DigitalPower

SystemProtection

S.R. Bhide
Associate Professor of Electrical Engineering
Visvesvaraya National Institute of Technology
Nagpur

Delhi 110092
2014
Digital power system protection
S.R. Bhide

2014 by PHI Learning Private Limited, Delhi. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be
reproduced in any form, by mimeograph or any other means, without permission in writing from the
publisher.

ISBN-978-81-203-4979-7

The export rights of this book are vested solely with the publisher.

Published by Asoke K. Ghosh, PHI Learning Private Limited, Rimjhim House, 111, Patparganj
Industrial Estate, Delhi-110092 and Printed by Star Print-O-Bind, F-31, Okhla Industrial Area
Phase I, New Delhi-110020.
 To
the memomy of My Parents
Pushpa and Ramkrishna Bhide
 Contents

Prefacexi

1. Evolution of Power System Protection and the Emergence

of Digital Relaying 15
1.1 Evolution of OC Relay from an Ammeter 1
1.2 Evolution of a Directional Relay from a Wattmeter 2
1.3 The Birth of Transistor 2
1.4 Start of a Revolution 3
1.5 Architecture of the Modern Digital Relay 4

2. Digital Signal Processing Basics and Architecture

of Numerical Relay 628
2.1 Introduction to Digital Signal Processing 6
2.2 The DSP Signal Processing Chain 7
2.3 Analog to Digital Converters 7
2.3.1 Quantization Error 8
2.3.2 ADC Types 12
2.4 Sampling 14
2.4.1 Need for Sample and Hold Circuit 14
2.4.2 Shannons Sampling Theorem and Aliasing 18
2.5 Anti-aliasing Filter 21
2.5.1 Design of Anti-aliasing Filter 22
2.5.2 Numerical Example 23
2.6 Functional Block Diagram of Numerical Relay 24
Review Questions27
v
viContents

3. Algorithms Based on Undistorted Single Frequency Sine Wave 2959

3.1 Mann and Morrison Algorithm 29
3.1.1 Historical Perspective 29
3.1.2 Derivation of the Sample and Derivative (Mann & Morrison)
Algorithm30
3.1.3 Instantaneous OC Relay Based on Mann and Morrison Algorithm 32
3.1.4 Simulation of the Mann and Morrison Algorithm in Spreadsheet 33
3.1.5 Simulation of Mann and Morrison Algorithm in MATLAB 35
3.2 Three-Sample Technique 38
3.2.1 Determination of Frequency of the Signal 38
3.2.2 Determination of Amplitude of the Signal 39
3.2.3 Determination of Phase of the Signal 41
3.2.4 Summary of Three Sample Algorithm 41
3.2.5 Excel Spreadsheet for Simulation of Three-Sample Algorithm 42
3.2.6 MATLAB Program for Simulating Three-Sample Algorithm 43
3.3 First and Second Derivative Algorithm 44
3.3.1 Excel Spreadsheet for Simulation of First and
Second Derivative Algorithm 47
3.3.2 MATLAB Simulation of First and Second Derivative Algorithm 48
3.4 Two-Sample Technique 51
3.4.1 Spreadsheet for Two-Sample Technique 53
3.4.2 MATLAB Simulation of Two-Sample Technique 54
Review Questions57

4. Algorithms Based on Solution of Differential Equation 6086

4.1 Differential Equation Algorithm 60
4.2 Justification for Lumped Series R-L Model 62
4.3 Excel Spreadsheet Implementation of the Differential Equation
Algorithm65
4.4 MATLAB Implementation of Differential Equation Algorithm 66
4.5 Solution of Differential Equation Algorithm Using Numerical
Integration68
4.6 MATLAB Implementation of Solution of Differential Equation
Algorithm Using Numerical Integration 71
4.6.1 Trapezoidal Rule for Numerical Integration 71
4.6.2 Simpsons Rule for Numerical Integration 72
4.6.3 MATLAB Script of Implementation of Solution of Differential
Equation Algorithm Using Numerical Integration 73
4.7 Application of Differential Equation Algorithm to
Three-Phase Line 76
4.7.1 Ground Fault Protection of Three-Phase Line
Using Phase Quantities 77
4.7.2 Ground Fault Protection of Three-Phase Line Using
Sequence Quantities 79
4.7.3 Phase Fault Protection of Three-Phase Line Using Phase
Quantities81
 Contentsvii

4.7.4 Phase Fault Protection of Three-Phase Lines Using

Sequence Quantities 83
4.8 Elimination of Specific Harmonics by Integration between
Selected Limits 84
Review Questions86

5. Algorithms Based on Least Squared Error (LSQ) 8798

5.1 LSQ Technique 87
5.2 Average is Best Value in LSQ Sense 88
5.3 LSQ and Pseudo-Inverse 89
5.4 Relation between LSQ and Pseudo-Inverse 90
5.5 LSQ Algorithm by Sachdev 92
5.6 MATLAB Implementation of LSQ Algorithm 96
Review Questions98

6. Discrete Fourier Transform 99132

6.1 Introduction to Concept of Spectrum 99
6.1.1 Generalised Fourier Series 101
6.1.2 Dirichlet Conditions 102
6.1.3 Fourier Series in Trigonometric Form 102
6.1.4 Fourier Series in Exponential Form 104
6.2 Fourier Coefficients are Best in LSQ Sense 105
6.3 Summary of Fourier Series 107
6.4 Applications of Fourier Analysis 108
6.5 Fourier Series for a Recurring Pulse 108
6.6 Recurring Pulse to Non-recurring Pulse 111
6.7 Discrete Fourier Transform Development 112
6.8 Implicit Assumption behind Windowed Fourier Transform 114
6.9 Meaning of N Samples Collected in a Window 115
6.10 Redundancy of DFT 116
6.11 DFT as a Mapping 118
6.12 Numerical Calculation of DFT Coefficients 118
6.13 Sliding DFT Algorithm 125
6.13.1 Modified DFT 128
6.13.2 MATLAB Program for Sliding Modified Recursive
DFT Algorithm 129
Review Questions131

7. FFT and Goertzel Algorithm 133160

7.1 What is the Motivation for FFT? 133
7.2 FFT by Decimation-in-Time (DIT) 136
7.2.1 Numerical Problem on FFT (DIT) 145
7.3 Fast Fourier Transform by Decimation-in-Frequency 145
7.3.1 Numerical Problem on FFT (DIF) 150
7.4 MATLAB Implementation of FFT: Decimation-in-Time 150
viiiContents

7.5 MATLAB Implementation of FFT: Decimation-in-Frequency 153

7.6 Motivation for Goertzel Algorithm 155
7.7 The Goertzel Algorithm 155
7.8 Implementation of Goertzel Algorithm in MATALB 158
Review Questions159

8. Windowing and Spectral Leakage 161171

8.1 The Fourier Machine 161
8.2 Windowing without Spectral Leakage 162
8.3 Windowing Leading to Spectral Leakage 165
8.3.1 Spectral Leakage from Time Domain Viewpoint 165
8.3.2 Spectral Leakage from Frequency Domain Viewpoint 166
8.4 Windowed and Sampled Signal 168
Review Questions171

9. Introduction to Digital Filtering 172195

9.1 Introduction to Filters 172
9.2 What is a Digital Filter? 173
9.3 Why Digital Filtering? 173
9.4 FIR and IIR Filters 175
9.5 Running Average as FIR Filter: 5-Point Running Average Filter 177
9.5.1 Impulse Response of 5-Point Running Average Filter 178
9.5.2 Frequency Response of a 2-Point Running Average FIR Filter 179
9.5.3 Frequency Response of 2-Point Running Average Filter
Using Z-transform182
9.6 Frequency Response of a 3-Point Running Average Filter 183
9.6.1 Frequency Response of 3-Point Running Average Filter
Using Z-transform185
9.7 Frequency Response of 4-Point Running Average Filter
Using Z-transform187
9.8 MATLAB Program for Plotting Frequency Response of N-Point
Running Average Filter 189
9.9 Introduction to Infinite Impulse Response (IIR) Filters 191
Review Questions193

10. Digital Filter Design 196215

10.1 Filter Specifications 196
10.2 Relation between Linear Phase and Symmetry of Filter
Coefficients for FIR Filter 196
10.3 Design of FIR Filter Using Frequency Sampling
Method199
10.3.1 Numerical Problem on Design of FIR Filter Using Frequency
Sampling Method 200
10.4 Bilinear Transformation 204
10.4.1 Design of IIR Filter Using Bilinear Transformation 204
 Contentsix

10.4.2 Warping of Frequency 204

10.4.3 Pre-Warping of Frequency During Design 206
10.4.4 Step by Step Design of Iir Filter Using Bilinear Transformation 206
10.4.5 Review of Formulas Derived 207
10.4.6 Numerical Problem on Design of IIR Filter 207
10.5 Design of a Digital Resonator Using Pole Zero Placement 209
10.5.1 Understanding the z Plane 209
10.5.2 Placement of Pole 211
10.5.3 Placement of Zeros 212
10.5.4 Expression for H(z), the Frequency Domain Transfer Function 213
10.5.5 Numerical Problem on Design of Digital Resonator 213
Review Questions215

11. Synchrophasors 216236

11.1 Introduction 216
11.2 The Phasor 217
11.3 The Synchrophasor as per IEEE Std C37.118.1-2011 218
11.3.1 The Synchrophasor in Steady State Conditions 218
11.3.2 The Synchrophasor in Transient Conditions 220
11.3.3 Synchrophasor under Dynamic Conditions 221
11.3.4 Total Vector Error (TVE) 221
11.3.5 Frequency and Rate of Change of Frequency (ROCOF) 222
11.4 Time Tagging (Stamping) of the Synchrophasor 223
11.5 Dissemination of the Time Stamp: IRIG-B Standard 224
11.6 Synchrophasor Reporting Rates 225
11.7 Block Diagram of the Synchrophasor Enabled Digital Relay
or Phasor Measurement Unit (Pmu)225
11.7.1 Two Alternatives for Sampling 225
11.8 Off-nominal Frequency Operation of the PMU 227
11.8.1 A Demonstration of Error Caused by Off-nominal
Frequency Operation 227
11.8.2 Analytical Expression for Effect of Off-nominal
Frequency Operation 228
11.8.3 A MATLAB Script to Demonstrate Off-nominal
Frequency DFT 232
11.9 Synchrophasor Applications 234
Review Questions236

12. Removal of DC Offset 237245

12.1 Why Decaying DC Offsets are Created? 237
12.2 What is the Effect of Decaying DC Offsets up on
Relays?239
12.2.1 Mimic Impedance Method of Removal of DC Offset 239
12.2.2 Immunity of LSQ Method to Decaying Dc Offset 240
12.2.3 Immunity of Differential Equation Algorithm to Dc Offsets 240
12.3 Digital Mimic Impedance Based Filter 240
 Digital Power System Protection

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Publisher : PHI Learning ISBN : 978812034 9797 Author : BHIDE, S. R.

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