and Niitsu, 1989; Palevitz and Cresti, 1989), and
throughout megasporogenesis and in embryo sac development (Bednara
et al., 1988; Willemse and Van Lammeren, 1988), but PPBs are reinstated
as early as the first zygotic division (Webb and Gunning, 1991). Endosperm
also has no cortical MT arrays during syncytial division, cellularization, and
the subdivision of starchy endosperm (Bajer and Molk-Bajer, 1972; De
Mcy et al., 1982), but interphase cortical MTs (1CMs) and PPBs appear
during aleurone layer development (Brown et al., 1994). A recessive muta-
tion of the maize gene Ameiotic causes the replacement of meiosis I with
a synchronized mitotic division. Because PPBs are observed in this ameiotic
division, this ameiotic gene may encode a product that eliminates the PPB
(Staiger and Cande, 1992). This implies that a PPB-containing mitotic cell
cycle is the default condition for plant cell division.
PPBs are also seen in certain suspension cultured cells, in cultured
protoplasts, and in callus. The PPB index (Gorst et al., 1986) or PPB
value (Wang et al., 1989b) describes the frequency of PPBs in cell
cultures. Often a low PPB index reflects the inability of cells to undergo
morphogenesis. In Petunia callus, a three to five fold increase in the
PPB index marks the transition to organized growth (Traas et al., 1990).
Cells having the potential for morphogenesis had a higher PPB index
than nonembryonic cells, but high PPB index is not obligatorily coupled
t o embryogenesis or other organized growth (Gorst et a[., 1986). Although
high frequencies of PPBs are reported in soybean protoplast culture
(Wang et al., 1989b) and in suspension cultures of tobacco BY-2 (Katsuta
et al., 1990) and Spartina (Hogan, 1988), these cultures do not regenerate
in the reported culturing conditions.
Most ol the meristematic tissues in Pteridophytes have PPBs, but they
are absent in the first asymmetrical cell division in Onoclea spores (Bassel et
al., 1981), in meiosis (Brown and Lemmon, 1985b), and in spermatogenesis
(Marc and Gunning, 1986) except for the early steps of antheridia develop-
ment (Schraudolf, 1993). Some cells in Bryophytes have a PPB, but these
may be atypical in terms of the width and number of MTs and are thought
to be primitive (Apostolakos and Galatis, 1992). Some types of cells in
Brophytes apparently lack a PPB. Moss protonemata do not develop a
PPB when the tip cell divides or a side branch is formed (Schmiedel and
Schnepf, 1979a; Schmiedel et al., 1981; Doonan et al., 1985,1987). However,
TABLE I
Occurrence of PPB MTs
~ ~~ ~~~ ~ ~~~~~~~ ~
Seed plants
Shoot apial meristems: Coleus (EM: Lehmann and Schultz, 1976); Hedera ( I F Marc and
Hackett, 1989)
Root apical meristems (including root caps): (Monocot) Allium (EM: Deysson and Benbadis,
1968; I F Wick et al., 1981); Bouteloua, Chloris, and Cyperus (IF: Cleary and Hardham,
1988); Hordeum ( I F Mineyuki et al., 1996); Lolium (IF: Cleary and Hardham, 1988);
Ornithogalum ( I F Hogan, 1987); Phleum (EM: Burgess and Northcote, 1967);
Potamogeton and Tradescantia (IF Cleary and Hardham, 1988); Triticum (EM: Pickett-
Heaps and Northcote, 1966a; IF: Marc and Gunning, 1988); Typha (IF Cleary and
Hardham, 1988); Zea (EM: Hardham and Gunning, 1978; I F Cleary and Hardham, 1988);
dv mutant (IF: Staiger and Cande, 1990); (dicot) Arabidopsis (IF: Traas et al., 1995);
Brassica (EM: Gunning and Steer, 1975); Chrysanthemum ( I F Mineyuki et al., 1996);
Cucumis (IF: Woo and Wick, 1995); Cyperus (EM: Busby and Gunning, 1980;I F Gunning
and Wick, 1985); Datura (IF: Gorst et al., 1986); Daucus (IF: Cleary and Hardham, 1988),
Glycine (IF: Liu et al., 1993); Hibiscus (IF: Mineyuki et al., 1996); Lepidium Root caps
(EM: Hensel, 1984); Lycopersicon ( I F Hogan, 1987); Medicago (IF: Cleary and Hardham,
1988); Nicotiana (EM: Ding ef al., 1991; IF: Gorst et al., 1986); Pisum (EM: Bakhuizen
et al., 1985; IF: Wick, 1985); Vigna (IF: Mizuno et al., 1985); Vicia (IF: Brown et al.,
1989); Zinnia (IF: Cleary and Hardham, 1988); (gymnosperm) Pinus and Zamia ( I F
Fowke, 1993)
Vascular bundle development
Root protophloem mother cells: Aegilops (EM: Eleftheriou and Tsekos, 1982); Triticum
(EM: Eleftheriou, 1985a)
Root protophloem sieve elements: Triticum (EM: Eleftheriou, 1996)
Root procambial cells: Triricum (EM: Eleftheriou, 1985b)
Cambial cells in coleoptile: Trilicum (EM: Pickett-Heaps and Northcote, 1966a)
Fusiform initials and ray initials: Ulmus and Tilia,ray cell (EM: Evert and
Deshpande, 1970)
Leaf development
Mesophyll cells: (Monocot) Commelina (EM: Pickett-Heaps, 1969b); Hordeum ( I F Wick
ef aL, 1989); Triticum (EM: Pickett-Heaps, 1969a); (dicot) Nicotiana (EM: Cronshaw
and Esau, 1968); expanding leaf blade (EM: Esau and Gill, 1969); Spinacia ( I F Wick
et al., 1989)
Spongy parenchyma cells: Spinacia (IF: Wick et al., 1989)
Cotyledonary cells: Allium (IF: Mineyuki et al., 1991a); Pisum (IF: Doonan et al., 1987)
Stomatogenesis (including nondifferential epidermal division); (Monocot) Avena (EM:
Kaufman et al., 1970; I F Mullinax and Palevitz, 1989); Allium (EM: Palevitz and Hepler,
1974a; IF: Mineyuki et al., 1988a); Commelina (EM: Pickett-Heaps, 1969b); Hordeum
( I F Cho and Wick, 1989); Lolium (IF Cleary and Hardham, 1989); Saccharum (EM:
Singh et al., 1977); Secale (IF: Cho and Wick, 1989); Triticum (EM: Pickett-Heaps and
Northcote, 1966b; IF: Cho and Wick, 1989); a case that two SC formations are induced
by two successively aligned GMCs in an epidermal cell (EM: Galatis et al., 1983); Zea
(EM: Srivastava and Singh, 1972); (dicot) Cucumis (IF: Kazama and Mineyuki, 1997);
Sinapis (EM: Landre, 1972); Vigna (EM: Galatis and Mitrakos, 1979); Phaseolus,
Trifolium, Medicago, Calycotome, Vicia, Pisum, Cicer, Spartium, Robinia, Melilorus,
Coronilla, Caratonia, Cercis, and Acacia (EM: Galatis et al., 1982)
(continues)
TABLE I (continued)
Seed development
Zygote and procnibryogenesis: Arabidopsis (IF: Webb and Gunning, 199 I )
Aleurone layer development: Ilordeum (IF: Brown et a/., 1994)
Other specialized cells
Tapetal cclls: Zea (IF: Staigcr and Cande, 1YY2)
Stamen hair and filament cells: Trudescuntia (EM: Busby and Gunning, 1980; LC: Zhang
K f d., 1990)
Leaf hair cells: Triticirm (EM: Galatis et al., 1984b)
Anieiotic division: Zea, arnf mutant (IF: Staiger and Candc, 1YY2)
Wound-induced cell divisions: (Monocot) 7radescnnrict epidermal cells (IF: Goodbody and
Lloyd, 1990); (dicot) Unfura, periderm ( I F Flanders et al., 1990); Nuutilocrdyx, leaf
explants (EM: Venverloo et nl., 1980; I F Goodbody et a/., 1991); Nicotinnu (IF: Wilms
and Derksen, 1988); Pisurn, roots (EM: Hardham and McCully. 1982; IF: Hush et a/., 1990)
Suspension culturc cells: (Monocot) Spartinu (IF: Hogan, 1988); (dicot) Arahidupsis (IF:
Liu et al.. 1994); Datura ( I F Gorst et al., 1986): Medicago (IF: Meijer and Simmonds,
1988); Nicoriana (IF: Gorst eta/., 1986): BY-2 (field emission SEM: Vesk et ul., 1996: IF:
Kakimoto and Shibaoka, 1987); Vicia (IF: Simmonds eta/.. 1983); Zinnia ( I F Falconer
and Scagull, 1985); (gymnospcrrn) Piciu, embryonic, and Pinus, nonernbryonic (IF:
Tautorus e t a / . , 1992)
Cultured protoplasts: (Dicot) Glycinc ( I F Wang et al., 1989a); Helianthus, liquid medium,
agarose embedding (IF: Caumont et d.,1997);Medicago and Nicotiunu, budding protopast
(IF: Meijer and Simmonds, 1988); BY-2 (IF: Sonobe, 1990): Viciu ( I F Simmonds, 1986);
(gymnosperm) Picia (IF: Fowke el a/., 1990)
Callus: Petunia (IF: Traas et a/., 1990)
Pteridophytes
Sporophytc roots: Atfiantum (IF: Panteris et al., IYY1); Azolfu, all categories of divisions
(EM: Gunning et a/., 1978a); Ceratopteris, apical cell (EM: Gunning, 1982): Dryopteris,
adventitious roots (EM: Burgess, 1970b); Isoetes (EM: Brown and Lcmmon, 1984; IF:
Cleary et a/., 1992b); Se/aginella (EM: Brown and Lemmon. 1984)
Azollu, stomata of a single unspecialized annular gaurd cell with two nuclei
(EM: Busby and Gunning, 1984);Anemiu, a floating stomata (EM: Galatis el a/., 1986):
Se/ugine/lu. monoplastid GMC (EM: Brown and Lemmon, 198%; IF: Cleary ef 01.. 1992a)
Trichome development: Salvinitt (EM: Busby and Gunning, 1980)
Tricoblast and atrichoblast formation: Azolla (EM: Gunning et al., 197%): Hydrocharis
(EM: Gunning et a/., 197Sb)
Gametophyte
Protonemata: Adiantum (EM: Wada et ul., 1980; IF: Murata and Wada, 1989); Athyrium
(EM: Jenni eta/., 1990)
Antheridia development: Anemia, very early steps of antheridium development (EM:
Schraudolf, 1993): Rlechum (EM: Busby as cited in Gunning, 1982)
Bryophytes
Mosses: Funaria, nonstomatal epidermal cells in capsule (EM: Sack and Paolillo, 1985);
gametophore tissue (EM: Schnepf in Gunning, 1982); Tmema cell mother cell (EM and
IF: Sawidis et nl., 1991): Physcomitrda, apices of leafy shoot (IF: Dooniin et al., 1987):
Sohannum, leaflet (EM: Schnepf, 1Y73)
TABLE I
Hornworts: Phaeoceros, meristematic portion of young sporophyte (EM and IF: Brown
and Lemmon, 1988)
Liverworts: Marchantia, thallus cells (EM: Fowke and Pickett-Heaps, 1978); initial aperture
cells (EM: Apostolakos and Galatis, 1985a); differential division of mucilage papillae
and other scale cells, inner thallus cells, photosynthetic filament cells and their mother
cells (EM: Galatis and Apostolakos, 1977; IF: Apostolakos and Galatis, 1992, 1993);
Reboulia, archegoniophore stalk cells (IF Brown and Lemmon, 1990); Conocephalurn,
sporophyte (IF: Shimamura et al., 1998)
Note. Cell types and genus names in which PPBs are observed by electron microscopy
(EM), by immunoflurescent microscopy (IF), or by the direct MT observation in living cells
(LC) are listed and a reference is cited for each item.
PPBs are found in the formation of tmema cells of Funaria protonemata

(Sawidis et al., 1991) and in leaflets of mosses (Schnepf, 1973; Doonan et
al., 1987). They are not found in the Funaria GMC division (Sack and
Paolillo, 1985), in mitosis of moss sporogonial initials (Gambardella and
Alfano, 1990),in the young sporophyte of hornworts (Brown and Lemmon,
1985a), and in archesporial cells of Monocleu (Brown and Lemmon, 1992).
PPBs are not found in algae or fungi (Pickett-Heaps, 1974).
V. Temporal Aspects of PPB Development
Early EM observations on synchronously induced cell division of Adianturn

protonemata showed that MTs reorganize in the G2 phase and that the
PPB is located along the nucleus around the G2/M boundary (Wada et al.,
1980). Microspectrophotometric examination indicates that all of the onion
root tip cells with a PPB had the G2 level of nuclear DNA (Mineyuki et
al., 1988b), and pulse-chase experiments with tritiated thymidine (Gunning
and Wick, 1985; Mineyuki et al., 198%) or with 5-bromo-2-deoxyuridine
(Gunning and Sammut, 1990) revealed that in some cells PPBs start to
form at the end of S phase. However, there is a population of G2 cells that
do not have a PPB but do have an ICM (see Fig. 4 in Mineyuki et al.,
1988b; Utrilla et al., 1993).
PPB development and events of the nuclear cycle run in parallel se-
quences, but they are not fully coupled. When onion seedlings are exposed
to DNA synthesis inhibitors, the mitotic index decreases to near zero and
very few prophase PPBs are seen. However, the population of cells with
a PPB does not decrease remarkably because of the increment of interphase
PPBs. In these root tips, some interphase cells with a PPB are in S phase
or even in G I phase (Mineyuki et af., 1988b). The partial uncoupling of PPB

formation and the nuclear cycle is also confirmed using other cxperimental
systems (Utrilla and Dc la Torre, 1991; Wang el al., 1991). On the contrary,
PPB formation as well as the progression of S phase of cultured tobacco
BY-2 cells are inhibited by aphidicolin, and PPBs start to form after the
drug is removed (Katsuta et af.,1990). PPBs are not formed when cells are
reexposed to aphidicolin before the majority of the cultured BY-2 cells
have finished S phase (Mizutani er al., 1993). In soybean protoplast cultures,
uncoupling of the PPB formation from the nuclear cycle is seen in the
presence of aphidicolin; however, not only DNA synthesis but also PPB
formation are totally inhibited by a high concentration of aphidicolin. Early
PPBs are dominant in aphidicolin-treated cells and very few PPBs are
present in later stages of maturation. This suggests tight coupling of the
later stage of PPB development and the nuclear cycle (Wang et al., 1991).
Although ca. 10% of onion root tip cells have a PPB in the presence of
5-arninouracil, PPBs can be synchronously induced after the removal of
5-aminouracil. Most PPBs in 5-aminouracil-treated cells are broad but nar-
row; mature PPBs appear when the nuclear cyclc progresses after the
removal of the 5-aminouracil. This indicates that although the initiation
of PPBs is uncoupled from the nuclear cycle, the late stage of PPB devel-
opment is tightly coupled (C. Okushima and Y. Mineyuki, unpublished
data).
VI. Preparation of the Division Site
A. Changes in the MT Array during PPB Development
Changcs in MT distribution during development and disappearance of PPBs

in onion root tip cells are illustrated in Fig. 7. The first indication of PPB
formation is that ICMs (Fig. 7a) gather in the midregion surrounding a
nucleus to form a broad MT band (Fig. 7b). MTs in a broad PPB gradually
gather to form a narrow PPB. Most prophase PPBs are narrow (Figs.
7d-7f). Double MT bands (Figs. 7c and 8a) are sometimes seen in the
G2/prophase transition stage; they may be in a transitory state shifting from
a broad PPB into a narrow PPB (Wick and Duniec, 1983; Utrilla er aL,
1993). In cultured BY-2 cells under a specific condition, double MT bands
are frequently observed and remain throughout prophase (Hasezawa et af.,
1994). Because similar double MT bands are inducible by a high concentra-
tion of cycloheximide (Fig. 8b) or by hydroxyurea (Zhang et af.,1996) in
onion root tip cells, these double MT bands are PPBs in which M T bundling
processes are somehow interrupted.
a b C d
f 0 h
I
FIG. 7 Changes in MT distribution during the progression of PPB and spindle development
in onion root tip cells. The ellipse in the center of the cell represents the nucleus. MTs are
shown as thin black lines. The cell cycle stage in each MT stage is as follows: (a) G , , S, or
G2 phases; (b-d) G2 or prophase; (e and f ) prophase; (8) late prophase or prometaphase;
(h) metaphase. These diagrams are made based on observation from Wick et al. (1981), Wick
and Duniec (1983,1984), Mineyuki er al. (1988b), Mineyuki (1993), and Nogami et nl. (1996).
PPB fluorescence in late prophase is much brighter than that in the early
narrow PPB (Fig. 9). EM study of onion PPBs shows that the number of
MTs increases during prophase and the distance between adjacent MTs
becomes less as the MT number increases (Nogami et al., 1996). The nar-
FIG.8 Tubulin immunofluorescence images of double MT band in onion root tip cells. (a)
A double MT band seen in the normal condition. This is thought to be a transition stage
from a broad PPB to a narrow PPB. (b) An irregular double MT band induced by the
treatment of 36 p M CHM for 2 h. Note that the distance between two MT bands is irregularly
long and each MT band is well packed. Scale bar = 10 p m (photograph by A. Nogami).
YOSHINOBU MlNEYUKl
FIG. 9 MT bundling processes on the cell cortex in onion root tip cells. (a) lnterphase cortical
MTs. (b) A broad PPB. (c) A narrow PPB, which is almost bundled. (d) A mature PPB; each
MT in the PPB cannot be distinguished. (e) Loosening of MTs in the PPB at prometaphase.
(a-e) Surface view. (f) Midoptical section of the cell in e. MT connection between spindles
and the PPB (arrow) are seen. Arrowheads, MTs in a PPB. Scale bar = 10 pni.
rowing of MT bands and loss of the resolution of individual MTs is con-

firmed by direct observation of the behavior of microinjected lluorescent-
labeled tubulin in Tradescantia stamen hair cells (Cleary et al., 1992~).
Perinuclear MTs appear concomitantly with the appearance of a broad
PPB (Wick and Duniec, 1983). The population of MTs in the cytoplasm
thins out slightly and MT foci from which many MTs initiate on the nuclear
surface appear when the PPB becomes a narrow band (Fig. 7d). The more
developed MT foci gradually gather to the nuclear polar region (Fig. 7e)
and MTs orient parallel to the spindle axis to form a bipolar spindle (Fig.
7f). In this stage, MT linkages between PPB and the spindle pole region
are clearly seen (arrowheads in Fig. la; Nogami et al., 1996). MTs in a PPB
remain even after the bipolar spindle is established, but they disappear in
late prophase or early prometaphase (Wick and Duniec, 1984). Observa-
tions on MT dynamics in living cells show that PPB MTs disappear 5-10
min prior to nuclear envelope breakdown (Cleary et ul., 1992~).Figure 9
indicates that although MTs gradually gather to make a narrow band during
PPB development, the MT band becomes loosened, keeping its width con-
stant during PPB disappearance. Connections between PPBs and spindle
poles remain until the MT band totally disappears (Fig. 9f).
B. PPB Development and Determination of the Division Site
Because a PPB is one of the earliest intracellular structures that predicts the
future division site, a question arises whether the division site is determined
during PPB formation or before the PPB starts to form. A hint to the
answer to this question comes from IFM observations of MT reorganization
during stomatogenesis. Figure 10 summarizes changes in MT organization
during PPB formation in various types of cell division. Because the orienta-
tion of the division plane is the same as that of the preceding division in
most cells, ICMs in these cells are already oriented parallel to the future
division plane (Fig. 10a). In GMCs, however, the division plane must reori-
ent perpendicular to the former division plane. IRonion GMCs (Fig. lob),
interphase MTs are randomly oriented in the cytoplasm and the first indica-
tion of the new orientation of the division plane is a broad PPB (Mineyuki
et al., 1989). Graminean GMCs (Fig. 1Oc) have interphase MT bands
that orient perpendicular to PPBs (Singh, 1977; Busby and Gunning, 1980;
Galatis, 1982). This transverse interphase MT band precedes a radial MT
array, which is then replaced by a PPB prior to the longitudinal cell division
(Mullinax and Palevitz, 1989; Cho and Wick, 1989; Cleary and Hardham,
1989). Because shifts in division plane orientation occur around the time
of formation of the broad PPB, broad PPB formation emerges as a process
in which the orientation of the division plane is fixed.
Although the broad PPB predicts the orientation of the division plane
and its appropriate location in the cell cortex, it cannot precisely define
the division site. In asymmetrical division of onion epidermis, ICMs do not
always orient transversely, especially in basal regions of young cotyledons.
However, all cortical MTs are oriented transversely during broad PPB
formation (Fig. 10d). Then, narrowing of the PPB occurs to define the final
division site (Mineyuki et al., 1989). Cytochalasin does not affect formation
of the broad PPB nor the progression of the cell cycle, but it inhibits PPB
narrowing. The persistent broad PPBs in the presence of cytochalasin are
associated with subsequent changes in the position of the mitotic apparatus
and the cell plate. The number of apically located small GMC-like cells
decreases, indicating the importance of the PPB-narrowing step for determi-
nation of the division site (Mineyuki and Palevitz, 1990).
PPBs in graminean subsidiary mother cells (SMCs) (Fig. 10e) first appear
as fan-shaped arrays of MTs in the paradermal cortex that focus on two
I 0P NP SP
a
FIG. 10 Changes in MT arrangement during PPB formation. (a) Symmetrical cell division
commonly seen in root meristems or epidermal cells (Wick and Duniec, 1983,1984; Mineyuki
et d,,1991a). (b) Onion GMC division (Mineyuki er ul., 1989). (c) Graminacean GMC division
(Cho and Wick, 198Y;Mullinax and Palevitz, 1989). Many graminacean plants (Avena, wheat,
and maize) maintain a broad PPB until it disappears, but a narrow PPB is reported in Luliurn
(Cleary and Hardham, 1989). (d) Asymmetrical cell division of onion cotyledons (Mineyuki
and Palevitz, 1990). (e) Graminacean SMC divisions (Cho and Wick, 1989; Cleary and Hard-
ham, 1989; Mullinax and Palevitz, 1989). The longitudinal axis of the cell is vertically oriented
and the apical end of the organ is positioned toward the top of the page. Thick lines show
thc outline of cells, and the thin lines show MTs. I, interphase; BP, broad PPB stage; NP,
narrow PPB stage; SP, a narrow PPB stage with a bipolar spindle.
relatively broad regions along the edges of the SMCs. This arrangement
may reflect the transverse cell polarity that is governed by the GMCs. Then,
interaction of MTs within and between these arrays gives rise to a curved,
narrow band that defines the ultimate division site (Mullinax and Palevitz,
1989; Cho and Wick, 1989; Cleary and Hardham, 1989). These steps may
correspond to the successive stages of formation of a broad PPB and a
band narrowing stage, as seen in other cell types.
The division plane orientation in a cell can be influenced by nearly
mechanical injury. The first indication of the new division polarity is a
reorientation of cortical actin filaments (AFs) that occurs within 30 min
after wounding (Goodbody and Lloyd, 1990). Reorientation of ICMs to
the future division plane is also reported to occur 2-6 h after wounding,
i.e., long before PPB formation (Wilms and Derksen, 1988; Hush et al.,
1990). However, in Nautilocafyx explants, if a second wound is inflicted
before cell division, reorientation of the division plane is inducible until
the early stages of PPB formation (Venverloo, 1990). This means that
although the orientation of the division plane can be determined early
before PPB formation, it is reversible until the beginning (or early stages)
of the PPB formation. Coexistence of differently oriented MT bands in a
cell is reported in Azoffaand pea root tips (Gunning et af., 1978a; Gunning
and Wick, 1985) and in the shoot apical meristem of Hedera (Marc and
Hackett, 1989). This may be explained as a transitional stage from an old
division plane axis to a new axis.
This evidence supports our hypothesis (Mineyuki et af., 1989) that forma-
tion of a broad PPB is a necessary step to fix the axis of division polarity
(division plane orientation) in a cell and the subsequent narrowing of the
MT band determines the ultimate site where the cell plate will join the
parental walls. In some cases, cell polarity is predetermined long before
the former divisions, but it can be adjusted by environmental factors until
the beginning of PPB formation. The division polarity is fixed during broad
PPB formation and the precise division site is determined by the narrowing
of the MT bands, with submicrometer accuracy.
C. Other Signs That Predict the Future Division Site
1. Phragmosomes in Highly Vacuolated Cells

In highly vacuolated cells, the position of the future division site is often
predictable in terms of the location of cytoplasm in a cell. For examples,
divisions of vacuolated cells can be induced by wounding. The nucleus,
which has been flattened against the wall at interphase, becomes round
and starts to move to the center of the cell before cell division. In the early
stage of nuclear migration, t h e nucleus, now separated from the cortex, is

suspended across the vacuole by a few thin cytoplasmic strands. Later
the nucleus is tethered in a central position by more numcrous, thicker
cytoplasmic strands. These cytoplasmic strands tend to become aggregated
into a more or less continuous diaphragm known as a phragmosome (PS).
This organization persists from prophase throughout nuclear division, and
the expanding cell plate follows exactly the course of the plane of the
PS (Sinnott and Bloch 1940, 1941; Venverloo et al., 1980; Venverloo and
Libbenga, 1987). Laser microsurgery in leaf epidermal cells of Nautilocalyx
demonstrates that the cytoplasmic strands seen during the premitotic nu-
clear migration and positioning arc under tension, and that the tension is
likely to influence the alignment of strands as well as the position of the
nucleus during division plane formation (Goodbody er ul., 1991).
The PS contains MTs (Goosen-de Roo et al., 1984; Bakhuizen et al., 1985;
Flanders et al., 1990; Katsuta et al., 1990; Goodbody et af., 1991; Lloyd et
al., 1992) and AFs (Trass et al., 1987; Lloyd and Trass, 1988; Kakimoto and
Shibaoka, 1987; Katsuta et al., 1990; Goodbody and Lloyd, 1990). A PPB
and a PS form simultaneously and bunching up of thc PPB MTs and the
realignment of the radial MT strands into a PS occur concomitantly (Flan-
ders et al., 1990; Lloyd et ul., 1992). All stages leading to PS formation,
including the formation of the cytoplasmic strands, can be inhibited by
colchicinc, oryzalin, and cytochalasin. These anticytoskeletal drugs also
attack mature prophase PS to cause loss of integrity of PSs within 30 min,
suggesting that both AFs and MTs are involved in the formation and
maintenance of prophase PSs (Venverloo and Libbenga, 1987).
Although MTs in the PS disappear after prometaphase, AFs remain,
connecting the nucleus to the cell cortex. Chloroisopropyl phenylcarbamate
treatment results in multiple nuclei and branched phragmoplasts (Clayton
and Lloyd, 1984). In these cells, AFs are seen connecting the leading edges
of the abnormal phragmoplast to the cortex, but their cortical sites cannot
be predicted by PPBs (Lloyd and Traas, 1988). Polar strands, which also
contain AFs and connect the mitotic apparatus to the cell cortex, also occur.
Here these AFs tend to align at right angle to the plane of the PS. Polar
strands seem to play an important rolc in the remigration of the mitotic
apparatus after centrifugation (Ota, 1961). Weakening of polar strands
causes the displacement of nucleus within the PS in Nuutilocalyx explants
(Venverloo and Libbenga, 1987).
PSs are not clear or not detectable in some types of cell divisions (e.g.,
fern gametophytes; Wada, 194I), although PS-like structures can be induced
by centrifugal treatment of some cells that normally do not have a PS (Ota,
1961; Murata and Wada, 1997). Doubts about the universality of the PS
havc been expressed. It may be that its cytoskeletal components are present
in both vacuolated and nonvacuolated cells but that the cytoplasmic organi-
zation is visible in vacuolated cells only.
2. Premitotic Nuclear Migration

Premitotic nuclear migration is a prerequisite for divisions in vacuolated
cells with PSs and in asymmetrical cell divisions. Migration of the nucleus
in SMC divisions (Pickett-Heaps, 1969b; Kennard and Cleary, 1997) and
cell divisions with a PS (Venverloo and Libbenga, 1987; Katsuta et al.,
1990) precede PPB formation. Premitotic nuclear migration in Adiantum
protonemata ceases at the G2/M boundary when PPBs appear (Wada et
aL, 1980; Mineyuki and Furuya, 1980). In other cases nuclear migration in
some asymmetrical divisions takes place in midprophase after a PPB at the
asymmetrical location has been formed (Fig. 3; Mineyuki and Palevitz,
1990; Gunning et al., 1978a).
Migration of the nucleus from the periphery to the center of the cell is
inhibited by colchicine, but not by cytochalasin, in Nautilocalyx explants
(Venverloo and Libbenga, 1987) and in cultured tobacco cells (Katsuta et
al., 1990). However, AFs and not MTs are required for traumatotactic
migration (Schnepf and von Taitteur, 1973; Goodbody and Lloyd, 1990)
and for the nuclear migration in Tradescantia SMCs that occurs in GI phase
(Kennard and Cleary, 1997). On the contrary, in the asymmetrical division
of onion GMC formation, MTs connecting the migrating nucleus and the
asymmetrical PPB are seen (Fig. 3), and colchicine (Y. Mineyuki, unpub-
lished observation) and cytochalasin (Mineyuki and Palevitz, 1990) inhibit
the nuclear migration to the apical part of the cell. Premitotic nuclear
migration is also seen in spore germination of a fern and in side branch
formation of moss caulonemata, in which the existence of PPBs has not
been reported (Schmiedel and Schnepf, 1979a; Schmiedel et al., 1981;Bassel
et al., 1981; Jensen, 1981; Doonan et al., 1985,1986). MTs but not AFs are
somehow involved in premitotic nuclear migration in these cases (Bassel
et al., 1981; Vogelmann et al., 1981; Schmiedel and Schnepf, 1979b; Doonan
et al., 1985, 1986).
VII. Spatial Aspects of PPB Development
A. Origin of the PPB MTs
Where do PPB MTs come from? Are they nucleated at the site of incipient
PPB formation? Because MTs can translocate over a substratum with the
help of motor proteins and cofactors in vitro, the idea of rearrangement,
translocation, and reutilization of intact MTs cannot be discounted (Pale-

vitz, 1991). The number of MTs in a PPB is similar to that of the preceding
ICMs (Schnepf, 1973; Hardham and Gunning, 1979). Moreover, PPBs can
still form in cells whose de n o w protein or RNA synthesis is inhibited by
drugs (Benbadis et al., 1974; Olszewska et al., 1990; Utrilla and De la Torre,
1991; Mineyuki et al., 1994; Nogami et al., 1996), indicating that a PPB can
form without new tubulin synthesis.
The idea that a PPB is formed by condensation or bunching up of
existing ICMs has been proposed (Pickett-Heaps, 1969c; Wick and Duniec,
1983; Doonan et al., 1987), but this apparently cannot be applicable to
cells whose PPB formation requires the redirection of cell polarity. The
appearance of perinuclear MTs before PPB formation in some suspension
culture cells (Flanders et al., 1990) and the alignment of perinuclear MTs
parallel to the anticipated PPB in wheat protophloem (Eleftheriou, 198Sa)
support another idea-that the nuclear surface has an MTOC activity in
this stage and that tubulins are first polymerized on the nuclear surface
and the MTs and then move to the cell cortex. However, in many cell types,
perinuclear MTs appear concomitantly with a PPB (e.g., Wick and Duniec,
1983; Mineyuki et al., 1989; Mineyuki and Palevitz, 1990) and in soybean
protoplast cultures they appear after the PPB is well developed (Wang el
al., 1989b). MTs can polymerize in the PPB region after cold treatment
even when the nucleus is displaced far away from the PPB site (Murata
and Wada, 1991b). The results of this experiment are clearly in contrast
to the idea that perinuclear MTs can move to the PPB site.
Although rearrangement of preexisting MTs is a reasonable hypothesis,
observations of fixed cells cited previously do not deny another hypothe-
sis-that preexisting MTs depolymerize and MTs are newly polymerized
in the PPB. Recovery experiments using cells with depolymerized MTs
show that MTs can be polymerized from cytoplasmic tubulin (Cleary and
Hardham, 1988; Galatis and Apostolakos, 1991; Murata and Wada, 1991b).
The failure of PPBs to form in preprophasic cells in the presence of taxol also
supports the idea (Panteris et al., 1995). Direct observation of fluorescent-
labeled tubulin in living stamen hair cells shows that tubulin subunits ex-
change rapidly in MTs (half-time of MT turnover, 62.1 s; Hush et al., 1994),
and also shows the rapid appearance of an incipient PPB from few cortical
MTs (Cleary et al., 1992~).That MTs can first organize randomly in the
cell cortex and then reorient is shown in wheat protophloem (Eleftheriou,
198Sa) and in Adiantum protonemata recovering from cold treatment (Mur-
ata and Wada, 1991b).
Coexistence of an incipient PPB and ICMs in cotyledonary cells suggests
that ICMs are not triggered to depolymerize as soon as the PPB begins to
form (Doonan et al., 1987). In Adiantum protonemata arrested at early G I
phase under red light, a transversely oriented cortical MT band exists
in the subapical region. This MT band is thought to be involved in the
maintenance of the cylindrical shape (Wada and OBrien, 1975). A PPB
is not formed by the direct displacement of this subapical MT band (Wada
et al., 1980; Murata and Wada, 1989). In blue light-induced cell division,
an early PPB coexists with ICMs. Disruption of ICMs starts at ca. 120 p m
from the nucleus (and PPB) and spreads toward the tip and base, but
cortical MTs far away from the nucleus (more than 300-400 pm from the
tip) remain (Murata and Wada, 1989). In prophase of dark-induced cell
division, tip growth ceases and tubulins in the nuclear region are used as
PPB and perinuclear MTs. The tip growth can be reinduced in the prepro-
phasic cells by irradiation with red light at the appropriate time. In this
condition, many prophase cells have neither a PPB nor subapical cortical
MTs, although perinuclear and cytoplasmic MTs are seen. Competition for
tubulins between PPB and the subapical MT band for tip growth may be
the reason why only perinuclear and cytoplasmic MT systems remain and
the cortical MT band cannot develop (Mineyuki et al., 1991b).
B. MTOCs
Are there any specific MTOCs in the PPB? Packard and Stack (1976)
pointed out that the PM is a candidate for a MT-nucleating site, claiming
that PPB MTs often appear to terminate in or on the PM. Hardham and
Gunning (1978) could not confirm such patterns of termination in PPBs.
Gunning et al. (1978b) proposed that initiation sites for the PPB are situated
along the cell edges. This possibility is also raised by work on other cell
types (Galatis, 1982; Apostolakos and Galatis, 1992). The observation that
MTs are better organized at cell edges than cell surfaces in broad PPBs
that appear during recovery from colchicine for 12 h further supports the
idea (Galatis and Apostolakos, 1991). However, there have been no reports
on the specific localization of candidate MTOC molecules at cell edges.
A survey of MTOCs in the PPB using autoimmune serum 5051, which
recognizes animal centriolar materials, failed to reveal any positive signs
of MTOCs in PPBs (Clayton et al., 1985; Wick et al., 1985; Palevitz, 1988).
However, the specificity of this serum to plant MTOCs is questionable
(Harper et al., 1989). Anti-centrin also fails to stain the PPB (Del Vecchio
et al., 1997). Colchicine-induced paracrystals often occupy the cortical cyto-
plasmic zone where a PPB is expected to be assembled, suggesting the
possible existence of MTOCs (Apostolakos et al., 1990; Karagiannidou
et al., 1995). Antibodies that recognize an EF-la homolog reveal PPBs
(Hasezawa and Nagata, 1993). Although these antibodies were originally
raised against sea urchin centrosomes, immunologically cross-reactive pep-
tides are colocalized with all categories of MTs in plants and animals (Ohta
et al., 1988,1990). This peptide may therefore be a MAP-like protein rather

than a candidate for an MTOC. Anti-y-tubulin signal is seen in both broad
and narrow PPBs but declines while MTs in the PPB are still present. Its
distribution is punctate (Liu et al., 1993,1994). As another MTOC candidate
in a PPB, some monoclonal antibodies raised against fern spermatozoids
are reported to detect PPBs (Marc and Gunning, 1988).
C. PM-MT Connection
Electron-dense cross-bridges exist between MTs and the PM in both PPB

and ICMs (see Section III,C), and these cortical MTs disappear when lysed
protoplasts are treated with ATP under specific conditions (Sonobe, 1990).
There are no differences between ICM and PPB MTs in terms of the
sensitivity to MT drugs (Cleary and Hardham, 1988) or in MT turnover
rates (Hush et al., 1994). However, there is a remarkable difference in
stability against cycloheximide between ICMs and PPB MTs. PPB MTs
remain in the cell cortex, whereas ICMs disappear following 2 h ofcyclohexi-
mide treatment, suggesting that some components involved in the connec-
tion of MTs to the PM are different between these two MT arrays (Mineyuki
et al., 1994). ICMs control the direction of cell expansion, which may change
from hour to hour depending on the environment (e.g., direction of light).
If ICMs stay in one position for a long time, it may be that the cells cannot
change their growth direction quickly. Rapid turnover of proteins that are
involved in the connection of ICMs to the PM may provide a mechanism
for rapid growth adjustment in changing environments. By comparison,
determination of the new division plane is not necessarily a quick response.
One cell cycle in normal plant cells usually takes more than half a day.
Slow turnover of PM-MT bridging proteins in PPBs may reflect this. Two
monoclonal antibodies, Pas1 0 3 and Pas5 F4, which are raised against a
fern spermatozoid, detect some diffuse cytoplasmic materials that follow
the distribution of perinuclear and PPB MTs, but they do not colocalize
with ICMs (Marc and Gunning, 1988). This observation could also suggest
differences between PM-MT connections in ICMs and PPBs. Further char-
acterization of molecules that are involved in PM-MT connection will
be necessary.
D. Nuclear Position and PPB Development
The question of whether the nucleus, or the position of the nucleus, influ-
ences the determination of the PPB site has been investigated. In Adianturn
protonemata, nuclear position apparently influences the site of early PPB
formation (Murata and Wada, 1991a). A PPB forms around a basipetally
displaced nucleus when a protonema cell is centrifuged before the time of
PPB formation. However, double MT bands are formed, one in the correct
position and another around the displaced nucleus, when the nucleus is
displaced in an early stage of PPB formation (Figs. lla-llc). Similarly,
when binuclei induced by caffeine are separated using centrifugation, two
PPBs are formed, one around each nucleus (Murata and Wada, 1993).
Counter to the centrifugation experiments in Adianturn, other pieces of
evidence indicate that the position of PPBs is not particularly influenced
by the nucleus or nuclei, especially in the organized tissue. First, in some
asymmetrical divisions, a PPB is formed asymmetrically although the nu-
cleus has not yet migrated (e.g., Fig. 3a; Mineyuki and Palevitz, 1990).
Second, centrifugation experiments on cell division in stornatal develop-
ment show that PPBs remain at the correct position (Pickett-Heaps, 1969c;
Galatis et al., 1984a). Third, in cases in which two SCs are induced by two
successively aligned GMCs in a wheat epidermal cell, four PPB sites are
seen in a longitudinal anticlinal wall (Galatis et al., 1983), although the
induced cell has only one nucleus. Finally, in division of caffeine-induced
binucleate cells in organized tissues, the PPB position is suggested to be
a b C
d e
FIG. 11 A comparison of the centrifugal experiments between protonemal division of Adiun-

turn (a-c; Murata and Wada, 1991a) and asymmetrical divisions of onion cotyledons (d and
e; Mineyuki ef al., 1991b). Vertical arrows mean basipetal centrifugation to displace nuclei
from the expected PPB site. (a-c) The effect of the timing of the centrifugation on the PPB
positioning. A nucleus is displaced just before PPB formation (a), in the early PPB stage
(b), or in a late PPB stage (c), respectively. (d) A cell with asymmetrical PPBs is centrifuged
to displace the nucleus (left) and fixed immediately (right). (e) A cell is centrifuged far before
PPB formation (left), and the nucleus remains in the basipetal region even when it is in the
preprophase stage (middle). The cells shown on the right in b and e are in prometaphase or
later stages. Although PPBs are expected to disappear before this stage without centrifugation,
a PPB far from the nucleus still remains there.
determined not by the position or number of nuclei but by stimuli related

to the establishment of cell polarity as well as the plane of division (Pickett-
Heaps, 1969a; Apostolakos and Galatis, 1987; Manandhar et aZ., 1996a,b).
However, in contrast to Pickett-Heapss (1996~)observation, Burgess and
Northcote (1968) report the existence of PPB in the displaced nucleus of
asymmetrical divisions.
In interpreting some of the previous observations, it is necessary to pay
careful attention to the stage of the cell cycle at the time of the experiment.
For example, Mineyuki et al. (1991a) report that when a cell with an asym-
metrically located PPB is centrifuged basipetally, a second band-like MT
array appears in the central part of the cell, near the displaced nucleus, in
addition to the apical PPB, suggesting that a new MT band is formed
during the basipetal centrifugation (Fig. 1Id). When interphase nuclei are
centrifuged as far down to the basal end of the cell as possible and then
the tissue is incubated for a time sufficient to allow entry into prophase, a
cell whose nucleus has not yet recovered from the centrifugation and is
still located toward the basal end of the cell will develop two MT bands,
one near the apical end where a PPB is normally found and another located
around the displaced nucleus (Fig. l l e ) . Although the MT band around
the nucleus is broader and coarser than the normal PPB, this extra MT
band apparently formed under the influence of the nucleus. In conclusion,
PPB formation is influenced not only by intercellular morphogenetic stimuli
but also internally by the nucleus. However, in some cases, especially at
the time of asymmetrical division, intercellular morphogenetic stimuli are
stronger than the nuclear signal.
Interestingly, as illustrated in Figs. l l b and l l e , the MT band located
remotely from the nucleus remains even after prometaphase, although the
MT band around the nucleus disappears (Mineyuki et al., 1991a; Murata
and Wada, 1991a). The MT band remote from the displaced nucleus can
be disrupted when the displaced nucleus and the surrounding cytoplasm
are moved again to the original site by another centrifugation (Murata and
Wada, 1992). These results support the idea that the endoplasm surrounding
the nucleus contains factors that are important for the disappearance of
PPBs (cyclins? see Section VIII,B), and that the PPB is a source of tubulid
MT for spindle development.
VIII. Molecular Aspects of PPB Organization
A. Actin
Cortical actin bands encompassing the PPB (Fig. 12c) have been reported
in various cell types (Palevitz, 1987, 1988; Trass er al., 1987; Kakimoto and
FIG. 12 PPB MTs and actin in onion cotyledon. All three cells are in late prophase judged
from the nuclear staining (data not shown). (a, b) Tubulin immunofluorescence images and
(c) an image of AFs stained with rhodamine phalloidin. Cells are treated with (b) or without
(a, c) 20 y M cytochalasin D. Note that in control, PPB MT is narrow but AF band is broad.
Scale bar = 10 yrn. See detail in Mineyuki and Palevitz (1990).
Shibaoka, 1987; Lloyd and Traas, 1988; McCurdy et al., 1988; Mineyuki
and Palevitz, 1990; McCurdy and Gunning, 1990; Katsuta et al., 1990; Liu
and Palevitz, 1992; Eleftheriou and Palevitz, 1992; Panteris et al., 1992;
Cleary et at., 1992a, c; Cleary, 1995; Cleary and Mathesius, 1996; BaluSka
et al., 1997) using fluorescent phalloidin derivatives, immunostaining, or
microinjection. The existence of microfilaments in the PPB is also confirmed
by EM (Ding et al., 1991). The width of the actin band always exceeds the
area covered by the MT band (compare Figs. 12a and 12c), and it sometimes
occupies the whole of the cell surface. While formation of the actin band
precedes the incipient PPB formation in onion and Tradescantia roots (Liu
and Palevitz, 1992), it appears sometime after a broad PPB formation in
wheat roots (McCurdy and Gunning, 1990) and Tradescantia stamen hair
cells (Cleary et ul., 1992~).While the actin band disappears when PPB MTs
are destroyed by MT inhibitors (Palevitz, 1987;Trass et al., 1987; Mineyuki
and Palevitz, 1990; Katsuta et al., 1990; Panteris et al., 1992), it remains in
other cases (Lloyd and Traas, 1988; McCurdy and Gunning, 1990). Also,
while the actin band disappears before the breakdown of PPB MTs in some
systems (Liu and Palevitz, 1992; McCurdy and Gunning, 1990; Cleary et
al., 1992c), in others it persists, even in metaphase (Lloyd and Traas, 1988;
Mincyuki and Palevitz, 1990;Fig. 12 in Cleary, 1995). Recovery experiments
from cytoskeletal inhibitors indicate that MTs are necessary for the mainte-
nance of the actin band (McCurdy and Gunning, 1990; Panteris et aL, 1992).
While some actin persists in the cell cortex throughout mitosis, it disap-
pears from the division site after the disappearance of the actin band. This
actin-depleted zone was found independently by IFM of root tips (Liu
and Palevitz, 1992) and by microinjection of rhodamin-phalloidin into
Tradescantia stamen hair cells (Cleary et al., 1992~);its existence was con-
firmed in other systems (Cleary, 1995; BaluSka et al., 1997). Although it is
not conspicuous, some photographs presented in the earlier works on actin
band also suggest the existence of actin-depleted zone, For example, I
present a picture of Fig. 12c as a broad PPB actin, but if the image is
carefully examined, the fluorescent signals in the central part of the actin
band appear to be weak. If we regard this as an actin-depleted zone,
transversely aligned cortical AFs are not a PPB actin. Reexamination of
actin bands described in the early work will be necessary. Because observa-
tion of living cells indicates that cell plates are inserted accurately in the
area of the cortex defined by the actin-depleted zone, the actin-depleted
zone may have some essential roles for the memory of the division site
(see Section IX).
Cytochalasin D interferes with the narrowing of the PPB MTs (Fig. 12b)
(Mincyuki and Palevitz, 1990;Eleftheriou and Palevitz, 1992). PPBs become
wide within 15 min after cytochalasin treatment, indicating that the cytocha-
lasin treatment also leads to rewidening of the MT band. PPB MTs do not
bundle to form a narrow band in GMCs of winter rye in normal conditions
(Fig, IOc). The abscence of actin bands in these cells (Cho and Wick, 1990,
1991) supports the idea of involvement of actin bands in PPB bundling, al-
though it is not certain that the procedures used were capable of detecting
the delicate actin (Clearly and Mathesius, 1996). Although PPBs in GMCs
of Selagitzella kruusiana never become narrow, an actin band is observed
(Cleary et al., 1992a). Whether the difference between the presence and ab-
sence of actin bands between these GMCs with a broad PPB is a result of the
phylogenetical difference between a grass and a fern ally remains unsolved.
B. Cyclin-Dependent Kinases
Cyclin-dependent kinases (Cdks) are eukariotic protein kinases that bind

to cyclins and activate proteins that are necessary for the entry into S or
M phase. Since the first finding that the mitosis-promoting factor (MPF)
is a complex of a cdc2 kinase (= cdkl) and a cyclin B, several types of
cdks and cyclins have been reported in animal cells (Martin-Castellanos
and Moreno, 1997). The existence of cdc2 homologs in a PPB has been
shown by IFM in a variety of cell types and species (Mineyuki et al., 1991c,
1996; John et al., 1993; Colasanti et al., 1993; Bogre et al., 1997; Mews et
aL, 1997). One of the functions of cdc2 may be a promotion of disassembly
of PPB MTs because microinjection of active MPF into Tradescantia stamen
hair cells causes rapid disassembly of PPB MTs (Hush et al., 1996). This
idea is supported by experiments with general kinase inhibitors, K-252a
and staurosporin (Katsuta and Shibaoka, 1992).
Maize cdc2-specific antibody recognizes only 10% of the prophase PPBs
(Colasanti et al., 1993) and these PPBs are late PPBs (Mews et al., 1997).
On the contrary, anti-PSTAIR, the antibody against a peptide of a well-
conserved domain of cdks, recognizes very wide developmental stages of
PPBs (Mineyuki et al., 1991c), even in maize roots (Mineyuki et al., 1996).
This raises the possibility that other anti-PSTAIR cross-reactive molecules
exist in the PPB. A study using phosphorylation-state specific antibody
against the ATP-binding domain of cdks suggests that there are different
phosphorylation states of cdks in onion PPBs (Okushima et al., 1996). Two
types of cyclins are reported in the PPB: Cyclin Ib appears transiently in
the late PPBs, and cyclin I1 associates with developing PPBs (Mews et al.,
1997). This observation also suggests our hypothesis.
The width of a PPB is broad in onion root tips treated with cycloheximide
(Nogami et al., 1996) or those treated with staurosporin, and MTs could
not bundle in the presence of another protein kinase inhibitor, 6-dimeth-
ylaminopurine (Nogami et al., 1994). These findings suggest that cdk homo-
logs are involved in MT bundling during PPB development. Double staining
with anti-PSTAIR and anti-tubulin showed that the width of anti-PSTAIR
cross-reactive materials is always narrower than that of the PPB MTs (Y.
Mineyuki, unpublished data) and that they disappear when MTs are disas-
sembled by oryzaline (Colasanti et al., 1993) or colchicine. Some MTs in a
PPB are stable against cold treatment; anti-PSTAIR cross-reactive materi-
als colocalize with these MT bundles (Y. Mineyuki, unpublished data).
These data suggest that anti-PSTAIR cross-reactive materials are accurnu-
lated in the bundled part of a PPB.
Whether cdks in a PPB directly phosphorylate tubulins or modify MT
arrangement via some MT-associated proteins is not known. The distance
between adjacent MTs in a PPB cannot be shortened in the presence of
cycloheximide (Nogami et al., 1996). Because cycloheximide presumably
inhibits cdk activity by inhibiting cyclin synthesis, there is a possibility that
some MAPS are involved in the cdk-induced MT bundling in PPBs. A
kinesin-related protein, TKRP125, which locates in the PPB and has a site
of phosphorylation by cdc2 (Asada et al., 1997), is a candidate substrate
for cdks in the PPB. P13suc'is an essential cell cycle protein that binds to
cdc2, but it does not associate with the PPB (Hepler et al., 1994). A mono-
clonal antibody, MPM-2, has been used to identify a family of proteins that
becomes phosphorylated at mitosis in a range of eukaryotic cells (Davis et
al., 1983). Although MPM-2 fails to stain the PPB, the increase in MPM-2
fluorescence in a cell apparently correlates with PPB formation (Trass et
al., 1992; Young et al., 1994). Effects of phosphatase inhibitors on PPBs
are also reported. Hasezawa and Nagata (1992) show inhibition of the PPB
formation by okadaic acid, whereas Zhang et al. (1992) observe that cells
incubated with okadaic acid are accumulated in G2 and that the PPB
develops and disassembles with the same timing as controls, although the
treated cells do not progress to prometaphase. More examination may be
necessary to understand these inconsistent results. However, it is clear that
some kinases (including cdc2) and phosphatases act in concert to control
PPB development and degradation.
C. Other Molecules Associated with the PPB

Several other molecules are reported to localize in the PPB using IFM.
Some antibodies that recognize animal intermediate filaments or plant
cytoplasmic bundles are known to detect molecules in the PPB (Dawson
et al., 1985; Hargreaves et al., 1989; Fairbairn et aZ., 1994) although others
fail to detect PPBs (Parke et al., 1087). Localization of plant MT-associated
proteins in the PPB has also been reported (Jiang and Sonobe, 1993; Chan
et al., 1996). In an attempt to examine the localization of motor proteins
in the PPB, Parke et al. (1986) failed to find myosin. Kinesin-like proteins
are reported to be in the PPB (Asada et al., 1997; Bowser and Reddy,
1997), whereas antibodies against the MT-binding domain of Arabidopsis
kinesin-like protein stain PPBs very weakly (Liu et al., 1996). Calmodulins
(Del Vecchio et al., 1997) and molecules that react with an antibody against
rabbit skeletal muscle troponin T (Lim et al., 1986) are also detected in
the PPB. Pas5D8, a monoclonal antibody against a fern spermatozoid,
stains whole cell cortex except for the PPB region (Marc and Gunning,
1988). Because this antibody is an IgM and similar results are obtained by
other IgM antibodies such as Amersham anti-actin N-350 (McCurdy ef af.,
1988), whether this PPB excluding zone is meaningful or just the result of
steric exclusion from the PPB site by close packing of the MTs remains un-
solved.
IX. Operation of the PPB (Division) Site
As discussed in Section III,A, cell plates fuse to the parental walls at the
former PPB site, without exception. Cell plate formation includes two
separate phases (Mineyuki et aL, 1991b): (i) the appearance of cell plate
fragments between the daughter nuclei and (ii) expansion of cell plates to
the former PPB site. In cells whose equatorial planes are not parallel to
the future division plane (Fig. 5c), location of the incipient phragmoplast
is independent of the PPB site and it is restricted by the position of daughter
nuclei. Reorientation of cell plates to the division site occurs in the second
phase. Experimental obliteration of the PPB in Adianturn protonemata
(Mineyuki et al., 1991b;Murata and Wada, 1991a)causes incorrect insertion
of cell plate. In these cases, the appearance of the phragmoplast between
the daughter nuclei looks normal, but phragmoplast expansion toward
the correct division site is affected by the treatment (Figs. 13a and 13b).
Malorientation of the cell plate is also reported in large cells with PSs
following colchicine treatment during preprophase (Venverloo and Lib-
benga, 1987).This indicates the involvement of the PPB site in the guidance
of phragmoplast expansion. Because cytochalasin and phalloidin also inhibit
the cell plate expansion process, actin must somehow be involved in this
process (Palevitz and Hepler, 1974b; Palevitz, 1980, 1986; Mineyuki and
Gunning, 1990; Cho and Wick, 1990). In cells with a PS, it is proposed that
actin (see Section VI,C,l) guides the expanding phragmoplast to the division
site (Lloyd and Traas, 1988), but this does not seem applicable to meriste-
matic cells, for which evidence to the contrary has accumulated (Cleary,
1995). However, Valster and Hepler (1997) recently showed that AFs link
the expanding edge of the phragmoplast with the cortical division site and
FIG. 13 Cell plate formation in altered cell division of Adiantum protonemata. (a, b) Tubulin
immunofluorescence of a development of phragmoplasts in cells whose PPB formation is
obliterated by the experimental manipulation with red light (see detail in Mineyuki et aL,
1991b). (a) Early telophase. (b) Late telophase. Note that while the incipient phragmoplast
appearance seems normal, the expansion of the phragmoplast becomes abnormal. (c, d) Cell
plate in the dark-induced cell division in the presence (c) or absence (d) of 2% dimethyl
sulfoxide (DMSO). Note that although cell plate is inserted transversely in control, DMSO-
treated cell plate is inserted obliquely. Scale bars = 10 pm.
cortical actin patches within the actin-deplet zone in Tradescanria stamen

hair cells using microinjection with a high phalloidine concentration. Obser-
vation of living onion GMCs shows that the rotational movement is also
inhibited by blue light or by sodium azide (Palevitz, 1986).
The newly formed cell wall that forms just after the cell plate attaches
to the PPB site is fluid and wrinkled, but then it becomes stiff and flat in
Tradescantia stamen hair cells. This may be one process of the cell plate
maturation. When cell plates fail to reach the correct division site by the
experimental manipulations, cell plate maturation is not completed. This
observation suggests that cell plate maturation is a function of the PPB
site (Mineyuki and Gunning, 1990).
PPBs disappear before metaphase and cell plate formation takes place
in their absence. Hence, some positional information must be inserted at
the division site when a PPB MT locates there, later helping lo guide the
edges of the centrifugally extending phragmoplast to the correct site and
helping in the process of cell plate maturation. Experimental manipulation
of the division site after PPB disappearance shows that the positional
information resists centrifugation at 3550g or less for 15 min (Ota, 1961)
but is disrupted by making minute wounds in the division site of mitotic
cells with a microneedle (Gunning and Wick, 1985). Small vesicles associate
with PPB MTs and fuse with PM (see Section II1,C). Cell walls at the
division site are sometimes differentially thickened (Packard and Stack,
1976; Galatis and Mitrakos, 1979;Galatis, 1982). These observations suggest
promotion of localized cell wall deposition by the PPB, but molecules
involved in this process have not been identified. Because the actin-depleted
zone is seen at the division site (see Section VIII,A), one of the candidates
may be molecules that block binding of actin with the PM. When and how
this information is accumulated is not known. When Adiantum protonemata
are grown under 2% dimethyl sulfoxide or 1% methanol, the frequency
with which cell plates are inserted obliquely increased (Fig. 13c). This
suggests that the PM is important for the accumulation of positional infor-
mation.
X. Other Functions of the PPB
A. Premitotic Nuclear Positioning
As discussed in Section VI,C,2, while some premitotic nuclear migrations

occur after the PPB is formed, those of some other cell types take place
long before the PPB formation and in some cells nuclear migration occurs
entirely without PPBs. Premitotic nuclear migration may therefore be a
response to cellular polarization which can be completed without involving
a PPB.
Although the path of the nuclear migration in Adianturn protonemata
is different among the experimental conditions, nuclei cease their migration
at the time of G2/M boundary to determine the ultimate division site
(Mineyuki and Furuya, 1980; Furuya, 1984, Fig. 2). A nucleus that has
finished its migration shows enhanced resistance to centrifugation (Pickett-
Heaps, 1969c; Mineyuki and Furuya, 1986) and the apparent cytoplasmic
viscosity in the PPB-nucleus region increases, based on observation of
changes in organelle movement (Mineyuki et al., 1984). They are sensitive
to colchicine but not to cytochalasin, indicating that PPB MTs and MTs
connecting PPB and the nucleus are involved in the anchoring of the
preprophasic nucleus (Mineyuki and Furuya, 1986). MT linkages between
PPBs and the perinuclear MTs have been reported (see Section II1,C) and
the observation that the PPB and the nucleus remain associated when cells
are broken (Wick and Duniec, 1983,1984; Tiwari et al., 1985) also indicates
a strong connection between the nucleus and the PPB. Therefore, PPBs
and endoplasmic MTs between PPBs and the nuclear surface are involved
in premitotic nuclear anchoring.
B. Bipolar Spindle Formation and Orientation
Because the ultimate prophase spindle axis has been found to be perpendic-
ular to the PPB in all cases reported to date, involvement of the PPB in
prophase spindle orientation has been suggested (Wick and Duniec, 1984).
This has further been confirmed by observation of GMCs (Figs. 10b and
1Oc; Mineyuki et al., 1988a; Cho and Wick, 1989; Cleary and Hardham,
1989). In onion GMCs, the prophase spindle orients transversely, perpen-
dicular to the PPB, but it gradually changes its orientation during prometa-
phase and it finally orients obliquely in meta and anaphase (Mineyuki et
al., 1988a). In Haemanthus endosperm, a cell type which lacks PPBs, three
well-developed spindle poles are often formed in late prophase but are
transformed into normal bipolar spindles during prometaphase (Schmit et
al., 1983, 1985; Smirnova and Bajer, 1994). On the contrary, cells with a
PPB never show well-developed tripoles, suggesting that the PPB provides
a reference plane to which spindle poles can be established unambiguously.
Clear MT-linkage between spindle poles and the PPB have been seen in
late prophase (Figs. l a and 7f; Mineyuki et al., 1991a; Nogami et al., 1996).
When the narrowing of a PPB is inhibited by cytochalasin (Mineyuki and
Palevitz, 1990) or cycloheximide (Nogami et al., 1996), bipolar spindle
formation is also inhibited. These results indicate the possible involvement
of the PPB on bipolar spindle organization and/or spindle orientation.
Against these observations, there is evidence that spindle poles can be

established prior to PPB formation in lower land plants (e.g., Brown and
Lemmon, 1990). Relationships between spindles and the PPB may differ
between higher plants and lower land plants.
XI. Conclusion
The determination of the division site and correct insertion of a cell plate
at the predetermined division site contain the following elementary pro-
cesses: (i) Orientation of the division plane is fixed in a cell in terms of the
parallel alignment of cortical MTs to the future division plane orientation
(broad PPB formation); (ii) the precise position at which the cell plate will
fuse with the parental wall is determined by narrowing of the broad MT
band (maturation of a PPB); (iii) accumulation of some information at the
PPB site (division site) is necessary in the final stage of cytokinesis;
(iv) disappearance of the PPB to utilize MTdtubulin for spindle formation
at the prophase/prometaphase transition stage; (v) appearance of cell plate
fragments between daughter nuclei at the anaphaseltelophase transition
stage; (vi) centrifugal expansion of the cell plate to the division site; and
(vii) cell plate maturation after the cell piate edges attach to the parental
cell walls. The PPB is somehow involved in steps i-iv, and the positional
information accumulated at step iii may be involved in steps vi and vii. As
discussed in Section VI,B, the PPB is not a determinant of the division
plane orientation but a determinant of the ultimate division site. The most
important function of a PPB may be the accumulation of positional informa-
tion at the division site that may be necessary for the correct insertion and
maturation of the cell plate (see Section IX). Thus, it is important to know
the molecular mechanism of PPB narrowing for the ultimate division site
determination and finding molecules which are accumulated at the PPB
site may be the next crucial step for studying the function of PPBs.
Acknowledgments
I thank Dr. Masashi Tazawa (Fukui Institute of Technology) for the encouragement to write
this chapter and to Dr. Takashi Murata (University of Tokyo) and Professor Brian E. S.
Gunning (Australian National University) for critical reading of the manuscript. I also thank
colleagues both inside and outside Japan for their helpful comments on the manuscript and
for generously providing their unpublished information, micrographs, and figures. 1 especially
thank Ms. Akiko Nogami and Chikage Okushima for their help in preparing the manuscript.
This work was supported by the Ito Science Foundation, the Surnitomo Foundation, and a
research grant from the Ministry of Education, Science and Culture in Japan.
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The Preprophase Band of

Microtubules: Its Function as a

Features, development, and functions of preprophase bands (PPBs) of microtubules

The preprophase band (PPB) of microtubules (MTs) is a unique band of

lnrernarional Review of C'ylology. Val. I87 1 Copyright 0 1999 by Academic Press.

II. The Division Site

3. Position versus Orientation

6. Division Site Regulation and Plant Morphogenesis

Many descriptive studies (Sinnott, 1960) documented the importance of

C. The Division Site Is Determined before Karyokinesis

The process of determination of the division site is also quite different

Ill. Features of the PPB

A. The PPB Is Positioned at the Ultimate Division Site

Documentation on positional consistency between PPBs and the division

B. PPB Orientation under Altered Cell Polarity

C. Fine Structure of the PPB

IV. Occurrence of the PPB

In order to determine whether PPBs appear only in certain specialized

PPBs are found in the formation of tmema cells of Funaria protonemata

V. Temporal Aspects of PPB Development

Early EM observations on synchronously induced cell division of Adianturn

or even in G I phase (Mineyuki et af., 1988b). The partial uncoupling of PPB

VI. Preparation of the Division Site

A. Changes in the MT Array during PPB Development

Changcs in MT distribution during development and disappearance of PPBs

rowing of MT bands and loss of the resolution of individual MTs is con-

B. PPB Development and Determination of the Division Site

C. Other Signs That Predict the Future Division Site

1. Phragmosomes in Highly Vacuolated Cells

stage of nuclear migration, t h e nucleus, now separated from the cortex, is

2. Premitotic Nuclear Migration

VII. Spatial Aspects of PPB Development

A. Origin of the PPB MTs

translocation, and reutilization of intact MTs cannot be discounted (Pale-

et al., 1988,1990). This peptide may therefore be a MAP-like protein rather

Electron-dense cross-bridges exist between MTs and the PM in both PPB

D. Nuclear Position and PPB Development

FIG. 11 A comparison of the centrifugal experiments between protonemal division of Adiun-

determined not by the position or number of nuclei but by stimuli related

VIII. Molecular Aspects of PPB Organization

Cyclin-dependent kinases (Cdks) are eukariotic protein kinases that bind

C. Other Molecules Associated with the PPB

IX. Operation of the PPB (Division) Site

cortical actin patches within the actin-deplet zone in Tradescanria stamen

X. Other Functions of the PPB

A. Premitotic Nuclear Positioning

As discussed in Section VI,C,2, while some premitotic nuclear migrations

B. Bipolar Spindle Formation and Orientation

Against these observations, there is evidence that spindle poles can be

Fairbairn, D. J . , Goodbody, K. C., and Lloyd, C. W. (1994). Simultaneous labelling of microtu-

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