7 Telephone Networks

The public switched telephone network (PSTN) is the aggregate of the world's circuit-switched telephone networks that are
operated by national, regional, or localtelephony operators, providing infrastructure and services for
public telecommunication. The PSTN consists of telephone lines, fiber optic cables, microwave transmission links, cellular
networks, communications satellites, and undersea telephone cables, all interconnected by switching centers, thus allowing
most telephones to communicate with each other. Originally a network of fixed-line analog telephone systems, the PSTN is
now almost entirely digital in its core network and includesmobile and other networks, as well as fixed telephones.[1]
The technical operation of the PSTN adheres to the standards created by the ITU-T. These standards allow different networks
in different countries to interconnectseamlessly. The E.163 and E.164 standards provide a single global address space for
telephone numbers. The combination of the interconnected networks and the single numbering plan allow telephones around
the world to dial each other

A Telecommunication network consists of the following major systems:

Subscriber end systems

Switching systems

Subscriber loop systems

Transmission systems

Signalling systems
8 Subscriber Loop Systems
Every subscriber in a telephone network is connected to the nearest switching office by means of dedicated pair of
wires known as Subscriber loop.
Generally four levels of cabling are used:

Branch feeder

Distribution point

Distribution cable

Drop wires

9 Switching Hierarchy and Routing

Three basic topologies are adopted for interconnecting exchanges:

Mesh
Star
Class 1 (regional center)
The class 2 office was the Sectional Center (SC). The sectional center typically connected major toll centers within one
or two states or provinces,
The class 3 office was the Primary Center (PC). Calls being made beyond the limits of a small geographical area where
circuits are not connected directly between class 4 toll offices would be passed from the toll center to the primary
center.
The class 4 office is the Toll Center (TC), Toll Point (TP), or Intermediate Point (IP).
Class 5 (local exchange)

Routing Methods:

Right-through routing
Own-exchange routing
Computer- controlled routing

Routing is the process of selecting a path for traffic in a network, or between or across multiple
networks. Routing is performed for many types of networks, includingcircuit-switched networks, such as
the public switched telephone network (PSTN), computer networks, such as the Internet, as well as
in networks used in public and private transportation, such as the system of streets, roads, and
highways in national infrastructure.
In packet switching networks, routing is the higher-level decision making that directs network
packets from their source toward their destination through intermediatenetwork nodes by specific packet
forwarding mechanisms. Packet forwarding is the transit of logically addressed network packets from
one network interface to another. Intermediate nodes are typically network hardware devices such
as routers, bridges, gateways, firewalls, or switches. General-purpose computers also forward
packets and perform routing, although they have no specially optimized hardware for the task. The routing
process usually directs forwarding on the basis of routing tables, which maintain a record of the routes
to various network destinations. Thus, constructing routing tables, which are held in the router's memory,
is very important for efficient routing. Most routing algorithms use only one network path at a
time. Multipath routing techniques enable the use of multiple alternative paths.
In static routing (or non-dynamic routing), small networks may use manually configured routing tables.
Larger networks have complextopologies that can change rapidly, making the manual construction of routing
tables unfeasible. Nevertheless, most of the public switched telephone network (PSTN) uses pre-computed
routing tables, with fallback routes if the most direct route becomes blocked (see routing in the PSTN).
Dynamic routing attempts to solve this problem by constructing routing tables automatically, based on
information carried by routing protocols, allowing the network to act nearly autonomously in avoiding
network failures and blockages. Dynamic routing dominates the Internet. Examples of dynamic-routing
protocols and algorithms include Routing Information Protocol (RIP), Open Shortest Path First (OSPF)
and Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol (EIGRP).

Distance vector algorithms

10 Transmission Systems

Radio systems

Coaxial cable systems

Optical fiber systems

Two-Wire versus Four-Wire All subscriber loops in the telephone network are
implemented with a signal pair of wires Both directions of transmission Conversations
are superimposed on the wire pair Two directions of longer distances are separated
Two-Wire-to-Four-Wire Conversion Basic conversion function is provided by hybrid
circuits Impedance matching is important Impedance mismatch causes echo

Link characteristics
information carrying capacity (bandwidth) information sent as symbols 1 symbol >= 1
bit
propagation delay time for electromagnetic signal to reach other end light travels at
0.7c in fiber ~8 microseconds/mile NY to SF => 20 ms; NY to London => 27 ms
attenuation degradation in signal quality with distance long lines need regenerators
optical amplifiers are here

Transmission Impairments

Signal Attenuation
Interference
Coupling between wires
Near-end crosstalk (NEXT) (From TX to RX at a common location)
Far-end crosstalk (FEXT) (From TX to RX at a distant location)
 Noise
Thermal noise - White noise with a Gaussian (Normal)
distribution of amplitudes
Noise measurement is important

11 Numbering Plan

The numbering plan is used to uniquely identify every suscriber connected to a telecommunication
network.

Subscriber Trunk Dialling (STD)

International Subscriber Dialling (ISD)

A numbering plan may be open, semi-open or closed.

The E.164 recommendation, also called the "international public telecommunications numbering
plan," was first approved and published by the ITU-T in May 1997. The E.164 recommendation
establishes a standard framework for every country to create its own international phone numbers.
An international E.164 number is designed to include all of the necessary information to
successfully route a call to an individual subscriber on a nation's public telephonenetwork. Here's
how the E.164 numbering plan works:
A telephone number can have a maximum of 15 digits
The first part of the telephone number is the country code (one to three digits)
The second part is the national destination code (NDC)
The last part is the subscriber number (SN)
The NDC and SN together are collectively called the national (significant) number
Each area code can support:1000 exchanges
Each exchange can support:10,000 telephone numbers
Each area code can support:
103 X 104 = 107 = 10 million phone numbers

12 Charging Plan

A charging plan for a telecommunication service has three different charges on a subscriber:
An initial charge for providing a network connection.
A rental or leasing charge.
Charges for individual calls made.
Charging for individual calls fall under two broad categories:
Duration independent charging
Duration dependent charging

13 Signalling Techniques
Signalling Classification

A) Work area : Subscriber signaling: Between sub. & switch

Inter-office: Control the setup and release of call
B) Signaling function
Monitoring signals: Monitor the changes of call states or conditions in the lines
Selection signals Routing information
Operation signals: Management and maintenance of telecom networks

C) Transmission path : CAS , CCS

The signalling techniques link the variety of switching systems, transmission systems and subscriber
equipments in a telecommunication network to enable the network to function as a whole.
There are three forms of signalling involved in a telecommunication network:

A) Subscriber loop signalling

B) Intraexchange or register signalling
C) Interexchange signalling

Channel Associated Signaling (CAS)Inchannel signalling

Channel Associated Signaling (CAS), also known as per-trunk signaling (PTS), is a form of digital
communication signaling. As with most telecommunication signaling methods, it uses routing information
to direct the payload of voice or data to its destination. With CAS signaling, this routing information is
encoded and transmitted in the same channel as the payload itself

is also known as per trunk signalling and it uses the same channel which carries user voice or data to pass
control signals related to that call or connection.No additional facilities are required.
Common Channel signaling (CCS)
In telephony, Common Channel Signaling (CCS), in the US also Common Channel Interoffice Signaling (CCIS),
is the transmission of signaling information (control information) on a separate channel from the data, and,
more specifically, where that signaling channel controls multiple data channels.

does not use the speech or data path for signalling. It uses a seperate common channel for passing
control signals for a group of trunks or information paths.