Stress Physiology in Cotton
Stress Physiology in Cotton
Stress Physiology in Cotton
Physiology
in Cotton
NUMBER SEVEN
THE COTTON FOUNDATION
REFERENCE BOOK SERIES
Edited by
Derrick M. Oosterhuis
Stress Physiology
in Cotton
The Cotton Foundation
Reference Book Series
The Cotton Foundation was created in 1955 to foster research and education for the cotton
industry. Supported by membership dues and grants from agribusiness firms, the Foundation
plays an integral role in focusing attention to high priority research and education needs. Foun-
dation members include the worlds finest manufactures and suppliers of cotton machinery,
plant health products, transgenic technologies, planting seed, testing instruments, processing
materials; and consulting, financial and communications services
The alliance of agribusiness and the cotton industry strengthens the ability of both to reach
common objectives enhance markets and profitability. Understanding that sales and service
are ultimately linked to the vitality of the cotton industry, corporate suppliers support the Foun-
dation with dues and special earmarked grants. The Foundations offices are located at the Na-
tional Cotton Councils headquarters in Cordova, Tennessee.
We are pleased to publish STRESS PHYSIOLOGY IN COTTON, the seventh in the series
of cotton reference books. The first volume, COTTON PHYSIOLOGY was published in 1986;
the second, WEEDS OF COTTON: Characterization and Control was published in 1992; the
third, COTTON INSECTS AND MITES: Characterizations and Management, was published
in 1996; the fourth volume, VEGETABLE OILS AND AGROCHEMICALS became available
in 1994; the fifth volume, COTTON HARVEST MANAGEMENT: Use and Influence of Har-
vest Aids and the sixth volume, BOLL WEEVIL ERADICATION IN THE UNITED STATES
THROUGH 1999 were both published in 2001.
Bill M. Norman
Executive Director
The Cotton Foundation
7193 Goodlett Farms Parkway
Cordova, Tennessee 38016
ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Publication of this book was made possible by a grant to the Cotton Foundation from Mon-
santo. Monsanto is a major supplier to the cotton industry and supports programs for cotton
through the Cotton Foundation.
Delivering innovation to the farm starts with research and development. This year Monsanto
invested more than $1 billion to develop the most robust pipeline of products in the industry.
Today, Monsanto researchers throughout the world are actively working to discover, develop
and deliver the next generation of agricultural products so farmers can get more out of each acre
of farmland. Everything Monsanto does is aimed at helping to make agriculture more produc-
tive and more profitable for farmers, as well as more efficient and more sustainable for our earth.
Monsanto is proud to be a member of the Cotton Foundation and sponsor of STRESS PHYS-
IOLOGY IN COTTON, the seventh book in the Cotton Foundations cotton reference book
series. The sponsorship is a reflection of the companys belief that continued support of the
development of technologies and materials that promote the production of more cost-effective,
higher yielding cotton, will make a stronger cotton industry.
The editor and contributors of STRESS PHYSIOLOGY IN COTTON are indebted to Penny
McGee for preparation and page setting of the manuscripts for publication. In addition, grateful
acknowledgement is made to Drs. Phil Bauer, Bhaskar Bondada, Tom Cothren, Eric Hequet,
Jack Mauney, Bobbie McMichael, Russell Nuti, Raja Reddy, Ioannis Tzanetakis, and Randy
Wells for peer review of the chapters.
iii
StreSS PhySiology in Cotton
Editor
DerriCk M. ooSterhuiS
Number Seven
the Cotton FounDation
reFerenCe book SerieS
v
COPYRIGHT 2011 by The Cotton Foundation.
The Cotton Foundation has copyrighted this book as a collective work and does not own
copyrights for individual chapters. Requests for permission to reproduce parts of individual
chapters should be addressed to the authors.
The citation of trade names and/or names of manufacturers in this publication is not to be
construed as an endorsement or as approval by The Cotton Foundation, the National Cotton
Council, U.S. Department of Agriculture, any state university or any other federal or state
agency.
Published 2011
vi
TABLE OF CONTENTS
FOREWORD.............................................................................................................................. ix
PREFACE ................................................................................................................................ ix
CONTRIBUTORS........................................................................................................................x
Index.........................................................................................................................................161
vii
COTTON PHYSIOLOGY BOOK SERIES
FOREWORD
The Cotton Foundation Reference Book Series started with the first publication COTTON
PHYSIOLOGY in 1985, edited by J.R. Mauney and J.M. Stewart, followed by a second book,
PHYSIOLOGY OF COTTON, edited by J.M. Stewart, D.M. Oosterhuis, J.J. Heitholt, and J.R.
Mauney published in 2010. This cotton physiology-related series is being continued using a
smaller book format with each future book covering a specific pertinent topic. The smaller
book format will facilitate timely publication and reduce the cost. The books will be published
in book form as well as on CDs. Each book will incorporate a special symposium on a topic
chosen by members of the National Cotton Council, Agronomy and Physiology Conference
and held at the Beltwide Cotton Conferences. Prominent speakers will be invited to partake in
the symposium, and together with additional invited authorities, will make up the subsequent
book. The first of the new small book physiology of cotton series is on Stress Physiology. The
next symposium, to be held at the Beltwide Cotton Conferences in Atlanta in January 2011, and
subsequent book, will be entitled Flowering and Fruiting in Cotton.
PREFACE
If cotton production is to be sustainable and profitable, it is essential to know about the growth
of the plant and how it responds to environmental stress. With its indeterminate growth habit the
cotton plant self- stresses; that is, it grows and expands until some internal or external stresses
begin to inhibit that growth and expansion. A sound understanding of physiological processes
and how they respond to stress is needed to formulate strategies to manage those stresses to
maximize production profitability. Choices about planting and harvest date, cultivar selection
for soil and field location, fertility, pest management, and cultivation are all basically stress-
management decisions. The effect of temperature, moisture, nutrition and pest attacks on cotton
growth and yield depends upon the severity and timing of the stress and the ability of the plant
to respond and adapt to it. While some of the effects of stress such as wilting have immediate
cause and effect relationships, some effects such as pollen fertility are subtle and delayed in
expression. Therefore, detailed knowledge of the effects of various stresses on the physiology
of cotton is essential to an understanding of resistance and survival mechanisms for breeding for
stress resistance and for formulation of improved management practices.
ix
CONTRIBUTORS
Dr. Lorenzo Aleman Dr. Bruce Bugbee
Bayer CropScience Crop Physiology Laboratory
Cotton R&D Center Department of Plants Soils and Climate
6112 43rd St., Suite 500 Utah State University
Lubbock, TX 79407 Logan, UT 84322-4820
lorenzo.aleman@bayer.com bruce.bugbee@usu.edu
x
Dr. Derrick M. Oosterhuis Dr. John L. Snider
Department of Crop, Soil, and USDA, ARS
Environmental Sciences Dale Bumpers Small Farm Research Center
University of Arkansas 6883 South State Hwy 23
1366 Altheimer Drive Booneville, AR 72927
Fayetteville, AR 72704 John.Snider@ars.usda.gov
oosterhu@uark.edu
xi
Photography by Bill Robertson
xii
Chapter 1
eral metabolism and growth for various species (Burke et al., 1988; Burke, 1990). The TKW for
cotton is between 23.5 and 32C (Burke et al., 1988). Because typical daily high temperatures
are often in excess of this range during the growing season, high temperature represents a major
limitation to crop development and productivity.
Figure 1. Negative correlation between cotton yield and high temperature during July when
flowering and early boll development occur in Arkansas. (Adapted from Oosterhuis, 1999).
The optimum temperature for stem and leaf growth was about 30C (Hodges et al., 1993). Once
temperatures reach about 35oC, growth rate and photosynthesis of cotton begins to decrease (Bibi
et al., 2008, 2010). However, average daily maximum temperatures during flowering and boll
development in the US Cotton Belt are almost always above 35C, and well above the optimum
for photosynthesis. Reddy et al. (1991) observed a 50% decline in total shoot biomass for Upland
cotton plants grown under a 40/30C day/night temperature regime relative to plants grown under
the optimal day/night temperature condition (30/20C). Similarly, a decline in dry matter produc-
tion at day temperatures in excess of 30C was observed for Pima cotton (Reddy et al., 1995).
Temperatures in excess of the optimum also result in significant declines in leaf area. For example,
leaf expansion is optimal under a 30/22C day/night temperature regime for Upland cotton and
declines at temperatures in excess of this growth temperature regime (Reddy et al., 1992c). Reddy
et al. (1995) observed a comparable trend for Pima cotton with leaf area declining significantly at
high temperatures above 31.3C. Recently, Bibi et al. (2010) showed that leaf extension growth in
Upland cotton declined significantly at temperatures above 35C.
High temperatures can have both direct inhibitory effects on growth and yield, and indirect
effects due to high evaporative demand causing more intense water stress (Hall, 2001). Plant
water-deficit stress often coincides with high temperatures, but with irrigation and adequate
precipitation this is not always a problem. Even though it is difficult to separate the exacerbat-
ing effects of water deficit on temperature stress, this review will only focus on the effects of
elevated temperatures.
HIGH TEMPERATURE STRESS ON FLORAL DEVELOPMENT AND YIELD OF COTTON 3
Figure 2. The effect of increasing day/night temperature on fruiting sites produced, bolls and
squares retained, and percent boll and square abscission. (From Hodges et al., 1993).
Limitations to normal growth and development in cotton under heat stress result from numer-
ous adverse effects on the physiology of the cotton plant. For example, photosynthesis in cotton
is highly sensitive to temperatures above 35C (Crafts-Brandner and Salvucci, 2000; Wise et al.,
2004; Bibi et al., 2008; Snider et al., 2009). High temperature in cotton influences photosynthe-
sis by decreasing quantum efficiency of the photosynthetic apparatus (Law and Crafts-Brandner,
1999; Bibi et al., 2008; Snider et al., 2009; Snider et al., 2010), decreasing chlorophyll content
(Reddy et al., 2004; Snider et al., 2009; Snider et al., 2010), inhibiting rubisco activase (Feller
4 Oosterhuis AND Snider
et al., 1998; Law and Crafts-Brandner, 1999; Crafts-Brandner and Salvucci, 2000), decreasing
membrane integrity (Rahman et al. 2004; Schrader et al., 2004; Bibi et al., 2008), and increasing
photorespiration (Perry et al., 1983). Additionally, high temperature significantly increases dark
respiration rates in a variety of species and can ultimately result in lower translocation rates to
developing sinks. For example, Cowling and Sage (1998) found that Phaseolus vulgaris plants
exposed to high day/night temperature regimes had respiration rates nearly twice those of plants
under the control temperature regime. Timlin et al. (2006) found that photosynthate partitioning
to developing potato tubers decreased when temperatures increased above the optimum (20C),
and the decrease in carbon allocation to the tubers was strongly associated with high respira-
tory carbon losses. Studies investigating the effect of high night temperature in cotton have
shown that high night temperature increases respiration rates (Arevalo et al., 2008; Loka and
Oosterhuis, 2010), decreases soluble carbohydrate concentrations in source leaves (Arevalo et
al., 2008; Loka and Oosterhuis, 2010), increases abscission (Arevalo et al., 2008), and results in
significantly lower yield (Arevalo et al., 2008; Gipson and Joham, 1968).
There is no exact identification of the most heat-sensitive aspect of the reproductive process
in cotton, but Reddy et al (1996) concluded that there was a short period associated with flow-
ering when the reproductive process is most vulnerable to average daily temperatures above
32.8C to 34.4C. Because a number of reproductive processes must occur in a highly concerted
fashion during flowering for fertilization to occur, sexual reproduction is only as tolerant to heat
stress as the most thermosensitive process (Hedhly et al., 2009; Zinn et al., 2010), and depend-
ing upon the timing, duration and severity, heat stress can limit fertilization by inhibiting male
(Jain et al., 2007) and female (Saini et al., 1983) gametophyte development, pollen germination
(Burke et al., 2004; Kakani et al., 2005; Jain et al., 2007), and pollen tube growth (Burke et al.,
2004; Hedhly et al., 2004; Kakani et al., 2005; Snider et al., 2011a).
Anthesis
The day of anthesis is a critical event in the reproductive development of Gossypium hirsu-
tum. The flower opens as a white flower at dawn (Stewart, 1986) with pollination reported to
occur between 0700 and 1100 h (Pundir, 1972) and germination within 30 minutes after pol-
lination (Stewart, 1986). The pollen tube extends through the transmitting tissue of the style
and fertilization occurs between 12 and 24 h later (Stewart, 1986). Successful in vivo pollen
tube growth and subsequent fertilization of the ovule is a prerequisite for seed formation in G.
hirsutum, and seeds with their associated fibers are the basic components of yield. Therefore,
any abiotic stress that inhibits directional pollen tube growth from the stigma to the ovules on
the day of anthesis and limits fertilization will also limit yield.
Figure 3. The number of total ovules (A), fertilized ovules (B) and fertilization efficiency ex-
pressed as pollen tubes per ovule (PT per ovule) (C) in Gossypium hirsutum pistils under nor-
mal (30/20C) and high (38/20C) day temperature regimes. Heat stress induced significant
reductions in all three parameters measured. All values are means SE (n = 15), and values
not sharing a common letter are significantly different (Students t-test; P < 0.05). (From
Snider et al., 2009).
8 Oosterhuis AND Snider
Hedhly et al., 2005). Also, a number of physical and biochemical pollen-pistil interactions
are required for successful pollen tube growth and fertilization of the ovule (Lord, 2003;
Herrero and Hormaza, 1996). In various plant species, a readily available supply of carbohy-
drates in the pistil is essential in promoting a number of key events during plant reproductive
development, including gametophyte development (Rodrigo and Herrero, 1998; Castro and
Clemente, 2007; Jain et al., 2007), pollen germination (Jain et al., 2007), pollen tube growth
(Herrero and Arbeloa, 1989; Gonzalez et al., 1996), and fertilization (Snider et al., 2009).
For example, studies with peach (Herrero and Arbeloa, 1989) and kiwifruit (Gonzalez et al.,
1996) have shown that in vivo pollen tube growth utilizes protein and carbohydrate reserves
supplied to the pollen tube from the transmitting tissue of the style as tube growth transi-
tions from an autotrophic phase (utilizing carbohydrates accumulated in the pollen grain)
to a heterotrophic phase (utilizing external carbohydrates present in the style). In tobacco,
germinating pollen grains and growing pollen tubes have been shown to exhibit a high energy
requirement relative to vegetative tissues with respiration rates 10 times those of vegetative
tissues (Tadege and Kuhlemeier, 1997).
Heat stress results in substantial alterations in the carbohydrate balance of reproductive
tissues, causing poor reproductive success under high temperature. For example, Zhao et
al. (2005) reported that high temperature conditions resulted in significantly lower levels of
nonstructural carbohydrates in one day old cotton bolls and significantly higher abscission
rates of young bolls; abscission rates were negatively correlated with the nonstructural car-
bohydrate content of the young boll. Some authors have shown that heat-tolerant cultivars
of tomato (defined as cultivars with greater seed set under high temperatures) retain higher
carbohydrate concentrations in the pollen grains and anther walls following chronic heat
stress than do less heat-tolerant cultivars (Pressman et al., 2002; Firon et al., 2006). Ad-
ditionally, Jain et al. (2007) reported that season-long high temperature in grain sorghum
resulted in poor pollen germination and reduced seed set concomitant with non-detectable
levels of sucrose and 50% reductions in starch content of microspores during late develop-
mental stages relative to optimal temperature conditions. For cotton, Snider et al. (2009)
recently reported that soluble carbohydrate and adenosine triphosphate (ATP) concentra-
tions in pistils exposed to high ambient temperature conditions (38/20C) one week prior
to flowering were approximately 20.3 and 55% lower, respectively, on the day of anthesis
than under control temperature conditions (30/20C) (Fig. 4). Because the decline in energy
reserves occurred concomitantly with a decline in fertilization efficiency (Fig. 3), these
authors concluded that the energy demands for proper gametophyte development or pol-
len tube growth were insufficient and thereby limited the fertilization process. Subsequent
research has shown that a cotton cultivar known to exhibit reproductive thermotolerance
(VH260), as evidenced by good boll retention and stable fertilization efficiency under high
temperature, also had higher pistil ATP concentration than a conventional cultivar (ST4554
B2RF) widely utilized by cotton farmers in the Mississippi river delta in 2008 (Snider et
al., 2011b). These findings suggest that the energetic status of the pistil may be a strong
determinant of reproductive thermotolerance in cotton.
HIGH TEMPERATURE STRESS ON FLORAL DEVELOPMENT AND YIELD OF COTTON 9
Figure 4. Total soluble carbohydrate and ATP concentrations of Gossypium hirsutum pistils
exposed to high day temperatures (38/20C) and optimal day temperatures (30/20C). Heat
stress reduced both soluble carbohydrate (A) and ATP levels (B). All values are means SE
(n = 15), and values not sharing a common letter are significantly different (Students t-test; P
< 0.05). (From Snider et al., 2009).
10 Oosterhuis AND Snider
Figure 5. Effect of temperature on _PSII in G. hirsutum cv. ST4554 (A) and cv. VH260 (B).
Leaves were illuminated with 500 mol photons m2 s1 and incubated at temperatures rang-
ing from 15 to 50C for 5 min at each temperature prior to PSII determination. In each
graph, a representative curve illustrates how Topt (the temperature at which the highest quan-
tum efficiency was obtained for a given leaf) and T15PSII (the temperature causing a 15%
decline in PSII from the value at Topt) were determined for a given cultivar. G. hirsutum cv.
ST4554 had a 7.5 and 5.5C lower (Students t-test; P < 0.05) mean Topt (27.7C) and T15PSII
(38C), respectively, than VH260 (35.2 and 43.5C, respectively). Horizontal bars = standard
error. (From Snider et al., 2010).
12 Oosterhuis AND Snider
Snider et al. (2009) recently reported increases in the water soluble calcium concentration
(Fig. 6) and glutathione reductase activity (Fig. 7B) of heat-stressed cotton pistils, but a de-
cline in NOX activity of pistils exposed to high day temperature (Fig. 7C). These authors sug-
gested that a calcium-augmented antioxidant response to high temperature interfered with NOX
activity required for successful pollen tube growth in vivo. Further research has shown that
cotton pistils from a cultivar with known reproductive thermotolerance (VH260) also had sig-
nificantly higher levels of total and water soluble calcium content than a more sensitive cultivar
(ST4554 B2RF), and genotypic thermotolerance was associated with higher antioxidant enzyme
(superoxide dismutase and glutathione reductase) activity in the pistil under optimal growth
temperatures (Snider et al., 2011b). These findings suggest that calcium content and pre-stress
antioxidant enzyme activity of the pistil may be important criteria for identifying thermotolerant
cultivars. Additionally, the genotypic differences in subtending leaf thermostability discussed
previously were shown to be dependent upon pre-stress antioxidant enzyme activity, where the
thermotolerant cultivar had significantly higher levels of pre-stress antioxidant enzyme activity
in the subtending leaf than the thermosensitive cultivar (Snider et al., 2010; Fig. 8).
Figure 6. Water soluble (A) and total calcium (B) responses to high day temperature in Gos-
sypium hirsutum pistils exposed to heat stress (38/20C) and optimal (30/20C) temperature
conditions. Heat stress induces a significant increase in water soluble calcium (A) levels but
does not alter total calcium (B) content. All values are means SE (n = 15 for total calcium
and n = 10 for water soluble calcium). Values not sharing a common letter are significantly
different (Students t-test; P < 0.05). (From Snider et al., 2009).
HIGH TEMPERATURE STRESS ON FLORAL DEVELOPMENT AND YIELD OF COTTON 13
Figure 7. In Gossypium hirsutum high day temperature does not alter superoxide dismutase
(SOD) activity (A), increases glutathione reductase (GR) activity (B), decreases NADPH Oxi-
dase (NOX) activity (C) and does not change soluble protein content (D). All values are means
SE (n = 15). Values not sharing a common letter are significantly different (Students t-test;
P < 0.05). (From Snider et al., 2009).
Polyamines
Polyamines have been associated with a large number of plant growth and developmental pro-
cesses. In particular, they have been associated with floral initiation with increased polyamines
concentration occurring during flowering in horticulture plants. Polyamines play an important
role in flowers and seed induction and have been shown to decrease under high temperature
stress. However, there is limited information about polyamines in cotton (Gossypium hirsutum
L.) and no reports of effects on the flowering process and heat stress. Bibi et al. (2007) reported
a negative correlation of temperature and polyamines, with polyamine content in cotton ova-
ries decreasing with increased canopy temperature. Subjecting the plants to high temperatures
(38C) compared to the optimum (30C) significantly decreased spermidine and spermine levels
but not putrescine (Bibi et al., 2010a). Successful seed fertilization was significantly decreased
by the high temperature, and significantly increased by exogenous application of putrescine
(Bibi et al., 2010a). The authors suggested the possibility of ameliorating high temperature
stress in cotton flowers through exogenous application of putrescine.
14 Oosterhuis AND Snider
Figure 8. Effect of cultivar on SOD (A) and GR (B) activity of G. hirsutum grown under
30/20C day/night temperature regime. GR was significantly higher in VH260 compared with
ST4554 (B), whereas SOD was not significantly different (B). All values are means standard
error (n = 6). Values not sharing a common letter are significantly different (Students t-test; P
< 0.05). (From Snider et al., 2010).
Genotypic Thermotolerance
Higher temperatures adversely influence the growth, development and yield of cotton, and
with the increased concern about global warming, this has focused attention on the need for
enhanced thermotolerance in commercial cultivars. A number of researchers have documented
HIGH TEMPERATURE STRESS ON FLORAL DEVELOPMENT AND YIELD OF COTTON 15
genotypic thermotolerance in cotton (Cottee et al., 2007; Taha et al., 1981; Brown and Zeiher,
1998; Snider et al., 2010). However, although substantial genotypic variation exists in the cotton
germplasm pool, this has generally not been exploited in breeding programs. Oosterhuis et al.
(2009) reported that there does not appear to be sufficient genotypic differences in the current
Upland cotton breeding trials grown in the US Cotton Belt for exploitation by plant breeders for
improved thermotolerance.
Breeders have improved yields in Pima cotton (Gossypium barbadence L.) by increasing
high temperature tolerance (Kittock et al., 1988), however little has been done to improve high
temperature tolerance in Upland cotton (G. hirsutum L.). A possible solution to this problem is
to utilize ruderal genetic material collected from the areas where cotton grows under conditions
of extreme heat such as southern Mexico. Bibi et al. (2010) showed that a wild type cotton (G.
hirsutum L. race Palmeri, PI681044) from coastal Oaxaca, Mexico exhibited significantly more
thermotolerence than four commercial Upland Mid-south cotton cultivars (Tamcot Sphinx, Fi-
berMax 960BR, Stoneville 474, and Deltapine 444BR). The ruderal G. hirsutum race Palmeri
was significantly more tolerant to high temperature stress than the commercial cultivars (higher
quantum yield of PSII, leaf extension growth, and antioxidant enzymes). Amongst the com-
mercial cultivars tested, only Tamcot Sphinx showed some tolerance to high temperature. It
has been speculated that year-to-year variability in yield of modern cotton cultivars is due to
modern cultivars being more sensitive to environmental stress conditions compared to obsolete
cultivars. Brown and Oosterhuis (2010) showed that modern cultivars (G. Hirsutum Stoneville
474 and Suregrow 747) had improved physiological responses under ideal temperature environ-
ments (30C), however obsolete cultivars (G. Hirsutum Stoneville 213 and Deltapine 16) were
less sensitive in leaf photosynthesis, chlorophyll fluorescence, and membrane integrity of leaves
to high temperatures (38C).
Snider et al. (2010) showed that genotypic differences in reproductive thermotolerance of up-
land cotton are closely associated with the thermal stability of the subtending leaf. These authors
used two cotton cultivars: VH260 from Pakistan (thermotolerant) and ST4554 for the US Mid-
south (thermosensitive), and found a 7.5C higher optimal temperature for quantum efficiency
of VH260 subtending leaves relative to ST4554 subtending leaves (Fig. 5).
around 32C, and that prolonged temperatures above 350C were harmful. High, above average,
temperatures during the day can decrease photosynthesis and carbohydrate production (Bibi et
al., 2008), and high night temperatures will increase respiration and further decrease available
carbohydrates (Gipson and Joham, 1968; Loka and Oosterhuis, 2010), resulting in decreased
seed set, reduced boll size and decreased number of seeds per boll, and the number of fibers per
seed (Arevalo et al., 2008).
Boll number and boll size, the basic yield components, are negatively impacted by high tem-
perature. Boll retention has been shown to decrease significantly under high temperature (Reddy
et al., 1991; Reddy et al., 1992b; Reddy et al., 1995; Reddy et al., 1999; Zhao et al., 2005) and
was reported to be most heat sensitive yield component of cotton. For example, Reddy et al.,
(1991) observed that temperatures in excess of a 30/20C day/night temperature regime resulted
in significantly lower boll retention due to enhanced abortion of squares and young bolls. Subse-
quently, Reddy et al. (1992a) and Reddy et al. (1992b) observed declines in boll retention at tem-
peratures in excess of a 30/22C day/night temperature regime for both Pima and Upland cotton.
An additional study showed even greater sensitivity of boll retention to increasing temperatures,
where boll retention was negatively impacted at day temperatures in excess of 26.6C (Reddy et
al., 1995). Recently, Zhao et al. (2005) found that cotton plants exposed to a 36/28C day/night
growth temperature regime retained approximately 70% fewer bolls than plants grown under a
30/22C day/night temperature regime. In this study, there was a strong correlation between high
abscission rates and low nonstructural carbohydrate contents of the floral buds. In addition to
negatively impacting boll retention, temperatures in excess of the optimum also result in decreased
boll size (Reddy et al., 1999; Pettigrew, 2008). The cotton crop, due to its perennial nature and
indeterminate growth habit can compensate for short periods of stress, such that variation in tem-
peratures during the cropping season allows some flowers during the flowering period to escape
exposure to damaging temperatures so that some bolls are eventually produced.
The number of seeds per boll is an important basic component of cotton yield. Groves (2009)
emphasized the importance of seed number in determining yield by reporting that the number
of seeds per acre accounted for more than 80% of total yield variability in cotton. Seed number
is a function of the number of locules (carpels) per boll and the number of ovules per locule
(Stewart, 1986). Several factors such as the lack of seed fertilization, post-fertilization termina-
tion of embryo growth, cultivar and environment can also contribute to variation in the number
of seeds per boll (Turner et al., 1977). Researchers have shown that high temperature stress is a
major factor negatively impacting seed development. For example, Reddy et al. (1999) showed
that temperatures higher than 26.0C increased short fiber mote frequency in Upland cotton and
suggested that either fertilization had been negatively impacted due to insufficient pollen/ovule
development or that fertilized ovules aborted soon after the fertilization event had occurred. Pet-
tigrew (2008) reported that slight elevations in temperature (approximately 1C above control
temperatures) under field conditions were not sufficient to cause a decline in seed weight but
were sufficient to cause a significant decline in seed number per boll, which was the primary
cause of reduced yield under high temperature conditions. This was confirmed by observations
of Lewis (2000) who compared a cool year 1990 in the Mid-south (mean maximum daily tem-
perature of 32.2C for July) with a hot year 1996 (mean maximum daily temperature of 36.6C
HIGH TEMPERATURE STRESS ON FLORAL DEVELOPMENT AND YIELD OF COTTON 17
for July) and showed that the number of seeds decreased in the hot year from 2.987 to 2.093
million per hectare. This was associated with a lower average number of seeds per boll, i.e. 23.6
seeds/boll in the hot year compared to 28 seeds/boll in the cool year. Lewis (2000) concluded
that about 99 percent of the variation in number of seeds per hectare in his three year study
was explained by changes in the mean maximum July temperatures. Although Pettigrew (2008)
also observed declines in boll size and lint percent, boll size was more negatively affected than
was lint percent; therefore, the author concluded that decreased seed number caused a decline
in boll size and lint yield. Furthermore, Pettigrew (2008) speculated that heat stress may have
decreased seed number by compromising ovule fertilization, which was subsequently confirmed
by Snider et al. (2009) (Fig. 3).
SUMMARY
Cotton originates from hot climates, but does not necessarily yield best at excessively high
temperatures, and a negative correlation has been reported between yield and high temperature
during early boll development. Although cotton is sensitive to high temperature at all stages of
growth, it is particularly sensitive to high temperatures during reproductive development, and
environmental stress during floral development represents a major limitation to crop develop-
ment and productivity. There is no clear consensus about the optimum temperature for cotton as
plant response varies with plant developmental stage and plant organ, and the environment in
which the cultivar was developed. The optimal thermal window for Upland cotton is 23-32C
in which metabolic activity is most efficient. In Gossypium hirsutum L., canopy growth and
reproductive development are severely inhibited at temperatures in excess of the optimal day/
night temperature regime of 30/20C, which commonly occur in the US Cotton Belt during
flowering and boll development.
Because a number of reproductive processes must occur in highly concerted fashion dur-
ing the progamic phase (from pollination to fertilization) for successful fertilization and seed
production to occur, final yield in cotton is exceptionally sensitive to high temperatures during
the flowering period. High temperatures typical of those experienced during a normal growing
season in the U.S. Cotton Belt are sufficient to significantly inhibit fertilization, seed set, and
yield in thermosensitive cotton cultivars. Depending upon the duration, timing and severity of
the stress, fertilization could be limited by poor gametophyte development, decreased pollen
germination, and limited pollen tube growth. Under field conditions, diurnal pollen tube growth
rate is extremely sensitive to moderately high temperatures, where exposure to moderately high
ambient temperatures (34.6C) results in slower pollen tube growth rates despite no change
in pollen germination or ovule fertilization. Heat stress limits fertilization by decreasing sub-
tending leaf photosynthesis, depleting pistil ATP and carbohydrates, increasing oxidative stress
in the pistil, and altering pistil calcium concentrations. Having higher pistil concentrations of
ATP and calcium is related to genotypic fertilization thermostability. Furthermore, reproductive
thermotolerance in cotton is also associated with having elevated pre-stress antioxidant enzyme
activity in both the subtending leaf and the pistil, which is likely an innate mechanism for coping
with rapid temperature changes that are common under field conditions.
18 Oosterhuis AND Snider
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Chapter 2
Modest progress has been achieved in selecting cotton cultivars with improved heat toler-
ance by heat treatment of pollen prior to pollination allowing only the more heat tolerant pol-
len to be effective in subsequent crosses (Rodriguez-Garay and Barrow, 1988). The process of
selecting pollen with improved heat tolerance could be accelerated with a rapid and reliable
method of germinating cotton pollen to measure viability across a range of environmental
stresses. Current pollen germination techniques include hanging drop culture, sitting drop
suspension culture, suspension culture and surface culture (Shivanna and Rangaswamy,
1992). The hanging drop and sitting drop cultures use only small volumes of germination
media and small amounts of pollen, and are therefore of limited usefulness in physiological
and biochemical studies.
Cotton pollen has proved to be recalcitrant to traditional in vitro germination and pollen tube
growth protocols. Kearney and Harrison (1932) described the failure of in vitro techniques
and went so far as to use the percentage of pollen grains that burst when placed in weak sugar
solutions as a measure of viability. Failures to germinate cotton pollen in vitro drove Iyenger
to dissect cotton pollen tubes from in situ germinated pollen (Iyenger, 1938). Bronkers (1961)
first described a reliable technique for in vitro cotton pollen germination. Miravalle (1965) has
since reported that the pollen tubes grown in this media were short, the cytoplasm was cloudy
and granular, and the process required 24 h or longer. Taylor (1972) described a medium that
overcame many of the limitations outlined by Miravalle (1965). Taylor reported rapid pollen
germination (2 to 3 h), more normal appearing cytoplasm, and longer pollen tubes. Wauford
(1979) further improved upon Taylors medium and averaged 47% germination and 2.6 mm pol-
len tube lengths. Although Waufords protocol was an improvement upon Taylors medium, the
2.6 mm pollen tube length achieved in vitro does not compare with the 20 to 40 mm tube lengths
reported in vivo. The most recent in vitro cotton pollen germination report by Barrow (1981)
described the use of a hanging drop technique to forcefully eject pollen tube-like structures.
Recent findings in our laboratory revealed that the pollen tube-like structures were not tubes but
were pollen cytoplasm ejected from the pollen as it osmotically ruptured in a way similar to that
reported by Kearney and Harrison (1932).
Burke et al. (2004) described the development of a pollen germination media and technique
that provides high pollen germination levels and improved pollen tube growth. In developing
the media it was necessary to evaluate the following variables: temperature, humidity, pH, and
carbon source. The temperature effect on pollen germination and pollen tube elongation was
evaluated over a range of temperatures from 20 to 43C. Pollen germination was high across the
range of temperatures from 20 to 37C. The percent pollen germination declined from a mean
of 71% at 37C to 23% at 40C, with little germination occurring at 43C. Pollen tube elonga-
tion rate was low at 20C and increased with increasing temperature up to 28C. The 28 and
31C samples exhibited similar pollen tube lengths with significant (0.05 level) declines in tube
length observed at 34C and above. Kakani et al. (2005) showed optimal pollen germination and
elongation at 30C when evaluating pollen responses to temperature in five-degree increments.
The effect of humidity levels on pollen germination and pollen tube elongation was evaluated
at 35, 50, 80, and 100% relative humidity (RH) (Burke et al., 2004). Pollen that germinated on
media in 35% RH had short pollen tubes located at the interface between the pollen grain and
COTTON FLOWERS: POLLEN AND PETAL HUMIDITY SENSITIVITIES DETERMINE ... 27
the germination medium. The 50% RH resulted in increased pollen tube length, while the best
elongation occurred at 80% RH. Although germination levels were high, most pollen tubes re-
mained short as they ruptured when incubated under 100% RH. A range of humidity (50 to 80%)
can be used during pollen germination; however, if humidity levels are too low (35% or less),
germination occurs, but only short tubes are observed. If the humidity level is too high (100%),
germination occurs and tubes rupture shortly thereafter.
The present study investigated genetic variability in the abiotic stress tolerance of mature
pollen. Heat stress was imposed on pollen in situ and evaluated in vitro for germination and
pollen tube development responses. The importance of humidity levels on pollen viability and
germination was also investigated. Laboratory-based tests permitting rapid evaluation of the
overall abiotic stress tolerance of the pollen were developed. Our findings provide breeders
with a previously unexplored reservoir of genetic diversity associated with reproductive abiotic
stress tolerance.
HEAT SENSITIVITY
Cotton seeds were planted into 5 gallon pots containing 900 g of Sunshine Mix #1 soil
(Sun Gro Horticulture Distributors Inc., Bellevue, WA). Three seeds were planted per pot
pots were placed on benches in a greenhouse set to provide a 30/25C day/night cycle.
Plants were grown throughout the year and 430 W high-pressure sodium lights (P. L. Light
Systems, Canada) were used to maintain a 16/8 h photoperiod. Nutrients were maintained
by daily application with Peters Excel fertilizer (Scotts-Sierra Horticultural Products Com-
pany, Marysville, OH) through the automated watering system. Flowers were harvested
between 0930 and 1030 h from the greenhouse plants and were placed on moistened Model
583 Gel Dryer Filter Paper (Bio-Rad Laboratories, Hercules, CA) in a Pyrex baking dish.
The flowers and filter paper were covered with CO2 permeable Glad ClingWrap (The Glad
Products Company, Oakland, CA). Temperature incubations were performed in the pres-
ence of high humidity from the wet filter paper in an attempt to separate temperature stress
from humidity responses. Replicate samples were placed in the dark in VWR Model 2005
incubators (Sheldon Manufacturing, Inc., Cornelius, OR) set to 39 or 28C. The trays con-
taining the flowers were incubated for 5 h, the flowers were then removed from the trays
and the pollen collected by gently tapping the inverted flower. The pollen was germinated
in vitro at 28C according to the procedure of Burke et al. (2004). The pollen was incubated
on the media for 1 h prior to analysis. Pollen germination was determined microscopically
using a Leica MZ6 modular stereomicroscope (Leica Microsystems Inc., Bannockburn,
IL). The percent germination was determined for 16 replicate samples harvested over a
two-month period.
Temperature incubations (39C 5h) under high humidity in an attempt to separate temperature
stress from humidity responses showed no significant difference in the heat induced decline
in pollen germination among the Suregrow 248, Stoneville 474, Deltapine 565, NM67, Acala
Maxxa and Phytogen 72 cotton lines (Fig. 1). All of the lines exhibited a 55 to 65% decline in
pollen germination following the heat treatment.
28 Burke
Figure 1. High temperature sensitivity of cotton pollen from Suregrow 248, Stoneville 474,
Deltapine 565, NM67, Acala Maxxa, and Phytogen 72 cotton cultivars. Flowers were incubat-
ed at 28 or 39C in high relative humidity chambers for 5 h, the pollen removed, and in vitro
germination evaluated at 28C and 80% relative humidity. Error bars represent the standard
error of twelve replications.
Figure 2. In situ pollen dehydration of cotton pollen from Suregrow 248, Stoneville 474, Del-
tapine 565, NM67, Acala Maxxa, and Phytogen 72 cotton cultivars. Flower petals were re-
moved and the exposed anthers and pollen were incubated for 6.5 h in a 25% relative hu-
midity. In vitro pollen germination was evaluated at 28C and 80% relative humidity. The
percent pollen germination of the low humidity treated pollen (grey bar) was compared with
the germination of freshly dehisced pollen (black bar). Error bars represent the standard error
of seventeen replications.
It is interesting to note that the germination percentages of the NM67 and DP565, the two lines
showing the greatest dehydration resistance were also the two lines showing the lowest percent ger-
mination prior to the dehydration treatment. These results suggested the possibility of genetic dif-
ferences in the pollens ability to retain internal moisture or in their ability to take up moisture from
the in vitro pollen germination medium. Before testing this hypothesis further it was necessary to
determine if the pollen from these lines had similar moisture contents at the beginning of the study.
Figure 3. The water content of cotton pollen at dehiscence from Suregrow 248, Stoneville 474,
Deltapine 565, NM67, Acala Maxxa and Phytogen 72 cotton cultivars. Error bars represent
the standard error of five replications.
Having shown that the pollen started with equal internal water contents, experiments were
performed to determine if pollen tube length development was impacted by the humidity sur-
rounding the pollen during germination.
3 replicate experiments. The SG248, STV474, DP565, and NM67 showed 35-40% reductions
in pollen tube length when germinated in a 25% RH environment compared with the 80% RH
environment (Fig. 4). The low humidity was more deleterious to the Acala Maxxa and PHY72
pollen as shown by the 60-65% reductions in pollen tube lengths in the 25% RH environment.
These results support the hypothesis that the Acala Maxxa and PHY72 may lose internal water
more rapidly than the SG248, STV474, DP565, and NM67. This water loss appears to reduce
germination and pollen tube development in vitro.
Figure 4. The effect of humidity on in vitro pollen tube length development of cotton pollen
from Suregrow 248, Stoneville 474, Deltapine 565, NM67, Acala Maxxa and Phytogen 72
cotton cultivars. Germination at 25% relative humidity was compared with germination at
80% relative humidity. Error bars represent the standard error of three replications.
scope. The time to the first pollen grain rupture was determined for 41 flowers for each cultivar.
The pollen from field-grown cotton was evaluated using flowers harvest at 0930 and 1330 h to
determine if the time to first rupture changed over time.
If the assumption that water is lost more readily from the Acala Maxxa and PHY72 pollen than
the SG248, STV474, DP565, and NM67 pollen is correct, then it is reasonable to hypothesize
that water movement into the Acala Maxxa and PHY72 pollen may occur more rapidly than the
SG248, STV474, DP565, and NM67 pollen. We chose to test this hypothesis by evaluating the rate
of water uptake into the pollen. This was accomplished by monitoring the swelling and rupturing
of the pollen grains in aqueous media. Burke (2002) reported the hypersensitivity of cotton pollen
to water and that pollen grains placed in water would swell and rupture in seconds to minutes. In
order to optimize the detection of genetic differences in pollen water uptake between cotton lines,
we evaluated a range of osmotic media to slow the rate of pollen popping and maximize the dif-
ference should they exist. We observed optimum differences in the rate of pollen popping using
a 0.8 M sucrose solution. A 2 to 4-fold difference in the time required to rupture the pollen was
observed among these six cotton lines (Fig. 5). Although the absolute time required to rupturing
of the pollen grain varied between the greenhouse and field-grown cotton, the ranking of the lines
was identical. These findings further support the hypothesis that there exists genetic difference in
the ability of pollen to retain internal water levels and maintain pollen viability.
Figure 5. The time to first pollen grain rupture when cotton pollen from greenhouse-grown
(light grey) and field-grown (dark grey) Suregrow 248, Stoneville 474, Deltapine 565, NM67,
Acala Maxxa, and Phytogen 72 cotton cultivars were placed in 0.8 M sucrose. Error bars
represent the standard error.
COTTON FLOWERS: POLLEN AND PETAL HUMIDITY SENSITIVITIES DETERMINE ... 33
Competitive Pollination
The relative time required for the pollen to germinate and pollen tubes to reach the ovules was
evaluated by competitive pollination. Competitive pollination was evaluated in a greenhouse
with well-watered plants. Pollen from Suregrow 248, Stoneville 474, Deltapine 565, NM67,
Acala Maxxa, and Phytogen 72 were co-pollinated with pollen from the glandless cotton Gregg
65. Gregg 65 flowers were sterilized according to the procedure of Burke (2002). Anthers on a
flower from Gregg 65 and a test line were simultaneously rubbed on the recipient stigma. The
resulting boll was allowed to mature and seed were harvested for analysis. Seeds were planted
in soil flats, placed in a growth chamber set to 30C, and hypocotyls were evaluated for gossypol
glands two weeks after planting. Only bolls with 20 or more seeds were evaluated.
Figure 6 shows the percentage of glandless offspring. The results showed that pollen from PHY72,
Acala Maxxa, and SG248 germinated more rapidly and/or pollen tubes grew more rapidly than
STV474, DP565, and NM67 allowing approximately 70% of the resulting seeds to be glanded. The
STV474, DP565, and NM67 pollen had similar germination and growth rates to those of the Gregg
65. This is shown by the 50:50 split in glanded and glandless offspring. The results suggest that pol-
len that is sensitive to relative humidity levels (Fig. 4) not only will lose water more rapidly in dry
environments but will hydrate and germinate more rapidly in moist environments (Fig. 6).
Figure 6. The percent glandless cotton plants obtained from Gregg 65 glandless cotton that was
co-pollinated with pollen from Gregg 65 and pollen from either Suregrow 248, Stoneville
474, Deltapine 565, NM67, Acala Maxxa or Phytogen 72 cotton cultivars. Error bars represent
the standard error.
34 Burke
SUMMARY
Genetic diversity in reproductive abiotic stress tolerance has been reported for cotton based
upon the percentage of anther dehiscence of mature pollen in adverse environments. This study
investigated the abiotic stress tolerance of mature pollen and identified genetic variability
among six cotton lines. Similar high temperature sensitivities were observed for the SG248,
STV474, DP565, NM67, Acala Maxxa, and Phy72 pollen. Genetic diversity in pollen viability
was observed following a 6.5 h exposure to 25% RH. NM67, DP565, and SG246 exhibited less
inhibition of pollen germination than STV474, Acala Maxxa and PHY72. Similar pollen water
contents were observed for all lines. Genetic diversity in pollen tube length development at
25% RH compared with 80% RH was observed. Acala Maxxa and Phy72 pollen produced tube
lengths of 35-40% of controls at 80% RH, while STV474, SG248, DP565, and NM67 exhibited
tube lengths 50-60% of controls. Pollen water uptake studies showed faster uptake in PHY72
and Acala Maxxa than the other lines. Competitive pollinations showed faster germination of
PHY72, Acala Maxxa and SG248 pollen compared to STV474, DP565 and NM67. These find-
ings show genetic differences in cotton pollen sensitivities to water uptake and water loss. Our
findings provide breeders with a previously unexplored reservoir of genetic diversity associated
with reproductive abiotic stress tolerance.
REFERENCES
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443.
Boyer, J.S. 1982. Plant productivity and environment. Science 218:443-448.
Bronkers, H. 1961. Une technique simple pour la germination du pollen de cotonnier. Academic
Royale des Sciences d Outre-mer Bull. des Seances VII: 601-603.
Burke, J.J. 2002. Moisture sensitivity of cotton pollen: an emasculation tool for hybrid produc-
tion. Agron. J. 94:883-888.
Burke, J.J., J. Velten, and M.J. Oliver. 2004. In vitro analysis of cotton pollen germination.
Agron. J. 2:359-368.
Hopf, N., Plesofsky-Vig, N., and Brambl, R. 1992. The heat shock response of pollen and other
tissues of maize. Plant Molec. Biol. 19:623-630.
Iyengar, N.K. 1938. Pollen-tube studies in Gossypium. J. Genet. 37:69-106.
Kakani, V.G., K.R. Reddy, S. Koti, T.P. Wallace, P.V.V. Prasad, V.R. Reddy, and D. Zhao. 2005.
Differences in in vitro pollen germination and pollen tube growth of cotton cultivars in re-
sponse to high temperature. Ann. Bot. 96: 59-67.
Kearney, T.H., and G.J. Harrison. 1932. Pollen antagonism in cotton. J. Agric. Res. 44:191-126.
Miravalle, R.J. 1965. Germination of cotton pollen in vitro. Emp. Cot. Grow. Rev. 42:287-289.
Nepi, M., G.G. Franchi, and E. Pacini. 2001. Pollen hydration status at dispersal: cytophysi-
ological features and strategies. Protoplasma 216:171-180.
COTTON FLOWERS: POLLEN AND PETAL HUMIDITY SENSITIVITIES DETERMINE ... 35
Rodriguez-Garay, B. and Barrow, J. R. 1988. Pollen selection for heat tolerance in cotton. Crop
Sci. 28:857-858.
Shivanna, K.R. and Rangaswamy, N.S. 1992. Pollen biology: a laboratory manual. Springer,
Berlin Heidelberg, N.Y.
Taylor, R.M. 1972. Germination of cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L.) pollen on an artificial me-
dium. Crop Sci. 12:243-244.
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Biol. 42:579-620.
Wauford, S.H. 1979. In vitro germination of upland cotton pollen: An analysis of parameters
affecting germination and tube length. M.S. Thesis. Univ. of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tenn.
Chapter 3
Krieg and Sung (1986) reported that water stress caused a reduction in the whole plant leaf
area by decreasing the initiation of new leaves, with no significant changes in leaf size of leaf
abscission. Both the main stem and sympodial branches developed significantly less leaves;
however, the effect was less severe on the main-stem leaves. Pettigrew (2004) reported that wa-
ter-deficit stress resulted in a decrease in leaf size, but noted that this decrease was accompanied
by an increase in the specific leaf weight (SLW), a phenomenon also observed by Wilson et al.
(1987). Significantly fewer nodes and lower dry weights of stems and leaves of water-stressed
plants compared to those of the control were reported by Pace et al. (1999) (Table 1), while Mc-
Michael and Quisenberry (1991) observed decreased shoot-to-root ratios of plants grown under
conditions of severe water stress. Malik et al. (1979) reported that root growth appears to be less
affected by drought than shoot growth. Several researchers (Creelman et al., 1990; McMichael
and Quisenberry, 1991; Ball et al., 1994; Pace et al., 1999) observed that seedlings of water-
stressed cotton showed increased root elongation, accompanied by a reduction in root diameter.
Table 1. Plant height, stem and leaf dry weight, leaf area, and node number in drought-
stressed and well-watered control plants of Stonevelle 506 and Tamcot HQ95 at the end of the
drought, 49 days after planting. The drought treatment was imposed by withholding water for
13 d. (From Pace et al., 1999).
Treatment
Plant Part
Drought Control
Plant height (cm) 20.0* 27.9
Stem dry weight (g) 1.13* 1.39
Leaf dry weight (g) 1.41* 2.16
Leaf area (cm2) 56* 153
Node number 7.8* 9.4
* Means in a row are significantly different at the 0.05 probability level.
A correlation between leaf abscission and low plant water potentials has been commonly
reported (Addicott and Lynch, 1955; Bruce et al., 1965), and McMichael et al. (1972) identified
a linear relationship between the rates of leaf abscission and the levels of the imposed water-
deficit stress; however, leaf abscission occurred after the stress was relieved and not during the
period of stress. Addicott and Lynch (1955) speculated that formation of the abscission layers
requires sufficient plant turgor. In addition, McMichael et al. (1973) observed that younger
leaves were not as prone to abscission as older ones.
Water-deficit stress has also been shown to alter cell ultrastructure. Ackerson et al. (1981)
observed that leaves of adapted plants contained large starch granules in the chloroplast wherein
the structure of the thylakoid membranes appeared to be damaged. In addition, Berlin et al.
(1982) indicated that water stress caused significant changes in the grana and stroma lamellae,
palisade cell walls, number and size of chloroplasts, and the structure of mitochondria. In sup-
port of that observation, Bondada and Oosterhuis (2002) reported loss of chloroplast membrane
integrity accompanied by an increase in leaf wax production (Bondada and Oosterhuis, 2002;
WATER-DEFICIT STRESS IN COTTON 39
Oosterhuis et al., 1991; Meek and Oosterhuis, 2010). Changes in the chemical composition
of epicuticular wax and lipid content were also observed. The wax from water-stressed leaves
contained more long-chain alkanes compared to the control (Oosterhuis et al., 1991; Bondada et
al, 1996). Conversely, water-deficit stress decreased glycolipids and, to a lesser effect, phospho-
lipids, while the triacylglycerols increased (Pham Thi et al., 1985; Wilson et al., 1987).
Photosynthesis
Photosynthesis plays a major role in determining crop productivity in all species and is di-
rectly affected by water stress. Photosynthetic rates of the leaves decrease as the relative water
content and leaf water potential decrease (Lawlor and Cornic, 2002) (Fig. 1). The effects of
water stress on photosynthesis are complex, and may include a combination of stomatal closure
(Sharkey, 1990; Chaves, 1991; Cornic, 1994) and the inhibition of metabolic processes, includ-
ing ribulose bisphosphate synthesis and adenosine triphosphate synthesis.
Figure 1. Relationship between photosynthesis and leaf water potential of vegetative and repro-
ductive cotton leaves. (Redrawn from Ackerson et al., 1977a).
40 Loka, Oosterhuis, and Ritchie
In cotton, several reports have indicated that water stress causes a reduction in photosynthesis
rates due to a combination of stomatal and non-stomatal limitations (Pallas et al., 1967; McMi-
chael and Hesketh, 1982; Turner et al., 1986; Sung and Krieg, 1986; Genty et al., 1987; Ephrath
et al., 1990; Faver et al., 1996, Lacape et al., 1998; Leidi et al., 1999). However, there has been
some controversy concerning the relative importance of these two processes responsible for
photosynthetic impairment under water deficit (Flexas and Medrano, 2002; Lawlor and Cornic,
2002; Chaves et al., 2002, Lawlor, 2002).
The relative contributions of stomatal opening and metabolic processes to the decrease of
photosynthesis in drought-stressed plants are still being studied and debated. According to
Chaves and Oliveira (2004) and Flexas et al. (2004a), decreased CO2 diffusion from outside the
plant to the site of carboxylation is the main cause for reduced photosynthetic rates under most
water-stress conditions. Reduced CO2 diffusion has been attributed to stomatal closure, reduced
mesophyll conductance, or a combination of these factors (Flexas et al., 2002; Warren et al.,
2004). Additionally, other factors, such as time of day, ambient CO2 concentrations, nutrient
levels, leaf type, growth stage, genotypic differences and abscisic acid (ABA) concentrations
may affect photosynthetic rate in drought-stressed plants.
Stomatal Factors
Stomatal closure decreases water loss, but also decreases the movement of CO2 into the plant.
Significant correlations between leaf water potential and stomatal conductance under conditions
of water-deficit stress have been reported (Socias et al., 1997), but diverse reports exist for cot-
ton. Experiments with potted plants have shown stomatal closure due to water stress in cotton
to be similar to other crops. Kanemasu and Tanner (1969) and Boyer (1970) quantified stomatal
resistance on a variety of crops, including cotton, and found that stomatal resistance due to sto-
matal closure increased dramatically at between -0.8 and -1.2 MPa. Harris (1973) and Bielorai
et al. (1975) also reported that in potted experiments stomatal conductance was significantly
decreased under conditions of water-deficit stress.
However, field experiments have shown cotton stomatal conductance to be adaptable to water
stress. Ackerson et al. (1977) reported that leaf stomatal conductance of field-grown cotton was
slightly affected and leaf stomata did not completely close even under very low water potentials,
and they speculated that light intensity is probably more of a controlling factor than leaf water
status. Jordan and Ritchie (1971) observed that cotton plants that had been adapted to low water
conditions were capable of stomatal conductance and photosynthesis at very negative leaf water
potentials. Complete stomatal closure did not occur even at leaf water potentials approaching
-3.0 MPa and it was suggested that stomatal closure in field-grown plants is prevented in order
for the plants to maintain water flux.
Ackerson (1981) and Ackerson and Herbert (1981) expanded on this discovery, finding that
water stress adapted plants had similar leaf conductance under wet conditions, but maintained
turgor at more negative leaf potentials than non-adapted plants. Wullschleger and Oosterhuis
(1990) reported that while both moderate and severe water stress significantly decreased leaf
stomatal conductance, bract stomatal conductance remained unaffected.
WATER-DEFICIT STRESS IN COTTON 41
Non-Stomatal Factors
Changes in the photosynthetic apparatus under drought through metabolic impairment are
far more complicated than those resulting from inhibition of stomatal function, and they are
predicted to occur under conditions of severe drought stress. Gimenez et al. (1992) reported that
capacity of ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate (RuBP) regeneration could be a metabolic process that
could be a limiting step in photosynthesis under water-deficit stress, while Medrano et al. (1997)
speculated over the activity of ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase/oxidase (Rubisco). Ad-
ditionally, adenosine 5-triphosphate (ATP) synthesis or ATP-synthase activity could be severely
inhibited resulting in a decrease in photosynthetic rates (Younis et al., 1979; Tezara et al., 1999).
Leaf photochemistry (Cornic and Massacci, 1996) and permanent photoinhibition (Bjorkman
and Powles, 1984) have also been suggested to be affected under limiting water conditions.
Pettigrew (2004) speculated that the higher photosynthetic rates and increased PSII quantum ef-
ficiency (PSII) with rehydrated plants could be attributed to the higher chlorophyll content per
unit leaf area that was observed. Similar results were reported from Massacci et al. (2008) who
observed that photosynthetic electron transport was enhanced under conditions of water stress due
to an increased efficiency in the open PSII reaction centers. They also observed that photorespiration
increased at the onset of water stress in order to prevent an inhibition of the photosynthetic apparatus
and over-production of damaging reactive oxygen species. Massacci et al. (2008) attributed this to
an increase in photorespiration rates in order to prevent an inhibition of the photosynthetic apparatus
and over-production of damaging reactive oxygen species. Genty et al. (1989) also reported that
PSII is positively correlated with the quantum efficiency of CO2 fixation. They also noted that
photon receptors were not impaired under conditions of water stress. Similarly photon distribution
and PSII photochemistry was not affected, however electron transport through PSI was inhibited. In
contrast, Enahli and Earl (2005), Inamullah and Isoda (2005), and Kitao et al. (2007) observed that
quantum efficiency of PSII decreases under conditions of water stress. Additionally, Enahli and Earl
(2005) observed in their study, where water stress levels varied from moderate to severe, that even
though photosynthetic rates remained unaffected under moderate stress rates, significant decreases
were observed in the velocity of carboxylation of Rubisco and at the CO2 concentration at the site
of carboxylation. Those responses became more prominent under severe water-deficit stress where
both photosynthetic rates as well as concentration of CO2 at the site of carboxylation decreased. Upon
relief from the water stress, CO2 concentrations returned to control levels however, photosynthetic
rates remained low indicating metabolic and non-stomatal inhibition, which is in contrast with Pet-
tigrew (2004). The explanation for these contrasting results has been suggested to lie in the heteroge-
neity of the photosynthetic apparatus across the cotton leaf (Wise et al., 1992). However, Massacci et
al. (2008) indicated that leaf patchiness is significantly decreased under conditions of water deficit.
times of the day (morning vs. afternoon) as well as between leaves of different age, which
agreed with previous reports (Jordan and Ritchie, 1971; Jordan et al., 1975).
Furthermore, Ackerson (1981) and Ackerson and Herbert (1981) observed that the older
leaves in plants adapted through successive drought cycles, contained up to five times more
starch than corresponding leaves in non-adapted plants. In addition, photosynthetic rates of the
adapted older leaves were lower under wet conditions compared to non-adapted plants while
no effect was observed on the photosynthetic rates of the young leaves by the adaptation. The
reduction in photosynthetic rates was attributed to feedback inhibition of photosynthesis due to
carbohydrate accumulation and not to stomatal restriction.
Other factors such as abscisic acid (ABA) concentration, ambient CO2 concentrations and nutrient
deficiencies have been shown to have an effect on leaf stomatal conductance under limited water
conditions. Radin and Ackerson (1981) in potted experiments with different CO2 concentrations and
nitrogen rates indicated that water-deficit stress significantly decreased both stomatal and mesophyll
conductance compared to the control. They also reported that nitrogen deficiency significantly in-
creased stomatal sensitivity to the intercellular CO2 concentrations at low water potentials, a result
which was similar to the effect of ABA application. They concluded that behavior of stomata is
closely controlled by ABA concentrations under conditions of water deficit. Similar responses of
stomatal conductance were reported for phosphorus-deficient cotton plants (Radin, 1984).
In experiments with different cotton genotypes, Pettigrew (1993) found that okra and super
okra leaf type plants had lower stomatal conductance values than normal leaf type isolines at
high water potentials and this was attributed to the lower abaxial stomatal density of okra leaf
types (Wells et al., 1986). Similar findings were reported by Karami et al. (1980) and Nepomu-
ceno et al. (1998) who also noticed that super okra was able to maintain higher leaf and turgor
potentials at lower osmotic potentials compared to the normal leaf plants under water deficit. In
addition, okra and super okra leaf type plants exhibited higher photosynthetic rates at similar
low water potentials compared to the normal leaf type plants in greenhouse and field experi-
ments (Karami et al., 1980; Nepomuceno et al., 1998; Pettigrew, 2004).
Marani et al. (1985) reported reduced canopy photosynthetic rates under conditions of water
stress which they attributed to decreased leaf expansion and hence, leaf area as well as to the leaf
age of the canopy and the increased senescence rates due to reduced supply of water. However,
Constable and Hearn (1981) observed in field experiments that net assimilation rate was not af-
fected by irrigation treatments, whereas Pettigrew (2004) reported that leaf photosynthetic rates
increased in the morning for water-stressed field-grown cotton plants in the Mississippi Delta
before decreasing in the afternoon. Those different responses however, could be attributed to
the different stages of growth that water-deficit stress was imposed, the different genotypes, the
different leaf ages and position of leaves in the canopy.
As Karami et al. (1980) reported, photosynthesis during the reproductive stage was less sen-
sitive to water stress compared to the vegetative stage while young leaves had higher photo-
synthetic rates compared to older ones at the same leaf water potentials. Pettigrew (2004) also
speculated that the higher photosynthetic rates could be attributed to the hydraulic conductivity
of the soils that allowed the plants to rehydrate during the night, hence enabling their photosyn-
thetic apparatus to operate more efficiently during the morning.
WATER-DEFICIT STRESS IN COTTON 43
ATP Content
Adenosine 5-triphosphate (ATP) constitutes the molecular currency of intracellular energy
transfer for plant metabolism. Photosynthesis and respiration are the main plant processes through
which ATP is produced, and specifically through the pathways of (a) photophosphorylation (cyclic
and non-cyclic) in the chloroplasts, (b) glycolysis in the cytosol, and the most important pathway,
and (c) oxidative phosphorylation in the mitochondria (Raymond and Pradet, 1983).
44 Loka, Oosterhuis, and Ritchie
Measurements of ATP in water-stressed tissues show considerable variation. Flexas and Me-
drano (2002) reported a decrease in ATP content of leaves with a relatively small decrease in
relative water content; however, Tezara et al. (1999) observed that ATP content was not de-
pleted completely even at very low relative water content and when photosynthesis had stopped.
Sharkey and Seeman (1989) found no differences in the ATP content of mildly-stressed bean
(Phaseolus vulgaris, L.) leaves, while Meyer et al. (1992) indicated that ATP content progres-
sively decreased as the relative water contents decreased.
Recently, Lawlor and Tezara (2009) speculated that drought stress might also result in an
increased ATP content through the respiratory pathway in order to compensate for reduced rates
of chloroplast ATP synthesis. Pandey et al. (2002) conducted studies to determine the effect of
water-deficit stress on the photosynthetic metabolites on cotton during the reproductive stage.
They reported that water-stress resulted in a decrease in leaf ATP content while, nicotinamide
adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADP) content was increased. Leaf 3-phosphoglyceric acid
(3-PGA) and pyruvate content remained unaffected by the water stress treatments.
Sung and Krieg (1979) conducted experiments with different leaf-type cotton genotypes
and water stress at different stages of development to study the effect of water stress on the
rate of assimilate export from the leaf by measuring the disappearance of labeled 14C from the
leaf. They reported that translocation of assimilates was reduced under much lower water po-
tential values compared to photosynthesis, concluding that photosynthesis is more sensitive to
water-deficit stress than translocation (Fig. 2), which is in accordance with Wardlaw (1967),
who also concluded that main consequence of water stress on translocation is on the avail-
ability of photosynthate. Sung and Krieg (1979) however, observed that water-deficit stress
altered the assimilate export pattern of the upper canopy leaves allocating more photosynthate
to vegetative growth and fruits while the water stress had no effect on the export pattern of
the lower canopy leaves.
Figure 2. Response of photosynthesis and translocation rates to increasing water stress in cotton
as a function of leaf type and growth stage (, : flower bud development; , : boll-filling
period). (From Sung and Krieg, 1979).
46 Loka, Oosterhuis, and Ritchie
Guinn (1976) however, did not notice any difference in carbohydrate accumulation in 4-day-
old bolls in cotton plants that had been subjected to water stress compared to those that had been
properly watered. Additionally, Heitholt et al. (1994) reported that carbohydrate concentrations
of the receptacle and ovary had no relationship with subsequent retention of 5-day-old floral
buds or two-day-old bolls in cotton, however, the plants were not subjected to water stress.
Similarly, Liu et al. (2004) failed to correlate pod abortion of water-stressed soybeans with pod
carbohydrate concentrations. Zinselmeier et al. (1995, 1999) observed that accumulation of
sucrose in young water-stressed maize ovaries paralleled the cessation of ovary growth and an
additional decrease in hexose concentration. They speculated that the ratio of hexose to sucrose
could play an important role in ovary development. An inhibition of invertase activity due to
drought stress could also result in an increase in ovary sucrose content (Schussler and Westgate,
1991; Liu et al., 2004). This was also noted by Weber et al. (1998) for legume seed develop-
ment. Further explanation of carbohydrate metabolism in cotton flowers and developing bolls
during drought stress is needed.
Mahan and Wanjura (2005) performed field studies to identify changes in antioxidant metabo-
lism in cotton. They observed that even though the glutathione amount and form changed during
the season, the changes were not in response to the water-stresses, and they concluded that cotton
has a limited ability to alter glutathione metabolism in response of drought stress. In contrast,
ascorbate peroxidase activity was increased in water-stressed plants compared to the well-watered
plants, while no significant change was reported in the levels of malondialdehyde (MDA), an
indicator of cell-membrane damage, leading them to speculate that the oxidative stress was allevi-
ated before membrane damage could occur. However, Kawakami et al. (2010) also reported that
glutathione reductase of potted grown plants was not affected by water-deficit stress, whereas su-
peroxide dismutase of water-stressed plants was significantly decreased compared to the control.
Proteins
Plants have been shown to accumulate specific stress-associated proteins in order to survive
adverse environmental conditions (Vierling, 1991; Ingram and Bartels, 1996). Heat shock pro-
teins (HSPs) and late embryogenesis abundant (LEA)-type proteins are two major types of stress-
induced proteins that are produced upon the induction of drought stress and are considered to play
a role in cellular protection during the stress (Ingram and Bartels, 1996; Zhu et al., 1997).
Heat shock proteins have been observed to be produced at any stage of crop development
and under different environmental factors such as water-deficit stress (Bray, 1993), UV-radia-
tion (Dohler et al., 1995), or heavy metal accumulation (Neumann et al., 1994). Their molecular
weights and proportions differ among species, and they are considered as molecular chaperones
essential for the maintenance of protein homeostasis and prevention of denaturation (Vierling,
1991), even though the mechanism by which they contribute to drought tolerance is still not cer-
tain. One hypothesis is that they are involved in energy dependent protein unfolding or assembly/
disassembly reactions, and they prevent protein degradation under adverse conditions (Pelham,
1986). Another hypothesis is that they are related to the protection and stabilization of particular
organelles such as chloroplasts, ribosomes and mitochondria. Additionally, some members of the
HSPs have been shown to aid in the maintenance and restoration of enzymes (Sun et al., 2001).
In arid and semi-arid regions, dryland crops may synthesize and accumulate substantial lev-
els of HSPs in response to elevated leaf temperatures due to decreased rates of transpiration.
Burke et al., (1985) conducted experiments with field-grown cotton, where soil water deficits
resulted in canopy temperatures of 40C or greater for two to three weeks. At least eight new
polypeptides accumulated in about half of the water-stressed leaves while no polypeptides were
accumulated in the irrigated cotton leaves. In another study, Kuznetsov et al. (1999) imposed
a short-term heat shock treatment to cotton plants at flowering, prior to water-deficit stress im-
position, and they observed that heat-treated plants accumulated greater quantities of two HSPs
(70 and 80kDa) as well as amino acids (asparagine, proline and arginine especially). Addition-
ally, larger osmotic adjustment values were observed, and the authors speculated that HSPs
have a protective role in cotton under condition of water-deficit stress. However, in a similar
experiment with field-grown soybean (Glycine max (L.) Merr.), several HSPs were observed in
both irrigated and water-deficit stress plants (Kimpel and Key, 1985).
48 Loka, Oosterhuis, and Ritchie
Late embryogenesis abundant proteins, the second major type of stress-induced proteins,
have been found in a wide range of plant species in response to desiccation or drought stress
(Ingram and Bartels, 1996). Even though they were first identified in cotton seeds during their
maturation and desiccation phases (Baker et al., 1988), it has since been recognized that they
also accumulate in vegetative tissues under conditions of water stress (Bray, 1993). According
to Bray et al. (2000) most LEA proteins exist as random coiled -helices. They are characterized
by their high hydrophilicity index and glycine content (Garay-Arroyo et al., 2000). They are
considered to act as water-binding molecules, participate in ion sequestration, and contribute in
membrane stabilization (Ingram and Bartels, 1996).
Figure 3. Effect of number of water stress cycles of osmotic adjustment in cotton leaves and
roots. The percentage osmotic adjustment was calculated as the percentage decrease in treat-
ment osmotic adjustment compared to the unstressed control. (From Oosterhuis and Wul-
lscheleger, 1987).
Osmolytes are organic compounds that exist in a stable form inside the cells and are not eas-
ily metabolized. In general, they do not have an effect on cell functions, even when they have
accumulated in high concentrations, i.e. more than 200mM (Hare et al., 1998; Sakamoto and
Murata, 2002). Compatible solutes include sugars and sugar alcohols (polyols) (Yancey et al.,
1982), amino acids such as proline (Aspinall and Paleg, 1981; Bonhert et al., 1995) and its ana-
logues (Naidu et al., 1987), quaternary ammonium compounds (betaines) and tertiary sulfonium
compounds (Rhodes and Hanson, 1993). Production of osmolytes is a general method in plants
to maintain osmotic potential and cell turgor, as stated above; however, they also have second-
ary roles such as stabilization of membranes and maintenance of proper protein conformation
at low leaf water potentials (Papageorgiou and Morata, 1995), protection of cells by scaveng-
ing for ROS (Pinhero et al., 2001), as well as regulation and integration in the metabolism of
stressed photosynthetic tissues (Lawlor and Cornic, 2002). Their synthesis and accumulation
varies among plant species, as well as among cultivars of the same species. They are most often
confined to the chloroplasts and cytoplasmic compartments and according to Ain-Lhout et al.
(2001) occupy less than 20% of the total volume of mature cells.
50 Loka, Oosterhuis, and Ritchie
was also controlled by endogenous factors that were dependent on plant water status such as
increased ethylene production (McMichael et al., 1972).
Lint yield is generally reduced under water stress because of reduced boll production primar-
ily due to the production of fewer flowers and bolls (Stocton et al., 1961; Grimes, 1969; Gerik
et al., 1996), but also because of increased rates of boll abortion when the stress is extreme dur-
ing the reproductive growth stage (Grimes and Yamada, 1982; McMichael and Hesketh, 1982;
Turner et al., 1986). In addition, Pettigrew (2004) reported that the distribution of the bolls, both
vertically and horizontally, was affected by water-deficit stress with the water-stressed plants
retaining more bolls at the first fruiting position and producing less bolls above main-stem node
11 compared to the control. He speculated that the reduction observed in lint yield production
was due to the loss of these fruiting positions as well as reduced lint per seed (Fig. 4).
Figure 4. Lint percentage response of eight cotton genotypes when grown under either dryland or
irrigated conditions. Genotype means averaged across the years 1998 to 2001. Vertical bars de-
note LSD values at the 0.05 level and are present only when the differences between soil mois-
ture treatments for the individual genotypes are significant at P=0.05. (From Pettigrew, 2004).
Fiber properties have been reported to be insensitive to water-deficit stress (Bennett et al., 1967;
Marani and Amara, 1971, Hearn, 1976, 1995), unless the water-deficit stress is extremely severe.
Leaf water potentials of -2.8 MPa have been shown to reduce fiber length (Bennett et al., 1967).
Water-deficit stress has also been reported to cause a significant reduction in micronaire (Eaton
and Ergle, 1952; Marani and Amirav, 1971).Timing of water-deficit stress is also a significant
factor since Marani and Amirav (1971) showed that stress early in the flowering season had no
52 Loka, Oosterhuis, and Ritchie
effect on fiber quality. However, when the stress occurred shortly after flowering, it significantly
decreased fiber length. Since the extension of the cotton fiber is a process primarily dependent
on turgor (Dhindsa et al., 1975) and carbohydrate supply, the reductions in plant water status and
photosynthesis that occur under conditions of water-deficit stress would result in decreases in fiber
growth. This was supported by Cosgrove et al. (1993) who reported that increased volume of
growing plant cells depends on the water uptake by the vacuole. However, lint yield is a function
not only of fiber qualities but also a function of number of fibers/seed and number of seeds/unit
area (Lewis et al., 2000). According to Rabadia et al. (1999) a strong correlation exists between
plant water content and accumulation of dry matter in the developing fiber and seed, which implies
that rapid water uptake is required for supporting seed growth. Additionally, the number of motes
(unfertilized ovules) has also been demonstrated to increase under conditions of water-stress defi-
cit (Saranga et al., 1998) leading to further yield reduction.
stomatal opening and closing regulate WUE (Chaves et al., 2004). Hence, any discussion of
WUE centers around gas exchange via the stomata. According to Bjorkman and Pearcy (1982)
photosynthetic WUE in C3 plants could be expected to double with a doubling of the CO2 in the
atmosphere, due to decreases in stomatal conductance required to meet CO2 demand in elevated
CO2 environments and the increase of intrinsic WUE (Morison, 1993; Drake et al., 1997).
Farquhar and his colleagues pioneered the carbon isotope ratio technique (13C), and demonstrat-
ed its value by relating a low level of discrimination with enhanced WUE (Farquhar and Richards,
1984; Farquhar et al., 1988; Condon et al., 1987; Hubrick and Farquhar, 1989). Therefore, a possible
solution to the difficulty in measuring WUE is to use 13C discrimination ratio between intercellular
and ambient CO2 concentration to estimate WUE (Farquhar et al., 1982b;, Ehleringer et al., 1989,
1993), but even this method is influenced by other factors that may change Ci concentration and af-
fect 13C discrimination. Researchers using carbon isotope analysis have found varying relationships
between WUE and drought tolerance in cotton. Positive relationships between isotope measurements
of WUE and productivity were found by Gerik et al. (1996b). However, Leidi et al. (1993, 1999)
reported inconsistent results across years, and multiple researchers have reported no correlation be-
tween carbon isotope measurements of WUE and plant productivity (Yakir et al., 1990; Saranga et
al., 1998a). Lu et al. (1996) reported a positive association between carbon isotope discrimination
and stomatal conductance. Saranga et al. (2004) observed no correlation between carbon isotope
discrimination and yield production under water-deficit stress conditions and concluded that WUE
needed to be combined with other physiological parameters for more accurate results. Therefore, the
relationship between physiological WUE and cotton productivity is still unsettled.
Water use efficiency has been shown to vary substantially among species, genotypes and
within species (Yoo et al., 2009). Roark and Quisenberry (1977) and Quisenberry et al. (1981,
1984) found significant variability among exotic strains of Gossypium hirsutum, indicating pos-
sible improvements in growth stress characteristics. Chaves and Oliveira (2004) pointed out
that it is important to understand the mechanism of drought tolerance, since different genotypes
adapt to water deficit in different ways. Breeding crop varieties for higher WUE is a solution for
improving water use in both rainfed and irrigated crop production (Condon et al., 2004).
Water use efficiency also varies between cultivars and growth habits. Eaton and Belden
(1929) and Gustein (1969) reported that Acala cultivars had lower water requirements than Pima
cultivars. Quisenberry et al. (1976, 1991) reported that primitive cultivars, characterized by
indeterminate growth patterns, had much higher WUEs compared to the modern determinate
cultivars. They concluded that WUE was positively correlated with the indeterminate growth
habit. According to a review by Gerik et al. (1995), relatively little progress had been made in
increasing productivity of cotton or other crops per unit of water, i.e. by enhanced WUE, even
though dryland and irrigated yields have increased. These yield increases have been mainly due
to improved partitioning of carbohydrate to fruit (Gifford et al., 1984).
Water use efficiency can vary by leaf age, node, and fruiting position, with variations oc-
curring from one leaf to another in a cotton plant (Rawson and Constable, 1980; Wullschleger
and Oosterhuis, 1989; Quisenberry et al., 1976; Quisenberry et al., 1991). Leaf shape, surface
features, and position in the canopy can influence WUE. Picotte et al. (2007) using isotope dis-
crimination reported that WUE was increased in plants with smaller, narrower leaves that had
54 Loka, Oosterhuis, and Ritchie
higher trichome densities. Loveys et al. (2004) maintained that changes in leaf size may change
the CO2 and H2O fluxes in and out of the leaf due to modification in the boundary layer. Dif-
ferences in leaf thickness could significantly affect WUE, with thinner leaves decreasing WUE
(Stanhill, 1980). Rapid leaf development in annuals influences WUE due to more efficient use
of soil water through minimizing surface evaporation (Lopez-Castaneda, 1996). Leaves shaded
in the canopy may have greater WUE than leaves in the sun, as was shown for Betula pendula
(Sellin et al., 2011), because of more conservative stomatal behavior and lower hydraulic con-
ductance. There has not been any related work on cotton. Diaheliotropic leaves, that track the
sun, like in cotton can increase carbon gain and WUE while not intensifying photoinhibition
(Zhang et al., 2009). These diaheliotropic leaf movements of cotton may reduce heat stress
under dry conditions (Wang et al., 2004), which could improve WUE.
Cultural practices have been shown to have an effect on WUE in some cases. Raven et al.
(2004) concluded that restricted availability of soil nutrients decreases, or frequently has no
effect, on plant WUE, mainly because decreased growth rate parallel decreased WUE. Ahmed
et al. (1990) reported that WUE improved with increasing Zn fertilization through enhanced
gas exchange. Blum (2005) said that maximizing soil moisture use is a crucial component of
drought resistance and generally expressed in lower WUE. Salinity has also been shown to
decrease both photosynthesis and transpiration (Hoffman and Phene, 1971) resulting in lower
WUE indicating an effect on stomatal aperture. Additionally, failure to control insect pests in
cotton early in the season results in yield losses and lower WUE (Jordan, 1986).
and Usha, 2003; Waseem et al., 2007) and sunflower (Hussain et al., 2008c, 2009). Application
of salicylic acid however, has yet to be tested in cotton.
PGR-IV is a plant growth regulator that contains gibberellic acid (GA) and indolebutyric acid
(IBA) that has been reported to increase root growth, nutrient uptake, boll retention and lint yield
of well-watered cotton (Hickey, 1992; Oosterhuis, 1995; Oosterhuis and Zhao, 1994). In a 4-year
field study, foliar application of PGR-IV was shown to increase yield under dryland conditions
(Livingston et al., 1992). Zhao and Oosterhuis (1997) conducted growth chamber experiments and
indicated that application of PGR-IV before the onset of water stress could result in enhanced pho-
tosynthesis and dry matter accumulation. The increase in photosynthesis was attributed to either
an increase in the nutrient absorption or improved carbohydrate translocation (Oosterhuis, 1995).
1-Methylcyclopropene (1-MCP), an ethylene inhibitor (Binder and Bleecker, 2003) has also
been demonstrated to have a positive effect on stomatal resistance of water-stressed cotton
leaves but with no significant changes in yield (Kawakami et al., 2010). However, in another
experiment, no significant effect of 1-MCP application on leaf stomatal conductance was ob-
served in cotton plants experiencing water stress during flowering (Loka and Oosterhuis, 2011).
However, the sucrose concentrations of water-stressed pistils though were lower compared to
the control indicating that 1-MCP may improve the activity of sucrose cleaving enzymes result-
ing in better utilization of pistil carbohydrates.
It would appear that the use of PGRs has the potential to ameliorate water-deficit stress in cot-
ton production. However, there is insufficient information on the use of these chemicals for such
a purpose, specifically, how they influence metabolism to offset the adverse effect of drought
and help maintain yield potential.
ance. Molecular studies have also been conducted for identifying quantitative trait loci (QTLs)
responsible for improved cotton production under water limiting conditions (Saranga et al., 2004,
2008) while use of genetic engineering and transgenic plants has been shown to result in helpful
correlations (Lv et al., 2007; Parkhi et al., 2009).
SUMMARY
Water-deficit stress has a significant effect on cottons growth and development, with primary
affects on plant structure, leaf morphology and cell ultrastructure. Physiological processes such
as stomatal conductance, photosynthesis and respiration are consequently impaired with further
implications on the metabolic functions such as carbohydrate and energy production as well as
carbohydrate translocation and utilization. Even though cotton possesses mechanisms to antici-
pate the negative effects of water-deficit stresses (i.e., accumulation of antioxidants, osmolytes
and heat shock proteins) their protective capacity depend not only on the extent of the stress, but
also on the timing of the stress as well as on the way the stress occurs (sudden or gradual). Yield
reductions and fiber quality compromises are inescapable when water-deficit stress conditions
override the plants protective mechanisms. However, advances are being made at the physio-
logical level entailing identification of exogenous or endogenous substances that can ameliorate
the negative effects of drought and at the molecular level identification of genes involved with
increased drought tolerance.
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Chapter 4
WHAT IS LIGHT?
To humans, light is that portion of the electromagnetic radiation spectrum (ERS) that our eyes
can detect. It is in fact only a small portion of the ERS (Fig. 1) that includes radiation wavelengths
ranging from gamma rays to TV and radio. This small sliver of the ERS closely corresponds to the
wavelengths that are utilized to drive plant photosynthesis, namely 400 to 700 nm or photosyntheti-
cally active radiation (PAR). However, this small range is not the only part of the radiation spectrum
that affects plant growth and development. The presence of neighboring plants will alter the light
environment through reflection from, and transmission through, plant tissues. Reflected and trans-
mitted light will be enriched in far-red light in relation to red light. Both far-red and red light can
be detected through phytochrome, a photoreceptor pigment in plants that changes form in response
to red or far-red light and their ratio (Fig. 2). There are also blue light receptors, phototropins and
cryptochromes, which mediate responses to the blue wavelengths of light. Mediation of growth
and development in response to light environment is called photomorphogenesis and may include
germination, (de)etiolation, and shade avoidance. Much of the initial knowledge concerning photo-
morphogenesis was obtained from experiments that utilized the Beltsville Spectrograph developed
by Drs. Harry Borthwick, Marion Parker, and Sterling Hendricks at the USDA research center at
Beltsville, MD (Kasperbauer, 1992). They passed a light source through two prisms that separated
the light beam into its constituent components, much like a rainbow (Fig. 3). They placed plants
into these separate light zones and observed the effect on plant growth. Through this work and other
experiments the theory of phytochrome was developed and subsequently led to its discovery.
due to Lamberts Cosine Law which states that the intensity of radiation is a function of the
cosine of the angle from the perpendicular. If the angle of light impingement is 0 (the angle light
is striking the surface is perpendicular), the cosine is 1. The law is also known as the cosine
emission law or Lamberts emission law. It is named after Johann Heinrich Lambert, from his
Photometria (Lambert, 1760).
Figure 1. The electromagnetic radiation spectrum contains the relatively small range visible
to the human eye, which closely corresponds to the wavelengths utilized in photosynthesis.
Figure 2. The various ways plants interact with light as affected by both the environment and
neighboring vegetation and results in reflected, reradiated, scattered, and direct sunlight. Sens-
ing mechanisms include both red/far-red (phytochrome) and blue (cryptochrome and pho-
totropin) absorbing pigments.
LIGHT AND THE COTTON PLANT 75
Figure 3. The Beltsville spectrograph used prisms to separate light into its component parts,
thus allowing the study of finite wavelength ranges on plant growth and development.
Figure 4. The diurnal course of the cosine of the angle of incidence for leaves of Gossypium
hirsutum cv. Stoneville 825, and G. barbadense cv. Pima S5. Data are from Phoenix, AZ.
(Adapted from Ehleringer and Hammond, 1987).
76 Wells
Such movement of upland cotton with the suns position maximizes the available sunlight to
power photosynthesis. Interestingly, Gossypium barbadense does not show a change in leaf position
throughout the day. We know Lamberts Cosine Law through our own life experiences. The change
of seasons is due to the changing angle of incidence that sunlight exhibits due to the earths tilting and
further explains the differing daylengths seen with changing latitude throughout the year.
The photosynthetic response of cotton leaves to PAR intensity may be seen in Figure 5. Although
the okra-leaf cotton photosynthetic rates found by Pettigrew (2004) were greater than the normal-
leaf, all showed little increase at a PPFD above 1,000 mol m-2 s-1. This threshold also exists for
canopy photosynthesis rates which are maximized at a PPFD of 1,200 mol m-2 s-1 (Wells, unpub-
lished). These photosynthetic responses to light are typical of C3 photosynthetic metabolism.
Figure 5. Mean photosynthetic response of two okra-leaf and six normal-leaf cotton genotypes
to varying photosynthetic photon flux density (PPFD) in 1998 at Stoneville, MS. (Adapted
from Pettigrew, 2004).
Table 1. Lint yield, first harvest percentage boll mass, lint percentage, seed mass, and boll num-
ber averaged over 1991 and 1992.
Table 2. Characteristics of mature cotton plants after growth from emergence through maturity
over different colored soil covers (mulches) in trickle irrigated field plots near Florence, SC.
Values are 2-year means SE. Seed cotton includes seed with fibers attached. Fiber and seed
weights were determined after ginning.
ULTRAVIOLET MEDIATED
RESPONSES
Ultraviolet light is light that comprises the wave-
lengths of 10-400 nm. The range most often studied in
relation to plant growth is ultraviolet B (UV-B) or me-
dium wave. Zhao et al. (2004) examined the effects of
both elevated CO2 concentrations and UV-B levels on
cotton growth and development (Fig. 6). The intensi-
ties of UV-B chosen were zero, that which would be
experienced on a sunny day in Mississippi (8 kJ m-2 d-1),
and that which would be equivalent to a 30% increase
associated with loss of stratospheric ozone (16 kJ m-2
d-1). They found that only the greatest intensity of UV-B
resulted in reduced photosynthesis, namely decreases of
56 and 45% at 360 and 720 L L-1 CO2, respectively
when compared with the 0 and 8 kJ m-2 d-1 UV-B inten-
sities. Gao et al. (2003) showed that cotton plant growth
was negatively affected by radiation supplemented with
UV-B at 4.8 and 9.5% above that found in ambient light
(Table 3). The 4.8% enhanced level decreased plant Figure 6. Photosynthetic light-
height, leaf area per plant, net assimilation rate, relative response curves of cotton upper-
growth rate, and biomass per plant by 5, 19, 37, 29,and most fully expanded mainstem
12%, respectively. These same variables were reduced leaves at first flower stage as af-
by the 9.5% enhanced UV-B by 24, 29, 42, 45, 34%, fected by elevated [CO2] and UV-
B radiation. Data are means SE
respectively.
of three measurements. (Adapted
from Zhao et al., 2004).
LIGHT AND THE COTTON PLANT 79
Figure 8. Changes in gas exchange parameters of sun leaves of Gossypium hirsutum during 4-d
treatments. Leaves were exposed to either 1,800 mol m-2 s-1 (HL) or 1,000 mol m-2 s-1 (ML)
at air temperatures of 35, 30, 25, and 20C, respectively. Maximum CO2 assimilation rates
(Amax) of each quantum level are expressed as percent of the initial values measured at the
onset of treatments. (Adapted from Kniger and Winter, 1993).
LIGHT AND THE COTTON PLANT 81
Figure 9. A. The plastic frame used to hold the leaf in a position that presents the adaxial to
sunlight, and B. the leaf with the frame removed. Note the lack of red color where the frame
was situated.
82 Wells
SUMMARY
Mans eye can detect only a small portion of the electromagnetic radiation spectrum (ERS)
and this range closely corresponds to the wavelengths that are utilized to drive plant photosyn-
thesis, namely 400 to 700 nm or PAR. There other wavelengths of light that fall outside of the
PAR range that are involved in altering growth and development in response to the environment.
Light will be reflected by and will be transmitted through neighboring plants and will alter the
light environment. Reflected and transmitted light will be enriched in far-red light in relation to
red light. Both far-red and red light can be detected through phytochrome, a photoreceptor pig-
ment in plants that changes form in response to red or far-red light and their ratio. Phytochrome
plus the blue light receptors, cryptochromes and phototropins, cause alterations in plant growth
and development called photomorphogenesis. In addition, UV light can negatively affect cotton
photosynthesis and growth when present at a sufficient intensity. Both too little light and too
much light can have negative effects on cotton growth through effects on photosynthesis. Too
little light fails to produce photosynthate in sufficient quantity to maximize growth thus lead-
ing to fruiting form shedding. Too much light, especially in the presence of low temperatures,
causes reduced photosynthesis through photoinhibition. In either case, crop productivity is re-
duced. One thing is for sure, changing light environments will bring about change either through
direct effects on photosynthetic capacity or through photomorphogenesis.
REFERENCES
Ehleringer, J.R. and S.D. Hammond, 1987. Solar tracking and photosynthesis in cotton leaves.
Agric. Forest Meteorol. 39:25-35.
Gao, W., Z.Youfei, J.R. Slusser, and G.M. Heisler. 2003. Impact of enhanced ultraviolet-B ir-
radiance on cotton growth, development, yield, and qualities under field conditions. Agri.
Forest Meteorol. 120:241248.
Gould, K. 2004. Natures swiss army knife: The diverse protective roles of anthocyanins in
leaves. J. Biomed. and Biotech. 2004 5:314320.
Goodman, A. 1955. Correlation between cloud shade and shedding in cotton. Nature 176:39.
Kasperbauer, M.J. 1992. Phytochrome regulation of morphogenesis in green plants: From the
Beltsville Spectrograph to colored mulch in the field. Photochem. Photobiol. 56:823832.
Kasperbauer, M.J. 1994. Cotton plant size and fiber developmental responses to FR/R ratio
reflected from the soil surface. Physiol. Plant. 91:317-321.
Kniger, M. and K. Winter. 1993. Reduction of photosynthesis in sun leaves of Gossypium
hirsutum L. under conditions of high light intensities and suboptimal leaf temperatures.
Agronomie 13:659669.
Lambert, J.H. 1760. Photometria sive de mensura de gratibus luminis, colorum et umbrae.
Augsberg, Germany: Eberhard Klett.
Ouedraogo, M. and C. Hubac. 1982. Effect of far red light on drought resistance of cotton. Plant
Cell Physiol. 23:1297-1303.
LIGHT AND THE COTTON PLANT 83
Ouedraogo, M.C. Hubac, and J.F. Monard. 1986. Effect of far red light on root growth and on
xylem sap in cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L.). Plant Cell Physiol. 27:17-24.
Payton, P., R.D. Allen, N. Trolinder, and A.S. Holaday. 1997. Over-expression of chloroplast-
targeted Mn superoxide dismutase in cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L., cv. Coker 312) does
not alter the reduction of photosynthesis after short exposures to low temperature and high
light intensity. Photosyn. Res. 52:233244.
Pettigrew, W.T. 1994. Source-to-sink manipulation effects on cotton lint yield and yield compo-
nents. Agron. J. 86:731-735.
Pettigrew, W.T. 2004. Cotton genotypic variation in the photosynthetic response to irradiance
Photosyn. 42:567-571.
Powles, S.B. 1984. Photoinhibition of photosynthesis induced by visible light. Ann. Rev. Plant
Physiol. 35:15.44.
Smith, H., J.J. Casal, and G.M. Jackson. 1990. Reflection signals and the perception by phyto-
chrome of the proximity of neighboring vegetation.Plant Cell Env.13:73-78.
Zhao, D. and Oosterhuis, D.M. 1998. Cotton responses to shade at different growth stages:
Nonstructural carbohydrate composition. Crop Sci. 38:1196-1203.
Zhao, D. and Oosterhuis, D.M. 1998. Influence of shade on mineral nutrient status of field-
grown cotton plants. J. Plant Nutr. 21:1681-1695.
Zhao, D., K.R. Reddy, V.G. Kakani, A.R. Mohammed, J.J. Read, and W. Gao. 2004. Leaf and
canopy photosynthetic characteristics of cotton (Gossypium hirsutum) under elevated CO2
concentration and UV-B radiation. J. Plant Physiol. 161:581590.
Chapter 5
EFFECT OF ENVIRONMENT
ON ETHYLENE SYNTHESIS AND COTTON
Bruce Bugbee
Crop Physiology Laboratory
Utah State University, Logan, UT 84322
INTRODUCTION
Utah is not the first state that comes to mind for cotton research, and, in fact, the total 2009
cotton acreage for Utah came in at 0.02 acres (Fig. 1). On a per acres basis, this is some of the
most expensive cotton ever gown in North America. All of it was in either our research green-
house, or under electric lights in a growth chamber. In this article I describe the past 2 years of
research with the plant hormone ethylene. My students and I have found the responses of cotton
to be far more interesting than corn or soybeans. Here we explain why.
Figure 1. A photograph of the Utah State University Research Greenhouse complex. The inset
shows cotton plants in electronic balances for studies on transpiration rate.
Controlled environments provide a critical intermediate step in scaling from petri dishes to
the field (Fig. 2). They allow the separation of individual environmental effects and provide an
environment that can be reproduced at any time and in any location around the world. When
plants are grown under electric lights the environmental conditions are nearly identical from day
to day and from week to week.
86 Bugbee
Figure 2. A diagram showing typical locations for scaling research results from a petri dish to
the field.
Figure 3. A 24-hour graph of the canopy temperature of cotton leaves (solid circles, left hand
axis) and air temperature (open circles, right hand axis), and the driving gradient for transpira-
tion vapor pressure deficit (open circles, right hand axis).
EFFECT OF ENVIRONMENT ON ETHYLENE SYNTHESIS AND COTTON 87
role in signaling pollination and anther dehiscence. The ethylene synthesis rate of lettuce
closely followed its growth rate, indicating that ethylene synthesis in this vegetative plant is
a constant fraction of the photosynthetic rate. Although the potatoes in this study grew to be
large, high yielding plants, they produced only minimal amounts of ethylene. These results
are contrary to the widely held belief that ethylene synthesis is highest just prior to physi-
ological maturity.
Figure 4. The relative production of ethylene over the life cycle of four crop plant species;
wheat, soybean, lettuce and potato. The data are the increase in ethylene in a closed plant
growth chamber at the NASA-Kennedy Space Center. Contrary to conventional wisdom,
many crops have a peak ethylene synthesis at anthesis, and none of these crops had a peak
ethylene synthesis rate during senescence. (From Wheeler et al., 2004).
In people, 50 ppm carbon monoxide toxicity starts to cause headaches. In plants, pollination is
impaired by only 5 ppb (0.005 ppm; Klassen and Bugbee, 2002, 2004).
Figure 5 a and b. The effect of elevated ethylene levels on corn and cotton plants continuously
exposed to ethylene in the air. In both species the internode elongation and the leaf expansion
rates were decreased.
Figure 6. The effect of continuous exposure to ethylene on soybeans. Contrary to other crops,
note that ethylene caused an increase in internode elongation. Similar to other crops, however,
leaf expansion decreased with increasing ethylene.
90 Bugbee
Figure 7. The effect of mild drought stress on cumulative leaf growth in corn. The data is the
average of the most recently expanded four leaves. Plants with the dashed lines were treated
with a technical grade of 1-MCP called AFxRD.
EFFECT OF ENVIRONMENT ON ETHYLENE SYNTHESIS AND COTTON 91
Similarly, Loka and Oosterhuis (2010) reported that application of 1-MCP to water-stressed
cotton plants had no significant effect on leaf gas exchange functions, although carbohydrate
metabolism of the pistil was significantly affected. Kawakami et al. (2010) reported that there
was no significant effect on water-use efficiency and dry matter production water-stressed cot-
ton plants treated with 1-MCP, but individual leaves had higher stomatal resistance and better
maintenance of membrane integrity. An antagonistic relationship between ethylene and ABA on
stomatal closure of water-stressed plants has also been reported (Wilkinson and Davies, 2010).
We subsequently studied the effect of more severe stress, but with a gradual onset, and with
intermittent stress. Again, there was no beneficial effect of the 1-MCP application. The line labeled
UTC in Figure 8 is the untreated control plant that was also the well-watered control treatment.
Figure 8. The effect of severe drought stress on cumulative leaf elongation in corn. Blocking
the perception of ethylene with sprays of 1-MCP did not restore leaf elongation regardless
whether or not the drought stress was gradually imposed or intermittent.
Figure 9. Three matching growth chambers at Utah State University that provide the equiva-
lent of 80% of full sunlight at solar noon in the summer. Each chamber has been modified to
include 4, 1000W high pressure sodium lamps and a recirculating, chilled water filter below
the lamps. Cotton growth and development in this high light environment was excellent and
representative of the field.
92 Bugbee
After some preliminary studies, we found that the air temperature needed to be above 33C to
be hot enough to reduce leaf expansion. The three chambers were thus set to 33, 37, and 40C.
There were 12 replicate plants per treatment and the CO2 was elevated to 900 ppm to partially
close stomates and reduce evaporative cooling of the leaves. The elevated temperatures ef-
fectively reduced leaf expansion (measured as daily leaf elongation; Fig. 10), but there was no
significant effect of blocking ethylene on the restoration of leaf elongation.
Collectively, these studies do not indicate a significant role for ethylene in mediating the ef-
fects of either drought or heat stress, at least in corn plants. This is contrary to the conventional
wisdom in most textbooks, which suggest that ethylene plays a key role in mediating plants
responses to a wide range of environmental stresses.
Figure 10. The effect of high temperature stress on leaf elongation of corn, with and without
treatment of 1-MCP to block ethylene perception. 1-MCP did not result in a significant in-
crease in leaf elongation at any of the three temperatures.
Figure 11. Five cotton plants on five balances in a growth chamber. This is what we call a mini-
lysimeter system.
Figure 12. The diurnal transpiration rate of cotton plants over 6 days. Two of the
plants were sprayed with 1-MCP to examine the effect of blocking ethylene on
transpiration rate.
Figure 13. The effect of changing the photoperiod on transpiration rate in cotton.
The plants began to adapt to this longer photoperiod after only one day, and after three days of
16 hour light periods, the photoperiod was changed back to an 8 hour light period. The stomates
opened in the dark for the first night, but then quickly adapted so that they closed almost nor-
mally in the second consecutive long night. Among the 3 primary crop plants we have studied
(corn, soybeans and cotton), cotton has the most profound circadian rhythm. We have called this
phenomenon: Jet Lag.
SUMMARY
Cotton has been a fascinating crop to work with. It is highly responsive to environmental
signals and has significantly higher transpiration rates per unit leaf area than any other plant we
have studied. These high transpiration rates likely help cotton leaves stay cool in environments
with high air temperature.
We have not been able to find a role for ethylene in signaling a reduction in leaf elongation
caused by either drought stress or heat stress. These studies do not prove that ethylene never
has a role in signaling stress in these conditions, but they do indicate that it does not have the
universal role that is suggested by textbooks.
Finally, ethylene does not appear to play a role in mediating stomatal aperture in well-watered
plants. Cotton does have a profound circadian rhythm, however, which may help it stabilize
transpiration rates in variable environmental conditions.
REFERENCES
Abeles, F.B., P.W. Morgan, and M.E. Saltveit. 1992. Ethylene in Plant Biology, 2nd Ed., Aca-
demic Press, San Diego, Calif.
Chaves, M.M., J.P. Maroco, and J.S. Pereira. 2003. Understanding plant responses to drought -
from genes to the whole plant. Funct. Plant Biol. 30:239-264.
EFFECT OF ENVIRONMENT ON ETHYLENE SYNTHESIS AND COTTON 95
Kawakami, E.M., D.M. Oosterhuis, and J.L. Snider. 2010a. 1-Methylcyclopropene effects on
the physiology and yield of field-grown cotton. J. Cotton Sci. 14:119-125.
Kawakami, E.M., D.M. Oosterhuis, and J.L. Snider. 2010b. Physiological effects of 1-Methyl-
cyclopropene on well-watered and water-stressed cotton plants. J. Plant Growth Regul. 29:
280-288
Klassen, S. and B. Bugbee. 2002. The sensitivity of wheat and rice to low levels of Ethylene.
Crop Sci. 42:746-753.
Klassen S. and B. Bugbee. 2004. Ethylene synthesis and sensitivity in crop plants. HortScience
39:1546-1552.
Loka, D. and Oosterhuis, D.M. 2011. Effect of 1-MCP on the cotton flower under water deficit.
CD-ROM. Proc. Beltwide Cotton Conferences. Atlanta, Ga., Jan 4-7, 2011. National Cotton
Council of America, Memphis, Tenn.
Manavella, P.A., A.N.L. Arce, C.A. Dezar, F.d.r. Bitton, J.-P. Renou, M. Crespi, and R.L. Chan.
2006. Cross-talk between ethylene and drought signalling pathways is mediated by the sun-
flower Hahb-4 transcription factor. Plant J. 48:125-137.
Morgan, P.W., and M.C. Drew. 1997. Ethylene and plant responses to stress. Physiol. Plant.
100:620-630.
Morgan, P.W., C.J. He, J.A. Degreef, and M.P. Deproft. 1990. Does water deficit stress promote
ethylene synthesis by intact plants? Plant Physiol. 94:1616-1624.
Narayana, I., S. Lalonde, and H.S. Saini. 1991. Water-stress-induced ethylene production in
wheat: A fact or artifact? Plant Physiol. 96:406-410.
Sisler, E.C., and M.Serek. 1997. Inhibitors of ethylene responses in plants at the receptor level:
Recent developments. Physiol. Plant. 100:577-582.
Voisin, A.S., B. Reidy, B. Parent, G. Rolland, E. Redondo, D. Gerentes, F. Tardieu, and B.
Muller. 2006. Are ABA, ethylene or their interaction involved in the response of leaf growth
to soil water deficit? An analysis using naturally occurring variation or genetic transforma-
tion of ABA production in maize. Plant Cell and Environ. 29:1829-1840.
Wheeler, R., B.V. Peterson, J.C. Sager, and W.M. Knott. 1996. Ethylene production by plants in
a closed environment. Advances in Space Res. 18:193-196.
Wheeler, R., B.V. Peterson and G. Stutte. 2004. Ethylene production throughout growth and
development of plants. HortScience 39:1541-1545.
Wilkinson, S. and W. J. Davies. 2010. Ozone suppresses soil drying- and abscisic acid (ABA)-
induced stomatal closure via an ethylene-dependent mechanism. Plant, Cell and Environ.
32: 949-959.
Xu, C.C., and Z. Qi. 1993. Effect of drought on lipoxygenase activity, ethylene, and ethane
formation in leaves of soybean plants. Acta Botanica Sinica 35(Suppl):31-37.
Chapter 6
STRESS RESPONSE
IN COTTON ROOT SYSTEMS
B.L. McMichael1, D.M Oosterhuis2 and J.C. Zak1
1
Department of Biological Sciences
Texas Tech University, Lubbock, TX 79409
2
Department of Crop, Soil, and Environmental Sciences
University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, AR 72094
INTRODUCTION
The development of the root system of the cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L.) plant is under
genetic control but may be modified by environmental factors. The root system is an integral
part of the soil-plant environment and as such provides the means for both water and nutrient
absorption as well as the production of key plant hormones such as abscisic acid, cytokinins,
and certain gibberellins. Also, part of this environment, the root system is subjected to a myriad
of influences such as different soil properties as well as soil micro-flora and fauna that act alone
or in combination to impact root development and plant productivity.
Since cotton has a taproot system, the extensibility of root development is dependent on the
initiation and growth of the lateral or secondary roots. Therefore, these roots can extend outward
from the taproot to a distance of over two meters (Taylor and Klepper, 1974). These roots also
remain fairly shallow (less than one meter deep, Hayward, 1938). The lateral roots are formed
from the cambial layer of the taproot and are arranged in a row according to the number of vas-
cular bundles present in the primary root. The depth of root penetration depends on a number
of factors, but in general the taproot can reach depths of over three meters and can elongate at a
rate from less than one to over six centimeters per day. In general, the root system continues to
grow and increase in length until young bolls (fruit) begin to form (Taylor and Klepper, 1974),
at which time root length declines as older roots die. New roots continue to be formed past this
point but the net result is a decline in total length (Hons and McMichael, 1986).
The concept of root stress in cotton as the plant develops, as will be discussed in subsequent
sections of this chapter, centers generally around the impact of soil conditions on root system
performance and growth, since roots grow in the soil matrix and are subject to factors that
change in the soil environment. One particular aspect of cotton root development, however, that
might be categorized as strictly root stress, would be the infection of roots by plant pathogens
such as Verticillium wilt (Verticillium dahliae L.), and other pathological organisms. Although
these organisms live in the soil, they can have a more direct effect on root system growth as
contrasted to other soil factors such as water and nutrient stress
Therefore, the overall objectives of this chapter are to discuss individually some of the major
soil factors that influence root development, how these factors affect plant productivity in gen-
98 McMichael, Oosterhuis, and Zak
eral, and the extent of genetic variability in the response of cotton to soil (root) stress. A more in-
depth presentation of the factors that impact cotton root development is discussed in the chapter
by McMichael et al. (2010) on growth and development of root systems.
(1993) also showed that the capability of more mature cotton plants to adjust rooting patterns
to large changes in water distribution was slow and that preferential root growth relative to
shoot development did not occur in response to progressive soil drying in their case. Carmi
and Shalhevet (1983) also observed that dry matter production by cotton roots was less se-
verely inhibited than shoots under decreasing soil moisture. This implies that changes in the
root dry weight/root length relationships can change in response to changes in soil moisture.
In terms of water extraction, Taylor and Klepper (1975) observed that water uptake in cotton
was proportional to the rooting density as well as the difference in water potential between the
root xylem and the bulk soil. Jordan (1983) showed that rooting densities may decrease to as
low as 0.2 cm/cm3 and still extract water. Taylor and Klepper (1974) showed that root length
did not increase in a soil layer when the water content fell below 0.06 cm3/cm3 which was
equivalent to a soil water potential of -0.1 MPa. In other work, Taylor and Klepper (1971) also
observed that water extraction per unit length of root was greater in wet soil and decreased ex-
ponentially with soil water potential. In general, they found that deep roots were as effective
as shallow roots in extracting water. Interactions between soil water status and soil tempera-
ture can also influence the function of cotton roots. Radin (1990) showed that the hydraulic
conductance of cotton roots declined at cooler temperatures which would affect water uptake.
Bolger et al. (1992) also showed that conductance decreased when the root temperatures were
reduced from 30C to 18C. These results would suggest that under certain conditions the
water uptake by cotton roots may decrease as a result of low soil temperatures even though
water was not a limiting factor. Oosterhuis (1981) showed that root hydraulic conductivity
was decreased by mild water deficit. The importance of the water relations of cotton roots per
se (i.e., axial vs. radial water flow and cell water relations) is certainly not to be overlooked in
any discussion of the impact of water on root development. Oertli (1968) has provided an ex-
cellent review of water transport through the root systems of plants and soil-root interactions.
Since much of this information is directly related to other factors mentioned in this chapter,
a more comprehensive rendering is included in the next discussion on osmotic adjustment.
Most of the studies on the water relations of cotton have focused on the whole plant (e.g.,
Ackerson et al., 1977). Field research using mini-rhizotrons has shown that non-irrigated
cotton had a deeper root length than irrigated cotton (McMichael, 1990; Keino et al., 1994).
Furthermore, only non-irrigated cotton showed cultivar differences in root length density
(Keino et al., 1994). These results suggested that cotton cultivars express large differences
in root length distribution under water stress, and therefore, deep rooting cultivars should
be selected within environments where water is limiting. Carmi et al. (1992) showed that a
shallow and restricted root system resulted in strong dependence of the plants on frequent
and sufficient water supply, such that temporary minor changes in irrigation affected plant
water status and productivity. However, a shallow root system allowed maximum flexibility
for using irrigation to quickly and efficiently affect plant water status and influence processes
which determine productivity. In the last ten years there have been a number of new methods
introduced to measure the water relations of roots. In cotton, thermocouple psychrometers
have been used to measure root water potential (Oosterhuis, 1987; Yamauchi et al., 1995) and
osmotic potential (Oosterhuis, 1987). The vapor pressure osmometer has also been used to
100 McMichael, Oosterhuis, and Zak
record osmotic potential (Ball and Oosterhuis, 2004) in excised roots. There are few reports
on the nature of the osmotica in cotton and the importance of proline (McMichael and Elmore,
1977) and glycine betaine.
Root resistance accounts for a significant fraction of the hydraulic resistance in most plants
(e.g., Fiscus, 1983). Radial root resistance is usually substantially higher than the axial resis-
tance (Yamauchi et al., 1995). Hydraulic conductivity in cotton roots is reduced under condi-
tions of water-deficit stress (Oosterhuis and Wiebe, 1980). Methods to measure cotton root
hydraulic conductance were compared by Yang and Grantz (1996) with the reverse flow and
transpirational methods appearing to have more physiological validity than the root exudation
method. There have been reports of oscillations of 30 to 50 minutes in apparent hydraulic con-
ductance in cotton plants (Passioura and Tanner, 1985), which is similar to the oscillations in
stomatal conductance of cotton leaves (Barrs, 1971). Water deficit decreased cotton root pres-
sure by 51% compared to a well-watered control, but had no effect on the exponential pressure-
flux relationship (Oosterhuis and Wiebe, 1986).
Osmotic adjustment, or osmoregulation, is a plant mechanism for drought tolerance and
the maintenance of water (w) potential gradients (Wyn Jones and Gorham, 1983). Osmotic
adjustment involves the active accumulation of osmotic (e.g. sugars, organic acids and min-
eral ions) in the cytosol during periods of water deficit or salt stress to lower the osmotic
potential (s) (Munns and Termaat, 1986). The lowered s response to decreasing w allows
for the maintenance of pressure potential (p) for turgor (Hsiao, 1973). Turgor maintenance
under water stress allows continuation of growth, although at a reduced rate in comparison
to optimal conditions (Sharp and Davies, 1979). Osmotic adjustment may be an important
mechanism in plant tolerance although some crops do not undergo adjustment (Morgan, 1980;
Oosterhuis and Wullschleger, 1988). Osmotic adjustment is a well accepted phenomenon in
higher plants (Morgan, 1984). The occurrence of osmotic adjustment, however, is not univer-
sal. Varying degrees of adjustment will depend on the nature of the applied stress, and also
on the crop or species, cultivar, organ, and developmental age of the organ (Morgan, 1984;
Turner and Jones, 1980). In cotton, as in most other crops, research on osmotic adjustment has
focused on the leaves (Ackerson, 1981; Ackerson and Herbert, 1981; Cutler and Rains, 1977,
1979), and there are few reports of adjustments in the water relations of cotton roots in re-
sponse to water stress (Oosterhuis and Wullshleger, 1987a). Cotton appears to have a greater
ability to osmotically adjust to water stress than most other major row crops (Oosterhuis and
Wullschleger, 1988) (Table 1). The magnitude of osmotic adjustment in cotton was greater in
leaves (0.41 MPa) than roots (0.19 MPa), although the percentage change was greater in roots
(46%) than leaves (22%) (Oosterhuis and Wullschleger, 1987a). The authors related this to the
drought tolerance and survival capabilities of cotton. There is only one reported study of the
role of osmotic adjustment with the growth of a root system in droughted field plants (Ball et
al., 1994). This study showed only a small, limited amount of osmotic adjustment in the roots
of field-grown cotton and a substantial adjustment in the leaves in agreement with Oosterhuis
and Wullschleger (1987a). Osmotic potential of leaves varies diurnally (Hsiao, 1973), inde-
pendently of daily cycles of leaf hydration. Therefore, leaves can maintain turgor during the
daytime at the same level as during the night (Acevedo et al., 1979). Radin et al. (1989) inter-
STRESS RESPONSE IN COTTON ROOT SYSTEMS 101
Osmotic adjustment
Magnitude Percentagez
Crop
Leaves Roots Leaves Roots
------------(MPa)------------ ------------(%)------------
Cotton 0.41ay 0.21a 22.4 46.3
Sorghum 0.31a 0.19a 25.1 37.1
Sunflower 0.17b 0.16a 13.9 25.2
Wheat 0.08c 0.03b 6.6 4.4
Soybean 0.05c 0.00b 4.0 -0.8
z
Percentage osmotic adjustment refers to the percentage decrease in osmotic potential com-
pared to the well-watered control.
y
Means within columns followed by the same letter are not significantly different at the 5%
level of probability.
102 McMichael, Oosterhuis, and Zak
Soil Temperature
The temperature of both the soil and air can have a significant influence on the growth of cot-
ton root systems. Most research has shown that in general, the growth of cotton roots increases
with increasing soil temperature until an optimal temperature is reached beyond which growth
declines. Early work suggested that the optimal soil temperature for the growth of cotton roots
was approximately 35C (Bloodworth, 1960; Lety et al., 1961; Pearson et al., 1970; Taylor et al.,
1972). Pearson et al. (1970) showed that root elongation increased to a maximum of 32C and
then declined sharply as soil temperature increased in 80-hour-old seedlings. Research by Bland
(1993) in controlled environment experiments showed that the rate of cotton root growth increased
with the rate at which the soil warmed. His experiments indicated that the root system grew at
progressively lower rates of elongation as the rate of soil warming was reduced from isothermal
conditions. In research on the growth of roots of cotton seedlings at various soil temperatures,
McMichael and Burke (1994) showed that the optimal temperature for root elongation may de-
pend on the level of available substrate or stored seed reserves. They suggested that the measured
root length at 10 DAP (days after planting), for example, represented a composite of both narrow
and broad metabolic temperature responses. Analysis of mitochondrial electron transport showed
that the temperature optimum for root metabolism at 10 DAP (days after planting) for example,
was lower than that obtained from the measure of accumulated root growth during the same time
period. Kaspar and Bland (1992) indicted that changes in soil temperature can affect growth of a
number of root system components. For example, low temperatures generally reduced cotton root
branching (Brower and Hoagland, 1964), while higher temperatures approaching the optimum
tend to increase branching (Nielsen, 1974). The uptake of water by roots is reduced at low tem-
perature (Nielsen, 1974) while higher temperatures result in increased uptake. Bolger et al. (1992)
demonstrated that the hydraulic conductance of cotton roots declined as the root zone temperature
decreased below 30C and that conductance at 18C averaged 43% of that at 30C. Differences
in the response of different root types to temperature were also apparent. Research conducted by
Arndt (1945) indicated that the cotton taproot may be more adapted to adverse soil temperatures
than subsequent branch roots at least until the taproot had developed to approximately 10 cm in
length. Later work on seedling development of a number of exotic cotton strains grown in hydro-
ponics showed similar results (McMichael et al., 2010) (Fig 1.). Steiner and Jacobsen (1992) also
noted differences between two cotton cultivars in their sensitivity to soil temperature. When the
root temperature was low (20C), root growth was reduced regardless of the temperature of the
air (McMichael and Burke, 1994). The root-shoot interaction in response to temperature may be
related to changes in source-sink relationships. Guinn and Hunter (1968), for example, showed
changes in carbohydrate levels in shoots and roots in response to temperature with a build-up of
sugars occurring at low root temperatures. The successful emergence and initial growth of cotton
seedlings is important for the establishment of healthy and improved productivity. Wanjura and
Buxton, (1972 a, b) showed that when the minimum soil temperature at planting depth dropped
from approximately 20C to l2C, the hours required for initial seedling emergence increased from
100 to approximately 425 hours. In many cotton-growing areas the soil temperature can be signifi-
cantly lower than the optimum when seeds are planted thus impacting the final yield. Therefore the
STRESS RESPONSE IN COTTON ROOT SYSTEMS 103
development of cultivars that possess a root system that can grow and function at low temperatures
could improve plant performance. However, since the exact mechanism(s) of the response of cot-
ton roots to temperature are not known, further research, perhaps in the molecular area, is needed
to elucidate the nature of the response.
Figure 1. The influence of temperature on the growth of primary (tap) roots and lateral roots of
10-day-old cotton seedlings of four exotic strains of cotton. (From McMichael et al., 2010)
104 McMichael, Oosterhuis, and Zak
Salinity
Cotton is a relatively salt tolerant species, but growth can still decline when the plant is
exposed to saline stress. Germination and emergence (El-Zahab, 1971) and seedling growth
(Zhong and Lauchli, 1993) are particularly salt-sensitive. Salinity generally reduces root
growth (Silberbush and Ben-Asher, 1987), but there have been reports of mild salinity en-
hancing root growth (Jafri and Ahmad, 1994; Leidi, 1994). The ions Na+, K+, Ca2+, Mg2+
and Cl- are the common constituents involved in high salinity and altered plant growth and
root expression. Primary root growth of cotton seedlings was severely inhibited by high con-
centrations of NaCl in the growing medium, but supplemental Ca reduced Na influx and
improved root growth (Cramer et al., 1987; Zhong and Lauchli, 1993). The protective effect
of supplemental Ca on root growth under high salinity has been associated with improved Ca
status and maintenance of K/Na selectivity (Cramer et al., 1987) and improved cell produc-
tion (Kurth et al., 1986). Obviously high soil salinity can cause effects similar to water-deficit
stress on plant growth (Kramer and Boyer, 1995). The degree of salinity influences the plants
ability to osmotically adjust to the altered water potential gradient between the soil solution
and the plant root. According to Zhong and Lauchli (1993), cotton is a relatively salt tolerant
plant, but can be very sensitive to salt conditions in the seedling stage. Water stress and ion
toxicity are most likely the result of high salt conditions that reduce plant growth. Cramer et
al. (1987) observed that the growth of the taproot of cotton seedlings was reduced in the pres-
ence of NaCl but that the effects could be countered somewhat by the addition of Ca to the
growing media. Zhong and Lauchli (1993) found that the elongation of the taproot of cotton
seedlings was reduced by 60% over the control plants when the roots were exposed to 150
mol / m3 NaCl. The addition of Ca increased the elongation rate to within 80% of the controls.
They also observed that the growth zone (the region of root cell elongation) of the taproot
was shortened by the increased salt content of the media. Kurth et al. (1986) showed that the
rate of cell production declined in cotton roots in the presence of high salt and that the shape
of the cortical cells were affected. Reinhardt and Rost (1995d) also observed that high salt
reduced the width and length of metaxylem vessels in cotton seedlings which increase with
plant age. These changes in root morphology along with changes in osmotic relationships as
a result of high salt, can result in a significant reduction in root growth and root activity to
reduce plant productivity.
Pathogens
The presence of soil-borne pathogens can impact the growth and function of cotton root sys-
tems. Pathogens such as Phymatotrichopsis omnivera are common agents that cause root rot in
cotton (Rogers, 1937). Domsch et al. (1980) have indicated that cotton seedlings may be more
resistant to attack by this organism than older plants due to a reduced carbon content of the root
bark. An increase in the carbon content of the roots due to loss of branches and fruit tends to re-
verse this effect. King and Presley (1942) reported that a disease of cotton that was characterized
by a swollen taproot and internal black rot of the vascular tissue was found in Arizona in 1922.
STRESS RESPONSE IN COTTON ROOT SYSTEMS 105
The organism was identified as Thielaviopsis basicola and was found to be most damaging to
the cotton root system in the seedling stage. Rothrock (1992) later showed an interaction of
this organism with soil temperature, soil water, and soil texture on the infection of cotton roots.
Burke and Upchurch (unpublished data) observed that cotton plants grown at low temperatures
in the absence of pathogens had increased lateral root production even at the low temperatures
(13C). Other studies have shown that infection of cotton roots by nematodes may impact the
growth and development of the plant (Kirkpatrick et al., 1991). These authors indicated that the
effects of the infection were similar to water stress. The hydraulic conductivity was reduced and
drought resistance was increased.
Recently Liu (1995) demonstrated the effect of VAM (vesicular arbuscular mycorrhizae) on
Verticillium wilt in cotton. His data indicated that when the cotton roots are colonized by VAM,
the incidence of Verticillium is reduced resulting in improved yields.
Genetic Potential
The growth of the root system of cotton is under genetic control (McMichael et al., 1987)
but may be modified by the environment as discussed in previous sections of this chapter.
McMichael (1990) has shown variability for root weight in a number of exotic cotton ac-
cessions. Variability in root/shoot ratios was also observed in these studies. Earlier, McMi-
chael et al. (1985) showed genetic differences in the number of vascular (xylem) bundles
in cotton taproots and suggested that variability in lateral root production was associated
with the differences in vascular arrangement. Later research indicated this to be the case
(McMichael et al., 1987; Quisenberry et al., 1981). McMichael et al. (unpublished data)
also found genetic differences in the response of cotton seedlings to changes in tempera-
ture. Quisenberry et al. (1981) found differences in older plants in lateral root production
as well as taproot growth. It was further suggested by McMichael et al. (1985) that the
observed increase in the vascular system and enhanced lateral root production could lead to
improved water status of the plant in drought conditions since the potential for additional
water uptake and utilization might be possible. Work by Cook and El-Zik (1992) suggested
that cotton genotypes having deep roots and increased lateral root production would be
more drought resistant based on the variability in root traits. Oosterhuis and Wullschleger
(1987b), however, were unable to show significant improvement in hydraulic properties of
the plants with the increased vascular arrangement. In field studies, Hons and McMichael
(1986) showed that water extraction patterns from fallow rows of a 2x2 skip row pattern
were significantly less than cotton planted in every row. This suggested that there was not
sufficient rooting density in the cultivar used to use the additional water in the fallow rows.
This led Quisenberry and McMichael (1996) to use a more extensive skip-row planting
technique to show significant, differences in rooting potential in a number of cotton geno-
types by measuring differences in yield as a function of the ability of the plant root systems
to extract water. This approach can be utilized to rapidly evaluate genetic differences in root
development under field conditions.
106 McMichael, Oosterhuis, and Zak
SUMMARY
The growth and development of the root system of cotton has been shown to be genetically
controlled, but subject to modifications by a wide range of both above and below-ground
environmental conditions. The overall productivity of the plant is, therefore, influenced by
the integrated response of the roots to environmental stimuli. In this chapter we have briefly
touched on how the cotton root system initiates and grows as well as discussed a number of
major factors that influence root development. We have also presented some strategies for
enhancing root growth in cotton such as taking advantage of genetic variability. Since current
techniques are readily available and can be incorporated into most cotton research programs,
future work should not neglect the importance of taking into account the development of the
root system in evaluating cotton growth and productivity. As molecular biology continues to
make inroads into our understanding of plant development and presents the possibilities for
genetic engineering of plant growth processes, the opportunity also exists for manipulating
the growth and development of the root system. These advances coupled with the new con-
cepts of precision farming for example, may provide the means for maximizing cotton root
system function for maximum plant productivity.
STRESS RESPONSE IN COTTON ROOT SYSTEMS 107
Table 2. Mean root dry weights averaged over experiments for 25 cotton genotypes grown in
the greenhouse. Plants were 60 days old at time of harvest. (From McMichael and Quisen-
berry, 1992).
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Chapter 7
ATPase in roots (Ferrol and Donaire 1992), and it has been also reported that B deficiency alters
plasma membrane permeability for ions and other solutes (Cakmak et al., 1995). Therefore, B ac-
tion in membranes might not be restricted to stabilizing membrane molecules with cis-diol groups,
but also by regulating the expression of genes involved in membrane structure and function.
BORON IN COTTON
More than 90% of B in plants is found in cell walls, and if there is any B remobilization in
cotton phloem, it is low (Rosolem and Costa, 2000). When cotton was exposed to a temporary
deficiency and B was sprayed on new or old leaves, the responses varied. Boron applied to
young immature leaves increased B concentration locally, with no further effects. However,
despite the effects of B deficiency inhibiting meristematic growth and its low mobility within
the plant, there was a positive response to B application to mature leaves. As there was no new
development of cell walls to incorporate the nutrient, it could eventually be available for mobi-
lization (Rosolem and Costa, 2000). The authors argued that foliar application of B to mature
leaves may have prevented, at least in part, xylem malformation, and when the nutrient was
replaced in the solution, the preservation of a better vascular system allowed for near-normal
plant growth. Bogiani and Rosolem (unpublished) observed that B remobilization in cotton
was low, but there were differences among cotton cultivars in mobilizing B from roots, stems
and leaves to reproductive structures. Furthermore, when B concentration in the nutrient solu-
tion was low, but enough to avoid severe shedding, the reproductive structures received more
B from other plant parts, but when there was plenty of B for plant growth, most of the nutrient
accumulated in cotton leaves. Hence, B remobilization occurred under low B supply, and under
high B supply, the nutrient was transported mainly in the transpiration stream, accumulating in
organs with high transpiration rates. In China, it has been shown that B uptake by cotton roots is
faster than B uptake by leaves and translocation (Xie et al., 1992). During vegetative growth, B
is mobilized mainly to growing points and young leaves, whereas during reproductive growth,
it is mobilized preferentially towards the main-stem leaves and leaves subtending reproductive
structures. Though B is not easily remobilized from old leaves, it may be remobilized from
photosynthetic active leaves (Xie et al., 1992).
These results are consistent with the findings of Tanaka and Fujiwara (2008) on B transport
in non-sugar-alcohol-producing plants, mediated by B transporters and channels. For instance,
OsBOR1, a B efflux transporter in rice was found to mediate efficient B translocation from root
to shoot under B deficiency (Uraguchi et al., 2009). Conversely, a temporary deficiency of B
leads to xylem malformation, which may decrease the translocation of B, carbohydrates, etc, to
new tissues in cotton (Oliveira et al., 2006).
The possibility of some B translocation out of the leaves would explain some responses
of cotton to foliar B application observed in the field in Brazilian acidic soils (Carvalho et
al., 1996; Ferreira and Carvalho, 2005) and in calcareous soils in Greece (Dordas, 2006),
among others.
Boron Deficiency
The appearance and severity of B deficiency symptoms in cotton are a function of soil nutri-
ent availability, time of plant exposure to deficiency and cultivar (Silva et al., 1982; Rosolem et
al., 1999). Considering the role of B in cell wall and membrane formation and in carbohydrate
transport (Tanada, 1983; Agarwala et al., 1981), the first symptoms appear in young parts of
PHYSIOLOGY OF BORON STRESS IN COTTON 117
the plant, in vessel tissues and reproductive organs (Hinkle and Brown, 1968). As a result of
the critical role of B in expanding tissues and its limited mobility in cotton, it must be supplied
continuously throughout the plants life. If it is withdrawn from the nutrient medium, even for
a short period, a deficiency is established and reproductive structures shed (Rosolem and Costa,
2000; Oliveira et al., 2006). When B is replaced in the nutrient solution after a temporary defi-
ciency, full growth recovery does not occur and, therefore, a temporary B deficiency causes per-
manent damage to the plant (Rosolem and Costa, 2000). This is important in the field because B
uptake and transport to new tissues depends on the transpiration stream, which may be impaired
by a very low evaporative demand, stomata closure in hot, dry days, low temperatures, etc. This
may lead to a temporary B deficiency in cotton, even when there is plenty of soil B available.
Boron deficiency can result in shorter fruit branches and poor fruit set, deformed, chlorotic
leaves and development of dark green bands (often excessively hairy) on the petioles and stems
(Hinkle and Brown, 1968; Rosolem and Bastos, 1997). The pith in such regions of the petioles is
characteristically necrotic, the terminal bud often dies and many lateral branches develop, which
have short internodes and enlarged nodes. Under B deficiency there is significant square and
boll shedding (Zhao and Oosterhuis, 2002; Rosolem and Bastos, 1997, Oliveira et al., 2006).
Abnormal fibers have also been observed in cultured ovules (Birnbaum et al., 1974) and shorter
fibers in the field (Sankaranarayanan et al., 2010). The petals are frequently crumpled and mis-
shapen. Discoloration of the extra-floral nectaries is quite common. Cracks may develop on the
stems, at the base of the squares or bolls, and there may be some exudation (Shorrocks 1997).
The accumulation of chlorogenic and caffeic acids caused by B deficiency inhibits the enzyme
auxin oxidase, resulting in auxin accumulation in the plant tissue (Gupta, 2006), over prolif-
eration of the cambium (Oliveira et al., 2006), and a fast and unproportional elongation and
collapse of the nearby cells (Srivastava and Gupta, 1996). Therefore, morphological changes
during B deficiency development may be due to auxin accumulation in the tissue.
Although B deficiency decreases photosynthesis (Zhao and Oosterhuis, 2003), sugars and
starch accumulate in leaves of deficient plants (Dugger, 1983). According to Dugger (1983), B
deficiency decreases photosynthesis by decreasing the activity of nitrogenous compounds such
as uracil, a precursor of UDPG (uridine diphosphate glucose), which is involved in sucrose
synthesis (Birnbaum et al., 1977). With less UDPG, translocation is decreased and starch and
photoassimilate accumulate. However, it is worth noting that while B deficiency increased non-
structural carbohydrates in deficient cotton leaf blades and depressed photosynthate export from
leaves, leaf intercellular CO2 concentration of cotton plants changed little with increasing leaf-
blade B concentrations (Zhao and Oosterhuis, 2003).
It has often been observed that reproductive growth, especially flowering, fruit and seed set
and seed yield, is more sensitive to B deficiency than vegetative growth. This is due to several
reasons such as: each flower develops over a very narrow window of time, some reproductive
structures (e.g., pollen chamber, embryo sac) have poorer access to the vascular system than any
vegetative organ (van Iersel et al., 1994), and sexual reproduction involves a large number of
specialized cell types, many of which have distinctive cell walls (Huang et al., 2009). Phloem
elements in the peduncle vascular cylinder of B-deficient plants have no clear differentiation
and the number of vascular bundles of the petiole and peduncle is decreased in B-deficient
118 Rosolem and Bogiani
cotton and the few xylem elements formed are disorganized. Moreover, in B-deficient cotton
plants, the xylem vessel walls were thickened and vessels were observed in lower number, with
an irregular perimeter (Oliveira et al., 2006). Boron deficiency during the early growth of cot-
ton has been reported to decrease the leaf CO2-exchange rate, increase leaf blade non-structural
carbohydrate concentration, and decrease photosynthate export out of leaves (Zhao and Ooster-
huis, 2002). The decrease in carbohydrate transport to fruiting sites results in square and flower
abscission (Rosolem et al., 2001; Zhao and Oosterhuis, 2002, 2003). Squares remaining are
deformed, with chlorotic bracts and stunted corolla (Silva et al., 1982).
With fewer reproductive structures the sink for carbohydrates is decreased and excess car-
bohydrate is available for vegetative growth, resulting in rank-growth, self-shading, delayed
maturity and less yield.
Boron Toxicity
Boron toxicity is a serious concern for sustainable crop production in irrigated agriculture
throughout the world. Boron is transported within the plant mainly in the transpiration stream
through the xylem and accumulates at the leaf tips and margins of older leaves (Bennet, 1993;
Sestren and Kroplin, 2009). Hence, toxicity symptoms (yellowing and necrosis in patches be-
tween veins and tips and margins of leaves) first appear on older leaves. As severity of the dis-
order increases, the chlorotic areas later become necrotic, and the necrosis progresses from the
leaf tips and margins towards the midrib and base of the leaf (Ahmed et al., 2008). This gives
the leaf a scorched appearance and eventually the entire leaf dies and falls from the plant (Silva
et al., 1979). Cassman (1993) reported that in cotton the necrotic areas of the leaves suffering
B toxicity contained 2700-6400 mg B kg-1, and Silva et al. (1979) observed that cotton plants
showing symptoms of B toxicity contained over 590 mg B kg-1. Boron concentration may vary
100 fold within a single leaf, hence, results of foliar diagnosis represent only an average of the
actual concentration. Boron concentration usually increases with leaf age (Brown and Shelp,
1997) and in some cases may reach toxic levels in old leaves and be deficient in newly devel-
oped leaves (Oertli, 1994).
Boron accumulation in old leaves could unbalance cell wall constituents leading to tissue
necrosis and death (Sestren and Kroplin, 2009). In excess, B concentration increases in the
cytosol, causing metabolic dysfunctions through the formation of complexes with NAD+ and
eventually affecting the RNA structure (Loomis and Durst, 1992). However, toxicity of mature
tissues may be due rather to the accumulated retardation of many cellular processes, enhanced
in light by photo-oxidative stress (Reid et al., 2004).
Boron toxicity negatively affects very diverse processes in vascular plants, such as photo-
synthetic rates, leaf chlorophyll contents, root cell division and lignin and suberin levels (Reid,
2007). Accordingly, a reduced growth of shoots and roots is typical of plants exposed to high
B levels (Nable et al., 1990). According to Camacho-Cristbal (2008) three main causes have
been proposed taking into account our knowledge of B chemistry (i.e. the ability of B to bind
compounds with two hydroxyl groups in the cis-configuration): (i) alteration of cell wall struc-
ture; (ii) metabolic disruption by binding to the ribose moieties of molecules such as adenosine
PHYSIOLOGY OF BORON STRESS IN COTTON 119
SUMMARY
Boron deficiency and toxicity can be observed in many cotton regions worldwide. Consider-
ing the low remobilization of B within cotton plants, even a temporary deficiency occurring with
enough available B in soil may lead to some degree of reproductive structure shedding, either de-
creasing cotton yields or delaying plant maturity and increasing costs. Although foliar fertilization
has not been regarded as effective in correcting B deficiency in low B soils, it may help to over-
come a temporary B deficiency, with some improvement in cotton yields in tropical soils (Roso-
lem et al., 2001) and significant increases in Mediterranean soils (Dordas, 2006). This would only
be possible as a consequence of some B translocation in cotton. Over 90 % of B is bound to cell
walls and membranes, while some of the remaining 10 % could be available for remobilization. In
addition, B applied to mature leaves does not bind to the previously formed cell walls and could
also be available for mobilization within the plant. Therefore, some B could be mobilized from
mature leaves into actively growing reproductive organs via phloem, as recently demonstrated in
white lupin (Huang et al., 2008). This remobilization was promoted by specific boron transporters.
This was not demonstrated in cotton, but accumulating evidence suggests that non-sugar-alcohol-
producing plants can transport boric acid preferentially to young tissues, which would explain the
observed responses of cotton to foliar applied B. Moreover, some differences have been observed
in B remobilization among cotton cultivars. In addition to B fertilization, the selection of cultivars
or the introduction of the ability to remobilize B would be important steps in better dealing with
B deficiency and toxicity in cotton. The natural genetic variability in this trait and the introduction
of B transporter genes are tools to be used in plant breeding towards improved B use in cotton.
120 Rosolem and Bogiani
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Chapter 8
(Fig. 2) and cotton leaf crumple disease (CLCrD). Cotton leaf curl disease has been reported from
the Indian subcontinent and Africa affecting tetraploid cotton (Gossypium hirsutum and G. bar-
badense) introduced from the Old World while diploid cottons, that have their origins in the OW,
are completely immune to the disease. Cotton leaf crumple is found in the Americas and is, in most
years, not a significant problem.
Figure 1. Arrangements of the genomes of bipartite (a) and monopartite begomoviruses with
their associated betasatellites and alphasatellites (b).The positions and orientations of genes
are shown by arrows. The genes encode the coat protein (CP), the replication-associated
protein (Rep), the transcriptional activator protein (TrAP), the replication enhancer protein
(REn), the movement protein (MP) and the nuclear shuttle protein (NSP). The products en-
coded by open readings frames (A)V2 and (A)C4 have yet to be named. Characteristically,
begomoviruses native to the New World lack the AV2 gene. The alphasatellites encode a Rep
whereas the single gene encoded by the betasatellites, which is encoded in the complementa-
ry-sense, is known as C1. Bipartite begomoviruses contain a sequence of ~200 nt which is
conserved between the DNA A and DNA B components and is known as the common region
(CR) The hairpin structure is shown as position zero for each component. This contains the
nonanucleotide sequence, which is highly conserved.
GEMINIVIRAL diseases of cotton 127
Figure 2. Symptoms induced by cotton leaf curl disease in cotton. Note the vein swelling, vein
darkening (often CLCuD affected plants appear darker green than non-affected plants) and
enations on the veins. Frequently these enations develop into cup-shaped leaf-like structures.
In this case the leaves show upward leaf curling. However, downward curling may also occur.
128 Mansoor, Amin, AND Briddon
Figure 3. Phylogenetic dendrogram, based upon an alignment of the full length genome (or DNA
A genomic component) sequences of selected begomoviruses. The figures at nodes indicate per-
centage bootstrap confidence values (1000 replicates). The viruses shown are Cotton leaf crumple
virus (CLCrV), Cotton leaf curl Alabad virus (CLCuAV), Cotton leaf curl Burewala virus (CL-
CuBuV), Cotton leaf curl Gezira virus (CLCuGV), Cotton leaf curl Kokhran virus (CLCuKoV),
Cotton leaf curl Multan virus (CLCuMuV), Cotton leaf curl Rajasthan virus (CLCuRaV), Cotton
leaf curl Shadadpur virus (CLCuShV) and Sida golden mosaic virus (SiGMV). The tree was
rooted on an outgroup, the DNA A component of Mungbean yellow mosaic virus (MYMV), a
bipartite begomovirus that occurs in southern Asia and is only distantly related to the remaining
monopartite viruses. Of the species shown, only MYMV and SiGMV do not cause disease in
cotton. The geographical origins of the viruses are indicated. In each case the database accession
number of the sequence used is given. (Isolate descriptors are as given in Fauquet et al., 2008).
CLCuD has been recorded from several countries in Africa. In fact it was first named as leaf
curl by Kirkpatrick (Kirkpatrick, 1931) who also described the symptoms of the disease as defi-
nite curling of the leaf margins, either upward or downward and a peculiar crinkled appearance
(enations) may be produced by the veins. Veins of the leaves become thickened which are more
pronounced on the underside. Two types of vein thickening are commonly seen, small vein thick-
GEMINIVIRAL diseases of cotton 129
ening (SVT) and main vein thickening (MVT). Small vein thickening is more common in field
conditions and is characterized by small green bead-like thickening on the young leaves. These
irregular thickenings gradually extend and coalesce to form a continuous reticulation of the small
veins. Main vein thickening is characterized by the green thickening of the distal ends of the
larger veins of young leaves. The thickening first appears near the leaf margin and then extends
inward to form a network of dark green thickened main vein (Watkins, 1981). In extreme but not
infrequent cases, formation of the cup- shaped, leaf-like outgrowths appear on the underside of
the leaves. Enations has however been observed even on leaves of plants with only mild bead-like
vein thickening (Mahmood, 1999). According to Tarr (1951), severely infected plants may show
spirally twisted petioles, fruiting branches and, to a lesser extent, the main stem, which tends to
grow tall with elongated internodes in Gossypium barbadense. All the varieties show a dwarfing
effect, more so in the dwarf varieties, internodal distance is reduced and the affected plants become
stunted in early infection with adverse effect on fruiting. There is reduction in boll number and
boll weight resulting in loss of yield. In extreme cases, the plants succumb to its attack and some
growers had to plough-up their crop during 1991-1992 in Pakistan.
The introduction of resistant cotton varieties in the late 1990s (as described later) restored
cotton production in Pakistan to above the levels seen before the epidemic of CLCuD. However,
during 2001 typical disease symptoms were seen in resistant cotton varieties, suggesting the
appearance of a resistance breaking strain of CLCuD (Mansoor et al., 2003a) which has now
spread into northwestern India.
Aetiology of CLCuD
The aetiology of CLCuD from Sudan and the Indian subcontinent has been determined. In
both regions the disease is caused by begomovirus complexes consisting of monopartite bego-
moviruses, a disease-specific, symptom determining satellite and frequently also involves an
additional satellite-like molecule.
An early study into the diversity of begomoviruses associated with CLCuD concluded that
there were essentially four begomovirus variants infecting cotton in Pakistan (Zhou et al.,
1998). Three of the viruses identified are now classified as species; CLCuMV, Cotton leaf curl
Alalabad virus (CLCuAV) and Cotton leaf curl Khokhran virus (CLCuKV). Further investiga-
tion identified additional species Papaya leaf curl virus (Mansoor et al., 2003b) and Tomato
leaf curl Bangalore virus (Kirthi et al., 2004). In northwestern India many of the viruses identi-
fied in Pakistan were subsequently found to be present and an additional distinct species, Cot-
ton leaf curl Rajasthan virus (CLCuRaV) was also identified (Kirthi et al., 2004). This species
was later also identified in Pakistan infecting both cotton and tomato (Nawaz-ul-Rehman et al.,
2010; Shahid et. al., 2007).
More recently the genetic make-up of begomoviruses in Pakistan has changed dramatically.
The virus associated with resistance breaking in cotton across Pakistan has been shown to be
a distinct recombinant begomovirus, Cotton leaf curl Burewala virus (CLCuBuV) (Amrao et
al., 2010b). This virus consists of sequences derived from two of the begomovirus species as-
sociated with the CLCuD epidemic during the 1990s, CLCuMuV and CLCuKoV. Surprisingly
this virus lacks one of the usual complement of genes encoded by begomoviruses, as will be
discussed later. As was the case with the epidemic in the 1990s, the virus associated with resis-
tance breaking in cotton (CLCuBuV) has spread into India (Kumar et al., 2010) and there are
now problems with CLCuD in previously resistant varieties with particularly severe losses to
the crop during 2009-2010.
Throughout the epidemic of CLCuD in most of Pakistan during the 1990s, the cotton growing
region of southern Sindh province remained largely unaffected by the disease. For this reason,
the farmers there were not growing resistant cotton varieties. However, during 2003-2004 the
disease appeared in central and lower Sindh, causing substantial yield losses. This coincided
with introduction of cotton varieties not approved by the Government authorities for cultivation,
since they are highly susceptible to CLCuD. Analysis of the begomoviruses associated with the
outbreak has shown the presence in Sindh of CLCuKoV and a newly identified recombinant
species for which the name Cotton leaf curl Shadadpur has been proposed (Amrao et al., 2010a).
The reason for the differences between Sindh and the rest of Pakistan, with respect to the inci-
dence of CLCuD and the diversity of associated begomoviruses, remains unclear. However, the
presence in Sindh of a distinct biotype of B. tabaci, with possible distinct host ranges and virus
vectoring specificities, has been suggested.
In Sudan, where cotton production was severely affected by CLCuD during the early parts
of the 20th century, a single begomovirus species (Cotton leaf curl Gezira virus) has been
shown associated with CLCuD in Africa (Idris and Brown, 2002). The virus has been char-
acterized from several malvaceous hosts including cotton, okra and Sida alba. Recent inves-
tigation into diversity revealed that limited diversity exist in cotton begomoviruses in Africa.
A related but distinct species has been reported from hollyhock named as Hollyhock leaf
crumple virus. These viruses are only distantly related to CLCuD begomoviruses found in the
Indian subcontinent, being instead more closely related to other begomoviruses originating
from Africa and the Mediterranean region. These results suggest that distinct begomovirus
complexes were mobilized from indigenous hosts to susceptible cotton upon their cultivation
132 Mansoor, Amin, AND Briddon
in Africa and Asia. Nevertheless, the begomovirus components from Asia and Africa comple-
ment each other under experimental conditions (R.W. Briddon, unpublished data). Thus, hu-
man activity may disseminate these begomoviruses within the Old World where begomovirus
components have been reported.
consisting of 6 to 8 components that are encapsidated is small icosahedral particles and are
transmitted plant-to-plant by aphids. It has been suggested that begomoviruses may have
captured a nanovirus Rep encoding component during a co-infections of a nanovirus and
a begomovirus (Mansoor et al., 1999; Saunders et al., 2002; Saunders and Stanley, 1999).
The benefit, to the helper begomovirus, of the presence of an alphasatellite remains unclear.
Initially it was suggested that the alphasatellite may act as a dampener, mopping up cel-
lular resources and ameliorating the symptoms induced, thus extending the life of the plant
and thereby benefitting the virus by extending the period during which it may be transmitted
by the insect vector to new hosts. Although some evidence in support of this has been forth-
coming (Wu and Zhou, 2005), evidence recently obtained suggests that the Rep encoded by
alphasatellites may be a suppressor of host silencing (post-transcriptional gene silencing
[PTGS], also known as RNA interference [RNAi]) and thus involved in overcoming host
defences (Nawaz-ul-Rehman et al., 2010). RNAi is, amongst its many functions, an RNA
induced defence mechanism that is involved in the destruction of foreign and aberrant RNA
(Voinnet, 2001; Voinnet et al., 1999).
Interestingly, some nanovirus infections are associated with multiple Rep encoding com-
ponents. In addition to the bona fide virus Rep encoding component, known as the master
Rep component (Timchenko et al., 1999; Timchenko et al., 2000), there are additional com-
ponents that are not related to the components of the virus. These molecules are satellite-like
and may be the form of the progenitor of the begomovirus-associated alphasatellites that
was originally captured during a co-infection. A proposal is being prepared to classify these
molecules with the begomovirus satellite-like components as alphasatellites (R.W. Brid-
don, manuscript in preparation). The begomovirus-associated satellite-like molecules differ
little from those associated with nanoviruses other than being larger in size (by 300-400 nt).
Most of this size increase is due to the presence, in the begomovirus-associated satellite-like
molecules of a sequence rich in adenine (the A-rich region: Fig. 1). This is believed to be
required for effective encapsidation of the molecule in the begomovirus coat protein. Bego-
moviruses have a strict size selection for movement in plants and encapsidation; selecting
for unit length (~2800 nt; begomovirus genomes and genomic components), half unit length
(~1400 nt; alphasatellites, betasatellites defective molecules derived from the virus genome)
and one quarter unit length (~600-700nt; the ToLCV-sat and defective molecules derived
from the virus genome) (Frischmuth et al., 1997; Frischmuth et al., 2001; Frischmuth and
Stanley, 1991; Rojas et al., 1998).
as C1) in the complimentary sense, have a sequence rich in adenine and sequence of 80-100
nt that is highly conserved between all betasatellites so far identified (Briddon et al., 2003;
Briddon et al., 2001)(Fig. 1).
The Rep encoded by geminiviruses is a sequence specific DNA binding protein. The pro-
tein binds to specific sequence motifs, known as iterons, adjacent to the nonanucleotide-
containing stem loop structure, to initiate virion-strand viral DNA replication. The iterons of
geminivirus species differ, meaning that the Rep of one species will not recognise the origin
of replication (iterons) of another species. The DNA A and DNA B components of bipartite
begomoviruses share a sequence of high sequence identity, known as the common region,
that encompasses the origin of replication (iterons and stem-loop structure). This serves to
maintain the integrity of the split genome, allowing the DNA A-encoded Rep to initiate roll-
ing circle replication of both components. Although transreplicated by the Rep encoded by
their helper begomoviruses, betasatellites do not contain the iterons sequences of their helper
begomoviruses, rasing the question of how the interaction functions. A single virus may tran-
sreplicate numerous betasatellites (for example the begomovirus Ageratum yellow vein virus
can transreplicate the majority of betasatellites tested; Briddon et al., 2003) and a single
betasatellite may be transreplicated by numerous distinct begomovirus species (as is the case
for Cotton leaf curl Multan betasatellite [CLCuMB] that is associated with CLCuD across
the Indian sub-continent; Mansoor et al., 2003b). This indicates that betasatellites have a
much looser relationship with their helper viruses than the DNA B components of bipartite
begomoviruses have with their cognate DNA A components. Although far from resolved,
recent evidence suggests that betasatellites contain a hyper-variable region of sequence ly-
ing between the SCR and the A-rich region. This vairable sequence contains (in most cases)
numerous sequences that are similar to (differing by only a few nucleotides) the iterons of
begomoviruses. It is possible that the sepseud-iterons allow betasatellites to interact with the
Rep proteins of multiple begomoviruses for their replication. In the field this relaxed relation-
ship leads to frequent exchanges of betasatellites between distinct begomoviruses (as has
been proposed for CLCuD where a single betasatellite [CLCuMB] is capable of interacting
with numerous begomoviruses to induce the disease; Mansoor et al., 2003b) and the presence
in some plants of multiple betasatellites apparently maintained by single begomoviruses (Mu-
bin et al., 2010). Overall this means that betasatellite-associated begomoviruses may rapidly
adapt to changing conditions by interacting with different betasallites.
In contrast to the alphasatellites, for which there is some indication of their possible evolu-
tionaty origins, the orgins of betasatellites remain unclear. There are no sequences with signifi-
cant sequence similarities in the databases. However, the presence in betasatellites of an A-rich
sequence suggests that, like alphasatellites, they may have originated with another group of, as
yet unidentified, single stranded circular DNA replicons.
Since they were first identified, research on betasatellites, to identify possible functions
encoded by this satellite, has moved at a rapid pace. As well as being required (by some bego-
moviruses, including those associated with CLCuD) to infect the host plants from which they
were isolated and induce typical disease symptoms, they were shown in some cases to elevate
virus DNA levels (Briddon et al., 2001; Saunders et al., 2000). This suggested either that the
GEMINIVIRAL diseases of cotton 135
betasatellite enhanced virus replication (more viral DNA per infected cell) or that the betasat-
ellite enhanced virus movement in plants (thus more cells infected). So far all functions of
betasatellites have been attributed to the product of the single gene they encode, known as
C1 (Fig. 1). C1 is a pathogenicity (symptom) determinant (Saeed et al., 2005; Saunders et
al., 2004), a suppressor of PTGS, may facilitate virus movement (Saeed et al., 2007), binds
DNA (Cui et al., 2005), and interacts with a variety of host and virus encoded factors includ-
ing a host ubiquitin-conjugating enzyme (part of the host ubiquitin proteasome pathway that
is involved in protein turnover)(Eini et al., 2009), ASYMMETRIC LEAVES 1 (a host factor
involved in controlling leaf development) (Yang et al., 2008), attenuates the expression of
jasmonic acid responsive genes implicated in plant defence against insects (suggesting that
C1 may enhance virus transmission by making the plant more palatable for the vector;
Yang et al., 2008) and the helper virus coat protein (Kumar et al., 2006). Recently studies of
a C1 protein have shown that it has the capacity to self-interact and form higher order mul-
timers in vitro and in vivo (Cheng et al., 2011). Mutant C1 proteins that lack the capacity to
self-interact, and that do not form multimers, were also unable to induce typical symptoms in
plant, suggesting that C1 acts, in planta, as a multimer. However, the precise significance of
this finding remains unclear.
In addition to being shown to be the dominant pathogenicity determinant in begomovirus-
betasatellite infections, expression of the C1 of Cotton leaf curl betasatellite from a Potato
virus X (PVX) vector, has shown that this is able to induced all the symptoms typical of CLCuD
in tobacco in the absence of all helper virus encoded factors (Qazi et al., 2007). Constitutive
expression of CLCuMB C1 in transgenic plants under the control of the Cauliflower mosaic
virus 35S promoter induces virus-like symptoms but these do not resemble typical CLCuD
symptoms. Since PVX, in common with the begomoviruses that cause CLCuD, is phloem lim-
ited, this indicates that C1 determines symptoms, but the virus contributes by ensuring the gene
is expressed in the correct tissues.
CLCuD occurring in Pakistan during the 1990s, although associated with multiple distinct
begomovirus species, involved only a single species of betasatellite (CLCuMB). However, fol-
lowing resistance breakdown in cotton during the early 2000s, a distinct variant of CLCuMB
became prominent (referred to as the Burewala strain of CLCuMB [CLCuMBBur]), with the
earlier variant (referred to as the Multan strain of CLCuMB [CLCuMBMul) no longer encoun-
tered (Amin et al., 2006). CLCuMBBur differs from CLCuMBMul in containing some sequence
(~80 nt) in the SCR derived from a tomato betasatellite. The significance of this recombinant
sequence remains unclear but is characteristic of the resistance breaking strain of CLCuD. The
recombinant betasatellite CLCuMBBur was earlier detected in tomato from India and indicates a
close relationship between the begomovirus diseases of cotton and tomato.
CLCuD in Sudan is similarly associated with a betasatellite (Idris et al., 2005). This betasat-
ellite, Cotton leaf curl Gezira betasatellite (CLCuGB), is distinct from that occurring on the
Indian subcontinent (Figure 4). CLCuGB may be transreplicated and maintained by CLCuMV
to induce typical disease symptoms. Interestingly, CLCuGB is widespread across Africa and,
together with distinct begomoviruses, causes disease in other species, including okra (Kon et
al., 2009) and the non-malvaceous crop tomato (Chen et al., 2009). This contrasts with the situ-
136 Mansoor, Amin, AND Briddon
ation on the Indian sub-continent. Although CLCuMB is occasionally identified in other plant
species, it is only consistently found in ornamental Hibiscus and the fiber crops Hibiscus canna-
binus and Hibiscus sabdariffa (Das et al., 2008; Paul et al., 2008; Roy et al., 2009). Disease in,
for example, okra (Jose and Usha, 2003), chillies (Hussain et al., 2009) and tomato (Sivalingam
et al., 2010) are associated with distinct betasatellites.
Figure 4. Phylogenetic dendrogram, based upon an alignment of the full length sequences of
selected betasatellites. The figures at nodes indicate percentage bootstrap confidence values
(1000 replicates). The betasatellites shown are Chilli leaf curl betasatellite (ChLCB), Cot-
ton leaf curl Multan betasatellite (CLCuMB), Okra leaf curl betasatellite (OLCuB), Papaya
leaf curl betasatellite (PaLCuB). The tree was rooted on an outgroup, the cotton leaf curl
alphasatellite (CLCuA); an unrelated sequence of a similar size.. The geographical origins of
the betasatellites involved in CLCuD (CLCuMB and CLCuGB) are indicated. In each case
the database accession number of the sequence used is given. (Isolate descriptors are as given
in Briddon et al., 2008).
GEMINIVIRAL diseases of cotton 137
these two elite varieties as parents. The progenies 1098 and 1100, out of the cross 492/87 x CP-
15/2, in the crop season 1992-93 emerged as the first instalment of lines resistant to CLCuD. Ali
(1997) laid out a study to determine the mode of inheritance of host plant resistance mechanism
against CLCuD. Crosses were made between the most susceptible cotton genotype, S-12 and the
resistant variety, LRA-5166. Their F1s and backcross to LRA-5166 showed complete resistance
against the disease. The F2 segregating population showed good fit to a ratio of 3:1 resistant/
susceptible. Thus, it was concluded that the disease is under the control of single dominant gene.
It was reported that F1s of a cross between resistant parent (CIM-443) and susceptible parent
(CIM-240) were often tolerant. He further observed that the cross between two tolerant parents
produced a resistant F1 with one dominant gene coming from each parent. Thus it was indicated
that two dominant genes governed resistance against the CLCuD. On the other hand, Rahman
(Rahman et al., 2002) screened 22 genotypes of cotton for resistance against CLCuD. Out of
these 22 genotypes only six, LRA-5166, Cedix, FVH-53, CIM-1100, CP-15/2 and CIM-443,
were found to be extremely resistant. The resistance sources (LRA-5166 and CP-15/2) were em-
ployed for crosses with the most susceptible variety, S-12 (Rahman et al., 2005). The plants in
the F2 generation of crosses S-12 X LRA-5166, S-12 X CP15/2 and S-12 X CIM-443 and their
reciprocals demonstrated a 13:3 (non-susceptible:susceptible) ratio. However, on the basis of F3
progeny test, he suggested that two dominant genes at two loci acting epistatically might have
conditioned the CLCuD resistance and a third gene known as suppressor gene is also involved
which inhibits the expression of major genes. In spite of substantial efforts, advancement in
breeding cotton for resistance to CLCuD has been slow. The main bottleneck is that the breeders
have had to rely on field inoculation by whiteflies to screen for resistance.
Further efforts, involving crosses between local varieties and exotic virus resistant cultivars at
the Central Cotton Research Institute, Multan (Pakistan) led to the development of several CL-
CuD resistant varieties. Subsequently further inbred lines, including Cedix, MS-40 and Reba,
were found to be resistant to the disease. It has been shown that the resistance of Cedix, a cotton
cultivar highly resistant to CLCrV from El Salvador, is controlled by two dominant and supple-
mentary genes, which must occur together in order to confer full resistance (Wilson and Brown,
1991). Recently, more efforts were made to find resistance in G. hirsutum to CLCrV.
In the late 1990s, the widespread use of resistant varieties essentially removed CLCuD as
a significant factor in cotton production in Pakistan. However, during the 2001 cropping sea-
son, symptoms of CLCuD appeared on all previously resistant cultivars at Burewala, district
Vehari and by 2002 the disease reached epidemic proportions. This indicated the emergence
of a resistance breaking strain of the virus (Mansoor et al., 2003a). Recently the begomovirus
complex associated with resistance breakdown has been characterization. The so called Bure-
wala resistance breaking strain of CLCuD is associated with a novel recombinant begomovi-
rus, CLCuBuV, that lacks one of the usual complement of genes encoded by begomoviruses, C2
(Amrao et al., 2010b). The C2 protein has, amongst other functions, a suppressor of gene silenc-
ing activity. This may suggest that resistance breaking is due to the lack of C2, in turn suggesting
that host resistance, in resistant cotton varieties, is due to recognition of the C2 protein (the so
called avirulence determinant recognised by the host encoded resistance gene). However, this
hypothesis has yet to be tested and it remains possible that resistance breaking is due to the
GEMINIVIRAL diseases of cotton 139
recombinant betasatellite (mentioned above) associated with the Burewala strain of CLCuD. At
this time no reliable source of resistance to the resistance breaking strain of the disease has been
identified and efforts are mainly concentrated on the transfer of resistance from diploid sources.
A number of reports on the resistance in G. barbadense to CLCuD have been published.
Hutchinson and Knight (1950) developed resistance against the leaf curl disease in G. bar-
badense by repeated cycles of selection and, from the nature of response to selection, it was in-
ferred that resistance to leaf curl was controlled by minor genes. Tarr (1951) was of the opinion
that resistance against the virus in G. barbadense may not always be a stable quality. He report-
ed that no major gene was involved in conferring resistance to the disease, and he suggested that
resistance may be due to the cumulative effect of minor genes. On the other hand, Siddig (1968)
suggested that the resistance was under the control of a single gene or very closely linked genes.
In addition to the use of natural resistance, it is hoped that, in the future, genetically engi-
neered resistance will be useful for achieving resistance to begomoviruses in cotton and efforts
are underway to achieve this objective. The advent of transgenesis offers many ways of obtain-
ing virus resistant plants. It provides the ability to produce crop varieties inherently resistant to
pathogen infection. The strategies which have been investigated for their usefulness in providing
transgenic resistance against phytopathogenic viruses, including geminiviruses, can be grouped
under the terms-pathogen derived resistance (PDR; in which a nucleic acid sequence, which
may or may not encode a functional protein, derived from the pathogen is used as the source of
resistance) and non pathogen derived resistance (NPDR; in which the source of sequence for re-
sistance is other than the pathogen). Both these strategies have been used to develop transgenic
resistance against viruses with a varied level of success. The first report of transgenic resistance
against a plant virus involved the expression of the CP of Tobacco mosaic virus (Abel et al.,
1986) and this strategy was subsequently also tried for geminiviruses. Tomato plants express-
ing the CP of the monopartite begomovirus Tomato yellow leaf curl virus (TYLCV) exhibited
delayed symptom development and subsequently showed recovery of symptoms which was
dependent on the expression level of the CP (Kunik et al., 1994).
Resistance using RNAi has also been achieved against geminiviruses by targeting either cod-
ing or non-coding regions of the genome. Transient expression of the bipartite begomovirus
Mungbean yellow mosaic virus (MYMV) IR sequences as an intron spliced hairpin resulted
in complete recovery in blackgram plants infected with MYMV (Pooggin et al., 2003). Simi-
larly an intron spliced hairpin construct containing sequences of the IR conserved between the
monopartite begomoviruses TYLCV, Tomato yellow leaf curl Sardinia virus (TYLCSV) and
Tomato yellow leaf curl Malaga virus yielded a broad spectrum resistance when transiently ex-
pressed in tomato and N. benthamiana plants challenged with these viruses by Agrobacterium-
mediated inoculation or whitefly transmission. No virus could be detected in plants which were
challenged with virus, that had earlier been inoculated with the hairpin construct, using PCR and
a positive correlation between resistance and the accumulation of TYLCV-specific siRNAs (the
effector of the RNAi response) was observed in silenced plants (Abhary et al., 2006).
Similarly various NPDR strategies have been used. For example, dianthin, a potent ribosome
inactivating protein isolated from Dianthus caryophyllus, has been exploited to engineer trans-
genic resistance to the bipartite begomovirus African cassava mosaic virus in N. benthamiana
140 Mansoor, Amin, AND Briddon
(Hong et al., 1997). Similarly the RNAse barstar (Zhang et al., 2003), an insect symbiont de-
rived virus binding protein (GroEl) (Edelbaum et al., 2009) and peptide aptamers (short pep-
tides that interfere with enzyme activity) (Lopez-Ochoa et al., 2006) have also shown promise
as strategies to obtain resistance against geminiviruses.
Unfortunately there are not many success stories in engineering resistance cotton against
begomoviruses. Asad et al. (2003), in a proof of concept study, showed that an antisense con-
struct containing partial Rep sequences of CLCuKoV could provide resistance against the virus
in tobacco using RNAi. This construct has been transformed into cotton and performs well in
small-scale field trials (Shaheen Aftab, personal communication). One limitation of gene silenc-
ing based technologies is that they are sequence specific thus small changes in the targeted
virus sequence can overcome the resistance. Thus, it is essential to identify those targets which
remain conserved among these viruses. This is no easy task, particularly for CLCuD, where
numerous distinct viruses can cause the disease.
SUMMARY
Virus diseases of cotton are an important factor limiting production in some major cotton-
growing countries. Whitefly-transmitted viruses are the most important and are currently caus-
ing significant losses to cotton production in Pakistan and northwestern India. These viruses are
potentially a threat to all cotton-growing areas where the whitefly (Bemisia tabaci Gennadius)
occurs. Human activity is disseminating both the viruses and their vector to new geographical
locations. Exciting progress has been made in understanding the biology of the causal agents
of these viral diseases from Asia, Africa and Americas. Cotton-infecting begomoviruses in the
Old World are invariably monopartite and are associated with DNA satellites. Two types of
DNA satellites, known as alphasatellites and betasatellites, have been identified, although only
a betasatellite is essential for symptomatic virus infection of cotton. Cultivated diploid cotton
species of Asian/African origin, Gossypium arboreum and G. herbaceum, are immune to leaf
curl disease. Sources of resistance in cultivated tetraploid cotton species (G. hirsutum and G.
barbadense) are limited and emerging virus strains often overcome the available resistance.
Recent progress in developing genetically-engineered resistance against begomoviruses is en-
couraging but commercial exploitation of transgenic cotton varieties will depend on our ability
to develop broad-spectrum resistance.
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Chapter 9
Abiotic Stress
and Cotton Fiber Development
Randy D. Allen and Lorenzo Aleman
Institute for Agricultural Biosciences, Oklahoma State University
Ardmore, Oklahoma 73401
Introduction
Abiotic stresses, particularly water deficit, salinity, and temperature extremes, are the primary
factors limiting crop productivity, accounting for more than a 50% reduction in crop yields
worldwide (Boyer, 1982). Areas affected by drought are expanding and this trend is expected to
accelerate (Burke et al., 2006). Growth of the worlds population combined with an increase in
global prosperity and decrease in arable land are creating increasing demands for food, fiber and
biomaterials (Ragauskas et al., 2006). More than 80% of available fresh water is consumed by
agriculture (Delmer, 2005), and the need for sustainable agricultural methods is ever increasing.
Drought is a perennial environmental constraint, affecting an estimated 25 percent of all crops
worldwide at enormous cost. Therefore, increasing food and fiber quantity and quality through
biotechnology for improved stress tolerance and biomass production has the potential to im-
pact the complex and interrelated issues of globalization, poverty, hunger, population growth,
climate change, energy, biodiversity, and environmental degradation. The task of identifying
gene functions and developing effective strategies to use these functions for crop improvement
is daunting and much more knowledge is needed to achieve the promise of plant biotechnology.
expansion. Fiber cell elongation also requires that the cell wall be loosened for expansion.
-expansins play a major role in cell-wall weakening and disassembly in processes such as
ripening, abscission and certain developmental pathways including pollen-tube growth and
xylem formation (McQueen-Mason et al., 2007). In cotton fiber, four genes that belong to the
-expansin family were highly expressed during the outgrowth and rapid elongation stages,
but were down-regulated when cells entered the secondary cell wall synthesis stage (Gou
et al., 2007). Similarly, genes encoding putative xyloglucan endotransglycosylases (XTHs),
which are involved in cell-wall remodeling, have recently been characterized in cotton and
some XTH genes were shown to be preferentially expressed during the early stages of fiber
elongation (Michailidis et al., 2008; Lee et al., 2010).
Based on the activity measurements of malate-synthesizing enzymes such as phosphoenol-
pyruvate carboxylase (PEPC) and malate dehydrogenase (MDH), Thaker et al. (1999), demon-
strated that the osmolyte, malate, plays an important role during rapid cell elongation. PEPC
and MDH activities were elevated during the elongation stage of fiber development, whereas
NADPH-MDH activity (an antagonist of PEPC) was reduced. This is consistent with findings
that PEPC and MDH expression levels are higher in fibers from long staple cultivars than in
those from short staple cultivars (Basra and Malik, 1983). Other genes implicated in the elon-
gating cell are the plasma membrane proton translocating-ATPase (PM-H+-ATPase), and vacu-
olar proton translocating-ATPase (V-ATPase) (Benedict et al., 1999). V-ATPase is known to
be involved in driving solute movement into vacuoles for maintaining turgor, whereas PM-H+-
ATPase transports H+ out of the cytosol, acidifying the apoplast and changing the extensibility
of the cell wall.
Lipids are an integral part of membrane and cell wall synthesis. Gou et al. (2007) re-
ported the upregulation of lipid biosynthetic genes and lipid metabolism at 6 DPA that
was maintained throughout the elongation phase. In accordance with the amounts of fatty
acids in fiber cells, genes that encode enzymes such as acyl-CoA-binding protein, fatty acid
elongase, 3-keto-acyl-CoA synthase, -ketoacyl-CoA synthase, and -3 fatty acid desatu-
rase and very-long-chain fatty acid condensing enzyme, were upregulated at this stage and
greatly reduced at 21 DPA. This is consistent with findings that lipid metabolizing enzymes
and lipid transfer proteins, which have recently been shown to induce cell wall extension
in in vitro assays (McQueen-Mason et al., 2007), are particularly highly expressed in fi-
ber cells (Song and Allen, 1997; Orford and Timmis, 1998; and Ji et al., 2003). During
fiber elongation, two predominant respiratory pathways, the oxidative pentose phosphate
pathway (OPPP) and glycolysis, provide energy and the conversion of substrates to inter-
mediates required for biosynthesis. The enzyme activity levels in these pathways vary with
the demand for respiratory products (Thaker et al., 1999). For example, measured activity
of glucose-6 phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PDH) and 6-phosphogluconate dehydrogenase
(6PGDH) was high during the cell elongation up to 15 DPA, before falling to negligible
levels at 24 DPA and 30 DPA, respectively. Thus, increased activity of OPPP enzymes could
reflect the demand for NADPH and intermediates in the regulation of carbon channeling
during the elongation phase and this is further supported by increased hexose kinase activ-
ity (Thaker et al., 1999).
152 Allen and Aleman
At the onset of secondary cell wall formation, data gathered from transcript and metabolite
profiles clearly demonstrate dynamic changes in metabolism that center on cellulose synthe-
sis (Gou et al., 2007). Thus, metabolic pathways that are active during fiber elongation are
down-regulated with the onset of secondary wall formation. This is evident in the reduction of
G6PDH and 6PGDH activity, indicating a transition in metabolic priorities (Thaker et al., 1999).
To illustrate this, pectin, a polysaccharide component of primary cell walls, is synthesized in
part by UDP-glucose-6-dehydrogenase and UDP-D-glucuronate 4-epimerase. These enzymes,
which convert UDP-glucose into UDP-D-glucuronate and then UDP-galacturonate, are down-
regulated during the secondary wall synthesis stage. In light of the view that UDP-glucose
serves as an immediate substrate for cellulose polymerization in cotton fiber, down-regulation of
enzymes that compete for UDP-glucose makes metabolic sense (Guo et al., 2007). Interestingly,
the activity of the glycolytic enzymes, aldolase and pyruvate kinase increase upon the shift to
secondary cell wall deposition, indicating a role in cellulose synthesis (Thaker et al., 1999). Me-
tabolite profiling showed that glucose, and to some extent, fructose accounts for about 50% of
the total polar phase metabolites in rapidly elongating fiber cells, but decreases to 9% at 21 DPA,
indicating an increase in carbohydrate utilization for cellulose synthesis (Guo et al., 2007).
The demand for carbon in secondary cell wall synthesis is further supported by an increase of
both gene expression and activity of pectin degrading enzymes, such as -galactosidase and
-arabinosidase.
In-depth reviews by Delmer (1999) and, more recently, Haigler (2007), discussed the carbon
flux into cellulose. In the models presented by these authors, UDP-glucose, derived from a
variety of enzymatic reactions, is the immediate substrate for cellulose synthesis. One source
of UDP-glucose is the hydrolysis of sucrose by sucrose synthase (SuSy). Although it is not con-
clusively determined whether the cytosolic (S-SuSy) or the membrane-associated (M-SuSy) en-
zyme supplies the substrate for cellulose synthesis, substantial evidence indicates that M-SuSy
is likely to be the predominant enzyme that channels UDP-glucose to cellulose while S-SuSy
partitions carbon for general metabolic needs (Haigler, 2007). This evidence comes from the
observation that more than 50% of total SuSy protein is tightly associated with the plasma mem-
brane, paralleling the patterns of cellulose deposition during secondary wall synthesis (Amor et
al., 1995; Salnikov et al., 2003). Furthermore, it was shown that sucrose and not UDP-glucose
was the preferred substrate for cellulose synthesis, indicating that a direct, energy-saving mech-
anism for channeling UDP-glucose to cellulose synthase is in place. However, UDP-glucose
for cellulose synthesis could also be supplied by UDP-glucose pyrophosphorylase (Carpita and
Delmer, 1981; Waefler and Meiser, 1994). It should be noted, however, that production of UDP-
glucose through this reaction requires more energy input than from SuSy (Haigler, 2007).
Ultimately, all carbon comes from imported sucrose or re-synthesized sucrose within the
cell. Besides SuSy, cell wall and vacuolar invertases also catalyze the break-down of sucrose
into glucose and fructose. On the other hand, sucrose-phosphate synthase (SPS) can exert con-
trol over carbon allocation by irreversibly re-synthesizing sucrose-6-phosphate followed by the
production of sucrose by sucrose-phosphate phosphatase (SPP). This sucrose cycling may be
useful for efficiently controlling metabolic processes at the different stages of fiber development
(Haigler et al., 2001; 2007).
Abiotic Stress and Cotton Fiber Development 153
summary
Abiotic stresses, including water deficit and extreme temperatures, limit the yields and qual-
ity of cotton produced around the world. Efforts to develop new biotechnologies to improve
abiotic stress tolerance in plants such as cotton are underway. While stress tolerance mecha-
nisms are genetically and biochemically complex, tremendous progress is being made in our
understanding of the regulatory pathways that regulate these mechanisms in model plants such
as Arabidopsis. This research will undoubtedly uncover dozens, if not hundreds, of new candi-
date genes with the potential to provide improved stress tolerance characteristics in crop plants,
including cotton. Evaluation of these genes in crop plants may take many years and the develop-
ment of commercial cultivars that incorporate the most successful of these technologies is likely
to take decades.
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Index
Symbols boron 113, 114, 115, 116, 117, 118, 119
deficiency 113, 114, 115, 116, 117, 119
1-methylcyclopropene 55, 90, 91, 92 mobility 113, 115
-tocopherol 46, 79 tolerance 119
toxicity 113, 115, 118, 119
A transport 115, 119
ABA 40, 42, 50, 52, 79, 87, 91, 150, 153, transporter 119
155
abiotic stress 5, 27, 34, 149, 150, 153, C
154, 155, 156 C3 53, 76, 86
abscisic acid 40, 42, 50, 87, 97, 150, 153 metabolism 86
abscission 3, 4, 8, 16, 38, 50, 56, 76, 118, C4
151, 153 metabolism 86
adenosine triphosphate 8, 39, 119 calcium 10, 11, 12, 17
aetiology 130 cambium 117
air temperature 25, 86, 92, 94 cambial layer 97
anther 5, 8, 29, 31, 34, 88 canopy 13, 17, 42, 45, 47, 52, 53, 54, 55,
dehiscence 5, 34, 88 76, 77, 86, 91
indehiscence 5 temperature 13, 47, 55, 86
anthesis 4, 5, 6, 8, 10, 87, 88, 150 carbohydrate 4, 6, 8, 10, 16, 42, 43, 44,
anthocyanin 79 46, 52, 53, 55, 56, 76, 91, 114, 116,
antioxidant enzyme 10, 12, 15, 17, 150, 154 117, 118, 150
aquaporin 150 metabolism 44, 46, 150
ascorbate peroxidase 46, 47 non-structural carbohydrates 117, 118
ATPase 114, 115, 151 transport 118
axial resistance 100, 106 carbon fixation 39, 101
carbon monoxide 88, 89
B cell
begomoviruses 125, 127, 128, 130, 131, 132, division 118, 119
133, 134, 135, 137, 138, 139, 140 expansion 11, 37, 89, 150
Bemisia tabaci 125, 140 wall 11, 38, 114, 116, 117, 118, 119,
biodiversity 149 149, 150, 151, 152, 153,
biomass 2, 52, 55, 78, 149 cellulose synthesis 150, 152, 153
biotechnology 149, 153 channels 115, 116, 152
boll chlorophyll 4, 10, 15, 41, 118
development 1, 2, 10, 17, 50, 76, 101 chloroplasts 38, 43, 44, 47, 49
number 16, 50, 77, 129 circadian rhythms 93
retention 4, 6, 8, 16, 18, 50, 55 climate change 1, 149
size 16, 17 climateric fruit 87
boric acid 115, 119 competitive pollination 33, 34
controlled environments 43, 85, 102 E
cool temperature 153, 186
cotton electromagnetic radiation spectrum 73, 82
crop productivity 1, 37, 39, 82, 110, elevated CO2 78, 153
149, 153 elongation 6, 26, 37, 38, 48, 77, 89, 90,
fiber 52, 127, 150, 151, 152, 153, 155, 156 91, 92, 94, 102, 104, 117, 149, 150,
production 55, 56, 90, 113, 125, 130, 151, 152, 153
131, 138, 140 stage 151
cultivar emergence 3, 78, 98, 102, 104, 125, 138
commercial 14, 15, 48, 101, 106, 156 energy reserves 8
heat-tolerant 8 environmental signals 94
modern 15 enzymatic reactions 37, 152
obsolete 15, 18 Ethephon 87
cytokinins 97 ethylene synthesis 87
cytoplasm 26, 49 evaporative
cooling 86, 92
D demand 2, 37, 117
exotic accession 106
dark period 93 exotic cotton 102, 105, 106
dark respiration 4, 43 extra-floral nectaries 117
deep root 99, 105
deficiency 42, 113, 114, 115, 116, 117, 119 F
deficiency symptom 114, 116
dehydration resistance 29 far-red light 73, 82
desiccation fauna 97
response protein 150 fertilization 1, 5, 6, 8, 10, 13, 16, 17, 54, 119
tolerance 101, 155 efficiency 6, 8, 10
diploid species 137 fiber
disease 104, 125, 127, 128, 129, 130, 131, elongation 151, 152, 153
132, 134, 135, 137, 138, 139, 140 initiation 149, 150
symptom 125, 130, 134, 135 length 51, 52, 77, 153
DNA 125, 130, 132, 133, 134, 135, 137, 140 quality 52, 56, 76, 114, 153, 154
dominant genes 138 fibers 5, 16, 52, 78, 117, 151
drip system 98 first flower 4
drought 37, 38, 40, 41, 42, 44, 46, 47, 48, first square 4
50, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 82, 87, 90, floral
91, 92, 94, 100, 101, 105, 106, 149, buds 4, 16, 46
154, 155, 157 development 17
tolerance 47, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 100, initiation 13
101, 106 structures 3
dry matter production 2, 52, 91, 99 flowering 1, 4, 5, 6, 8, 13, 15, 16, 17, 44,
47, 50, 51, 52, 76, 114, 117
period 6, 15, 16, 17
foliar H
B application 116
diagnosis 113, 118 heat
fertilization 119 sensitive 4, 5, 6, 16
fruiting shock 25, 34
branches 3, 129 shock protein 25, 47, 56, 150
sites 3, 4, 118 stress 3, 5, 6, 8, 10, 13, 17, 54, 91, 92,
94, 153
G tolerance 6, 26
herbicide tolerance 154
gametophyte 5, 6, 8, 17 high temperature stress 1, 3, 5, 13, 15,
geminiviral 125, 127, 129, 131, 133, 135, 16, 92
137, 139 hormone 50, 54, 85, 87, 88, 89, 97,
geminiviruses 125, 130, 132, 134, 137, 114, 150
139, 140 humidity 25, 26, 27, 28, 30, 31, 33, 52
gene expression 150, 152, 153, 155 hydraulic
genetic conductance 54, 99, 100, 102
diversity 27, 34, 101, 154 conductivity 42, 52, 99, 100, 105
potential 25, 105, 153 lift 98
variability 27, 34, 55, 98, 106, 119
genotype 6, 37, 42, 43, 45, 53, 55, 79, 101, I
105, 106, 138
thermotolerance 8, 10, 12, 14, 15, 17, 25 indeterminate
germination 1, 3, 5, 6, 8, 10, 17, 26, 27, growth habit 16, 53, 149
28, 29, 30, 31, 33, 34, 50, 73, 104, insect
114, 155 resistance 154
germplasm 15, 25 vector 125, 133
gibberellins 97 internode elongation 89
global warming 14 ion toxicity 104
glutathione reductase 12, 13, 46, 47 irrigation 2, 37, 42, 50, 52, 54, 98, 99,
glycolysis 43, 151 113, 149
Gossypium
arboreum 140, 137
J
barbadense 76, 107, 126, 129, 137, 139, jet lag 93, 94
140
hirsutum 5, 6, 10, 11, 13, 15, 17, 73, 75, L
80, 82, 83, 97, 109, 110, 111, 137,
Lamberts Cosine Law 74, 76
138, 140
lateral root 97, 106
growth
production 105
habit 16, 53, 149
inhibitor 87, 89
stage 37, 40, 50, 51
leaf night temperature 2, 4, 6, 10, 16, 17
age 42, 53, 118 nitrogen 42, 79, 117
area 2, 37, 38, 41, 42, 78, 92, 94, 101 non-structural carbohydrates 117
elongation 48, 90, 91, 92, 94, 98 nucleic acid 46, 132, 139
expansion 2, 37, 42, 89, 92 number of fibers
extension growth 2, 15 seed 1, 5, 6, 8, 13, 16, 17, 20, 23, 33, 77,
gas exchange 91 78, 117, 121, 122, 130, 155, 160
water potential 39, 40, 42, 44, 49, 50, number of seeds per boll 16
51, 153 nutrient
light 27, 73, 74, 76, 77, 78, 79, 82, 87, 91, absorption 55, 97
118 availability 116
intensity 40 stress 97
period 77, 93, 94
lint percent 17 O
lipid 39, 46, 54, 114, 115, 151 okra 42, 76, 131, 135, 136
locules 16 okra-leaf 76
M open boll 4
optimal temperature 5, 6, 8, 10, 15, 102
malate dehydrogenase 151 osmoregulation 48, 56, 100
mass flow 115 osmotic
meiosis 5 adjustment 47, 48, 49, 52, 55, 99, 100, 101
membrane 17, 28, 31, 35, 51, 59, 114, potential 49, 100, 101, 150
115, 119, 150, 151, 152 ovary 46
integrity 4, 15, 38, 91 ovules 5, 6, 10, 16, 33, 52, 117, 153
stabilization 48, 114 oxidative
metabolism 2, 43, 44, 46, 47, 49, 55, 76, 86, pentose phosphate pathway 151
91, 102, 114, 150, 151, 152 stress 10, 17, 23, 46, 47, 118, 155
metabolic process 39, 40, 41, 43, 50, 152
micro flora 97 P
microgametophyte 5 partitioning 4, 53
microspore 5, 8 passive diffusion 115
mini-lysimeter 92, 93 pectin 152
mini-rhizotron 99 perennial 1, 16, 50, 101, 149
molecular chaperones 47, 150 petals 28, 29, 31, 117
mote 16 pH 26, 50
mulch 77, 78, 82 phloem 48, 113, 115, 116, 117, 119, 135
N phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase 151
photoinhibition 41, 54, 79, 82
NADPH oxidase 11 photomorphogenesis 73, 77, 82
nematodes 105 photoperiod 27, 93, 94
net assimilation rate 42, 78 photorespiration 4, 41, 43, 46
photosynthesis 2, 3, 10, 15, 16, 17, 39, 40, Q
41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 50, 52, 54, 55,
73, 74, 76, 78, 79, 82, 86, 117, 153 quantitative trait
photosynthetically active radiation 73 loci 56, 154
photosynthetic photon flux 76, 91 quantum efficiency 3, 10, 15, 41
photosynthetic rate 10, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, R
76, 79, 88, 118
Phymatotrichopsis omnivera 104 radial root resistance 100
physiological 15, 25, 26, 37, 39, 50, 52, radiation 47, 52, 73, 74, 78, 82
53, 55, 56, 79, 86, 88, 100, 115, reactive oxygen species 10, 41, 46, 79
149, 153, 154, 155 red light 73, 82
physiological maturity 88 relative growth rate 78
phytochrome 73, 74, 77, 82 remobilization 115, 116, 119
Pima cotton 2, 4, 15, 112 reproductive
pistil 6, 8, 10, 12, 17, 55, 91 development 1, 4, 5, 8, 17, 50, 76
plant phase 114
analysis 113 stage 42, 44
height 38, 77, 78 structure 25, 113, 116, 117, 118, 119
pathogens 97, 104 respiration 4, 8, 16, 19, 21, 22, 114, 153
productivity 53, 79, 97, 104, 106 ripening hormone 87
virus 125, 130, 139 RNA 114, 118, 119, 132, 133, 139, 140,
plasma membrane 114, 115, 150, 151, 152 142, 147, 149
pollen root 3, 37, 38, 48, 49, 52, 55, 77, 87, 97,
fertility 6 98, 99, 100, 102, 104, 105, 106,
germination 5, 6, 8, 17, 26, 27, 28, 29, 107, 114, 115, 116, 118, 150
30, 114 activity 98, 104
rupture 32 branching 102, 106
tube 5, 6, 7, 8, 10, 18, 19, 26, 27, 30, 31, development 97, 98, 99, 105, 106
33, 114, 151 function 98
tube growth 5, 6, 8, 10, 11, 12, 17, 151 growth 3, 83, 98, 101, 102, 104, 106
tube length 26, 27, 30, 31, 34 length 97, 99, 102
viability 6, 18, 27, 32, 34 length density 99
water uptake 32, 34 mass 77
pollination 1, 5, 17, 26, 33, 88, 89 morphology 104
polyamines 13, 46 penetration 97
pressure potential 100 primary 97
productivity 1, 2, 17, 25, 30, 34, 37, 39, resistance 100
50, 53, 76, 79, 82, 97, 99, 102, 104, rooting density 98, 99, 105
106, 119, 149, 153, 155 rooting patterns 98, 99
crop 1, 37, 39, 77, 82, 149 root/shoot ratio 73, 77, 82, 98, 138
proline 47, 49, 100 root-zone volume 87
protein 8, 13, 25, 46, 47, 48, 49, 56, 114, secondary 97
115, 132, 133, 134, 135, 138, 139, stress 97
150, 151, 152, 155 system 97, 98, 99, 101, 102, 103, 105,
putrescine 13, 18 106
water relations 98
roots 18, 21, 97, 98, 99, 100, 102, 103, spermine 13
104, 105, 106, 115, 116, 118, 119 squaring 76
ROS 10, 79 staple 151, 153
Rubisco 3, 41 starch 8, 38, 42, 44, 117
rubisco activase 3 stem elongation 37, 77
ruderal 15 stigma 5, 6, 33
genetic material 15 stomata 39, 40, 41, 42, 48, 52, 53, 54, 55,
117, 153, 155
S stomatal 91, 92, 94, 95, 100, 108, 153, 155
salinity 54, 104, 149, 153, 155 aperture 39, 54, 92, 94
salt stress 100 closure 39, 40, 41, 91, 153, 155
satellite 139 conductance 39, 40, 42, 48, 53, 55, 100
alphasatellites 125, 132, 133, 134, 140 resistance 40, 91
betasatellite 125, 133, 134, 135, 139, stress
140 acclimation 150
secondary cell wall 149, 150, 151, 152 tolerance 27, 24, 149, 153, 154, 155, 156
synthesis 151, 152, 153 style 5, 6, 8, 10
seed subtending leaf 10, 12, 15, 17
development 16, 46, 155 sucrose 8, 31, 32, 44, 46, 55, 117, 150, 152
induction 13 phosphate phosphatase 152
reserve 102 phosphate synthase 152
set 1, 6, 8, 16, 17, 50, 117 synthase 152
weight 16 synthesis 117
seedling growth 1, 104, 155 sugar-alcohol 115, 116
semi-arid environment 149 sugar transport 114
senescence 42, 48, 79, 87, 88 superoxide dismutase 12, 46, 47, 79
sexual reproduction 5, 117 T
shade 10, 54, 73, 76, 77, 82
shallow root 98, 99 taproot 97, 102, 104, 105, 106
shedding 50, 76, 82, 114, 116, 117, 119 temperature 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 10, 11,
shoot 2, 3, 38, 55, 77, 98, 99, 101, 102, 12, 13, 14, 15, 26, 27, 28, 34, 55,
105, 109, 114, 116, 118, 119 79, 83, 86, 88, 92, 99, 102, 103,
dry weight 15, 38, 77, 99, 106 105, 108, 109, 110, 111, 112, 149,
skip-row 105 153, 155, 158
soil canopy 13, 17, 22, 55, 76, 77, 83, 86
borne pathogen 104 tetraploid cotton 137, 140
environment 97 thermal kinetic window 1
moisture 99, 112 thermosensitive 5, 10, 12, 15, 17
temperature 99, 102 thermotolerance 8, 10, 12, 14, 15, 17, 20,
source-sink relationship 44, 102 23, 25
source strength 10 Thielaviopsis basicola 105
spermidine 13 threshold temperature 10
tonoplast 150 water deficit stress 2, 38, 40, 41, 42, 44,
toxicity 89, 104, 113, 114, 115, 118, 119 45, 46, 47, 50, 51, 52, 54, 55, 56,
transgenic 87, 89, 95, 149, 150, 153
plants 56, 135, 154, 155 water soluble calcium 12
resistance 139 water stress 2, 28, 37, 39, 41, 46, 47, 50,
translocation 4, 44, 45, 55, 56, 115, 116, 51, 52, 54, 56, 87, 98, 99, 100, 101,
117, 119 104, 105
transpiration 37, 47, 52, 54, 55, 85, 86, well-watered 33, 47, 55, 91, 94, 100, 101,
92, 93, 94, 114, 116, 117, 118, 155 150
stream 116, 117, 118 white flower 5
transporter 119, 122, 123
white fly 125
turgor 37, 38, 40, 42, 48, 52, 55, 100, 101,
wild
150, 151
species 137
maintenance 55, 100, 101
type 15, 79, 101
U wild types of cotton 101, 111
ultraviolet X
B 78, 79
light 78 xylem 48, 83, 99, 101, 105, 106, 116, 118,
Upland cotton 2, 4, 15, 16, 76 151
UV-B 78, 79 xylem vessels 106
V Y
VAM 105 yield 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 10, 14, 15, 16, 17, 25,
vapor pressure osmometer 99 48, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 76, 77,
vascular 97, 104, 105, 106, 110, 116, 117, 82, 88, 90, 101, 103, 105, 106, 113,
118 114, 117, 118, 119, 125, 127, 128,
vascular bundles 97, 106, 117 129, 131, 139, 149, 153, 154, 156
vegetative potential 55
growth 1, 116, 117, 118 yield variability 16
vertical flowering interval 4
Verticillium wilt 97
vesicular arbuscular mycorrhizae 105
virus 125, 128, 129, 130, 131, 132, 133,
134, 135, 137, 138, 139, 140
W
water
flux 40, 106
holding capacity 98
loss 29, 31, 34, 40, 48, 55, 155
use efficiency 52, 53, 91