Figure 1,2 Amplitude vs.

time converted to amplitude

vs. frequency

F r e q u e n c y is t h e b e s t - k n o w n p a r a m e t e r s i n c e it is Wavelength
closely related to the musical term "pitch." M o s t audio
W h y i t i s that w e s h o u l d b e c o n c e r n e d a b o u t w a v e l e n g t h ?
e n g i n e e r s relate first i n m u s i c a l t e r m s s i n c e f e w o f u s g o t
After all, there are n o a c o u s t i c a l a n a l y z e r s that s h o w this o n
into this b u s i n e s s b e c a u s e of a lifelong f a s c i n a t i o n w i t h
their r e a d o u t . T h e r e a r e n o s i g n a l p r o c e s s i n g d e v i c e s that
acoustical physics. We must go b e y o n d frequency/pitch,
d e p e n d o n this for a d j u s t m e n t . T h e r e are s o m e a p p l i c a t i o n s
h o w e v e r , s i n c e o u r j o b i s t o " t u n e " the s o u n d s y s t e m , n o t
w h e r e w e c a n b e blissfully i g n o r a n t o f w a v e l e n g t h , for
t u n e the m u s i c a l i n s t r u m e n t s . I n this w o r l d w e m u s t m a k e
e x a m p l e : w h e n we u s e a s i n g l e l o u d s p e a k e r in a reflection-
a n e v e r - p r e s e n t t h r e e - w a y l i n k b e t w e e n frequency, p e r i o d
free e n v i r o n m e n t . F o r all o t h e r a p p l i c a t i o n s w a v e l e n g t h is
a n d w a v e l e n g t h . T h e f r e q u e n c y 1 k H z exists o n l y w i t h its
n o t s i m p l y r e l e v a n t : it is d e c i s i v e . W a v e l e n g t h is the criti-
r e c i p r o c a l sister 1 m s . T h i s is n o t m e d i u m - d e p e n d e n t , n o r
cal p a r a m e t e r i n a c o u s t i c s u m m a t i o n . T h e c o m b i n a t i o n o f
t e m p e r a t u r e - d e p e n d e n t , n o r is it w a i t i n g u p o n a s t a n d a r d s
signals at a given frequency is governed by the n u m b e r of
committee ruling. This is one of audio's few undisputed
w a v e l e n g t h s that s e p a r a t e t h e m . T h e r e is a lot at s t a k e h e r e ,
a b s o l u t e s . If t h e a u d i o is t r a v e l i n g in a w i r e , t h o s e t w o
as e v i d e n c e d by the fact that C h a p t e r 2 is d e d i c a t e d e x c l u -
p a r a m e t e r s w i l l b e l a r g e l y sufficient for o u r d i s c u s s i o n s .
s i v e l y t o this subject: s u m m a t i o n . C o m b i n a t i o n s o f w a v e -
If it is in t h e air we w i l l n e e d to a d d the third d i m e n s i o n :
l e n g t h s c a n r a n g e from m a x i m u m a d d i t i o n t o m a x i m u m
w a v e l e n g t h . A 1 k H z s i g n a l o n l y e x i s t s in t h e air as a w a v e -
c a n c e l l a t i o n . S i n c e w e are p l a n n i n g o n d o i n g lots o f c o m -
l e n g t h a b o u t a s l o n g a s t h e d i s t a n c e from o u r e l b o w t o o u r
bining, we had best become conscious of wavelength.
fist. A l l b e h a v i o r a t 1 k H z w i l l b e g o v e r n e d b y t h e p h y s i c a l
reality o f its t i m e p e r i o d a n d its w a v e l e n g t h . T h e first rule T h e size o f t h e w a v e l e n g t h i s p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e u n i q u e
of o p t i m i z a t i o n is to never c o n s i d e r an a c o u s t i c a l s i g n a l transmission speed of the m e d i u m . A given frequency will
w i t h o u t c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f all three p a r a m e t e r s ! h a v e a different w a v e l e n g t h in its e l e c t r o n i c f o r m ( o v e r
5
 5 0 0 , 0 0 0 X larger) t h a n its a c o u s t i c v e r s i o n . If t h e m e d i u m
i s c h a n g e d , its t r a n s m i s s i o n s p e e d a n d all t h e w a v e l e n g t h s
will c h a n g e w i t h it.
The wavelength formula is

L = c/F

w h e r e L is t h e w a v e l e n g t h in m e t e r s , c is t h e t r a n s m i s s i o n
s p e e d of t h e m e d i u m , a n d F is t h e f r e q u e n c y ( H z ) .
T r a n s m i s s i o n s p e e d t h r o u g h air i s a m o n g t h e s l o w e s t .
W a t e r i s a far s u p e r i o r m e d i u m i n t e r m s o f s p e e d a n d
high-frequency response; however, the hazards of electro-
c u t i o n a n d d r o w n i n g m a k e this a n u n p o p u l a r s o u n d rein-
forcement m e d i u m (synchronized s w i m m i n g aside). We
w i l l stick w i t h air.
T h e f o r m u l a s for the s p e e d o f s o u n d i n air are a s s h o w n
in Table 1.1.

Figure 1,3 Chart of frequency, period and wavelength (at room temperature)
for standard 1/3rd octave frequencies

F o r e x a m p l e at 22 C:
t h e 2 0 H z o r 2 0 k H z e x t r e m e s a t a p o w e r level sufficient
c = (331.4 + 0.607 X 22) meters/second to p l a y a significant role. It is m o r e useful to limit the dis-
c = 3 4 4 . 7 5 meters/second c u s s i o n t o t h o s e f r e q u e n c i e s w e are l i k e l y t o e n c o u n t e r i n
t h e w i l d : 31 Hz (the l o w B n o t e on a five-string b a s s ) up
N o w t h a t w e c a n s o l v e for t h e t r a n s m i s s i o n s p e e d w e c a n
to 18 k H z . T h e w a v e l e n g t h s w i t h i n this b a n d fall i nt o a
d e t e r m i n e the w a v e l e n g t h for a g i v e n f r e q u e n c y / t i m e
size r a n g e of b e t w e e n t h e w i d t h of a finger a n d a s t a n d a r d
period:
intermodal shipping container. T h e largest wavelengths
L = c/F are a b o u t 6 0 0 t i m e s l a r g e r t h a n the s m a l l e s t .

W h e r e L is t h e w a v e l e n g t h in m e t e r s , c is the t r a n s m i s s i o n
s p e e d of s o u n d , a n d F is t h e f r e q u e n c y ( H z ) . Temperature Effects
The audible frequency range given in most books is A s w e s a w previously, t h e s p e e d o f s o u n d i n air i s slightly
2 0 H z t o 2 0 k H z . F e w l o u d s p e a k e r s are a b l e t o r e p r o d u c e t e m p e r a t u r e - d e p e n d e n t . A s the a m b i e n t t e m p e r a t u r e rises,
6
 s o u n d s p e e d i n c r e a s e s a n d therefore t h e w a v e l e n g t h s
e x p a n d . T h i s b e h a v i o r m a y slightly affect t h e r e s p o n s e
o f o u r s y s t e m s o v e r the d u r a t i o n o f a p e r f o r m a n c e , s i n c e
the temperature is subject to change even in the most con-
trolled e n v i r o n m e n t s . H o w e v e r , a l t h o u g h i t i s often g i v e n
s u b s t a n t i a l a t t e n t i o n , this factor is n o t a m a j o r o n e in t h e
big scheme of things. A poorly designed system is not
l i k e l y t o find itself r e s c u e d b y w e a t h e r c h a n g e s . N o r i s i t
practical to provide ongoing environmental analysis over
t h e w i d e s p r e a d a r e a s o f a n a u d i e n c e t o c o m p e n s a t e for the
drafts i n t h e r o o m . F o r o u r d i s c u s s i o n , w e w i l l c o n s i d e r
t h e s p e e d o f s o u n d t o b e fixed a p p r o x i m a t e l y a t r o o m t e m -
p e r a t u r e . W h e n v a r i a b l e t e m p e r a t u r e i s r e l e v a n t t o the dis-
cussion it will be noted.
The relationship b e t w e e n temperature and sound speed
c a n b e a p p r o x i m a t e d a s f o l l o w s : A 1 p e r c e n t c h a n g e i n the

Figure 1.5 Chart of speed of sound, period and wavelength at different

Figure 1.4 A handy reference for short wavelengths temperatures
7
 s p e e d of s o u n d o c c u r s w i t h e i t h e r a 5 C o r 1 0 F c h a n g e i n s i g n a l i s c r e a t e d a n d c a n n o t b e filtered apart. I n this c a s e ,
temperature. t h e p h a s e r e l a t i o n s h i p w i l l h a v e a d e c i s i v e effect u p o n t h e
nature of the combined waveform.
T h e Waveform A u d i o waveforms exist in m a n y forms. The c o m p o -
There is no limit to the complexity of the audio signal. n e n t s listed a b o v e a r e p r e s e n t r e g a r d l e s s o f the f o r m . A l l
Waves at multiple frequencies m a y be simultaneously f o r m s t r a c k the o r i g i n a l a u d i o w a v e f o r m i n the s a m e b a s i c
c o m b i n e d t o m a k e a n e w a n d u n i q u e s i g n a l that i s the s u m - way. A n a l o g w a v e f o r m t y p e s i n c l u d e e l e c t r o n i c , m a g n e t i c ,
mation of the contributing signals. This composite signal m e c h a n i c a l , optical, a n d a c o u s t i c a l . D i g i t a l a u d i o s i g -
i s the w a v e f o r m , c o n t a i n i n g a n u n l i m i t e d m i x o f a u d i o fre- n a l s are t y p i c a l l y e l e c t r o n i c , m a g n e t i c o r o p t i c a l , b u t t h e
quencies with variable amplitude and phase relationships. m e c h a n i c s o f the digital d a t a transfer are n o t critical here.
The complex shape of the waveform depends upon I t c o u l d b e p u n c h c a r d s a s l o n g a s w e c a n m o v e t h e m fast
the c o m p o n e n t s that m a k e i t u p a n d v a r i e s c o n s t a n t l y a s e n o u g h t o r e a d the data. E a c h m e d i u m t r a c k s the w a v e -
t h e y d o . A k e y p a r a m e t e r i s h o w the f r e q u e n c y o f e a c h f o r m in different forms of energy, s u i t a b l e for the p a r t i c -
c o n t r i b u t i n g s i g n a l affects t h e c o m b i n e d w a v e f o r m . I f t w o u l a r s o f that t r a n s m i s s i o n m o d e , c o m p l e t e w i t h its o w n
s i g n a l s o f different f r e q u e n c i e s are a d d e d , t h e w a v e f o r m vulnerabilities and limitations. Digital audio is most easily
w i l l c a r r y the s h a p e o f b o t h w a v e f o r m s i n d e p e n d e n t l y . understood w h e n viewed as a mathematical rendering of
T h e h i g h e r f r e q u e n c y w i l l b e a d d e d o n t o t h e s h a p e o f the t h e w a v e f o r m . F o r t h e s e d i s c u s s i o n s , this i s n o different
l o w e r - f r e q u e n c y w a v e f o r m . T h e p h a s e o f the i n d i v i d u a l f r o m a n a l o g , w h i c h i n a n y o f its r e s i d e n t e n e r g y f o r m s c a n
f r e q u e n c i e s w i l l affect t h e o v e r a l l s h a p e b u t t h e different be quantified mathematically.
f r e q u e n c i e s m a i n t a i n their s e p a r a t e identities. T h e s e fre- T h e a u d i o s i g n a l c a n b e v i s u a l i z e d i n t h r e e different
q u e n c i e s c a n later be s e p a r a t e d o u t by a filter (as i n y o u r f o r m s as s h o w n in F i g . 1.9. A s i n g l e c y c l e is b r o k e n i n t o
ear) a n d h e a r d a s s e p a r a t e s o u n d s . W h e n t w o s i g n a l s 4 q u a d r a n t s o f 9 0 d e g r e e s e a c h . T h i s m o t i o n f o r m illus-
o f the s a m e f r e q u e n c y are c o m b i n e d , a n e w a n d u n i q u e trates the m o v e m e n t of the signal from a p o i n t of rest to

Figure 1.6 A reference chart of some of the

common terms used to describe and quantify
an audio waveform

8
Figure 1.7 Combination of waveforms of
the same frequency at the same level with
different phase relationships (A) 0 degrees
relative phase combines + 6 d B amplitude, (B)
90 degrees relative phase combines to + 3 d B
amplitude, (C) 120 degrees relative phase
combines to + 0 d B , (D) 180 degrees relative
phase cancels

Figure 1.8 Combination of waveforms of

different frequencies with different levels and
phase relationships. (A) Second frequency
is 5x higher and 12dB down in level from
the first. Phase relationship is 0 degrees.
Note that both frequencies can be seen in
the combined waveform. (B) Same as (A)
but with relative phase relationship at 180
degrees. Note that there is no cancellation
in the combined waveform. The orientation
of the high-frequency trace has moved but
the low-frequency orientation is unchanged.
(C) Combined waveform of (A) with third
frequency added. The third frequency is 2 5 x
the lowest frequency and 18 dB down in level.
The phase relationship is matched for all
frequencies. Note that all three frequencies
can be distinguished in the waveform

9
 Figure 1.9 Three representations of the audio wave form

m a x i m u m a m p l i t u d e i n b o t h d i r e c t i o n s a n d finally return-
i n g t o the origin. T h i s i s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f t h e p a r t i c l e m o t i o n
Transmission Quantified
in air w h e n e n e r g i z e d by a s o u n d s o u r c e s u c h as a speaker. Decibels
I t also h e l p s illustrate the p o i n t that the m o t i o n i s b a c k T r a n s m i s s i o n a m p l i t u d e s , also k n o w n a s levels, are m o s t
a n d forth r a t h e r t h a n g o i n g o u t w a r d from t h e speaker. A c o m m o n l y e x p r e s s e d i n d e c i b e l s ( d B ) , a u n i t that d e s c r i b e s
speaker should not be confused with a blower. The maxi- a ratio b e t w e e n t w o m e a s u r e s . T h e d e c i b e l is a l o g a r i t h m i c
m u m displacement is found at the 90 and 270 degree points scaling s y s t e m u s e d to d e s c r i b e ratios w i t h a v e r y large
i n t h e c y c l e . A s the a m p l i t u d e i n c r e a s e s the d i s p l a c e m e n t r a n g e o f v a l u e s . U s i n g t h e d e c i b e l h a s the a d d e d benefit
from t h e e q u i l i b r i u m p o i n t b e c o m e s larger. A s the f r e q u e n c y of closely matching our perception of sound levels, w h i c h
rises, t h e t i m e e l a p s e d t o c o m p l e t e the c y c l e d e c r e a s e s . i s g e n e r a l l y l o g a r i t h m i c . T h e r e are v a r i o u s d B scales that
T h e r a d i a l f o r m r e p r e s e n t s t h e signal as s p i n n i n g in a cir- a p p l y t o t r a n s m i s s i o n . B e c a u s e d e c i b e l s are b a s e d o n
cle. T h e w a v e f o r m origin p o i n t c o r r e s p o n d s t o the starting ratios t h e y are a l w a y s a relative scale. T h e q u e s t i o n is: rel-
p o i n t p h a s e v a l u e , w h i c h c o u l d b e a n y p o i n t o n the circle. ative to what? In some cases we want to compare a level
A cycle is completed w h e n we have returned to the phase relative to a fixed s t a n d a r d . B e c a u s e a u d i o is in c o n s t a n t
Perspectives: I have tried v a l u e o f t h e p o i n t o f origin. T h i s r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s h o w s t h e c h a n g e it is a l s o useful to h a v e a p u r e l y relative scale that
to bring logic, reasoning, role that p h a s e w i l l play. T h e difference in relative p o s i - c o m p a r e s t w o u n k n o w n signals. A n e x a m p l e o f the latter
and physics to my audio tions o n this radial c h a r t o f a n y t w o s o u n d s o u r c e s w i l l t y p e is t h e c o m p a r i s o n of the o u t p u t l e v e l of a d e v i c e rela-
problem applications. What I have d e t e r m i n e h o w t h e s y s t e m s w i l l react w h e n c o m b i n e d . tive to its i n p u t by m e a n s of a ratio. T h i s ratio is k n o w n as
found is that, when the cause of the g a i n o f t h e d e v i c e . T h e ratio b e t w e e n the i n p u t a n d
The sinusoidal waveform representation is the most
an event is attributed to "magic," o u t p u t c a n b e quantified e v e n t h o u g h a signal s u c h a s
familiar t o a u d i o e n g i n e e r s a n d c a n b e s e e n o n a n y oscillo-
what this really means is that we m u s i c i s c o n s t a n t l y c h a n g i n g . I f the s a m e v o l t a g e a p p e a r s
s c o p e . T h e a m p l i t u d e v a l u e i s t r a c k e d o v e r t i m e a n d traces
do not have all the data necessary at t h e i n p u t a n d o u t p u t , the ratio of i n p u t to o u t p u t is 1,
t h e w a v e f o r m i n the o r d e r i n w h i c h t h e s i g n a l p a s s e s
to understand the problem, or we also k n o w n as u n i t y g a i n , or O d B . If t h e v o l t a g e at the
t h r o u g h . T h i s i s r e p r e s e n t a t i ve o f the m o t i o n o v e r t i m e o f
do not have an understanding of o u t p u t is greater t h a n the input, t h e g a i n v a l u e is greater
t r a n s d u c e r s a n d c h a n g i n g electrical v a l u e s o f v o l t a g e o v e r
the forces involved in producing t h a n 1, a n d e x p r e s s e d in dB is p o s i t i v e . If the o u t p u t is
time. A n a l o g t o digital c o n v e r t e r s c a p t u r e this w a v e f o r m
the observed phenomena. less t h a n t h e i n p u t the g a i n is less t h a n 1 a n d in dB is a n e g -
a n d create a m a t h e m a t i c a l v a l u a t i o n of t h e a m p l i t u d e vs.
a t i v e n u m b e r , in o t h e r w o r d s , it's a loss. T h e a c t u a l v a l u e
Dave Revel time waveform.
10
 3

Figure 1,11 Microsoft Excel log formula reference

u s e d s i n c e a d o u b l i n g of v o l t a g e is a c h a n g e of 6 dB w h i l e
a d o u b l i n g of p o w e r is a c h a n g e of 3 d B . F o r t h e m o s t
p a r t w e w i l l b e u s i n g the 2 0 l o g v e r s i o n s i n c e a c o u s t i c
p r e s s u r e ( d B S P L ) a n d v o l t a g e are the p r i m a r y d r i v e r s o f
o u r d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g . F i g u r e 1.10 p r o v i d e s a reference c h a r t
t o relate t h e ratios of v a l u e s t o their d e c i b e l e q u i v a l e n t s .
Figure 1.10 The ratio of output to input can be converted to dB with this easy H e r e is a h a n d y tip for M i c r o s o f t E x c e l u s e r s . F i g u r e 1.11
reference chart. To compare a given level to a standard one, then Level, is the s h o w s the f o r m u l a f o r m a t for letting E x c e l d o t h e log c a l -
given level and Level 2 is the standard. To derive the gain of a device, then Level 1 c u l a t i o n s for us.
is the output level and Level 2 is the input level. Likewise the power gain can be
found in the same manner by substituting the power parameters
The Electronic Decibel: dBV and dBu
E l e c t r o n i c t r a n s m i s s i o n utilizes the d e c i b e l s c a l e t o c h a r a c -
at the i n p u t or o u t p u t is u n i m p o r t a n t . It is the c h a n g e in terize t h e v o l t a g e l e v e l s . T h e d e c i b e l s c a l e i s p r e f e r r e d b y
l e v e l b e t w e e n t h e m that i s reflected b y t h e d B g a i n v a l u e . o p e r a t o r s o v e r t h e l i n e a r s c a l e for its r e l a t i v e e a s e o f e x p r e s -
T h e r e are t w o t y p e s o f l o g f o r m u l a s a p p l i c a b l e i n audio: s i o n . E x p r e s s e d l i n e a r l y w e w o u l d find o u r s e l v e s refer-
ring to the signal in microvolts, millivolts and volts with
v a r i o u s sets o f n u m b e r v a l u e s a n d r a n g e s . S u c h s c a l i n g
m a k e s it difficult to t r a c k a v a r i a b l e s i g n a l s u c h as m u s i c .
If we w a n t e d to double the signal level we w o u l d h a v e
t o first k n o w t h e v o l t a g e o f the o r i g i n a l s i g n a l a n d t h e n
c o m p u t e its d o u b l i n g . W i t h d y n a m i c a l l y c h a n g i n g s i g n a l s
s u c h a s m u s i c , t h e l e v e l a t a n y m o m e n t i s i n flux, m a k i n g
Power-related equations use the 10 log version, while such calculations impractical. T h e decibel scale provides a
p r e s s u r e ( S P L ) a n d v o l t a g e r e l a t e d e q u a t i o n s u s e the relative c h a n g e v a l u e i n d e p e n d e n t o f t h e a b s o l u t e v a l u e .
20 log version. It is important that the proper formula be H e n c e t h e d e si r e t o d o u b l e the l e v e l c a n b e a c h i e v e d b y a
11
 c h a n g e o f 6 d B , r e g a r d l e s s o f the o r i g i n a l v a l u e . W e c a n also s t a n d a r d o p e r a t i n g v o l t a g e l e v e l s for all s t a g e s o f the s y s -
relate t h e d e c i b e l t o a fixed s t a n d a r d w h i c h we d e s i g n a t e t e m s i g n a l flow. T h e g o a l i s t o t r a n s m i t t h e s i g n a l t h r o u g h
as "O d B . " L e v e l s are i n d i c a t e d by t h e i r relative v a l u e t h e s y s t e m i n t h e l i n e a r o p e r a t i n g v o l t a g e r a n g e o f all
a b o v e ( + d B ) o r b e l o w ( - d B ) this s t a n d a r d . T h i s w o u l d o f t h e d e v i c e s , w i t h o u t falling i n t o t h e n o i s e floor a t t h e
b e s i m p l e s t , o f c o u r s e , i f there w e r e a s i n g l e s t a n d a r d , b u t bottom.
tradition i n o u r i n d u s t r y i s t o p i c k s e v e r a l . d B V a n d d B u
are t h e m o s t c o m m o n currently. T h e s e are r e f e r e n c e d t o
different v a l u e s o f 1.0 v o l t a n d 0.775 v o l t ( l m W a c r o s s
a 6 0 0 ohms l o a d ) respectively. T h e difference b e t w e e n t h e s e
i s a fixed a m o u n t o f 2.21 d B . N o t e : F o r e a s e o f u s e w e w i l l
u s e d B V a s t h e s t a n d a r d i n this text. T h o s e w h o prefer
the d B u standard should apply + 2 . 2 1 dB to the given d B V
values.

T h e v o l t a g e - r e l a t e d d B s c a l e s s e r v e the i m p o r t a n t pur-
pose of guidance toward the optimal operating range
o f the e l e c t r o n i c d e v i c e s . T h e u p p e r a n d l o w e r l i m i t s o f
an electronic device are absolute, not relative values. T h e
n o i s e floor h a s a s t e a d y a v e r a g e level a n d t h e clip p o i n t
is a fixed v a l u e . T h e s e are e x p r e s s e d in d B V . T h e a b s o l u t e
level o f o u r s i g n a l w i l l n e e d t o p a s s b e t w e e n t h e s e t w o
limits i n o r d e r t o p r e v e n t e x c e s s n o i s e o r distortion. T h e
area e n c l o s e d b y t h e s e l i m i t s i s t h e l i n e a r o p e r a t i n g a r e a
o f the e l e c t r o n i c d e v i c e . O u r d e s i g n s w i l l n e e d t o e n s u r e
that the o p e r a t i n g l e v e l s o f e l e c t r o n i c d e v i c e s are a p p r o -
p r i a t e l y s c a l e d for t h e s i g n a l l e v e l s p a s s i n g t h r o u g h .
O n c e w e h a v e c a p t u r e d t h e a u d i o w a v e f o r m i n its
electronic form, it will be passed through the system as
a v o l t a g e l e v e l w i t h n e g l i g i b l e c u r r e n t a n d therefore m i n i -
m a l p o w e r d i ssi p a t i o n . L o w i m p e d a n c e o u t p u t s e c t i o n s ,
coupled with high impedance inputs, give us the luxury
o f n o t c o n s i d e r i n g the p o w e r l e v e l s until w e h a v e r e a c h e d
the a m pl i fi er o u t p u t t e r m i n a l s . P o w e r a m p l i f i e r s c a n
Figure 1.12 A reference chart for the typical operational voltage and wattage levels a
then be seen as voltage-driven input devices with power
s t a g e o u t p u t s t o d r i v e the s p e a k e r s . T h e a m p l i f i e r g i v e s a
huge current boost and additional voltage capability as T h e r e i s still a n o t h e r set o f letter a p p e n d i c e s that c a n
w e l l . F i g u r e 1.12 p r o v i d e s a reference c h a r t s h o w i n g the be added on to the dB voltage formulas. These designate
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 w h e t h e r t h e v o l t a g e m e a s u r e d is a s h o r t - t e r m p e a k or t h e A l l o f t h e s e factors t r a n s l a t e o v e r t o t h e v o l t a g e - r e l a t e d
a v e r a g e v a l u e . A C s i g n a l s are m o r e c o m p l e x t o c h a r a c t e r i z e d B f o r m u l a s a n d are f o u n d a s d B V , d B V p k and dBVrms
p - p

than DC signals. DC signals are a given n u m b e r of volts respectively. T h e 7 0 . 7 p e r c e n t difference b e t w e e n p e a k

a b o v e o r b e l o w the r e f e r e n c e c o m m o n . A C s i g n a l s , b y and R M S is equivalent to 3 dB.
n a t u r e , g o b o t h u p and d o w n . I f a n a v e r a g e w e r e t a k e n
o v e r t i m e w e w o u l d c o n c l u d e that the p o s i t i v e a n d n e g a - Crest Factor
tive t r a v e l s o f the A C s i g n a l a v e r a g e o u t t o 0 v o l t s . P l a c i n g T h e 3 d B difference b e t w e e n the p e a k a n d R M S v a l u e s o n l y
o u r fingers a c r o s s t h e A C m a i n s w i l l q u i c k l y a l e r t u s t o t h e h o l d s as l o n g as the i n p u t s i g n a l is a c o n t i n u o u s s i n g l e fre-
fact that a v e r a g i n g out to 0 v o l t s o v e r t i m e d o e s n o t m e a n q u e n c y , i.e. a s i m p l e s i n e w a v e . If t h e s i g n a l h a s m u l t i p l e
t h e r e i s z e r o e n e r g y there. K i d s , d o n ' t try this a t h o m e . frequencies, the p e a k to R M S ratio is no longer constant.
T h e A C w a v e f o r m rises t o a m a x i m u m , r e t u r n s t o z e r o , It is highly volatile, or dynamic. T h e presence of multiple
falls t o a m i n i m u m a n d t h e n r e t u r n s a g a i n . T h e v o l t a g e f r e q u e n c i e s c re a t e s m o m e n t a r y c o n f l u e n c e s o f s i g n a l s that
b e t w e e n the peak and the zero point, either positive or c a n s u m t o g e t h e r for a fleeting m o m e n t i n t o a p e a k that
n e g a t i v e , i s the p e a k v o l t a g e ( V ) . T h e v o l t a g e b e t w e e n
p k
is higher than any of the individual parts. This is k n o w n
t h e p o s i t i v e a n d n e g a t i v e p e a k s i s t h e p e a k - t o - p e a k volt- as a transient peak. M o s t audio signals are transient by
a g e (Vp-p) T h e e q u i v a l e n t A C v o l t a g e to that f o u n d in a D C n a t u r e s i n c e w e c a n ' t d a n c e t o s i n e w a v e s . A s t r o n g tran-
circuit i s e x p r e s s e d a s t h e r o o t - m e a n - s q u a r e ( R M S ) v o l t a g e sient, l i k e a p u l s e , is o n e that h a s a v e r y h i g h p e a k v a l u e
(VRMS). T h e p e a k - t o - p e a k v a l u e is n a t u r a l l y d o u b l e that of a n d a m i n i m a l R M S v a l u e . T r a n s i e n t p e a k s are the o p p o -
the peak value. The R M S value is 70.7 per cent of the peak site e x t r e m e o f p e a k - t o - R M S ratio from t h e si n e w a v e . T h e
value. t e r m t o d e s c r i b e the v a r i a b l e p e a k - t o - R M S ratio f o u n d i n

Figure 1.13 Crest factor, RMS, peak and peak-to-peak

values. (A) A sine wave has the lowest crest factor of
3 dB. (B) An example complex waveform with transients
with a 12 dB crest factor
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 Perspectives: System different p r o g r a m m a t e r i a l s i s t h e crest factor. T h e l o w e s t w h a t w e h a v e r e a d o v e r t h e y e a r s o n S P L m e t e r s . T h e actual
optimization starts with p o s s i b l e crest factor is 3 dB (sine w a v e ) . T h e r e is no limit to verification of 0 dB S P L is left to the B u r e a u of S t a n d a r d s
good system design. t h e m a x i m u m . T h e t y p i c a l crest factor for m u s i c a l s i g n a l s and the people at the laboratories. F e w of us have m e t a
From there it is a process that is 12 dB. Since our system will be transmitting transients d y n e , a m i c r o b a r , or a m i c r o p a s c a l at the v e n u e or e v e r
should be guided by structured a n d c o n t i n u o u s si g n a l s, w e m u s t e n s u r e t h a t the s y s t e m will. E v e n f e w e r are in a p o s i t i o n to a r g u e w i t h s o m e o n e ' s
thinking and critical listening. h a s sufficient d y n a m i c r a n g e t o a l l o w t h e t r a n s i e n t p e a k s S P L m e t e r as to w h e t h e r it is c a l i b r a t e d c o r r e c t l y u n l e s s
Sam Berkow, founder, SIA t o stay w i t h i n the linear o p e r a t i n g r a n g e . T h e p r e s e n c e o f we have an S P L meter and a calibrator of our o w n to
Acoustics llc & SIA Software a d d i t i o n a l d y n a m i c r a n g e a b o v e the ability to p a s s a s i m - m a k e the c a s e . T h e n w e c a n a r g u e o v e r w h o s e c a l i b r a -
Company, Inc. ple sine w a v e is k n o w n as h e a d r o o m , with 12 dB being a tor i s a c c u r a t e a n d e v e n t u a l l y s o m e o n e m u s t y i e l d o r w e
c o m m o n target r a n g e . w i l l h a v e to t a k e a trip to the B u r e a u of S t a n d a r d s . T h i s
i s o n e p l a c e w h e r e , i n o u r p r a c t i c a l w o r l d , w e will h a v e
to t a k e a l e a p of faith a n d trust t h e m a n u f a c t u r e r s of o u r
The Acoustic Decibel: dB SPL measurement microphones. For our part we will be mind-
T h e f a v o r e d e x p r e s s i o n for a c o u s t i c t r a n s m i s s i o n i s d B S P L ful o f e v e n s m a l l d i s c r e p a n c i e s b e t w e e n different m e a s u r e -
( s o u n d p r e s s u r e l e v e l ) . T h i s i s t h e q u a n t i t y o f m e a s u r e for m e n t i n s t r u m e n t s , m i c r o p h o n e s , etc., b u t w e w i l l n o t b e i n
the p r e s s u r e c h a n g e s a b o v e a n d b e l o w t h e a m b i e n t air a good position to question the absolute dB S P L values to
p r e s s u r e . T h e s t a n d a r d i s the t h r e s h o l d o f t h e a v e r a g e per- the s a m e extent.
s o n ' s h e a r i n g (O dB S P L ) . T h e l i n e a r unit of e x p r e s s i o n is T h e 1 3 0 d B difference b e t w e e n t h e t h r e s h o l d o f audibil-
o n e o f p r e s s u r e , d y n e s / s q u a r e centimeter, w i t h O d B S P L ity a n d the o n s e t o f p a i n c a n b e s e e n a s t h e d y n a m i c r a n g e
being a value of 0.0002 d y n e s / c m (1 microbar). This lower
2

o f o u r a u r a l s y s t e m . O u r full r a n g e will rarely b e utilized,

limit a p p r o a c h e s t h e n o i s e level o f the air m e d i u m , i.e. t h e s i n c e there are no d e s i r a b l e l i s t e n i n g s p a c e s w i t h s u c h a
level w h e r e t h e m o l e c u l a r m o t i o n creates its o w n r a n d o m l o w n o i s e floor. I n a d d i t i o n , the e a r s y s t e m i s g e n e r a t i n g
noise. It is comforting to k n o w we aren't missing out on substantial harmonic distortion before the pain threshold
anything. At the other end of the scale is the threshold of w h i c h d e g r a d e s t h e s o n i c e x p e r i e n c e (for s o m e ) b e f o r e
p a i n i n o u r h e a r i n g s y s t e m . T h e v a l u e s for this are s o m e - actual pain is sensed. In practical terms we will need to
w h a t i n c o n s i s t e n t b u t r a n g e f r o m 120 t o 1 3 0 d B S P L , w i t h find a l i n e a r o p e r a t i n g r a n g e , as we d i d for t h e e l e c t r o n i c
m o r e m o d e r n texts citing the h i g h e r n u m b e r s . I n a n y c a s e t r a n s m i s s i o n . T h i s r a n g e r u n s from the a m b i e n t n o i s e floor
this n u m b e r r e p r e s e n t s t h e p a i n t h r e s h o l d , a n d w i t h that t o t h e p o i n t w h e r e o u r h e a r i n g b e c o m e s s o d i s t o r t e d that
comes the obvious hazards of potential hearing damage. the e x p e r i e n c e i s u n p l e a s a n t . O u r s o u n d s y s t e m w i l l n e e d
to h a v e a n o i s e floor b e l o w the r o o m a n d sufficient c o n -
tinuous p o w e r and h e a d r o o m to reach the required maxi-
m u m level.
where P is the R M S pressure in microbars ( d y n e s / s q u a r e
centimeter). dB SPL Subunits
E x c u s e m e : did y o u s a y m i c r o b a r s a n d d y n e s p e r s q u a r e d B S P L h a s a v e r a g e a n d p e a k level i n a m a n n e r s i m i l a r t o
centimeter? t h e v o l t a g e units. T h e S P L v a l u e s differ, h o w e v e r , i n that
there m a y b e a t i m e c o n s t a n t i n v o l v e d i n the calculation.
T h e s e air p r e s s u r e m e a s u r e m e n t t e r m s are u n f a m i l i a r t o
most audio engineers, along with the alternate and equally dB S P L p e a k : T h e h i g h e s t l e v e l r e a c h e d o v e r a m e a -
obscure term of 20 micropascals. For most audio engineers sured period is the peak (dB S P L ) . p k

the c o m p r e h e n s i o n o f d B S P L i s relative t o their o w n per- dB S P L c o n t i n u o u s (fast): T h i s is t h e a v e r a g e S P L o v e r a

spective: an experiential correlation to what we hear with time integration of 250 ms. The integration time is used
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