SMALL SIGNAL ANALYSIS

OF AMPLIFIERS

Dr. R. P. Maheshwari, Professor

Department of Electrical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee

1
 Topics covered in this module
Graphical analysis of CE configuration
Two-port devices and hybrid model
Transistor hybrid model
Formula conversions for all three configurations
Analysis of a transistor amplifier circuit using h
parameters
Thevenins and Nortons theorems
Simplified CE hybrid model
Simplified calculations for the CC configuration
The CE amplifiers with emitter resistance (Fixed bias)
2
 Student Learning Outcomes

Upon completion of this module, you should be able to:

Two-port devices and hybrid model

Transistor hybrid model

Applications of small signal analysis and role of h

parameters of pursuing it.

Thevenins and Nortons theorems

3
 Graphical analysis of CE configuration
The large-signal response of transistors are obtained graphically. For
small signals the transistor operates with reasonable linearity, and we
inquire into small-signal linear models which represent the operation
of the transistor in the active region.

4
 Graphical Analysis of the CE Configuration
Notation instantaneous values are
represented by lowercase letters (i for
current, v for voltage, and p for power).
Maximum, average (dc), and effective, or
root-mean-square (rms), values are
represented by the uppercase letter (dc)
values instantaneous total values are
indicated by the uppercase subscript of
the proper electrode varying components
from some quiescent value are indicated
by the lowercase subscript.

IC f I B ,VCE

5
 I/P and O/P Characteristics

O/P or Collector Characteristics (n-p-n) I/P or Base Characteristics (n-p-n)

IC f I B ,VCE VBE f I B ,VCE

6
7
 The Waveforms

Since the dynamic curve is not a straight line, the waveform of vb (Fig. 8.3d ) will
not, in general, be the same as the waveform of ib. This change in waveform is
known as input nonlinear distortion.
8
 Two-port Devices and the Hybrid Model

If the current i1 and the voltage v2 are independent and if the two-port is
linear.

The quantities h11, h12, h21, and h22 are called the h, or hybrid, parameters.

9
10
 Hybrid Parameter Model

Ii Io
Linear Two port
Vi Device Vo

Ii Io
1 2
hi
Vi hrVo hfI i ho Vo

1' 2'

Vi h11I i h12Vo hi I i hrVo

I o h21I i h22Vo h f I i hoVo
11
 h-Parameters

Vi Vi
h11 h12
Ii Vo 0 Vo Ii 0
Io Io
h21 h22
Ii Vo 0 Vo Ii 0

h11 = hi = Input Resistance

h12 = hr = Reverse Transfer Voltage Ratio
h21 = hf = Forward Transfer Current Ratio
h22 = ho = Output Admittance

12
The Model

13
 Transistor Hybrid Model
CE- configuration
vB f1 (iB , vC )
iC f 2 (iB , vC )

Using Taylors series expansion

f1 f1
vB iB vC
iB VC
vC IB

f 2 f 2
iC iB vC
iB VC
vC IB

14
 For small signal (incremental analysis)
vb hieib hre vc
ic h feib hoe vc

Where

f1 vB f1 vB
hie hre
iB iB VC
vC vC IB

f 2 iC f 2 iC
h fe hoe
iB iB VC
vC vC IB

15
 If a parameter is constant, its incremental change is zero.
For example: if VC is constant, then it is equivalent to vc=0.
if IB is constant, then it is equivalent to ib=0.
vB vb Vb
hre or hre
vC IB
vc ib 0
Vc Ib 0

16
17
Formula conversions for all three configurations

18
Analysis of a Transistor Amplifier Circuit using h-parameters

19
 The Current Gain,

The Input Impedance, Impedance looking into the amplifier

input terminals (1, 1) is the amplifier
input impedance Zi, or

20
 The Voltage Gain, The ratio of output voltage V2 to input voltage V1

21
The Current Amplification AIS, Taking into Account the Source
Resistance Rs

22
23
 Thevenins and Nortons Theorems

THEVENINS THEOREM:

Consider the following:

A
Network Network
1 B 2

Coupled networks

It is considered that both networks are composed of resistors and

independent voltage and current sources.

24
 Suppose Network 2 is detached from Network 1, and we focus
temporarily only on Network 1.

Network A
1
B
Figure: Network 1, open-circuited.

Network 1 can be as complicated in structure.

25
 Network A
1 B
Now place a voltmeter across terminals A-B and read the voltage.
We call this the open-circuit voltage.

No matter how complicated Network 1 is, we read one voltage. It

is either positive at A, (with respect to B) or negative at A.

It is known as voltage Vos and we also call it VTHEVENIN = VTH

We now deactivate all sources of Network 1.

To deactivate a voltage source, we remove the source and replace it

with a short circuit.

To deactivate a current source, we remove the source.

26
 I2
V3
_+ A
R1 R3
R2
R4
_+ V1 _ I1
V2 +
A
B
RTH
+
_ VTH

B

The Thevenin equivalent structure

27
We can now tie (reconnect) Network 2 back to terminals A-B.
A

RTH
+ Network
_ VTH
2

B
A

RTH 1 RTH 2
+
_ VTH 1 VTH 2 _+

B
The network system is replaced by Thevenin voltages and resistances.
28
NORTONS THEOREM:

Assume that the network enclosed below is composed of independent

sources and resistors.

Network

Nortons Theorem states that this network can be replaced by a current

source shunted by a resistance R.

I R

29
 In the Norton circuit, the current source is the short circuit current
of the network, that is, the current obtained by shorting the output of
the network. The resistance is the resistance seen looking into the
network with all sources deactivated. This is the same as RTH.

ISS RN = RTH

30
 We recall the following from source transformations.

R
+ V
_ V R I=
R

In view of the above, if we have the Thevenin equivalent circuit

of a network, we can obtain the Norton equivalent by using source
transformation.

However, this is not how we normally go about finding the

Norton equivalent circuit.

31
 Simplified CE Hybrid Model
Two of the four h parameters, hie and hfe, are sufficient for the approximate
analysis of low frequency transistor circuits, provided that the load resistance is
small enough to satisfy the condition hoe RL< 0.1

32
 Current Gain
h fe
AI h fe If, hoeRL<0.1
1 hoc RL

Input Impedance

hre h fe AI
Ri hie 1
hie hoe h fe oe L
h R

Ri hie hre AI RL ; hre h fe hie hoe 0.5

Vb
Ri hie
Ib
33
 Voltage Gain
RL h fe RL
AV AI
Ri hie

dAV dAI dRi

AV AI Ri

For, hoeRL<0.1

dAI dRi
0.1 and 0.05
AI Ri

Hence, maximum error in voltage gain is 5 percent.

34
 Simplified Calculations for the CC configuration
The Current Gain,

Input Resistance,
hie 1 h fe RL
Vb
Ri
Ib

The Output impedance,

35
36
The CE Amplifier with an Emitter resistance

37
38
 Looking into the Base and Emitter of a Transistor

Vs
Ib
Rs hie 1 h fe Re

Ven Ve 1 h fe I b Re
Vs Re
Rs hie 1 hfe Re

39
 The effect of a Collector-circuit Resistor in an Emitter Follower
AIc 1 AIe

Ie Ic
AIc and AIe
Ib Ib

1 hoe Rc h fe
AIc
1 hoe Rc Re

Vo R
AV AIc e
Vi Ri

40
 Example
Q1. For the circuit of Fig. 8.9, determine the modified output h parameters
(hob and hfb) in terms of Rb and the CB h parameters of the intrinsic
transistor.

Solution: From figure,

ic'
h '
'
ob
vc ie 0

With ie = 0, hfe ie = 0, so that

vc' 1 1 hob Rb
Rb
ic' hob hob

ic' hob
h '
'

vc 1 hob Rb
ob

41
 ic' Here, Rb and (1/hob) are in parallel in this circuit,
h '
'
fb
ie vc 0
and a current (ie + hfbie) flows through this
parallel combination. Thus, we can write;
1 ie (1 h fb ) Rb
vb' ie (1 h fb ) Rb
hob (1 hob Rb )

Writing a KCL at node C yields

hob (1 h fb ) Rb
ic' h fbie vb' hob ie h fb
(1 hob Rb )

hob (1 h fb ) Rb
Therefore, h h fb ; if Rb 0 (as it should be), h'fb h fb .
'

(1 hob Rb )
fb

42
Transistor Biasing

43
 The Operating Point
Capacitive Coupling: In Fig. 8.1, neither side of the signal generator is
grounded, and also that an auxiliary biasing supply VBB is used. Both of these
difficulties are avoided by using a capacitor Cb1 to couple the input signal to the
transistor, as indicated in Fig. 9.1. In this diagram one end of vi is grounded, and
the VCC also provides the biasing IB. The coupling capacitors Cb1 and Cb2 blocks
dc voltages but freely pass signal voltages.

44
The Static and Dynamic Load Lines

45
 The Fixed-bias Circuit

VCC VBE
IB IB2
Rb

VCC
IB
Rb

46
 Bias Stability
In spite of the tremendous strides that have been made in the technology
of the manufacture of semiconductor devices, transistors of a particular
type still come out of production with a wide spread in the values of some
parameters. For example a range hFE =b of about 3 to 1. IB should be
allowed to change so as to maintain IC and VCE constant as changes.

Thermal Instability
ICO doubles for every 10C
rise in temperature. The
collector current IC causes the
collector-junction temperature
to rise, which in turn increases
ICO. As a result IC will increase
which may further increase the
junction temperature, and
consequently ICO.
47
 Self or Emitter Bias

VCC I C ( Rc R e ) I B R e VCE 0

The physical reason for an improvement in stability with this circuit is the
following: If IC tends to increase the current in Re increases due to rise in ICO
with temperature. Increase in voltage drop across Re, the base current is
decreased. Hence IC will increase less than it would have, had there been no
self-biasing resistor Re.

48
 Example
Q1. A silicon transistor whose CE O/P characteristics are shown in fig. 9.6b is
used in the circuit of Fig. 9.6a, with VCC = 22.5 V, RC = 5.6 k, R2 = 10 k, and R1 =
90 k. For this transistor, = 55.
(a) Find the Q point graphically, and
(b) from the known value of .
(c) Also, find VCE if, = 200.

Solution: (a) V = (10 x 22.5) / 100 = 2.25 V, and Rb = (10 x 90) / 100 = 9.0 K

- 22.5 + (5.6 +1)IC + IB + VCE = 0 (1)

0.65 2.25 + IC + 10.0 IB = 0 (2)
Eliminating IC, from both the equations;
VCE = 65.0 IB + 11.9 (3)
Plotting VCE correspondences to IB = 20, 40, and 60 A, and
obtained from Eq. (3). {Do yourself}
49
Solution: (b) IC = IB
Since, -1.6 + IC + (10/55) IC = 0 (4)

Therefore, IC = 1.36 mA and IB = 24.8 A

As, - 22.5 + 6.6 IC + IB + VCE = 0
=> VCE = 13.5 V

(c) Substituting IB = (IC / 200)

-1.6 + IC + (10 IC / 200) = 0
=> IC = 1.52 mV
and IB = 7.6 A

Now - 22.5 + 6.6 x 1.52 + 0.0076 + VCE = 0

=> VCE = 12.5 V
Comparing, this value with that of part (b); shows that VCE changes
by only 1 V as varies from 55 to 200, thus, demonstrating the
relative insensitivity of the self-bias circuit to variations in .

50
Thank You

51