LITERACY IN

PORTUGAL
COUNTRY REPORT
CHILDREN AND ADOLESCENTS

March 2016

This project has been funded with support from the European Commission.
This publication reflects the views of its authors only, and the Commission cannot be held
responsible for any use which may be made of the information contained herein.
 This document has been published by the European Literacy Policy Network (ELINET).

The report was completed in 2016.

The contents of this publication may be reproduced in part, except for commercial purposes, provided
the extract is preceded by a reference to Elinet, followed by the date of publication of the document.

Main authors (in alphabetical order):

Ana Arqueiro, Juliana Cunha, Christine Garbe, Dominique Lafontaine, Maria de Lourdes Dionsio, Gerry
Shiel, Renate Valtin

Contributing authors (in alphabetical order):

Ana Arqueiro, Valeria Balbinot, Ariane Baye, Juliana Cunha, Maria Lourdes Trindade Dionsio, Claudia
Fischer, Stphanie Gron, Eithne Kennedy, Maija Koikkalainen, Maria Kovacs, Gudmundur
Kristmundsson, Dominique Lafontaine, Gina Lemos, Heikki Lyytinen, George Manolitsis, Carmen
Gonzlez Mart, Fabio Nascimbeni, Franziska Pitschke, Helin Puksand, Sari Sulkunen, Eufimia Tafa,
Giorgio Tamburlini, Anne Uusen, Ariana-Stanca Vcreu, Corina Volcinschi, Christina Wagner, Esther
Wiesner

Coordinator of the ELINET-Project:

University of Cologne

Prof. Dr. Christine Garbe

Institut fr Deutsche Sprache und Literatur

Richard-Strauss-Str. 2
50931 Kln Cologne
Germany

[email protected]

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
1 Introduction.......................................................................................................................................................................... 5

2 Executive Summary .......................................................................................................................................................... 6

3 General Information on the Education System in Portugal ..................................................................... 18

4 Literacy Performance Data for Children and Adolescents ........................................................................ 20

4.1 Performance Data for Primary Children......................................................................................................... 20

4.1.1 Performance and variation in reading: proportion of low and

high performing readers............................................................................................................................ 20

4.1.2 4.1.2. Gaps in reading ................................................................................................................................. 21

4.2 Performance Data for Adolescents.................................................................................................................. 24

4.2.1 Performance and variation in reading: proportion of low and

high performing readers............................................................................................................................ 24

4.2.2 Gaps in reading performance according to students background characteristics ........... 26

5 Policy areas ........................................................................................................................................................................ 30

5.1 Creating a literate environment for children and adolescents ............................................................. 30

5.1.1 Providing a literate environment at home ......................................................................................... 31

5.1.2 Providing a literate environment in school ........................................................................................ 33

5.1.3 Providing a digital environment ............................................................................................................. 34

5.1.4 The role of public libraries in reading promotion ........................................................................... 35

5.1.5 1.3.5. Improving literate environments for children and adolescents:

Programmes, initiatives and examples ................................................................................................ 37

5.2 Improving the quality of teaching ................................................................................................................... 39

5.2.1 Quality of preschool .................................................................................................................................... 39

5.2.2 Literacy curricula in schools ..................................................................................................................... 43

5.2.3 Reading Instruction ..................................................................................................................................... 46

5.2.4 Initial Teacher Education (ITE) and Continuous Professional Development

(CPD) of Teachers ......................................................................................................................................... 54

5.2.5 Digital literacy as part of initial teacher education and Continuing

Professional Development ........................................................................................................................ 59

5.2.6 Improving the quality of literacy teaching for children and adolescents:
Programmes, initiatives and examples ................................................................................................ 59

5.3 Increasing participation, inclusion and equity ............................................................................................ 61

5.3.1 Compensating socio-economic and cultural background factors............................................ 62

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 5.3.2 Support for children with special needs.............................................................................................. 64

5.3.3 Promoting preschool attendance, especially among disadvantaged children .................... 66

5.3.4 Provisions for preschool children with language problems ........................................................ 66

5.3.5 Support for children and adolescents whose home language is

not the language of school ...................................................................................................................... 67

5.3.6 Preventing early school leaving .............................................................................................................. 68

5.3.7 Addressing the gender gap among adolescents............................................................................. 68

5.3.8 Increasing participation, inclusion and equity for children and adolescents:
Programmes, initiatives and examples ................................................................................................ 69

6 References .......................................................................................................................................................................... 73

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1 Introduction
This report on the state of literacy in Portugal is one of a series produced in 2015 and 2016 by ELINET,
the European Literacy Policy Network. ELINET was founded in February 2014 and has 78 partner
organisations in 28 European countries1. ELINET aims to improve literacy policies in its member
countries in order to reduce the number of children, young people and adults with low literacy skills.
One major tool to achieve this aim is to produce a set of reliable, up-to-date and comprehensive
reports on the state of literacy in each country where ELINET has one or more partners, and to provide
guidance towards improving literacy policies in those countries. The reports are based (wherever
possible) on available, internationally comparable performance data, as well as reliable national data
provided (and translated) by our partners.

ELINET continues the work of the European Union High Level Group of Experts on Literacy (HLG) which
was established by the European Commission in January 2011 and reported in September 20122. All
country reports produced by ELINET use a common theoretical framework which is described here:
ELINET Country Reports Frame of Reference3.

The Country Reports about Children and Adolescents are organised around the three
recommendations of the HLGs literacy report:

Creating a literate environment

Improving the quality of teaching
Increasing participation, inclusion (and equity4).

Within its two-year funding period ELINET has completed Literacy Country Reports for all 30 ELINET
member countries. In most cases we published separate Long Reports for specific age groups
(Children / Adolescents and Adults), in some cases comprehensive reports covering all age groups.
Additionally, for all 30 countries, we published Short Reports covering all age groups, containing the
summary of performance data and policy messages of the Long Reports. These reports are
accompanied by a collection of good practice examples which cover all age groups and policy areas as
well. These examples refer to the European Framework of Good Practice in Raising Literacy Levels;
5
both are to be found in the section Good Practice .

1
For more information about the network and its activities see: www.eli-net.eu.
2
In the following, the final report of the EU High Level Group of Experts on Literacy is referenced as HLG report.
This report can be downloaded under the following link: http://ec.europa.eu/education/policy/school/doc/
literacy-report_en.pdf.
3
See: http://www.eli-net.eu/research/country-reports/.
4
"Equity" was added by ELINET.
5
See: http://www.eli-net.eu/good-practice/.

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2 Executive Summary
LITERACY PERFORMANCE DATA
Portugal participated in IEAs PIRLS (4th graders reading comprehension) in 2011, and in the OECDs
PISA studies (15 year-olds reading literacy) since 2000. This means it is possible to describe the
change over time in average reading proficiency, according to different characteristics of the readers,
only for the 15 years-old students. Portugal was involved only in the third cycle of the PIRLS Study; so
trends cannot be examined among 4th graders, and the comparison between relative reading levels of
proficiencies for different age groups will be limited.

Portugal performed above the EU average in PIRLS 2011 (541 vs 535 EU-average). Its performance in
PISA 2012 was very close to the EU average (488 vs 489). A substantial increase was observed between
PISA 2000 and 2012 (+18 score points), namely almost a half-year of schooling.

The proportion of pupils who can be considered as low-performing readers was somewhat lower than
on EU average in PIRLS (16% vs 20%) and very close to it in PISA (18.8% vs 19.7%). These students can
read simple texts, retrieve explicit information, or make straightforward inferences, but they are not
able to deal with longer or more complex texts, and are unable to interpret beyond what is explicitly
stated in the text. The proportion of low-performing readers has decreased since PISA 2000 (by about
8%). Among girls, a decrease of 8.7% was observed while among boys, it is -6.3%. The proportion of
top-performing readers was exactly the same as on EU average in PIRLS (9%) and slightly lower in PISA
(5.8 vs 7% in EU).

The gap according to the pupils socioeconomic background was somewhat lower than the EU average
in PIRLS (50 vs 76 on average), indicating a relatively weaker relationship between parents educational
level and performance. In PISA, this gap was just below the EU average (86 vs 89 on average).
However, the indices of socioeconomic background are not the same in PIRLS and PISA, so the
comparison should be taken with caution.

In PISA 2009, the gap between native students and students with a migrant background was lower
than in EU countries on average (26 vs 38 EU-average). Similarly, in PIRLS, the mean score difference
between those who always spoke the language of the test at home, and those who sometimes or
never did so was below the EU countries (12 vs 26). In PISA, the gap according to language spoken at
home was 31 (vs 54 in EU).

In Portugal, the gender gap (in favour of girls) is slightly higher in PIRLS (14 vs 12 on average) than the
corresponding EU average differences, while it was lower in PISA (38 vs 44 on average).

In conclusion, Portugal has increased its overall reading score overtime among 15 year-olds, rising to
the same level of performance as EU countries on average. Portugal has a proportion of low-
performing readers very close to EU average; it has decreased since 2000. The spread of achievement
(gap between low and top performing readers) is smaller in Portugal than in the EU on average at both
levels. The gap according to socioeconomic status, migration or language spoken at home tends to be
somewhat lower in Portugal, which is then a little more equitable than EU countries on average.

There are no PIAAC data for Portugal because, due to a change in the Government, Portuguese
participation in the assessment was interrupted after the collection of pre-test results.

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KEY LITERACY POLICY AREAS FOR DEVELOPMENT
(AGE-SPECIFIC AND ACROSS AGE-GROUPS)

Creating a Literate Environment

Pre-Primary Years
Providing a supportive home environment: In Portugal, as PIRLS data show, a vast majority of pupils
have parents with some positive attitudes towards reading (19% like and 70.3% somewhat like
reading); however, 10.7% of parents do not like reading. There are great differences in reading
performance at grade 4 between children whose parents like to read (average achievement: 563) and
those who do not (average achievement 524).

The availability of children's books at home in Portugal (12%) is close to the European average (11%);
nevertheless, fewer pupils in Portugal, only 8%, reported having over 200 books compared to the
European average (12%). The achievement gap between those with 0-10 books and those with more
than 200 books is 62 points, which is the equivalent a one year and a half of schooling.

Since reading to the child is a predictor of future literacy achievement, the percentage of pupils whose
parents engaged in literacy-relevant activities often or at least sometimes with them before the
beginning of primary school is a matter of concern in Portugal. According to PIRLS data, although the
percentage of parents who never or almost never engaged their children in literacy activities is very
close of the EU average (2%), only 34.9% of pupils were often engaged in those activities (the
European average is 40.7%).

Creating family literacy programmes: There is a need for programmes to raise awareness of all
parents that literacy is a key to learning and life chances and that the basis for good literacy
achievement is laid in early childhood.

Children and Adolescents

Providing a literate environment in school: Based on data provided by teachers, PIRLS shows that
67.4% of students in Portugal are in classrooms which have class libraries; yet, only 14% of Portuguese
students were in classrooms with more than 50 books, which is less than half of the EU-24 average of
32%, and 24% of students are in schools which do not have library at all (the international average is
14%).

This means that, in Portugal, the number of primary schools without library or with scarce resources for
reading promotion is somewhat high compared to the EU average. As mentioned in PIRLS, libraries
provide a range of reading materials and other resources from which teachers can draw to expand
their instructional approaches and from which pupils can choose books for their own learning and
enjoyment. Consequently, library users tend to be much more likely to read above their expected level,
to enjoy reading and to have positive attitudes toward reading.

Supporting reading motivation especially among adolescents: In Portugal, there is a remarkable

decrease in reading motivation from 4th grade (cf. PIRLS, 2011) to age 15 (cf. PISA, 2009). In PIRLS

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2011, about 97 percent of Portuguese pupils reported that they like reading. According to PISA 2009,
however, nearly 20 percent of 15-year-olds report being highly engaged in reading.

In PISA 2009, Portugal has a difference of 90 score points between students reporting being highly
engaged in reading and those reporting being poorly engaged in that activity (OECD, 2010b).

Although schools and libraries already do a lot of work to overcome this problem, much more has to
be done. Families and communities should do more in order to support reading motivation, reading
habits and a stable self-concept as a reader among adolescents, especially boys and students from
disadvantaged families (low SES).

Offering digital literacy learning opportunities at school: A literate environment can also be
created by incorporating digital devices into the school environment.

Although, in Portugal, the curriculum recommendations stress that technology should assist reading
instruction providing support for reading, writing and correction of students work, the Survey of
Schools. ICT in Education: Benchmarking Access, Use and Attitudes to Technology in Europe's Schools
(European Commission, 2013b) highlights that ICTbased activities are not very common in Portugal
and information technology only appears as a supplemental tool in the process of reading instruction.

The OECD study Students on Line (OECD, 2011, p. 321) shows that Portuguese students aged 15-16
have to rely more on private resources than school support to acquire digital literacy: 54% of students
do not use the computer at school and more than 75% of pupils do not spend time at all on
computers during the lessons of the different subjects. Also, according to teachers of students, in
PIRLS 2011, only 47% of students are in classes where at least one computer is available for student
use during reading lessons, which is well below compared with Nordic countries (e.g. 79% in Norway)
Portugal is well below.

The discrepancy between steering documents and classroom practices is a problem to overcome.

Improving literate environments for children and adolescents: Programmes, initiatives and
examples

Family Literacy Programmes: The project Da promoo da Literacia Familiar ao Sucesso Escolar das
Crianas (From the family literacy promotion to educational success of children), carried out by the
Higher Education School of the Polytechnic Institute of Coimbra, was developed between 2009 and
20116. This project intended to understand how the attendance of training in New Opportunities
Centres promotes the development of family literacy and the acquisition of literacy skills (Salgado et al.
2011).

The programme Plano Nacional de Leitura7 (National Reading Plan) has been launching several
initiatives which aim at promoting the development of skills in reading of families, from the parents to
children. Among them are Ler + em famlia (Reading + in families) and Ler+ em casa (Reading +
at home).

Programmes for introducing parents and children to libraries and bookshops: Almost all public
libraries, integrated into Rede Nacional de Bibliotecas Pblicas (National Network of Public Libraries),
have been developing initiatives, aiming at raising awareness of the families for the importance of

6
See http://literacia-familiar.blogspot.pt/ (accessed October 13, 2015).
7
See http://www.planonacionaldeleitura.gov.pt/pnltv/english.php?idEnglish=1 (accessed March 31, 2015).

8
reading as a means for promoting book reading, which is crucial to acquire skills that will help in the
learning of reading and writing. Mimos e Livros mo de semear Promoting Emergent Literacy;
Biblifilo vai escola (Bibliophile goes to school); Leituras em famlia (Reading in the family);
OportunAidade - aprendizagem no formal ao longo da vida (OportunAidade non-formal
lifelong learning); Biblioteca para Avs ("Library for Grandparents); Bebeteca (Library for Babies)
are some examples of those public libraries initiatives.

Initiatives to foster reading engagement among children and adolescents: Working in close
cooperation, RBE and Plano Nacional de Leitura have been carrying out several initiatives and
actions, such as Ler+Escolas ("Reading+Schools); Ler+Jovem (Reading + Young). All of these
governmental initiatives have contributed to engage teachers and educators in reading activities inside
and outside of the classrooms, covering all Portuguese people from kindergarten to adulthood.
Additionally, training programmes for teachers and educators have been designed to encourage all
professionals of reading to promote initiatives that encourage the pleasure of reading amongst
children, young people and adults.

The Rede de Bibliotecas Escolares (School Libraries Network) has been promoting projects in different
fields, such as Ideias com Mrito (Ideas with merit), aLeR+ (Reading+), Ler para j (Reading
now) and Newton gostava de ler (Newton enjoy reading), with the purpose of improving the
quality of learning and literacy levels of the education community.

Offering attractive reading material for children and adolescents in print and non-print:
Portugals curriculum provides a list of titles and authors as examples of what primary and lower
secondary level pupils must read. The suggested books are organised into different categories such as
books for reading with parents/teachers and books for students who do not read regularly. Also, one
of the main focuses of the Plano Nacional de Leitura is budget provision for school libraries
acquisition of different types of books (fiction, poetry, drama and science books) magazines, internet
resources, to be used in the classroom in reading and writing activities and to promote independent
reading.

It is important to emphasise that all libraries of the Rede de Bibliotecas Escolares and of the Rede
Nacional de Bibliotecas Pblicas are properly equipped with a variety of texts and books, and their
databases are updated every month, as required by UNESCO in the Manifesto of The International
Federation of Library Associations and Institutions (IFLA).

RBE provides a range of services, such as Webpages, blogs, newsletters, social networks, learning
platforms, encouraging the digital literacy practices and the ICT use and preparing students for search,
use, production and communication through internet and social networks. In addition, one of the
goals of the school libraries is to create a reading culture (digital and printed), exploring technological
equipment and other strategies to improve and promote reading for pleasure (RBE/MEC, 2013).

Fostering digital literacy in and outside schools: In Portugal, public libraries are well organised in
order to engage and to motivate the adolescents to visit them and to use and enjoy the available
digital and multimedia resources. They also have a good broadband connection and students can use
appropriate hardware, especially laptops.

Several public libraries of the Rede Nacional de Bibliotecas Pblicas (National Network of Public
Libraries) have been developing a variety of initiatives, as Leitur@s com TIC's (Reading with ICTs),
Num Click (At a click) Literacia Inform@tica Para Todos (Computer literacy for all), whose main

9
goal is to promote literacy skills, on new information and communication technologies, among the
population, from children to senior citizens.

There is also an initiative, named Eduscratch8, which was implemented, through a partnership between
the Directorate-General for Education of the Portuguese Ministry of Education and Science and one of
its ICT Competence Centres, in 2010. This project aiming at promoting the use of the Scratch software
in the schools. Scratch is an intuitive programming tool to support computational thinking. In its early
stages, some teachers participated in in-service training workshops to learn the programme. As
teachers at different levels used EduScratch in very different ways, training was designed to meet their
different needs. An important aspect of this programme has been its attention to substantive as well as
technological issues. Ultimately, the objectives of this project are to promote the efficacy and
innovation of the use of the technologies in the learning process, across all areas and contexts, and to
make of each young person an inventor and creator, rather than simply a consumer of technologies.

Improving the Quality of Teaching

Pre-Primary Years
Providing free or affordable high quality preschool education for all children / investing more
money in Early Childhood Education and Care (ECEC): The enrolment rate at age 4 is 95.4%.
Portugal thus reaches the European benchmark for at least 95% of children between age 4 and the
start of compulsory education participating in ECEC.

Portugal is at the lower end among European countries concerning: the total public expenditure per
child on pre-primary education (0.4%); the ratio of children to teachers (15.8); the percentage of males
among preschool teachers (1.8%).

Raising the professional qualification level of staff in ECEC: Portugal should improve and update
teaching staff, by means of training courses of Continuous Professional Development (CPD), especially
in the fields of pedagogical practice, special needs, and linguistic diversity as well as oral and written
language. There is a lack of educators and teacher training in those areas (Ministrio da educao e
Cincia/Inspeo-Geral da Educao e Cincia, 2014). Continuing Professional Development, for
teachers of kindergarten, should be mandatory in Portugal.

Improving early language and literacy screening and training: Policy makers should provide the
effective technical and educational support, in order to ensure the pedagogical quality as well as the
articulation between teachers, technical staff, the pedagogical directorate, and educators. It is also
important to create an early intervention plan and/or an individual educational plan (Ministrio da
educao e Cincia/Inspeo-Geral da Educao e Cincia, 2014), where early language and literacy
must have a crucial role.

The report Caracterizao dos Contextos de Educao pr-escolar: Relatrio Final (Ministrio da
Educao/DGIDC, 2006) highlights that there is a lack of material resources, documentation and
teacher training concerning written language and emergent literacy and non-verbal communication.

Regular diagnosis of oral language proficiency for pre-primary years is needed and all kindergarten
teachers should know how to conduct this diagnosis. The aim should be that all children entering

8
See http://eduscratch.dge.mec.pt/ (accessed September 30, 2015).

10
school should be entitled to the development of the language of the school so that they can profit
from reading instruction.

Introducing comprehensive literacy curricula in pre-primary schools: All kindergartens should fulfil
a minimum of 5 hours per day for educational activities, which are intended to construct and to
develop the curriculum (Ministrio da educao e Cincia/Inspeo-Geral da Educao e Cincia,
2014), by giving special emphasis to those activities related to the development of language and
literacy.

In preschool, children can be prepared for formal instruction in school. Kindergarten teachers should
provide a literacy environment where children learn and engage in the communicative functions of
reading and writing with the aim of developing curiosity and motivation to learn to read and write in
school.

Children and Adolescents

Improving the quality of literacy instruction: In spite of what Portuguese teachers report in PIRLS
2011 (that they put a strong emphasis on a comprehension strategies), national research highlights
their lack of knowledge on specific teaching of reading comprehension strategies (Dionsio et al. 2011).

In fact, data from PISA 2009 show that there is a need for explicit instruction of reading strategies, in
Portugal: there is a gap of 89 score points between students who know which strategies are the most
efficient to understand and remember a text (532 score points) and those who have a limited
knowledge of that (443 score points); there is also a gap of 95 score points between students who
know which strategies are the most efficient to summarise a text (530 score points) and those who
have a limited knowledge of that (440 score points).

Research has demonstrated that there is also a serious teacher dependency on the textbooks, across
all grades and subjects (Moreira et al. 2006). PIRLS data reinforce this trend: 67% of teachers reported
to use textbooks as a basis for instruction (Mullis et al. 2012, p. 236). This dependency should be
avoided, because textbooks hardly include the range of adequate strategies needed for reading
comprehension.

Building a stronger focus on literacy into curricula: The absence of explicit teaching of literacy
strategies in content areas is due to a general lack of knowledge regarding literacy strategies.

There is a need to mainstream reading / writing literacy across the curriculum, and to offer content
area literacy instruction in all school subjects throughout secondary education, whether academic or
vocational.

Strengthening remedial support for struggling literacy learners: As PIRLS shows, 37% of students,
in Portugal, are in classes whose teachers wait to see if performance improves with maturation, and
99% of students are taught by teachers who ask parents to provide additional support to a student
who falls behind in reading.

According to an analysis of guidelines for Initial Teacher Education institutions, tackling reading
difficulties is not a topic at this training level in Portugal (EACEA/Eurydice, 2011, p. 99).

Also, the field of specific learning disabilities, in Portugal, is characterised by a lack of a technically
adequate system of school-wide screening and progress monitoring (Mendona & Martins, 2014).

11
Policy makers should provide support systems (additional instruction time, additional experts like
reading experts, psychologists, speech therapists) for students falling behind in literacy.

Pupils with learning difficulties/disabilities or those who face personal, social or emotional challenges
often have too little contact with education staff or other adults to support them. They need easy
access to teachers and other professionals supporting their educational and personal development.
They also need guidance and mentoring together with cultural and extra-curricular activities to
broaden their learning opportunities. In addition, whether remedial training takes place or remedial
courses are offered is dependent on the schools resources, and very often when classes have to be
cancelled, remedial courses are the first. There is evidence that not all children in need of remedial
support in literacy receive it. Students who do not reach a minimal standard of literacy level should
have a legal right to individual support.

Improving the quality of pre-service and in-service teacher training: Literacy instruction in primary
and secondary schools should become more cognitively demanding, more individualised and targeted
at using higher-level strategies. One crucial prerequisite for achieving those goals is adequate
preparation of teachers.

Not all teachers who are involved in teaching reading and writing skills in primary or secondary
schools have a solid training in literacy. Only limited aspects of literacy are mentioned in the curricula
on mother tongue education.

Although reading across the curriculum is being more and more recognised as necessary by schools, it
is not yet a shared concept in Portugal. Policy and schools put on mother tongue teachers the
responsibility for teaching reading, expecting that this learning may impact on the performance in
other curricular subjects.

Literacy expertise should become a clear standard for teacher education in all grades and subjects, not
only for primary teachers, but also for secondary teachers. It should be ensured that initial training as
well as CPD courses cover topics such as the teaching of reading, tackling reading difficulties, assessing
pupils reading skills, and supporting those with persistent difficulties.

Improving the quality of literacy instruction: Programmes, initiatives and examples

Improving the quality of preschool: The curriculum for preschool education has been established in
Portugal since 1997 enshrining the preschool as the first stage of the lifelong learning process. The
Orientaes Curriculares para a Educao Pr-escolar (Ministrio da Educao/Ncleo da Educao
Pr-escolar, 1997) (Curricular Guidelines for Preschool Education) is the reference document for all
educators, from the National Network of Preschool Education, and provides guidance for all educators
decisions in the educational process, leading to the development of the children. This guideline
document aims at promoting an improvement of the quality of preschool education, in Portugal, and
organising educational components. The curriculum for preschool emphasises the role of literacy for
lifelong learning.

Providing more cognitively demanding literacy instruction in school: The projects EMA Escola
Melhor (For a Better School) and FENIX Mais sucesso Escolar (More Educational achievement)

The goals of these projects, developed by schools and supported by national institutions, are to
promote more and better learning across all school grades, from preschool to basic education, and
consequently improve the educational achievement, motivate teachers about the relevance of literacy

12
practices in the acquisition of disciplinary knowledge, and providing conditions and opportunities for
learning and consolidation of knowledge.

These projects are based on a school organisational model which provides a more personalised
approach for students with learning difficulties in Portuguese, Mathematics or another subject, for
instance through a pedagogical differentiation.

Early identification of and support for children and adolescents with literacy difficulties

Monitorizao do Risco de Dificuldades de Aprendizagem Especificas na Leitura de Alunos do 4 ano

(Use of monitoring based on the curriculum as a way to identify students at risk of developing
learning disabilities in the reading area)

Developed by the Research Centre in Education (CIEd) at the University of Minho and financed by The
Foundation for Science and Technology, the main goal of this study was to describe the use of
curriculum-based monitoring (CBM) of reading fluency for identifying students at risk for presenting
dyslexia. One hundred and forty-six students in the 3rd grade from a group of schools in Braga,
Portugal, have participated in the study. They were monitored twice during the school year. The
students whose result was below or in the 20th percentile were considered at risk.

This project has contributed to the extension of the existing knowledge in the field of reading and risk
of reading failure, in a population of 1,400 students who were screened from second through fourth
grade with Curriculum-Based Measurement probes (Mendona & Martins, 2014).

Pre-service and in-service teacher training: In Portugal, between 2006 and 2010, the government
has implemented the Programa Nacional do Ensino do Portugus (PNEP) (National Plan for the
Teaching of Portuguese). It was an initiative to improve the teaching of the Portuguese language in
schools, in particular, the teaching of reading comprehension and oral and written communication.
One teacher from each school applying for the programme was selected to be trained in a higher
education institution for one school year. In the following year, this same teacher should disseminate
the knowledge, gained by delivering the same training, to a group of teachers within the school
(Legislative Order nr. 546/2007, 11th January).

Increasing Participation, Inclusion and Equity

Pre-Primary Years
Compensating socio-economic background: The Gini index is the most commonly used measure of
inequality, and represents the income distribution of a nation's residents with values between 0%
(maximum equality) and 100% (maximum inequality). In Portugal, it is 34.5%, which is very close to
maximum of inequality.

An indicator of child poverty is the percentage of children living in a household in which disposable
income, when adjusted for family size and composition, is less than 50% of the national median
income (UNICEF/Innocenti Research Centre, 2012). The range is from 4.7% in Iceland to 25.5% in
Romania (for an overview of European countries see table A2 in Appendix B). With 14.7%, Portugal is in
a group in the middle of the distribution.

The childs socio-economic and cultural background has a strong impact on literacy. Material poverty
is a well-recognised main factor influencing literacy (World Bank, 2005; Naudeau et al. 2011). Socio-

13
economic background also influences biological risks to children, by determining early exposure to risk
factors and increased susceptibility (Jednorg et al. 2012).

Encouraging preschool attendance, especially for disadvantaged children: The benefits of

attending preschool institutions have been proven in many studies. The duration of attendance is
associated with greater academic improvement.

In Portugal, 37% of pupils do not attended preschool institutions between the ages of 1 and 3. There is
a significant difference in reading competence at grade 4 for students participating and not
participating in preschool: the reading score of pupils who attended pre-primary education for 3 years
and more was 27 points higher than that of pupils who did not attend at all.

Children and Adolescents

Support for children with special needs: In Portugal, in the school year 2014/2015, 71,301 pupils
with special needs attended basic and secondary education institutions.

As mentioned in the report Polticas Pblicas de Educao Especial (Public policies in Special
Education), several improvements are needed in the area of Special Educational Needs: i) relevant
mechanisms and support for students progress between cycles; ii) adequate solutions for students
when they have completed the school career; iii) educational resources and solutions concerning
school organisation; iv) skills profile of students for teachers of Special Education Needs; v) a material
and technological resources databases; vi) more human resources for a better inclusion of children into
schools full-time (Conselho Nacional de Educao, 2014: 36).

Support for migrant children and adolescents whose home language is not the language of
school: In Portugal, there is a considerable migrant gap in reading achievement, as PIRLS (12 score
points) and PISA (26 score points) data show. The government should ensure that there are intensive
programmes of language and literacy development to support all children and young people with
migrant backgrounds or without adequate competence in the Portuguese language.

According to Santiago, Donaldson, Looney and Nusche (2012), given the importance of the language
of instruction mastery level and the growing number of students whose mother tongue is not
Portuguese, gathering information is sorely needed, not only to improve decision making at school
level, but also to determine a national strategy and teachers guidance for these populations. It would
be also desirable to have more comprehensive data on the linguistic profiles of students, in planning a
language strategy at the national level and making decisions about specific resources and support for
second language learners.

Preventing early school leaving: Following the Eurostat, in Portugal, the rate of early school leavers
was 19.2% in 2013, 1.6% less than in 2012. However, it is important to remember that the target value
of the early school leaving (ESL) rate set for 2020 is 10% (European Commission, 2014: 2).

Despite the expansion of the education system and the several measures implemented toward
reducing ESL, the educational attainment as well as the high share of students leaving school too early
with low skills remains a challenge in Portugal.

According to Santiago, Donaldson, Looney and Nusche (2012), the high proportion of early school
leavers could be related to the relatively low appreciation of schooling by large groups of the
population. It could also result from the parents low educational attainment and the availability of
unskilled jobs.

14
Consequently, it is important to review and update the Portuguese educational system in order to
make it even more inclusive, by allowing all individuals to acquire relevant skills (OECD, 2010). The
impact of family background on the probability to drop out is also stronger in Portugal than
elsewhere: 98.9% of men aged between 25 and 34 who dropped out before the end of upper
secondary school have a low-educated father. This figure is more than 10% higher than on average
across European OECD countries (OECD, 2010a).

Addressing the gender gap among adolescents: In Portugal, there arent specific official (Ministry of
Education and Science) measures to address the gender gap among adolescents.

However, data provided by PIRLS 2011 shows that there is a difference of 14 score points between
girls (548 score points) and boys (534 score points) in Reading Achievement (table 6). In PISA 2012, the
score difference in Reading performance between boys (468 score points) and girls (508 score points)
is 60 score points.

Furthermore, in national examinations of Portuguese Language, girls perform better than boys: girls
attain more levels 4 and 5 (on a scale from 0 to 5) than boys (Direo-Geral da Educao/Jri Nacional
de Exames, 2014).

Given this gender difference, it is clear that programmes and policies specifically aiming at supporting
boys reading engagement are needed in Portugal.

To underline the importance of the analysis and monitoring concerning gender differences could be
desirable: the value of the national tests and national examinations in monitoring students progress
by gender could be enhanced in order to allow the tracking of improvement and permit the
investigation of the impact of student gender on performance, and consequently the development of
policies and programmes (Santiago et al. 2012).

Increasing participation, inclusion and equity for children and adolescents: Programmes,
initiatives and examples

Programmes for inclusion: The programme Territrios Educativos de Interveno Prioritria (TEIP)
(Priority Intervention in Education Territories) programmes are designed to promote education in
schools located in underprivileged areas with high dropout levels. The main goal of the last TEIP 3
Programme (Legislative Order nr. 20/2012, 3rd October) is to: respond to social contexts that
encourage the risk of failure in the normal education system, due to the fact that academic success is
rarer in socially and economically disadvantaged areas than the national average, where violence,
indiscipline, dropouts, school failure and child labour are examples of problems. It is expected that
TEIP 3 promotes learning and academic success, makes more effective use of available resources, and
achieves better results.

Tutoring and other kinds of support are organised for individual pupils and pupil groups. Intervention
measures include, among others: pedagogical support, tutorials, cultural mediation supplementary
9
activities, and parental involvement .

Family literacy programmes for migrant parents: The project Programa Metropolitano de Leitura
para Grupos Desfavorecidos (Programme Reading Metropolitan for disadvantaged groups) was
developed between 2004 and 2006, in the Metropolitan Area of Porto (AMP), in a partnership between

9
See https://webgate.ec.europa.eu/fpfis/mwikis/eurydice/index.php/Portugal:Support_Measures_for_Learners
_in_Early_Childhood_and_School_Education (Accessed August 27, 2014).

15
PRIMUS (Regional Development Agency) and Local Authorities from nine cities of the Metropolitan
Area of Porto. The Programme had two targets: children and young people and immigrants.

The main objectives of the Programme Reading Metropolitan for disadvantaged groups are: i) to
raise awareness and foster reading as a continuous and regular practice; ii) to promote the acquisition
of the language knowledge and its correct use as well as of the new knowledge through reading; to
foster the intercultural dialogue and citizenship, especially, along the road of cultural diversity; iii) to
provide reading moments and spaces for reading; to increase the qualifications of reading
professionals; to enhance the exchange between libraries and readers; iv) to encourage the
partnerships between local authorities and cultural institutions (Lopes & Queiroz, 2006).

The programme KCidade - Programa de Desenvolvimento Comunitrio Urbano (KCity community

and urban development programme) was developed by the Aga Khan Foundation, in 2004, with the
purpose of promoting the processes of social change that respect the communities, in a process of
gradual autonomy and reinforcement of the different players. It also aims at responding to the
challenges of urban communities, from Lisbon, especially the poor and socially excluded, such as those
comprised of immigrants and ethnic or cultural minorities.

The activities were carried out in partnership with several local institutions. They were divided into four
priority intervention axes:

1) Citizenship encouraging the interventions in a territorial approach, intended to foster the

empowerment of communities and other players.
2) Education and Childhood promoting children's welfare, by improving quality and access to
essential services.
3) Families into community addressing the needs of the most vulnerable communities,
through an integrated approach which should involve and support families.
4) Lifelong Learning and employment strengthening of skills, knowledge and qualification,
within a personal, civic, social and/or employment-related perspective, by promoting social
inclusion, namely through the development of literacy and numeracy initiatives for adults, in
a lifelong learning perspective.

The mission of the programme is to empower the excluded urban communities, with the aim of
improving their quality of life10.

Promoting school attendance, especially among disadvantaged children: A nationwide network

called Commissions for the Protection of At-Risk Children and Youth, was created in Portugal,
managed by the municipalities. This team, which includes teachers, works directly with health services,
education, security, parents and local associations where ESL is a high and legal priority. By law, both
teams are responsible for ESL and the protection of childrens rights to remain in education until the
age of 18 (European Commission, 2013a, p. 34).

In order to reduce grade repetition in basic education, Portugal has introduced an extraordinary period
at the end of the school year where students from 4th and 6th grades who failed national exams
(Portuguese and Math) receive additional support from teachers and have the opportunity to repeat
the exam. Students or groups facing difficulties also have a Pedagogic Support Plan designed by
teachers, parents and school psychologists if needed. (European Commission, 2013a, p. 37).

10
See https://grupocomunitarioalta.wordpress.com/quem-somos/programa-kcidade/ (Accessed October 15,
2015).

16
Different programmes are specifically designed for territories, schools, classes or pupils who are at risk
of ESL or who are performing below target. These secondary prevention programmes include the
TEIP Programme (for schools located in socially and economically disadvantaged areas), the Mais
Sucesso Escolar ("More School Success) Programme and the Percursos Curriculares Alternativos
(Alternative Curricula Pathways) Programme. They are run by the Ministry of Education and Science
and have nationwide coverage. The TEIP and Mais Sucesso Escolar Programmes have recently been
extended and now cover over 25% of pupils and schools in Portugal (15.6 % for TEIP and 10.2 % for
Mais Sucesso Escolar). They provide extra support to pupils (academic, personal, social) inside and
outside the classroom in the form of mentoring/tutoring, intercultural mediation, guidance and
vocational experiences. They include in-service teacher training, as well as parent and community
involvement. It is worth noting that Mais Sucesso Escolar was originally a teachers initiative, later
recognised and supported by the Ministry (European Commission, 2013a, pp. 39-40).

As a form of compensation, early school leavers over 15 years old can complete their lower secondary
education in the Integrated Programme of Education and Training (PIEF). PIEF classes may be held in
regular schools, NGOs, communities facilities and enterprises. Each group has a full-time tutor and a
small group of teachers develop a tailored curriculum with a high degree of flexibility and a strong
vocational focus. Students may enrol and finish their studies at any time of the year and the duration
of the course depends on their own pace. There are also some experiences of Second Chance Schools,
namely in the Porto Metropolitan Area (European Commission, 2013a, p. 44).

17
3 General Information on the Education
System in Portugal
In Portugal, the Ministry of Education and Science is responsible for defining, coordinating,
implementing and evaluating national policies for education, science and information society,
articulating them with the policies of qualification and training. The Ministry performs these
responsibilities via direct administration services of the State, indirect administration, advisory bodies
and other entities. In the Autonomous Regions of the Azores and Madeira, the Regional Governments,
via the respective Regional Secretariats for Education, are responsible for defining the national
education policy to a regional plan and manage human, material and financial resources. The Public
schools are free of charge, while private schools may charge fees that in many instances are at least
partially supported by the State.

The educational system is organised in four stages (Decree-law nr. 139/2012, 5th June):

1) Early education (0-6 years): ante-preschool (0-3 years); preschool education (36 years);

2) Basic Education 9 years, in three consecutive cycles:

1st Cycle (Primary Education) - 1st to 4th grades;

2nd Cycle - 5th and 6th grades;
3rd Cycle (Lower Secondary Education) - 7th to 9th grades.

3) Secondary Education (named Upper Secondary Education) 3 years (10th to 12th grades), with
four types of courses:

Scientific-humanistic courses11;
professional courses and vocational courses12;
specialised artistic courses13;
Technological;
recurrent education14.

4) Higher Education (university and polytechnic).

11
The scientific-humanistic courses are focused on access to higher education.
12
Professional and vocational courses are oriented to students professional qualification towards active life, also
allowing access to further studies
13
Courses with specific study plans offered by some private schools submitted to approval of the Ministry of
Education and Science.
14
Recurrent education addressed to adults who have not completed this level of education at the regular age.

18
 15
Figure 1: Structure of the Portuguese School System

The Portuguese school system offers opportunities for non-traditional students through a range of
alternative options, which provide a second opportunity to those individuals who left school early, who
are at risk of doing it or who want to acquire further qualifications at the school level, especially those
in the labour force. Several training alternatives are available:

Education and Training Courses (CEF courses) which are targeted at young people (15 years
old or above), at risk of leaving school or who have already left the education system before
concluding the 9th Grade, and which lead to a vocational qualification (at levels 1, 2 or 3);
System of Recognition, Validation and Certification of Competences (RVCC) that is intended to
formally validate learning gained in different contexts by adults who intend to obtain an
academic or vocational certification;
Learning Courses that are professional courses targeted at young people aged below 25, who
have completed basic education but not secondary education.

A major handicap for Portugal has been the very low starting point in terms of educational attainment
and literacy of its population (Santiago et al. 2012, p. 17), in the last decades, numerous programmatic
policies were introduced in order to:

1) reinforce the students basic knowledge through compulsory education, now extended to the
12th grade or 18 years of age;
2) emphasise the foundational knowledge and skills, namely literacy, numeracy, history,
geography, and other basic subjects;
3) invest in students English language proficiency;
4) promote more equitable system which enables the generalisation of the academic success and
the attempting of students difficulties;
5) improve the Vocational Education and Training system and reinforcing its dual character and
flexibility;
6) increase the teachers' quality and the general teaching quality;
7) develop the autonomy of the schools16.

Those policies had positive effects on student learning outcomes as well as on the results of the
international surveys, in which Portuguese students are around or slightly below the OECD average,
especially regarding reading literacy in PISA and PIRLS tests.

15
See https://webgate.ec.europa.eu/fpfis/mwikis/eurydice/index.php/Portugal:Overview (Accessed August 27,
2015).
16
See https://webgate.ec.europa.eu/fpfis/mwikis/eurydice/index.php/Portugal:Ongoing_Reforms_and_Policy_
Developments (Accessed August 27, 2015).

19
4 Literacy Performance Data for Children
and Adolescents
4.1 Performance Data for Primary Children
The performance data for primary children are derived from the IEAs PIRLS studies.

Inaugurated in 2001 and conducted every 5 years, PIRLS (Progress in International Reading Literacy
Study) is an assessment of pupils reading achievement at fourth grade organized by the Association
for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement (IEA). The survey was administered in 35 countries in
2001, 45 education systems in 2006, and 50 in 2011. PIRLS assesses different purposes for reading
(literary and informational) and different reading processes (retrieve explicit information, make
inferences, interpret and integrate ideas and information, examine and evaluate content, language,
and textual elements). Both multiple choice and open-ended questions are used.

Combining newly developed reading assessment passages and questions for 2011 with a selection of
secure assessment passages and questions from 2001 and 2006, PIRLS 2011 allowed for measurement
of changes since 2001. PIRLS 2011 also examined the national policies, curricula and practices related
to literacy in participating countries, and included a set of questionnaires for students,
parents/caregivers, teachers, and school principals to investigate the experiences that young children
have at home and school in learning to read, in particular their attitudes and motivation towards
reading.

For all PIRLS data used in this report, detailed tables with data for all participating countries in ELINET
are provided, together with the EU averages (see Appendix C: ELINET PIRLS 2011 Data; Appendix D:
ELINET PIRLS 2006 Data).

4.1.1 Performance and variation in reading: proportion of low and high performing readers

Pupils in Portugal achieved an overall mean reading score of 541 in PIRLS 2011 (Table 1). This was
significantly higher than the EU-24 average. Students in Portugal did marginally better on Reading for
Information (544) than on Reading for Literacy Purposes (538), and on Interpret, Integrate & Evaluate
(542) compared with Retrieve and Inference (539) (see Appendix C, Tables A2-A5).
Table 1: Overall Performance on PIRLS 2011 Portugal and EU-24 Average

Overall Reading Mean Score

Portugal 541

EU-24 535

Significant differences (relative to the EU-24 Average) are shown in bold.

In Portugal, 16% of students performed at or below the Low benchmark on overall reading. This is
lower than the EU average of 20% (Table 2). Though Portugal is behind countries such as Finland (8%),
the Netherlands (10%) and Croatia (10%) in terms of the proportion of students performance at or
below the Low benchmark, Portugals standing relative to most EU countries on this indicator is strong

20
(see ELINET PIRLS Appendix Table A.6). In Portugal, 9% of students achieve at the Advanced
benchmark. This is the same as the EU average of 9%.

Table 2: Performance by Overall PIRLS Reading Benchmarks 2011 - Percentages of Pupils Portugal and EU-24
Average

400-475 475-550 550-625 Above 625

Below 400
Low Intermediate High Advanced

Portugal 2 14 37 38 9

EU-24 Avg 5 15 36 35 9

Portugals standard deviation of 66% was only 4 points below than the EU-24 average indicating a
similar spread of achievement (Table 3). The difference between the scores of students at the 10th and
th
90 percentiles in Portugal 169 points is 11 points lower than the corresponding EU-24 average of
180.
th th th
Table 3: Spread of Achievement Standard Deviation, Scores at 10 , 90 Percentiles, and Difference between 90
and 10th Percentiles on Overall Reading Portugal and EU-24 Average

Standard
10th Percentile 90th Percentile 90th-10th
Deviation
Portugal 66 454 623 169

EU-24 70 441 621 180

Portugal did not participate in PRILS 2001 or 2006 so trends cannot be examined.

4.1.2 4.1.2. Gaps in reading

As in every European country there are achievement gaps between different groups.

Parents' educational achievement

As in every European country there are achievement gaps between different groups.

Students in Portugal whose parent attended University or Higher achieved a mean score (573) that was
some 50 points higher than students whose parents completed Lower Secondary or below (523) (Table
4). The average difference across the EU-24 was 76 points, indicating a relatively weaker relationship
between parents educational level and performance in Portugal. It is also notable that more students
in Portugal have parents whose highest level of education is lower secondary or below (33%)
compared with the EU_24 average (18%).
Table 4: Percentages of Parents Whose Highest Level of Education was Lower Secondary, and Percentages who
Finished University or Higher Portugal and EU-24

Lower Secondary or Below University or Higher Difference

Level of Education (Univ or Higher
% Mean % Mean Lower Sec)

Portugal 33 523 25 573 50

EU-24 18 495 30 571 76

Statistically significant mean score differences in bold.

21
Primary language spoken at home different from language used at school

In Portugal, 90% of pupils reported that they always spoke the language of the PIRLS reading test at
home above the corresponding EU-24 Average (80). Ten percent of students in Portugal reported
that they sometimes or never spoke the language of the test at home. The difference in achievement
between pupils in Portugal reporting that they always or sometimes/never spoke the language of the
test was 12 score points some 14 points lower than the corresponding EU-24 average difference (26).

Table 5: Percentages of Students Reporting that They Always or Sometimes / Never Spoke the Language of the
PIRLS Test at Home, and Associated Mean Score Differences Portugal and EU-24 Average

Always Sometimes /Never Mean Score Difference

Language of the Test
(Always
Spoken at Home % Mean % Mean Sometimes/Never
Portugal 90 542 10 530 12
EU-24 Avg 80 541 20 519 26
Statistically significant mean score differences in bold.

Gender

Girls in Portugal achieved a mean score on overall reading that was higher than boys by 14 points in
2011. This was about the same as the EU-24 average difference of 12 points (Table 6).
Table 6: Trends in Performance by Gender 2001-2011 (Overall Scale), Portugal and EU-24 Average

Portugal EU-24
Girls Boys Girls-Boys Girls Boys Girls-Boys
2011 548 534 14 541 529 12
2006 - - - 541 528 13
2001 - - - 542 525 17
Significant differences in bold

Figure 2: Performance Gaps in Portugal and on Average across the EU-24 - Primary Level

Performance Gaps - Parental Education,

Language Spoken at Home and Gender -
Portugal & EU-24 (PIRLS 2011)
100
76
80
Score Points

60 50
40 26
12 14 12
20
0
Education Language Gender

Portugal EU-24

Education: University Lower Secondary or lower; Language: Language of test spoken always sometimes/never;
Gender: Girls Boys.

22
Attitudes to Reading

There was a difference of 44 points between the top and bottom quartiles of the Like Reading scale in
Portugal in 2011 (Table 7). On average across the EU-24, the difference between students in the top
and bottom quarters of the Like Reading scale was 52 points, indicating a relatively weaker relationship
between Liking reading and performance in Portugal. Seventy-two percent of students in Portugal
agreed a lot that they enjoyed reading (one of the items on the Like Reading scale). The corresponding
EU-24 average was 55%.
Table 7: Mean Overall Reading Scores of Students in the Top and Bottom Quartiles of the PIRLS Like Reading
Scale Portugal and EU-24 Average

Overall Reading Score

Difference
Like Reading Top Quartile Bottom Quartile
(Q4-Q1)

Portugal 561 517 44

EU-24 563 511 52

Significant differences in bold

In Portugal, 73% of students strongly agreed that they enjoyed reading (one component of the Like
Reading scale). This compares favourably with an EU-24 average of 55%. Indeed, more students in
Portugal than in any other EU-24 country strongly agreed that they enjoyed reading.

Students in Portugal in the top quarter of the Confidence in Reading scale achieved a mean score
(571) that was some 76 points higher than students in the bottom quarter (498) (Table 8). The average
difference across the EU-24 was 80 points, again indicating a relatively weaker relationship between
Confidence and performance in Portugal than on average across the EU-24.

Table 8: Mean Overall Reading Scores of Students in the Top and Bottom Quartiles of the PIRLS Confidence in
Reading Scale Portugal and EU-24 Average

Overall Reading Score

Confidence in Top Difference

Bottom Quartile
Reading Quartile (Q4-Q1)

Portugal 571 498 76

EU-24 570 490 80

Significant differences in bold

National Studies about Reading

In Portugal, several studies were produced within the scope of the programme Plano Nacional de
Leitura (National Reading Plan), which was launched, in 2006, with the primary objective of raising
the literacy level of the Portuguese people. The intention was to place the country on a par with its
European partners and to create conditions for all Portuguese citizens to feel fully able to deal with
written words under any life circumstances; interpreting information available in media, accessing
scientific knowledge, and enjoying literature. Among those studies, which aim to provide updated
information on reading, there are: Prticas de promoo da leitura nos pases da OCDE (Practices of

23
Reading Promotion in OECD Countries) (Neves et al. 2007); Os Estudantes e a Leitura (Students and
Reading) (Lages at al. 2007); Para a avaliao do desempenho de leitura (For the assessment of
reading performance) (Sim-Sim & Viana, 2007); A Leitura em Portugal (Reading in Portugal) (Santos
et al. 2007).

4.2 Performance Data for Adolescents

The data reported in this Performance section come from the PISA study.

The Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) led by OECD17 assesses the skills and
knowledge of 15-year-old students every three years in all OECD countries and in a number of
partner countries.

Since 2000, PISA has been testing students in reading, mathematics and science. The OECD assessment
also collects information on students backgrounds and on practices, motivational attributes or
metacognition strategies related to reading.

The PISA tests assess different aspects of reading literacy retrieve information, interpret, reflect and
evaluate on texts, and use a variety of texts, continuous (prose) and non-continuous (texts including
graphs, tables, maps). About half of the questions are multiple-choice, the other half open-ended
(short or constructed answers). Results are reported on scales defining different levels of proficiency
ranging from 1 (low performing) to 6 (high performing). Level 2 is considered as the level all 15 year-
olds should reach, and will enable them to participate effectively to society.

The follow-up of students who were assessed by PISA in 2000 as part of the Canadian Youth in
Transition Survey has shown that students scoring below Level 2 face a disproportionately higher risk
of poor post-secondary participation or low labour-market outcomes at age 19, and even more so at
age 21, the latest age for which data from this longitudinal study are currently available. For example,
of students who performed below Level 2 in PISA reading in 2000, over 60% had not gone on to any
post-school education by the age of 21; by contrast, more than half of the students (55 %) who had
performed at Level 2 as their highest level were at college or university (OECD, 2010b, p.52).

4.2.1 Performance and variation in reading; proportion of low and high performing readers

Portugal has participated in PISA since 2000. It is therefore possible to describe the change in reading
performance over twelve years on average, according to different characteristics of the readers.
Table 9: Reading performance in PISA 2012 Portugal and EU-27 Average

Mean S.E.

Portugal 488 (3.8)

EU-27 489 (0.6)
S. E. = standard error; Significant differences between the country and the EUs average are shown in bold

In PISA 2012, the reading performance of Portugal is very close to the EU-27 average.

17
See: http://www.pisa.oecd.org.

24
Table 10: Trends in reading performance Portugal and EU-24 Average, PISA 2000-2012 PISA 2000-2012

Change Change Change

2000 2009 2012
20002009 20092012 20002012
Mean S.E. Mean S.E. Mean S.E. Mean S.E. Mean S.E. Mean S.E.
Portugal 470 (4.5) 489 (3.1) 488 (3.8) 19 (7.4) -2 (5.5) 18 (8.3)
EU-27 489* (0.7) 486** (0.6) 489*** (0.6) -3* (5.0) 5** (2.7) 3* (6.0)
Significant differences between assessment cycles in bold *EU21 **EU26 ***EU27

The performance in reading of Portuguese students has increased between 2000 and 2012.

Table 11: Spread of achievement. Difference between 10th and 90th percentiles on the reading scale, all students
and by gender Portugal and EU-27 average (PISA 2012)

Difference 90th10th Difference 90th10th Difference 90th10th

for all students for girls for boys
Score diff. S.E. Score diff. S.E. Score diff. S.E.
Portugal 242 (6.3) 222 (8.3) 252 (7.7)
EU-27 251 (1.3) 230 (1.2) 259 (1.6)

The spread of achievement, defined as the difference in performance between students scoring at the
10th and 90th percentiles, is somewhat smaller in Portugal (242 points) than on average in the
European countries (251) (Table 11). The spread is greater for boys (252 points) than for girls (222).

Table 12: Percentage of low-performing (below level 2) and high-performing (levels 5 and 6) students - PISA 2012

Below level 2 Levels 5 and 6

% S.E. % S.E.
Portugal 18.8 (1.4) 5.8 (0.6)

EU-27 19.7 (0.2) 7.0 (0.1)

Significant differences between the country and EU in bold

In Portugal there are slightly less low-performing readers and slightly less top-performing readers than
in the EU on average.

Table 13: Trends in the proportion of low-performers (below level 2) in reading, all students, and by gender PISA
2000-2012

Proportion of students below level 2 in reading

All students Girls Boys
% S.E. % S.E. % S.E.
2000 26.3 (1.9) 21.2 (1.9) 31.3 (2.2)
2009 17.6 (1.2) 10.8 (1.1) 24.7 (1.6)
2012 18.8 (1.4) 12.5 (1.5) 25.0 (1.8)
Significant differences between assessment cycles in bold

25
Between 2000 and the last two PISA cycles (2009 and 2012), the proportion of low-performing readers
has decreased in Portugal (7.5 %). Among girls a decrease of 8.7 % is observed, while among boys it
is - 6.3 %. Most of these improvements had occurred by 2009 (Table 13).

4.2.2 Gaps in reading performance according to students background characteristics

Socio-economic status

As at primary level, there are achievement gaps between different groups in Portugal when
performance on PISA overall reading is considered.
Table 14: Difference in reading performance between bottom and top national quarters of the PISA index of
economic, social and cultural status PISA 2009

Difference between bottom and top national quarters of the PISA index of economic,
social and cultural status
Score diff.
Portugal 86
EU-26 89
Significant differences in reading performance between bottom and top national quarters in bold

The gap in reading performance based on the positioning of Portuguese students on the PISA index of
economic, social and cultural status (86 points) is close to the EU-26 average difference (89 points)
(Table 14).

Gender
Table 15: Mean reading performance by gender and gender differences PISA 2009 Portugal and EU-26

Boys Girls Difference (B G)

Mean S.E. Mean S.E. Score diff. S.E.

Portugal 470 (3.5) 508 (2.9) -38 (2.4)

EU-26 463 (0.5) 506 (0.4) -44 (0.5)

The gender difference in reading performance in Portugal in favour of girls (38 points in 2012) is
slightly lower than in EU countries on average (44 points)
Table 16: Trends in reading performance by gender PISA 2000-2012

PORTUGAL EU-27
Girls Boys Girls Boys
Mean S.E. Mean S.E. Mean S.E. Mean S.E.
2000 482 (4.6) 458 (5.0) 506* (0.8) 473* (0.9)
2009 508 (2.9) 470 (3.5) 507** (0.7) 464** (0.8)
2012 508 (3.7) 468 (4.2) 511*** (0.6) 468*** (0.8)
Significant differences between assessment cycles in bold *EU21 **EU26 ***EU27

26
The average increase in reading performance observed between 2000 and 2012 is stronger among
girls (+ 26 score points) than among boys (+ 10 score points). The trend is different in EU countries on
average: between 2000 and 2012 the girls performance increased by 5 score points while the boys
decreased by the same value.

Migration

Table 17: Percentage of students and reading performance by immigrant status PISA 2009

Students with an immigrant Difference in

Native students background (first- or second- reading
generation) performance
between
native and
Performance Performance students with
Percentage Percentage
S.E. on the S.E. on the an immigrant
of students of students
reading scale reading scale background

Score
Mean S.E. Mean S.E. S.E.
dif.
94.5
Portugal 492 (3.1) 5.5 (0.5) 466 (6.9) 26 (7.0)
(0.5)

EU-26 91.7 (0.02) 490 (0.4) 8.3 (0.02) 452 (6.4) 38 (6.4)

Significant differences between native and students with an immigrant background in bold

The percentage of students with an immigrant background is low (5.5%). The gap between native
students and those with an immigrant background is 26 score points, which is equivalent to one half-
year of schooling. The gap between native students and those with an immigrant background is
somewhat lower in Portugal than in EU countries on average.

Language spoken at home

Table 18: Percentage of students and reading performance by language spoken at home PISA 2012

Difference in
reading
according to
Speak test language at home Speak another language at home
language
spoken at
home
Performance
Performance
on the
Percentage Percentage on the Score
S.E reading S.E. S.E.
of students of students reading scale dif.
scale
Mean S.E. Mean S.E.
Portugal 98.4 (0.2) 491 (3.1) 1.6 (0.2) 460 (9.4) 31 (9.3)
EU-27 86.7 (0.0) 494 (0.4) 13.3 (0.0) 441 (5.4) 54 (5.4)
Significant differences according to language spoken at home in bold

27
In Portugal, the gap between students speaking the test language at home and those who do not (1.6
% of the students) is lower (31 score points) than the EUs average. It is equivalent to almost a year of
schooling (Table 18).

However, the percentage of students who do not speak the test language at home (1.6%) is so low
that this result has to be taken with a lot of caution.

These performance gaps are summarized in Figure 3.

Figure 3: Performance Gaps in Portugal and on Average across EU Countries - Post-Primary Level

Performance Gaps - Socio-economic Status (SES),

Migration, Language Spoken at Home and Gender -
Portugal & EU Average (PISA 2009, 2012)
100 89
86
80
Score Points

60 54
44
38 38
40 31
26
20

0
SES Migration Language Gender

Portugal EU-24

SES: Top Bottom quartile on PISA ESCS scale; Migration: Native first/second generation immigrants; Language:
Speaks language of the PISA test at home speaks another language; Gender: Girls - Boys

Engagement and metacognition

Table 19: Mean reading scores between students poorly engaged and highly engaged in reading PISA 2009

Low quarter Top quarter

Difference
Mean S.E. Mean S.E.
Portugal 452 (3.3) 541 (3.3) 90
EU-26 444 (0.8) 543 (0.8) 99

There is a gap of 90 score points which is equivalent to more than two years of schooling - between
the students reporting being highly engaged in reading (top quarter), and those reporting being
poorly engaged (bottom quarter) in that activity. Not surprisingly, students who report being engaged
in reading perform better in the PISA test. The difference between the most and the least engaged
readers in Portugal is lower than the EUs average.

28
Table 20: Mean reading scores between students in low and top quarters of understanding and remembering
strategies

Low quarter Top quarter

Difference
Mean S.E. Mean S.E.
Portugal 443 (3.7) 532 (2.9) 89
EU-26 433 (0.8) 531 (0.8) 98
Significant differences according to the degree of awareness of efficient reading strategies (understanding and
remembering strategies) in bold.

In Portugal, there is a gap of 89 score points - equivalent to slightly more than two years of schooling-
between the students who know which strategies are the most efficient to understand and remember
a text, and those who have a limited knowledge of that (Table 20). On average, in the EU, the gap is
somewhat higher (98 score points). This difference reflects how closely reading proficiency and
awareness of efficient reading strategies are linked.
Table 21: Mean reading scores between students in low and top quarters of summarizing strategies

Low quarter Top quarter

Difference
Mean S.E. Mean S.E.
Portugal 442 (3.7) 536 (3.2) 95
EU-26 440 (0.8) 530 (0.7) 90
Significant differences according to the degree of awareness of reading strategies (summarizing strategies) in
bold.

The gap of 95 score points between the students who know which strategies are the most efficient to
summarize a text, and those who have a limited knowledge of that is slightly higher than the EUs
average (Table 21). This gap is equivalent to roughly two years and a half of schooling. This difference
between students in low and top quarters reflects how closely reading proficiency and awareness of
efficient reading strategies are linked.

State wide assessment

st th nd th
In Portugal, the state wide assessment was introduced, in 2000, for 1 cycle (4 grade), 2 cycle (6
rd th
grade) and 3 cycle (9 grade) in order to monitor schools and the education system. With the
purpose of taking decisions about the school career of pupils, the Portuguese Ministry of Education
introduced the national examinations, for Portuguese Language and Mathematics subjects, for 9th
th th
grade in 2005, and for 4 and 6 grade in 2012 (EACEA/Eurydice, 2009, p.16).

Every year, a report, which contains all information on students performance, including the trends in
performance by gender and by courses, is produced by the Jri Nacional de Exames18 (the national
examination commission).

18
See http://old.dge.mec.pt/jurinacionalexames/index.php?s=directorio&pid=21 (Accessed October 17, 2015).

29
5 Policy areas
The High Level Group of Experts on Literacy (2012, p. 38) recommended that all EU Member States
should focus on the following areas as they craft their own literacy solutions:

1) Creating a more literate environment

2) Improving the quality of teaching

3) Increasing participation, inclusion and equity (with the term equity was added by ELINET).

The following parts refer to these three key issues, however some overlapping may occur.

In order to achieve as much comparability as possible across countries, quantitative and qualitative
indicators for which information from international data are available are reported. Appendix A
provides more information on criteria for the choice of indicators and the chosen indicators for the
pre-primary age group. For each of these indicators Appendix B contains a table with numbers of the
European countries participating in ELINET. Appendix C has been created using the international
database for PIRLS 2011 and contains separate tables for all information reported. If countries did
not participate in PIRLS 2011, data for PIRLS 2006 are referred to. Appendix D offers this information
for the PIRLS 2006 data.

5.1 Creating a literate environment for children and adolescents

The EU High Level Group of Experts on Literacy stated the following in relation to creating a more
literate environment:

Creating a more literate environment will help stimulate a culture of reading, i.e. where
reading for pleasure is seen as the norm for all children and adults. Such a culture will fuel
reading motivation and reading achievement: people who like to read, read more. Because
they read more, they read better, and because they read better they read more: a virtuous
circle which benefits individuals, families and society as a whole. (EU HLG, 2012, p. 41).

Parents play a central role in childrens emergent literacy development. They are the first teachers, and
shape childrens language and communication abilities and attitudes to reading by being good
reading role models, providing reading materials, and reading to the child.

Schools play an important role in offering a literate environment for students. Schools may foster
reading motivation and reading for pleasure by establishing school and classroom libraries, offering a
wide variety of books and other reading material in different genres, providing sheltered and
comfortable spaces for individual reading activities (like reading clubs), and not forcing children into
having to express and exchange their individual (intimate) reading experiences.

However, schools do not have sole responsibility. A broad range of actors may shape literacy
motivation, from parents and peers to libraries. Parents may provide role models and influence
childrens attitudes towards literacy practices. Also, libraries have a vital role if they offer free books,
especially for families who cannot afford to buy books. Regional or national campaigns may inspire
children and their parents to engage in reading activities (Cf. ELINET Country Reports, Frame of
Reference, pp. 29ff.).

30
Adolescence is a crucial phase in life where young people develop long-term identities and self-
concepts which include media preferences and practices (media identity). In this perspective, it is of
great importance that families, schools and communities offer young people rich opportunities to
encounter the culture of reading and develop a stable self-concept as a reader/writer and member of a
literary culture. This includes access to a broad variety of reading materials (in print and electronic
forms) and stimulating literate environments in and outside of schools; it also includes opportunities to
get actively involved in engaging with texts, and communicating, reflecting on and exchanging ideas
about texts with peers and competent others, such as teachers or parents (Cf. ELINET Country
Reports, Frame of Reference, pp. 45ff).

5.1.1 Providing a literate environment at home

The home learning environment, particularly in the first three years, is extremely important (Brooks at
al. 2012). It determines the quantity and quality of interactions between the infant and the primary
caregivers, who are the most powerful agents of language development, both receptive and
expressive, in the context of everyday activities and experiences. During these years, experience-
dependent creation of synapses is maximal. We know that the more words the children are exposed to,
the more they can learn. Caregiver-child relations in their turn strongly influence the ability to learn, by
influencing self-esteem, general knowledge and motivation.

Several indicators are used to describe the literate home environment of very young children in this
report, drawing on data from international sources (PIRLS) that are comparable across countries. It is
important to acknowledge that some of the PIRLS data are self-reported and may be biased by social
desirability and the ways in which questions are interpreted by parents within countries.

Parental attitudes to reading

PIRLS 2011 used the Parents Like Reading Scale according to their parents responses to seven
statements about reading and how often they read for enjoyment. The figures are presented below
with the percentage of students whose parents like, somewhat like or do not like reading, as
reported by PIRLS 2011 (Mullis et al. 2012a, p. 120).

Like: 19% (European average 35.3 %)

Somewhat like: 70.3% (European average 52.6 %)
Do not like: 10.7% (European average 17.9 %)
(For an overview of European countries see table B1 in Appendix B).

A vast majority of pupils in Portugal have parents with some positive attitudes towards reading. The
importance of parental attitudes to reading is shown by the fact that there are great differences in
reading performance at grade 4 between children whose parents like to read and those who do not. In
Portugal this difference is 39 score points (average achievement: 563 vs 524).

Home Educational Resources

PIRLS 2011 created a composite variable called Home Resources for Learning. This included parents
education, parents occupation, number of childrens books at home, number of books at home, and
availability of two study supports (Internet connection at home and their own room). The PIRLS Home
Resources for Learning scale is based on questionnaire responses of both parents (education,
occupation, number of childrens books) and students (number of books, availability of student
supports). The categories few, many (and some) resources were defined with respect to

31
international cut-off points on the PIRLS Home Resources for learning scale (Mullis et al. 2012a, p.
112).

Thirty-four percent of parents in Portugal reported having few home resources for learning well
above the EU Average of 25%. Twenty-two percent of parents reported that they have access to many
resources. It is 3 points below the EU-24 average (Table 22). The difference in achievement between
pupils in Portugal whose parents reported having many home resources and few resources was 61
score points 18 points lower than the corresponding EU-24 average difference (79).
Table 22: Percentages of Pupils Whose Parents Reported Having Few or Many Home Resources for Learning, and
Corresponding Mean Overall Reading Scores Portugal and EU-24 Average

Few Resources Many Resources Difference

Level of Home
Resources % Mean % Mean (Many - Few)

Portugal 34 517 22 577 61

EU-24 25 495 25 573 79

Statistically significant mean score differences in bold.

Number of childrens books in the home

PIRLS 2011 offers two sets of data concerning books at home: the first refers to numbers of childrens
books at home (based on reports by parents); the second refers to books at home (regardless of
whether they are childrens books or not), as reported by students. A possible discrepancy might be
explained by the difference in sources and questions.

The PIRLS 2011 database provides the figures below about the number of childrens books at home:
0-10: 15.5% (European average 11.8%)
11-25: 22.0% (European average 19.7%)
26-50: 30% (European average 29.4%)
51-100: 21.2% (European average 23.4%)
>100: 11.3% (European average 15.7%).

Table 23: Mean Overall Reading Scores of Pupil with 0-10 books at Home, and those with More than 200 Books
Portugal and EU-24 Average

None or Few Books (0-10) More than 200 Books Mean Score
Difference
Books in the Percent of Mean Reading Percent of Mean Reading (More than
Home Students Score Students Score 200 None or
few)
Portugal 12 496 8 558 62
EU-24 11 482 12 563 81

Statistically significant mean score differences in bold.

The availability of children's books at home is a little below the European average, with more children
in Portugal have 0-10 books, than on average across the EU, and fewer having 100+ books.

32
In Portugal, 12% of students reporting having 10 or fewer books at home, compared with an EU-24
average of 11% (Table 23). Fewer pupils in Portugal (8%) reported having over 200 books, than on
average across EU countries (12%). The achievement gap between those with 0-10 books and those
with 200+ books is 62 points. This is 20 points less than the EU average of 81 points.

Early Literacy Activity Scale

PIRLS 2011 reports the percentage of students whose parents (often, never or almost never) engaged
in literacy-relevant activities with them before the beginning of primary school (Mullis et al. 2012a, p.
126). Nine activities are considered: reading books, telling stories, singing songs, playing with alphabet
toys, talking about things done, talking about things read, playing word games, writing letters or
words, reading signs and labels aloud.

The figures for Portugal in the composite score for all these activities are below (for an overview of
European countries see table B3 in Appendix B):
Often: 34.9% (European average 40.7%)
Sometimes: 63.0% (European average 57.4)
Never or almost never: 2.1% (European average 1.9%).

This means that, in Portugal, 2% of parents never or hardly ever engage in the nine activities, the same
as the EU-24 average (2%). The Early Literacy Activity Scale correlates with later reading performance in
grade 4. The average reading score of pupils in Portugal who were engaged often in these activities
was 558, as compared with 535 for those pupils who sometimes or never or almost never engaged in
these activities with their parents before the beginning of primary school. These figures demonstrate
the importance of the time devoted to literacy-related activities in early childhood and their
association with achievement in Grade 4.

While the Early Literacy Activity Scale generates a composite score, it is of interest to look at single
items. If only the category often is considered, the percentage of pupils in Portugal whose parents
engaged in literacy-related activities with them before the beginning of primary school is somewhat
lower compared with the European average:
read books to them often: 42.5% (European average 58.4 %)
told stories to them often: 48.6% (European average 51. 5%)
sang songs to them often: 42.8% (European average 50.6%)
played games involving shapes (toys and puzzles) with them often: 60.2% (European
average 63.5%).
(For more details and an overview of European countries see table B 4 B 7 in Appendix B).

5.1.2 Providing a literate environment in school

Challenge/Need for action: As we know from PISA and other studies, there is a high correlation
between reading for pleasure and reading performance: there is a crucial difference between students
who perform well in the PISA reading assessment and those who perform poorly. In PISA 2009,
Portugal has a difference of 90 score points which is equivalent to almost two-and-a-half years of
schooling between students reporting being highly engaged in reading and those reporting being
poorly engaged in that activity (OECD, 2010b).

33
In Portugal there is a remarkable decrease in reading motivation from 4th grade (cf. PIRLS, 2011) to
age 15 (cf. PISA, 2009). For instance, in PIRLS 2011 97% of Portuguese pupils reported that they do like
reading. According to PISA 2009, nearly 20% of 15-year-olds report being engaged in reading.

Although schools and libraries already do a lot of work to overpass this problem, much more has to be
done. Families and communities should do more in order to support reading motivation, reading
habits and a stable self-concept as a reader among adolescents, especially boys and students from
disadvantaged families (low SES).

Resources teachers use for teaching reading

Since the type of reading materials teachers use in literacy instruction may influence the motivation of
students, it is of interest to have a closer look at this matter. PILRS 2011 provides some data. Just
thirty-two percent of students, in Portugal, are taught by teachers who use a variety of childrens
books as a basis for reading instruction, compared with an EU average of 29%. Sixty-seven percent of
Portuguese pupils, in Grade 4, are taught by teachers who use textbooks as the basis of reading
instruction, compared with an EU average of 70%. Ten percent of students, in Portugal, are taught by
teachers who report that computer software is used as a basis of reading instruction about the same
as the EU-24 average (5%) while 50% of Portuguese students use computer software as a
supplement, compared with 47% on average across EU countries (Mullis et al. 2012a, p. 236; EU
averages obtained from PIRLS 2011 database, s. Table H1 in Appendix C).

Availability and use of classroom library

Based on data provided by their teachers, PIRLS shows that 67.4% of students in Portugal are in
classrooms which have class libraries below the corresponding EU-24 average of 72.9% (ELINET PIRLS
2011 Appendix, Table H2). In Portugal, 14% of students were in classrooms with more than 50 books,
which is less than half of the EU-24 average of 32% (ELINET PIRLS 2011 Appendix, Table H2).
Furthermore, 24% of Portuguese students are in schools which do not have a library at all (the
international average is 14%) (Mullis ae al. 2012a, p.156).

Challenge/Need for action: Libraries provide a range of reading materials and other resources from
which teachers can draw to expand their instructional approaches and from which pupils can choose
books for their own learning and enjoyment.

According to the information available in PIRLS 2011, in Portugal, the number of primary schools
without library or with scarce resources for reading promotion is somewhat high, compared to EU
average. This is an area for improvement.

5.1.3 Providing a digital environment

Digital environment of primary students

A literate environment can also be created by incorporating digital devices into the school
environment. According to teachers, in PIRLS 2011, 47% of students in Portugal are in classes where at
least one computer is available for student use during reading lessons, compared to the EU-average of
45% (Appendix C, Table I6). Compared to Norway (88%), for instance, Portugal is well below.

Regarding computer activities during reading lessons, PIRLS provides figures that refer to all students,
including those who do not have access to a computer during reading lessons.

34
The percentage of students in Portugal who engage in specified computer activities during reading
sessions at least monthly are below:
to look up information: 45% (EU-24 average = 39%)
to read stories or other texts: 41% (EU-24 = 32%)
to write stories or other texts: 44% (EU-24 = 33%)
to develop reading skills and strategies with instructional software: 36% (EU-24 =27%).

Hence, for each indicator, computer use is greater in Portugal than on average across the EU-24,
though it might be noted that the EU-24 averages are quite low (Mullis at al. 2012a, p. 242). However,
compared, for instance, to the following data concerning Norway, Portugal is well below:
to look up information: 79% (EU-24 average = 39%)
to read stories or other texts: 54% (EU-24 = 32%)
to write stories or other texts: 77% (EU-24 = 33%)
to develop reading skills and strategies with instructional software: 68% (EU-24 =27%).

Digital environment of secondary students

In PISA, 83.8% of the student population report that they spend no time at all on computers during
Language-of-instruction lessons (OECD average: 74.0%) (OECD, 2010b, p. 321). More than 75% of
students do not spend time using computers in other subjects, such as Science or Mathematics (OECD,
2011, p. 321). In comparison to the OECD average and especially in comparison to the well-equipped
Nordic countries, the ICT coverage in Portugal schools still has room for improvement.

Also the Survey of Schools. ICT in Education: Benchmarking Access, Use and Attitudes to Technology in
Europe's Schools (2013) highlights that ICTbased activities are not very common in Portugal and
information technology only appears as a supplemental tool in the process of reading instruction.

PISA also shows that only 24.7% of Portuguese students report using laptops at school. In Denmark,
for instance, this number is almost 3 times higher (73.2%) (OECD, 2011, p. 323).

Challenge/Need for action: Although the national curriculum stresses that technology, in the first
cycle (Grades 1-4), should assist reading instruction, providing support for reading, writing and
correction of students work, according to PIRLS 2011 and PISA 2009, only a small number of
Portuguese students use a computer at least monthly.

The discrepancy between steering documents and classroom practices across all grades is a challenge
to overcome.

5.1.4 The role of public libraries in reading promotion

In an increasingly multifaceted society people will need to acquire new skills at various phases of their
life. The public library has a crucial role in assisting this process, mainly by supporting both individual
and self conducted education as well as formal education at all levels19. In this sense, the public
libraries should provide material in different types of media in order to support formal and informal
learning processes and to help the user to make use of these learning resources effectively, by also
providing facilities that enable people to study (International Federation of Library Associations and
Institutions, 2001). According to The Public library service: IFLA/UNESCO guidelines for development as

19
See http://www.ifla.org/publications/iflaunesco-public-library-manifesto-1994 (Accessed October 29, 2015).

35
a public service open to all, the public library has a key role in collecting, organizing and exploiting
information, as well as providing access to a wide range of information sources (International
Federation of Library Associations and Institutions, 2001, p. 4).

In 1987, Portugal launched the Rede Nacional de Bibliotecas Pblicas (RNBP)20 (National Network of
Public Libraries) whose main goal is to provide all municipalities with a public library, by supporting
them in their construction, installation, development and modernisation. Running in partnership with
the municipalities, and supported technically and financially by the General Directorate of Library
Services of Books and Libraries, the RNBP was implemented according to the principles stated by
UNESCO in the Manifesto of the International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions (IFLA).
RNBP integrates and supports all central public libraries that are in service, at the moment. The public
libraries of the RNBP ensure that citizens across all age groups have access to a range of reading
resources as well as to a variety of reading activities promoted by each library. In fact, they are
responsible for boosting reading among all citizens. They have also a free loan system through which
books can be borrowed absolutely free of charge. Public libraries are nowadays responsible for the
promotion of reading. With their excellent conditions and updated resources, they are places that
adolescents look for either during school time or holidays21.

Another important initiative is the programme Rede de Bibliotecas Escolares (RBE)22 (School
Libraries Network) launched in 1996. This is a governmental initiative coordinated by the Bureau of
School Library Network in articulation with the Ministry of Education, regional education authorities,
municipal libraries and other institutions. The main purpose of RBE is to develop libraries in a public
school context, at all school levels, providing the resources needed on reading, as well as access, use
and production of digital information. This programme, where the library is seen as an organisational
structure that supports the schools pedagogic activity, should also promote cooperation/partnership
systems (constitution of local work networks, sharing of resources, definition of common policies and
strategies) in the following areas: organisation, management and disclosure of information;
development of literacies; innovative pedagogical practices based on a crosscutting use of the library.

Both networks follow and are greatly assisted by the Librarians Association (BAD) that provides
guidelines and training for teachers and librarians.

Cooperation between secondary schools, families, libraries and other agents in literacy
promotion for adolescents

Portugal is among several European Countries that have adopted specific strategies, programmes or
plans to improve the levels of literacy, especialy among children and adolescents.

In 2006, the Ministry of Education and the Ministry of Culture and Minister of Parliamentary Affairs
have launched the Plano Nacional da Leitura (PNL) (National Reading Plan). PNL is a response to the
concern about the literacy levels of the population in general, especially of young people. It has been
implemented through a set of strategies aimed at promoting the development of skills in reading and
writing, as well as the broadening and deepening of reading habits, especially among school
populations. The primary objectives of the National Reading Plan are to raise the literacy levels of the

20
See http://rcbp.dglb.pt/pt/Bibliotecas/Paginas/default.aspx (Accessed March 31, 2015).
21
See https://www.portaldocidadao.pt/en/web/direcao-geral-do-livro-dos-arquivos-e-das-bibliotecas/apoio-aos-
municipios-no-ambito-do-programa-rede-nacional-de-bibliotecas-publicas (Accessed March 31, 2015).
22
See http://www.rbe.mec.pt/en/np4/19.html (accessed March 31, 2015).

36
Portuguese people and to place the country on a par with its European partners in international
studies. Furthermore, the Plano Nacional de Leitura aims to encourage initiatives which cover the
entire population, from infancy to adulthood, mobilising all national education authorities, educators,
teachers, parents, guardians, librarians, entertainers and reading mediators.

The key actions of this programme are:

to promote daily reading in kindergartens and classrooms of the 1st and 2nd phases of Basic
Education School;
to promote reading within a family context;
to promote reading at public libraries;
to promote reading in other social contexts;
to use of media and public opinion awareness campaigns;
to produce programmes centered around books and reading, to be broadcast both on radio
and television;
to create blogs and chat-rooms on books and reading for children, young people and
adults.

To guarantee the communication of the programmes and interaction with schools and all the entities
involved, a site has been created, which is constantly updated, with reading guidelines for each age
and methodological tools aimed at educators, teachers, parents, librarians, mediators, entertainers and
volunteers23.

5.1.5 1.3.5. Improving literate environments for children and adolescents: Programmes,
initiatives and examples

Family Literacy Programmes

The project Da promoo da Literacia Familiar ao Sucesso Escolar das Crianas (From de family
literacy promotion to educational success of children), carried out by the Higher Education School of
the Polytechnic Institute of Coimbra, was developed between 2009 and 201124. This project intended
to understand how the attendance of training in New Opportunities Centres promotes the
development of family literacy and the acquisition of literacy skills (Salgado et al. 2011).

The programme Plano Nacional de Leitura25 (National reading Plan) has been launching several
initiatives which aim at promoting the development of skills in reading in families, from the parents to
children. Among them are Ler + em famlia (Reading + in families) and Ler+ em casa (Reading +
at home).

Programmes for introducing parents and children to libraries and bookshops

Almost all public libraries, integrated into Rede Nacional de Bibliotecas Pblicas (National Network of
Public Libraries), have been developing initiatives, aiming at raising awareness of the families for the
importance of reading as a means for promoting book reading, which is crucial to acquire skills that
will help in the learning of reading and writing. Mimos e Livros mo de semear Promoting
Emergent Literacy; Biblifilo vai escola (Bibliophile goes to school); Leituras em famlia

23
See http://www.planonacionaldeleitura.gov.pt/pnltv/english.php?idEnglish=1 (Accessed March 31, 2015).
24
See http://literacia-familiar.blogspot.pt/ (Accessed October 13, 2015).
25
See http://www.planonacionaldeleitura.gov.pt/pnltv/english.php?idEnglish=1 (Accessed March 31, 2015).

37
(Reading in family); OportunAidade - aprendizagem no formal ao longo da vida (OportunAidade
non-formal lifelong learning); Biblioteca para Avs (Library for Grandparents); Bebeteca (library
for babies) are some examples of those public libraries initiatives.

Initiatives to foster reading engagement among children and adolescents

Working in close cooperation, RBE and Plano Nacional de Leitura have been carrying out several
initiatives, such as Ler+Escolas (Reading+Schools); Ler+Jovem (Reading + Young). All of these
governmental initiatives have contributed to engage teachers and educators in reading activities inside
and outside of the classrooms, covering all Portuguese people from kindergarten to adulthood.
Additionally, training programmes of teachers and educators have been designed to encourage all
professionals of reading to promote initiatives that encourage the pleasure of reading amongst
children, young people and adults.

The Rede de Bibliotecas Escolares (School Libraries Network) has been promoting projects in different
fields, such as Ideias com Mrito (Ideas with merit), aLeR+ (Reading+), Ler para j (Reading
now) and Newton gostava de ler (Newton enjoy reading), with the purpose of improving the
quality of learning and literacy levels of the education community.

Offering attractive reading material for children and adolescents in print and non-print

Portugals curriculum provides a list of titles and authors as examples of what primary and lower
secondary level pupils should read. The suggested books are organised into different categories such
as books for reading with parents/teachers and books for students who do not read regularly. Also,
one of the main focuses of the Plano Nacional de Leitura is budget provision for school libraries
acquisition of different types of books (fiction, poetry, drama and science books) magazines, and
internet resources, to be used in the classroom in reading and writing activities and to promote
independent reading.

It is important to emphasise that all libraries of the Rede de Bibliotecas Escolares and of the Rede
Nacional de Bibliotecas Pblicas are properly equipped with a variety of texts and books, and their
databases are updated every month, as required by UNESCO in the Manifesto of The International
Federation of Library Associations and Institutions (IFLA).

RBE provides a range of services, such as Webpages, blogs, newsletters, social networks, learning
platforms, encouraging the digital literacy practices and the ICT use and preparing students for search,
use, production and communication through internet and social networks. In addition, one of the
goals of the school libraries is to create a reading culture (digital and printed), exploring technological
equipment and other strategies to improve and promote reading for pleasure (RBE/MEC, 2013).

Fostering digital literacy in and outside schools

In Portugal, public libraries are well organised in order to engage and to motivate the adolescents to
visit them and to use and enjoy the available digital and multimedia resources. They also have a good
broadband connection and students can use appropriate hardware, especially laptops.

Several public libraries of the Rede Nacional de Bibliotecas Pblicas (National Network of Public
Libraries) have been developing a variety of initiatives, as Leitur@s com TIC's (Reading with ICTs),
Num Click (At a click) Literacia Inform@tica Para Todos (Computer literacy for all) whose main

38
goal is to promote literacy skills, on new information and communication technologies, among the
population, from children to senior citizens.

There is also an initiative, named Eduscratch26, which was implemented, through a partnership
between the Directorate-General for Education of the Portuguese Ministry of Education and Science
and one of its ICT Competence Centres, in 2010. This project is aimed at promoting the use of the
Scratch software in schools. Scratch is an intuitive programme tool to support computational thinking.
In its early stages, some teachers participated in in-service training workshops to learn the programme.
As teachers at different levels used EduScratch in very different ways, training was design to meet their
different needs. An important aspect of this programme has been its attention to substantive as well as
technological issues. Ultimately, the objectives of this project are to promote the efficiency and
innovation of the use of technologies in the learning process, across all areas and contexts, and to
make of each young person an inventor and creator, rather than just a consumer of technologies.

5.2 Improving the quality of teaching

To improve the quality of teaching, important aspects need to be considered:
The quality of preschool
coherent literacy curricula
high-quality reading instruction,
early identification of and support for struggling literacy learners
highly qualified teachers (cf. Frame of Reference for ELINET Country Reports).

Especially crucial is the quality of teaching and of teachers, as the How the world best performing school
systems come out on top (Mourshed et al. 2007) highlights the quality of an education system cannot
exceed the quality of its teachers.

5.2.1 Quality of preschool

While early childhood education has long been neglected as a public issue, nowadays early childhood
education and care (ECEC) has been recognizing as important for better child well-being and learning
outcomes as a foundation for lifelong learning; more equitable child outcomes and reduction of
poverty; increased intergenerational social mobility; more female labour market participation;
increased fertility rates; and better social and economic development for the society at large (OECD,
2012a, p. 9). In all European countries pre-primary education is an important part of political reflection
and action.

The EU High Level Group of Experts on Literacy stated:

Increasing investment in high-quality ECEC is one of the best investments Member States
can make in Europes future human capital. High quality means highly-qualified staff and a
curriculum focused on language development through play with an emphasis on language,
psychomotor and social development, and emerging literacy skills, building on childrens
natural developmental stages. (EU HLG, 2012, p. 59).

While there is no international or Europe-wide agreed concept of ECEC quality, there is agreement that
quality is a complex concept and has different dimensions which are interrelated. In this report we
focus on structural quality which refers to characteristics of the whole system, e.g. the financing of pre-

26
See http://eduscratch.dge.mec.pt/ (Accessed September 30, 2015).

39
primary education, the relation of staff to children, regulations for the qualifications and training of the
staff, and the design of the curriculum. There are some data concerning structural quality, but there is
a lack of research and data about process quality, practices in ECEC institutions, the relation between
children and teachers, and what children actually experience in their institutions and programmes.

Annual expenditure on pre-primary education

According to Key Data on Early Childhood Education and Care in Europe. 2014 Edition (European
Commission/EACEA/Eurydice/Eurostat, 2014, p. 80), the total public expenditure per child in pre-
primary education as a percentage of GDP in Portugal is 0.4%. Portugal belongs to the lower third of
the distribution. The range is from 0.04% in Turkey to 1.01% in Denmark (for an overview of European
countries see table D1 in Appendix B).

Ratio of children to teachers in pre-primary school

According to Education at a Glance 2014: OECD indicators (OECD 2014a, p. 451) the student/teacher
ratio in pre-primary schools for children at the age of four in Portugal is 15.8. The range is from 5.8 in
Hungary to 23.1 in Turkey. For the other European countries OECD (OECD, 2014a, p. 324) provides
information about the student/teacher ratio in pre-primary schools (for an overview of European
countries see table D2 in Appendix B).

Percentage of males among preschool teachers

According to Pordata (2015), 1.8% of the pre-primary teachers in Portugal are males. The range is from
0.2% in Bulgaria and Hungary to 17.7% in France (for an overview of European countries see table D3
in Appendix B). It can be assumed that a higher level of qualification (together with better payment)
will attract more males for becoming kindergarten educators.

Preschool teachers qualifications

The minimum required level to become a qualified teacher is Master level (ISCED 5). The length of
training is 4 years (European Commission/EACEA/Eurydice/Eurostat, 2014, p. 101).

Continuing Professional Development is a professional duty and a prerequisite for career development.
In most European countries, CPD is generally considered a professional duty for staff. In Portugal CPD
is not mandatory for pre-school teachers (European Commission/EACEA/Eurydice/Eurostat, 2014, pp.
104105).

Challenge/Need for action: Portugal is at the lower end among European countries concerning: the
total public expenditure per child on pre-primary education; the ratio of children to teachers; the
percentage of males among preschool teachers.

Another problem of concern is the fact that CPD is not mandatory for pre-school teachers in Portugal.
Since CPD is a duty and prerequisite for career development, it should be mandatory.

Preschool language and literacy curriculum

The design of the kindergarten curriculum is an important aspect of quality. Therefore it is included in
this section and not in the next section Literacy curricula in schools. It also takes into consideration
that young children have learning needs than are sometimes different to those of school children. Pre-
school programmes should focus on developing childrens emergent literacy skills through playful

40
experience rather than systematic training in phonics or teaching the alphabet. There is no evidence
that systematic instruction of reading in preschool has any benefit for future learning (Suggate, 2012).

Fostering the development of emergent literacy skills through playful activities is an important
function of preschool institutions, providing a basis for formal literacy instruction in primary school.
We consider the following to be key components: oral language development, including vocabulary
learning and grammar, familiarisation with the language of books (e.g. through hearing stories read
and told), being engaged and motivated in literacy-related activities, experiencing a literacy-rich
environment, developing concepts of print, and language awareness (for more information see the
frame text of country reports).

In Portugal, the curriculum development in pre-primary education has as reference the Curricular
Guidelines for Pre-primary Education (Legislative Order nr. 5220/97, 4th August of 1997), which
constitute a set of general pedagogical and organisational principles to support childhood educators
in the educational process to be developed with children. This document is a common reference for all
childhood educators, but does not intend to be a syllabus. It is general and comprehensive, enabling
the educator to justify the inclusion of diverse educational options27.

In Portugal, there isnt central steering documents for preschools. For older children, i.e. to those in
kindergarten, the learning objectives for centre-based ECEC provision, as recommended in Portuguese
central steering documents, are (European Commission/EACEA/Eurydice/Eurostat, 2014, p. 121):
personal, emotional and social development;
language development and communication skills;
physical development and health education;
reading literacy;
numerical and logical reasoning;
understanding the world
expressive arts and development of creativity;
early second/foreign language learning;
adaptation to school life.

Under the guidance of the XVIII Portuguese Government, a new programme was established: Metas de
Aprendizagem para a Educao Pr-Escolar (2010)28 (Learning goals for Preschool Education). In this
programme, each content area defines the learning benchmarks which all pupils should be able to
achieve at the end of preschool. Those content areas are: knowledge of the world; expressions;
personal and social training; oral language and written approach; mathematics; information and
communication technologies.

According to the report Jardins de Infncia da Rede Privada: Instituies Particulares de Solidariedade
Social. Relatrio Global (Ministrio da educao e Cincia/Inspeo-Geral da Educao e Cincia, 2014),
by the Directorate-General for Education and Science, it is recommended that all kindergartens should
incorporate a minimum of 5 hours per day for educational activities, which are intended to construct
and to develop the curriculum, by giving special emphasis to those activities related to the
development of language and literacy.

27
See https://webgate.ec.europa.eu/fpfis/mwikis/eurydice/index.php/Portugal:Teaching_and_Learning_in_
Programmes_for_Children_over_3_years (Accessed September 30, 2015).
28
See http://metasdeaprendizagem.dge.mec.pt/educacao-pre-escolar/apresentacao/ (Accessed October 14,
2015).

41
As shown in the report Caracterizao dos Contextos de Educao Pr-Escolar Inqurito Extensivo
Relatrio Final (FPCEUP/ISPA/MEC/DGE, 2014), of the Directorate General for Innovation and
Curriculum Development of the Ministry of Education, nowadays, the classrooms are comprised of
heterogeneous groups concerning age, culture and language.

Challenge/Need for action: The lack of training of educators and teachers in preschools concerning
pedagogical practice, special needs, and linguistic diversity as well as oral and written language
(maybe because Continuing Professional Development of kindergarten educators is not mandatory)
(European Commission/EACEA/Eurydice/Eurostat, 2014, pp. 104105), is really calling for urgent
attention.

It is also a problem that activities developed, as well as the resources available, do not promote
diversity (FPCEUP/ISPA/MEC/DGE, 2014).

Improving early language and literacy screening and training

Fostering the development of emergent literacy skills through playful activities is an important
function of pre-school institutions, providing a basis for formal literacy instruction in primary school.
We consider the following to be key components: oral language development, including vocabulary
learning and grammar, familiarisation with the language of books (e.g. through hearing stories read
and told), being engaged and motivated in literacy-related activities, experiencing a literacy-rich
environment, developing concepts of print, and language awareness (for more information see the
frame text of country reports).

In Portugal, kindergarten teachers try to provide a literacy environment where children learn and
engage in the communicative functions of reading and writing with the aim of developing curiosity
and motivation to learn to read and write in school (Ministrio da Educao/Ncleo da Educao Pr-
escolar, 1997). Reading books aloud, telling stories, exploring rhymes, chants or tongue twisters,
presenting picture books, using writing in communicative contexts (e.g. making real or imaginary
telephone calls, communicate a message, asking questions) these are the methods commonly used
by teachers and recommended by central steering documents (Ministrio da Educao/Ncleo da
Educao Pr-escolar, 1997).

The assessment of childrens progress in kindergarten, as recommended in central steering documents,

is held in written records based on observation, in Portugal (European
Commission/EACEA/Eurydice/Eurostat, 2014, p. 125).

Challenge/Need for action: The Ministry of Education should provide effective technical and
educational support, in order to ensure the pedagogical quality as well as the articulation between
teachers, technical staff, pedagogical directorate and educators.

It is important to create an early intervention plan and/or an individual educational plan as well, where
language development must have a prominent role.

The lack of material resources, documentation and teacher training concerning written language and
emergent literacy and non-verbal communication (Ministrio da Educao/DGIDC, 2006), seems to be
another area for improvement.

Regular diagnosis of oral language proficiency for pre-primary years is needed and all kindergarten
teachers should know how to conduct this diagnosis. The aim should be that all children entering
school can speak the language of the school so that they can profit from reading instruction.

42
5.2.2 Literacy curricula in schools

Curricula provide a normative framework for teachers and a guideline for their teaching aims,
methods, materials and activities. However one should keep in mind that there is a difference between
the intended curriculum, as outlined in official documents, and the implemented curriculum what
actually happens in the schools.

Literacy curricula in Portuguese schools have been heavily influenced by the publication of the PISA
studies. In immediate reaction to the worrying results of the 2000 study, the Government had
developed several changes to the curriculum of basic and secondary education. The first change is
mentioned In the Decree-Law nr. 139/2012, 5th July, which defines the guidelines for the organisation
and management of curricula. This Decree-Law also establishes that one of the guiding principles of
the basic and secondary education curricula is the valorisation of the Portuguese language and culture
in all curricular components (Decree-Law nr. 139/2012, 5th July).

Primary schools curricula

The first cycle of Portuguese language learning focuses on: to understand and write different kinds of
texts; to retrieve information; to recognise the varieties and nuances of the Portuguese language and
its contexts of use; to speak and write using proper structure and rules of spelling and punctuation; to
find pleasure in writing and reading. Learning targets are combined for Grades 12 and Grades 34
(Gonalves & Ferreira, 2012).

The content of the first cycle Portuguese language curriculum has five domains:
oral comprehension,
oral communication,
reading,
writing,
language
knowledge.

As recommended by the national curriculum, the total amount of instructional time in the first cycle is
25 hours per week. Eight hours are intended for Portuguese language, seven hours for mathematics,
five hours for arts, and five hours for social and natural science subjects. Teachers from different levels
can cooperate to implement the national curriculum for Portuguese language vertically, from Grade 1
12, due the fact that many schools are organised in clusters that include all levels of education
(Gonalves & Ferreira, 2012).

Reading for pleasure

According to PIRLS 2011 Encyclopaedia, four of the EU-24 countries in PIRLS 2011 reported that
reading for pleasure was given a little or no emphasis and 11 countries that it had some emphasis
(Mullis et al. 2012b, p. 36). Portugal is identified as a country in which there is some emphasis on
reading for pleasure in the curriculum of the 4th grade. Reading to improve reading and reading for
literary experience seems to be the purposes of reading activities in the curriculum.

Contents of literacy curricula

The Eurydice report Teaching Reading in Europe (EACEA/Eurydice, 2011) offers a broad range of
information about the content of reading literacy curricula and official guidelines. In order not to

43
duplicate this work only two aspects were addressed in the ELINET country reports whose importance
might not yet be acknowledged and therefore might be missing in the literacy curricula and official
guidelines: explicit instruction of grapheme-phoneme correspondences (phonics), and reading
strategies.

Explicit instruction of grapheme-phoneme correspondences

The Eurydice (EACEA/Eurydice, 2011) report on reading literacy indicates that just two of 15 early
literacy skills in the areas of word recognition, phonics and fluency are taught at preschool level in
Portugal progression in recognizing words, short to long, and drawing forms of letters. On the other
hand, 10 of the skills are taught at primary level, including enriching vocabulary, using word
recognition as a reading strategy, using knowledge of letters, sounds and words when reading, and
reading simple sentences and simple texts independently (EACEA/Eurydice, 2011, p.56). Along with
France and Spain, Portugal is identified as a country in which phonics instruction is developed
throughout primary schooling (EACEA/Eurydice, 2011, p. 58). In a number of countries, including
Finland and Italy, phonics instruction is discontinued after the first cycle of primary schooling.

In the Portuguese language curriculum, knowledge of phonics is covered under the domain of
language knowledge.

Instruction of reading strategies in primary schools

While literacy instruction in the early years is more focused on code-based skills, in later stages it is
important to develop and foster a wide range of comprehension strategies with all children. Explicit
teaching of comprehension strategies is effective for improving reading comprehension among
readers with different levels of ability. These strategies include:
Drawing inferences or interpretations while reading text and graphic data
Summarising text and focusing selectively on the most important information
Making connections between different parts of a text
Using background knowledge
Checking/monitoring own comprehension
Constructing visual representations
Pupils reflecting on their own reading process (EACEA/Eurydice, 2011, p. 55).

According to the Eurydice (2011) report on reading, steering (curriculum) documents in Portugal
include attention to three of seven comprehension strategies during primary schooling (summarizing
texts, making connections between parts of a text, and using background knowledge). Strategies not
addressed at primary level included monitoring own comprehension, constructing visual
representations, and reflecting on own comprehension processes (EACEA/Eurydice, 2011, p. 60). The
authors of PIRLs 2011 Encyclopedia: Education Policy and Curriculum in Reading (Mullis et al. 2012b, p.
54), drawing on data provided by the PIRLS 2011 national research coordinator for Portugal, reported
that five comprehension strategies received a major emphasis in the curriculum for Grade 4: Retrieving
explicitly-stated information from a sentence or phrase; locating or reproducing details from a clearly-
defined section of text; identifying main ideas; recognizing plot sequences and character traits; and
describing the overall meaning or message of a text. Strategies that were deemed to receive some
emphasis in the intended curriculum included: Connecting two or more pieces of information or
details; comparing information within and across texts; making generalisations and drawing inferences

44
with textual support; describing style or structure of a text; and determining the authors perspective or
intention.

Literacy curricula in secondary schools

The programme in force until 2013, the National Curriculum of Basic Education - Essential Competences
(Ministrio da Educao e Cincia/ Departamento de Educao Bsica, 2001), states that, at the end of
basic education, students should be able to:
properly use the language of different areas of cultural, scientific and technological
knowledge to express themselves;
recognise, confront and harmonise several nuances of language for the communication of
an information, an idea, or an intention;
use diversified ways of communication, adapting language and techniques to the contexts
and needs;
communicate, discuss and defend their own ideas, appropriately mobilising different
nuances of language;
translate ideas and information expressed in one style of language to another style
value the different forms of language;
properly use the Portuguese language to communicate adequately and to structure their
own thinking;
value and appreciate the Portuguese language, either as a mother tongue or a host
language;
use the Portuguese language in accordance with the communicative situations that are
created in the several areas of knowledge, in a perspective of personal knowledge
construction;
use the Portuguese language respecting the rules of its operation/functioning;
promote the interest for the correct and appropriate use of the Portuguese language;
self-evaluate the correction and adequacy of linguistic performance, aiming to improve it
(Ministrio da Educao e Cincia/Departamento de Educao Bsica, 2001).

Similar competences are foreseen in the new Programa e Metas Curriculares de Portugus do Ensino
Bsico (Buescu at al., 2015) (Program and Curricular Benchmarks of Portuguese for basic education).

The curricula for secondary education also highlights reading and writing not only in the subject of
Portuguese, but also in other subjects. For instance, one of the goals of Programa de Fsica e Qumica
A: 10 e 11 anos - Curso cientfico-humanstico de Cincias e Tecnologias (Programme of Physics and
Chemistry A: 10th and 11th grades) (Ministrio da Educao e Cincia, 2014a) it is to develop skills to
recognise, interpret and produce different representations of scientific information, such as reports,
schematics and diagrams, graphs, tables, equations, models and computer simulations. Moreover, the
students should also be encouraged to investigate and to reflect, reporting their learning orally and in
writing. In speech, they should use their own scientific vocabulary related to the discipline and they
should show a scientific way of thinking, based on concepts, laws and scientific theories (Ministrio da
Educao e Cincia, 2014a).

Also the Programa e Metas Curriculares Matemtica A Ensino Secundrio (Programme and
Benchmarks Mathematics A: Secondary Education) (Ministrio da Educao e Cincia, 2014b),
highlights that the students performance should contribute to the acquisition of knowledge, facts,
concepts and procedures, for construction and development of mathematical reasoning, to solve

45
problems in different contexts, for an appropriate communication (oral and written) and for a
perspective of mathematics as an articulated and coherent whole. In this subject, the students should
be able to read, interpret, mobilise factual knowledge and concepts, and they should also be able to
properly select and apply rules as well as procedures previously studied and trained (Ministrio da
Educao e Cincia, 2014b).

In the available resources, there is no information on time for literacy. It is however stressed how
important it is, so it is likely that it is given time in schools. In Current Changes in Portuguese School
System. The Case of School GeographyFrom Contents to Competences (Esteves, 2012) one can read:
The national curriculums vision is to develop a concept of competence close to the concept of
literacy. Through basic education all students should be able to achieve a certain degree of knowledge
and develop thinking skills and attitudes (Esteves, 2012, p. 3). Also, according to this study, An
analysis of the actions to be developed by each teacher shows a clear concern with the
implementation of activities clearly centered in the development of students competences and less
centered in the specific contents of the several disciplines of basic education they will of course give
the development of specific competences, now related to the curricular contents (Esteves, 2012, p. 3).

Challenge/Need for action: Although the new curricula define standards and benchmarks, it tends to
privilege contents of declarative type to be assessed in the national examinations. Also, this tends to
lead teachers to teach to the tests.

There is a need to mainstream reading / writing literacy across the curriculum and to offer content
area literacy instruction in all school subjects throughout secondary education, whether academic or
vocational.

5.2.3 Reading Instruction

While most literacy researchers have clear concepts about effective literacy instruction, we do not
know much about what is actually going on in classrooms in Portugal. In order to describe the practice
of reading instruction we would need extensive observational studies. However, since teachers, in
Portugal, follow in a very strict way the textbook, it is possible to have a general idea what is going on
in the classroom: reading aloud and answering questions seems to be the strategies commonly used.

PIRLS offer some data for primary schools, albeit based on self-reports by teachers (PIRLS), which
might not be valid and may be biased by social desirability. In PIRLS 2006, fourth-grade reading
teachers reported about instructional materials, strategies and activities. In a latent class analysis
Lankes and Carstensen (2007) identified 5 types of instruction:
Type 1: Teacher-directed instruction in the whole class without individual support
Type 2: Individualized child-centred instruction, seldom whole-class instruction
Type 3: Whole-class instruction with little cognitive stimulation and little variety in methods,
without individual support
Type 4: Variety of methods with high individual support
Type 5: Highly stimulating whole-class instruction with didactic materials.

There were significant differences between countries concerning these types of instruction (Lankes and
Carstensen 2007). Unfortunately, Portugal was not included in this study.

In PIRLS 2011 principals and teachers provided some information on language and reading instruction.
Concerning the instructional time spent on language and reading, the following results are of

46
interest. Therefore, one can observe that the instruction spent on time to teaching the Portuguese
language in primary schools is 281 hours, somewhat higher than the International Average (232 hours).
The average number of hours allocated to teaching reading as part of language instruction, each year,
in Portugal is 82 hours, which is marginally more than the International Average (70 hours). Also in
teaching reading across the curriculum and in reading classes, Portuguese teachers report allocating
more time (235 hours) than the International Average (146 hours) (Mullis at al. 2012a, p. 214; EU
averages from PIRLS 2011 database).

Activities of teachers to develop students comprehension skills and to engage them

In PIRLS 2011, reading teachers were asked which activities they use to develop students reading
comprehension skills. The following are percentages of students whose teachers asked them to do the
following daily or almost daily (Portugal and EU-24 average):
Compare texts read with experiences: 59% (EU avg. = 35%)
Compare what they have read with materials in other texts: 47% (EU avg. = 22%)
Identify main ideas of what they had read: 95% (EU avg. = 55%)
Explain or support or understanding of what has been read: 49% (EU avg. = 62%)
Make predictions about what will happen next in the text: 42% (EU avg. = 22%)
Make generalizations and draw inferences: 56% (EU avg. = 36%)
Describe the style and structure of the text: 80% (EU avg. = 23%)
Determine the authors perspective and intention: 45% (EU avg. = 21%)
Locate information within the text: 95% (EU avg. = 66%)

Source: PIRLS 2011 database. See Mullis, Martin, Minnich, Drucker & Ragan, 2012a, p. 226; also see
Table I1 in Appendix C.

PIRLS also assessed which instructional practices teachers use to engage students in learning. PIRLS
2011 demonstrates that students whose teachers used instructional practices to engage students
learning in most lessons (items: summarizing the lessons goals, relating the lesson to students daily
lives, questioning to elicit reasons and explanations, encouraging students to show improvement,
praising students for good effort, bringing interesting things to class) had higher scores in reading
than those with such practices used in only about half the lessons or less (Mullis et al. 2012a, p. 220). In
Portugal, 89% of students were in classrooms in which students were engaged in most lessons. This
compares favorably with the EU-24 average of 70%.

It is unclear why, on the one hand, teachers in Portugal report a relatively strong emphasis on a range
of comprehension strategies during teaching and learning, when, on the other, several of those
strategies, including those described in PIRLS 2011 as involving the examination of content, language
and textual elements, are not strongly emphasised in the intended curriculum. Besides, national
research highlights teachers lack of knowledge on specific teaching of reading comprehension
strategies (Dionsio et al. 2011). This might be due to the strong teachers dependency of the
textbooks, across all grades and subjects (Moreira et al. 2006). According to PIRLS: 67% of teachers
reported to use textbooks as a basis for instruction (Mullis et al. 2012a, p. 236).

As pointed out above (table 20 and 21) there are remarkable gaps in reading achievement - equivalent
to more than two years of schooling between adolescent students with good knowledge of reading
strategies and those who have a limited knowledge of strategies, including metacognitive ones. Data
from PISA 2009 also shows that there is a need for explicit instruction of reading strategies: there is a

47
gap of 89 score points between students who know which strategies are the most efficient to
understand and remember a text (532 score points) and those who have a limited knowledge of that
(443 score points); there is also a gap of 95 score points between students who know which strategies
are the most efficient to summarize a text (530 score points) and those who have a limited knowledge
of that (440 score points).

Another matter of concern is the fact that the teaching of Portuguese Language, as well as
Mathematics, in 4th grade, as in 6th and 9th grades, is heavily oriented towards national examinations
that students must complete at the end of the school year.

Challenge/Need for action: Reading instruction cannot be totally dependent on textbooks, because
these resources hardly include the range of adequate strategies needed for reading comprehension.
Reading instruction shall not occur only because of national exams.

Explicit teaching of reading strategies, including metacognitive ones, is highly desirable.

Digital literacy part of the curriculum for primary and secondary schools

In Portugal there are national strategies covering training measures in ICT in schools, digital/media
literacy and e-skills development. These strategies are documented in Central steering documents for
all ICT learning objectives and for developing programme skills at secondary education level.
According to these official steering documents, students and teachers should use ICT in all subjects in
class and for complementary activities. The documents also contain recommendations on the use of
ICT in student assessment. Public-private partnerships promote the use of hardware and software in
schools, ICT training for teachers and students (European Commission, 2013b, p. 4).

ICT is integrated into the curriculum of secondary education since 2012 (by the Directorate-General of
Education). ICT is an autonomous subject, but it had already been present as a practical,
interdisciplinary, cross-curricular theme. So teachers from all subjects should implement ICT during
classes. ICT is also assessed through a national exam and other types of certificates (Diploma in Basic
ICT Skills). The Education Technology Plan provides ICT training for teachers at secondary school
(Prez-Tornero, 2014, p. 3).

It should be noted that these are only steering documents. It would be desirable to do more research
on the implementation of these plans.

Following the available studies, in Portugal, on average, ICT-based activities are in fact planned only
several times a month. At 11th grade of vocational education, the score of frequency is the highest
(2.18: more than several times a month but less than at least once a week). The frequency of
students ICT-based activities during lessons at all grades is nearly several times a month, but also at
11th grade of vocational education, the score of frequency is the highest (1.88). Student-centred
learning seems to develop the frequency of ICT-based activities. Also, only nearly half of students at
8th and 11th grades of vocational education as well as 11th grade of general education, and only 13%
of grade 8th and 10% of grade 11th of general education use a school desktop computer or laptop for
learning purposes at least weekly. Furthermore, only a litle more than one third of students of 8th
grade students (36%), nearly one third of 11th grade students of general education (31%) and 11th
grade students of vocational education (27%) use interactive whiteboards at least weekly (European
Commission, 2013b).

48
The level of connectedness and equipment depends on the type of digitally equipped school: at 8th
grade, nearly one third have a high equipment level and fast broadband; at 11th grade of general
education over half; at 11th grade of vocational education half the schools (European Commission,
2013b, p. 26).

The Emedus study points out that teachers have training in ICT and use ICT frequently in their lessons.
In most schools an ICT coordinator helps in the implementation of new technologies within teaching
and learning contexts, although teachers tend not to engage in innovative activities. This study also
mentions that, in Portugal, all public schools have a good broadband connection and students can use
appropriate hardware, especially laptops (Prez-Tornero, 2014, p. 3).

Early identification of and support for struggling literacy learners

Effective assessment tools upon entry to primary school will help teachers identify literacy skills from
the very beginning of formal education. Regular formative assessment throughout primary school will
ensure that literacy problems do not continue to go unrecognised, and that students receive the
support they need through education that matches their learning needs. This should prevent children
leaving school with unrecognised literacy problems (EU HLG, 2012, p. 67).

Standards as basis of assessment of reading difficulties

Standards of reading achievement allowing teachers, parents and school leaders to understand the
rate of progress of learners and to identify individual strengths and needs should be integrated in the
curriculum and should be the basis of assessments. The High Level Group pointed out that there is a
need to establish minimal standards of literacy achievement (benchmarks) for each grade, and to
administer regular tests based on these standards, to allow for identification of struggling
readers/writers (EU HLG, 2012, p. 43).

All EU countries have defined learning objectives in reading to be reached at the end of primary and
secondary education cycles. However, only a few Member States have detailed standards (benchmarks)
at each grade (school year) which form the basis of assessments allowing for early identification of
reading difficulties and subsequent allocation of attention and resources. These standard-based
assessments allow teachers and school leaders to judge childrens progress and to target additional
reading support.

In Portugal, schools define assessment criteria at all levels, for each cycle and year of schooling, in
st th
agreement with guidelines outlined in the national curriculum. In 1 to 4 Grades, the teachers council
proposes the criteria, while in 5th to 12th Grades, curricular departments and cycle coordinators suggest
them. Teachers are responsible for assessing students and awarding grades.

Screenings for reading competence to identify struggling readers

Pupil assessment in Portugal consists of diagnostic, summative and formative methods. Diagnostic
assessment is carried out at the beginning of each school year, and it takes into account the definition
of strategies for pedagogic differentiation designed to overcome learning difficulties, facilitates
student integration and supports educational and vocational guidance and counselling. Formative
assessment, then, is continuous and helps pupils and teacher regulate the learning process. Summative

49
assessment takes place at the end of school year and is based on formative assessment. Teachers are
29
responsible for student assessment .

One of the main aims of the assessment is to support the education process in such a way as to
sustain the success of all students and permit the readjustment of school and class curricular projects,
particularly with regard to the selection of methodologies and resources, in accordance with the
students educational needs (OECD, 2012c).

In addition, the Decree-Law nr. 3/2008, 7th January establishes that the statementing of the pupils who
have special needs is necessary. The statementing must be done as soon as it the need becomes
apparent, and doing so is the responsibility of the parents, guardians, Early Intervention services,
teachers, or other services involved with a child or young people. Statementing should be made to the
administrative management bodies and management schools, through a document which explains all
relevant reasons.

According to Gonalves and Ferreira (2012), primary teachers in Grades 14 are responsible for the
initial diagnosis of reading difficulties of their students. Once a teacher identifies a situation and
explains it to the first cycle teaching department, the teacher then presents the issue to a school
pedagogical board, which decides on the best way to support the student.

Monitoring students progress in reading and writing

Student assessment includes diagnostic assessment, as well as formative and summative assessment.
Internal assessment of students takes place at the end of each term and school year. In basic and
secondary school, assessment is organised into three different modalities:

Diagnostic carried out by each teacher at the beginning of each school year, or whenever
considered opportune, taking into account the definition of strategies for pedagogic
differentiation designed to overcome learning difficulties, facilitate student integration and
support educational and vocational guidance and counselling;
Formative continuous and systematic, by using various instruments to collect information,
adequate to the diversity of the teaching and learning process, acting as a regulator of the
process, helping teachers and students to identify and overcome difficulties, to plan and to
take decisions;
Summative takes place at the end of each school term using the information gathered
from formative assessment. Classification and certification are the main functions of this
modality (Decree-Law nr. 139/2012, 5th July).

Additionally, the national examinations take place at 4th, 6th and 9th grade for Portuguese language and
mathematics, and at 11th and 12th grades for a range of subjects (depending on which subjects the
student is enrolled in). Results from national examinations affect students assessment and
certification. In national examinations of Portuguese language at the end of the 4th, 6th, 9th, 11th and
th
12 grades, the performance of the students in reading and writing is also assessed.

The national examination and the tests completed during the school year assess reading in terms of
comprehension, interpretation and reflection, as well as the knowledge and grammatical skills dictated
by the curriculum guidelines for each school level.

29
See https://webgate.ec.europa.eu/fpfis/mwikis/eurydice/index.php/Portugal:Assessment_in_Single_Structure
_Education (Accessed July 31, 2014).

50
It falls to the Portuguese teacher to assess the adolescents progress in reading and writing during the
school year.

In PIRLS 2011, 92% of students in Portugal were taught by teachers who reported that a major
emphasis was placed on the evaluation of students ongoing work to monitor students progress in
reading; the corresponding EU-24 average is 84%. In addition, 72% of students were taught by
teachers who reported placing a major emphasis on the use of classroom tests for this purpose (EU-24
average = 51%), and 19% were taught by teachers who reported placing a major emphasis on the use
of national or regional tests (EU-24 average = 25%) (ELINET PIRLS Appendix, Table I8).

Challenge/Need for action: Urgent seems to be the identification of struggling readers and learners
in order to systematically support them, allocating attention and resources accordingly, targeting low
performing schools; and closely linking assessment and support programmes delivered by adequately
qualified teachers and specialists.

Student assessments will need to be re-designed to measure complex competences and

interdisciplinary approaches more efficiently, not only in terms of literacy (and digital literacy) but also
in terms of other curricular key competences such as learning to learn; social and civic competences;
cultural awareness and expression; and competence in science and technology.

Classroom-based formative assessments that provide information on learners understanding of

interconnections and processes (rather than fragments of knowledge), or ability to perform complex
tasks (Looney & Michel, 2014, p. 5) are needed. Also it is important to integrate ICT to support
collaborative work, to provide access to educational resources, to track learner progress and to assess
higher-order thinking.

Supporting struggling literacy learners

In Portugal, the support measures for pupils with reading difficulties are largely the same at primary as
at lower secondary level of education (EACEA/Eurydice, 2011).

Although one can say that the field of specific learning disabilities, in Portugal, is characterised by a
lack of a technically adequate system of school-wide screening and progress monitoring (Mendona &
Martins, 2014), the Decree-Law nr. 3/2008, 7th January defines the specialised support given to pupils
with permanent special educational needs. The support is implemented through the following
measures:
personalised pedagogical support;
individual curriculum adjustment;
adjustment to the enrolment process;
adjustment to the assessment process;
individual specific curriculum;
support technology.

Grade repetition, which also could be considered a support form, is rather common in Portugal;
concerning 30% of the 15-year-olds. Repetition has been seen as a tool to respond to an individual
weakness and preserve an even attainment level within a classroom (OECD, 2012b).

Gonalves and Ferreira (2012) note that, at primary level in Portugal, different courses of action are
available, based on different sources of difficulty. A child who requires a major intervention due to a
physical or cognitive difficulty may be designated as having special education needs. Alternatively,

51
remediation or temporary support may be provided. They note that, in all cases, the students teacher
is involved in the chosen programme to provide assistance or special instruction.

Number of struggling readers receiving remedial instruction

Based on a question that class teachers answered in PIRLS 2011, it is estimated that 11.2% of students
in Fourth grade in Portugal are considered to be in need of remedial reading instruction. It is also
estimated by teachers that 7.9% are in receipt of remedial reading instruction (ELINET PIRLS 2011
Appendix, Table K1). On average across EU-24 countries, 18.1% of students in Grade 4 are identified by
their teachers as being in need of remedial teaching, while 13.3% are identified as being in receipt of
such teaching.

In Portugal, 15.9% of students in Fourth grade performed at or below the PIRLS low benchmark on
overall reading (ELINET PIRLS 2011 Appendix, Table A6). Hence, the percentages of students in
Portugal estimated to be in need of (11.2%) and in receipt of remedial reading instruction (7.9%) are
below the percentage who performed poorly on PIRLS.

Kinds of support offered

It is crucial that teachers provide support measures to help struggling readers. European Countries
differ widely in their approaches, from in-class support with additional support staff (reading
specialists, teaching assistants or other adults) working in the classroom together with a teacher, to
out-of-class support where speech therapists or (educational) psychologists offer guidance and
support for students with reading difficulties.

PIRLS 2011 provides information about additional staff and availability of support persons for reading.
Just 4% of students in Portugal were in classes where there was always access to specialised
professionals to work with students who have reading difficulties, compared with an EU-24 average of
25% (Table 23). Six percent of students in Portugal were in classrooms where there was access to a
teacher aide with the same frequency, while 1% were in classrooms where there was access to an
adult/parent volunteer. Corresponding EU-24 averages were 13% and 3%. Hence, students in Portugal
had less access to specialised professionals, teacher aides, and adult volunteers than on average across
the EU-24.

Table 24: Percentages of Students in Classrooms with Access to Additional Personnel to Work with Children with
Reading Difficulties, Portugal and EU 24 Average

Portugal EU-24 Average

Access to... Always Sometimes Never Always Sometimes Never

Specialised
4 33 63 25 42 33
professional

Teacher aide 6 66 28 13 34 53

Adult/parent
1 20 79 3 18 80
volunteer
Source: ELINET PIRLS 2011 Appendix C, Tables K2-K4.

According to responses provided by teachers of Grade 4 students in PIRLS 2011, 27% of students in
Portugal are in classes where the teacher arranges for students falling behind in reading to work with a

52
specialised professional such as a reading professional (Table 25). The corresponding EU average is
higher at 55%. Thirty-seven percent of students in Portugal are in classes whose teachers wait to see if
performance improves with maturation the same as the EU-24 average. Virtually all students in
Portugal (100%) are taught by teachers who spend more time working on reading individually with a
student who falls behind above the EU-24 average (90%). Finally, 99% of students in Portugal and
97% on average across the EU-24 are taught by teachers who ask parents to provide additional
support to a student who falls behind in reading.
Table 25: Percentages of Students in Classrooms Where Teachers Engage in Specified Activities to Support
Students Who Begin to Fall Behind in Reading, Portugal and EU-24 Average PIRLS 2011

Portugal EU-24
(Yes) Average (Yes)
I have students work with a specialised
27 55
professional
I wait to see if performance improves with
37 37
maturation
I spend more time working on reading
100 90
individually with the student
I ask the parents to help the students with
99 97
reading
Source: ELINET PIRLS 2011 Appendix, Tables K5-K8

Support for struggling readers a legal right?

According to the Comprehensive Law on the Education System, one of the general aims of education
is to provide children with special educational needs with conditions that are suitable for their
development and enable them to make full use of their skills. Also, it is said that one of the main goals
of education is to create conditions for educational success for all pupils30. In spite of this discourse, in
the guidelines for Initial Teacher Education institutions, tackling reading difficulties is not a topic at this
training level, in Portugal (European Commission/EACEA/Eurydice 2011, p. 99).

The Implementing Legislative Order nr. 50/05, 9th November of 2005, defines a set of measures
promoting pupils educational success:
the recovery plan, which is applicable to pupils displaying learning difficulties in any subject,
curriculum subject or non-subject area (including specific teaching of Portuguese to foreign
pupils;)
the monitoring plan, applicable to pupils that have fallen behind;
31
the development plan, for pupils who demonstrate exceptional learning capacities .

Furthermore, in the case of dyslexia, if it is diagnosed by specialised professionals such as the school
psychologist, parents may send their child to training and counselling or speech therapy sessions.
Alternatively, students may attend a public school offering either an integrated programme or a

30
See https://webgate.ec.europa.eu/fpfis/mwikis/eurydice/index.php/Portugal:Single_Structure_Education_
(Integrated_Primary_and_Lower_Secondary_Education (Accessed July 31, 2014).
31
See https://www.european-agency.org/country-information/portugal/national-overview/special-needs-
education-within-the-education-system (Accessed July 31, 2014).

53
special needs-based curriculum that prioritises instruction for students with speech impairments or
dyslexia (Gonalves & Ferreira, 2012).

Students with special educational needs benefit from Individual Educational Programmes (IEP) and do
not participate in the national assessment programme but have personalised targets and assessment
criteria associated with their IEP (OECD, 2012c).

Challenges/ Need for action:Policy makers should provide support systems (additional instruction
time, additional experts like reading experts, psychologists, speech therapists) for students falling
behind in literacy.

Pupils with learning difficulties/disabilities or facing some kind of personal, social or emotional
challenges should have more contact with professionals able to support and to guide them. These
students deserve cultural and extra-curricular activities that may broaden their learning opportunities.

The great importance of remedial courses and remedial training should give them priority when
managing school resources.

5.2.4 Initial Teacher Education (ITE) and Continuous Professional Development (CPD) of
Teachers

Entry requirements for Initial Teacher Education

In the Key Data on Teachers and School Leaders in Europe (European Commission/EACEA/Eurydice,
2013), one can read that the enrolment in Initial Teacher Training is exclusively determined at
university level. Admission to tertiary education depends on the final examination of upper secondary
education and can possibly be further determined by a general entrance examination. Furthermore,
the general condition for enrolling in a Masters degree on Education Teaching is demonstrating
mastery in the oral and written form of the Portuguese language (Decree-Law nr. 79/2014, 14th may).
Table 26: Percentages of Students Taught by Teachers with Varying Education Qualifications

Completed
Completed Post
Highest Completed University Bachelors No Further than
Secondary Education
Qualification Post-grad Degree Degree or Upper Secondary
but not a Degree
Equivalent
Portugal 3 91 6 0
EU-24 27 53 14 6
Source: PIRLS 2011 Database (see Mullis et al. 2012a: 188; Appendix C., Table J1).

Level of qualification and length of the required training for primary teachers

Minimum time devoted to in-school placement is centrally defined as 30 ECTS for ISCED 0 and first
cycle of ISCED 1 teachers, and 36 ECTS for 2nd cycle of ISCED 1 and ISCED level 2 teachers
(EACEA/Eurydice, 2011, p. 102).

Length of required training of secondary teachers

Initial teacher training, in Portugal, takes five years in total, which corresponds to masters level
(European Commission/EACEA/Eurydice, 2015).

54
The role of literacy expertise in Initial Teacher Training

In Portugal, broad competencies for teachers training are defined by the State, and must be
considered by teacher education institutions (Universities and Education Colleges) in their Master
Courses on Teaching. The components of training, ensuring their proper integration in line with the
requirements of professional performance, are: general educational training; specific didactics;
introduction to professional practice; cultural, social and ethical education; training in methodologies
of educational research; training in the teaching area/subject (Decree-Law nr. 79/2014, 14th may).

The new system of qualification for teaching values, in particular, the dimension of disciplinary
knowledge, the foundation of teaching practice in research and the introduction to professional
practice. It also requires the oral and written domain of the Portuguese language as a common
dimension of qualification of all educators and teachers (Decree-Law nr. 79/2014, 14th may).

The assessment of oral and written domain of Portuguese Language is carried out through a test that
includes two components: written domain of the Portuguese Language, in the form of a test that
evaluates comprehension and text production (50%); oral domain of the Portuguese Language, in the
form of an interview which falls upon the experience and area of professional training of the candidate
(50%) (Decree-Law nr. 79/2014, 14th may).

However, during the course, only Mother Tongue and Foreign Languages future teachers learn about
literacy and how to teach reading and writing: for 2nd and 3rd school cycles, Mother Tongue and
Foreign Languages future teachers learn reading and writing theory and teaching strategies to
enhance reading and writing skills and promote literary reading; for secondary, Mother Tongue and
Foreign Language future teachers learn comprehension skills and teaching strategies to enhance
reading and writing skills, and to promote literary reading; to create motivation and engagement.
Math and Science future teachers, for example, learn about languages, communication or literacy but
only in their content area (Dionsio & Arqueiro, 2015).

Challenges/ Need for action: Important topics to be addressed in teacher training are:
a) assessment of students communicative strengths and weaknesses;
b) selection of appropriate instructional methods;
c) effective ways of literacy teaching and development

Not all teachers who are involved in teaching reading and writing skills in primary or secondary
schools have a solid training in literacy. Besides, only limited aspects of literacy are mentioned in the
curricula on mother tongue education.

In PIRLS 2011, primary teachers were asked to indicate the level of emphasis given to a number of
topics deemed relevant to teaching literacy in their pre-service teacher education. The data in table 27
suggest that, In Portugal, 72% of the fourth grade students had reading teachers who reported an
emphasis on the language in initial teacher education, 61% had teachers with an emphasis on
pedagogy/teaching reading, and 29% had teachers with an emphasis on reading theory. These figures
are similar to the corresponding EU-24 means. On average across the EU-24, 74% of the fourth grade
students had reading teachers with an educational emphasis on language, 59% had teachers with an
emphasis on pedagogy/teaching reading, and 30% had teachers with an emphasis on reading (PIRLS
2011 Database).

55
Table 27: Percentages of Students Taught by Teachers who Reported each of Several Topics to be Areas of
Emphasis during Initial Teacher Education Portugal and EU-24 Average

Assessment
Test Reading Reading Remedial
Topic Methods in
Language* Pedagogy Theory Reading
Reading
Portugal 72 61 29 27 26
EU-24 74 59 30 22 27
Source: PIRLS 2011 Database (see Mullis et al. 2012a, p.190; Appendix C, Table J2 J3).

If we assume that 100 percent of primary teachers should have solid expertise in Reading Pedagogy,
Reading Assessments and Remedial Reading, teachers in Portugal (as well as teachers in general across
the EU-24) are far from reaching this goal!

Although reading across the curriculum is being more and more recognised as necessary by schools, it
is not yet a shared concept in Portugal. Policy and schools put on mother tongue teachers the
responsibility for teaching reading, expecting that this learning may impact on the performance in
other curricular subjects. Maths teachers (elementary, basic and secondary), for instance, are nowadays
(due the national curriculum) learning about the relevance of including language activities in their
teaching to learn Maths is to learn how to talk Maths is more or less the principle that underlies the
Maths curriculum, whose most prominent aspect is the use of texts to organise and to present maths
information: procedures for explaining and presenting problem solving.

Challenge/Need for action: Initial teacher education needs a compulsory focus on developing
literacy expertise among future primary and secondary teachers.

Literacy expertise should become a clear standard for teacher education in all grades and subjects, not
only for primary teachers, but also for secondary teachers. It should be ensured that initial training
covers topics as the teaching of reading, tackling reading difficulties, assessing pupils reading skills,
and supporting those with persistent difficulties.

Make every teacher a teacher of literacy: it is of crucial importance to make secondary teachers of all
subjects (languages, maths, sciences, history, arts etc.) aware of their task to embed instruction of
content-related literacy skills into their subject classes.

Content area literacy should become a compulsory part of ITE for all secondary teachers.

Continuing Professional Development (CPD)

Seen in an international context, professional learning of teachers in Portugal seems to be an area with
several possibilities for improvement.

As highlighted by Dionsio and Arqueiro (2015), there are numerous courses, workshops, and short
courses about literacy and reading for all elementary teachers (6-12 years). Although mother tongue
and foreign languages basic teachers (low secondary 13-15) and secondary teachers (16-18) also learn
about literacy and teaching reading, there isnt a similar offer for this group of professionals. Because
of this lack, more and more secondary teachers are demanding training in these areas. After 2000, the
Ministry of Education, in order to prepare teachers for the new school curricula, has begun organised
in-service teacher training regarding literacy. Due to the great success it is worth to mention: the

56
continuous training in Math; the National Plan for the Teaching of Portuguese; training for librarian
teachers; training for information literacy; training for media literacy (Dionsio & Arqueiro, 2015).

Research on Content Area on Literacy (CAL) conducted at University of Minho concludes that: i)
teachers recognise the relevance of reading, but not immediately for learning; ii) reading outside
school is highly expected, but teachers hardly guide students to do that and also hardly check
students' readings; iii) reading and writing outside school are taken as recreatiional activities that will
be part of personal development, and not learning tasks; iv) reading and writing inside the classes are
invisible means to acquire knowledge about disciplinary content; v) teachers do not feel responsible
for literacy development (Dionsio et al. 2011).

The main conclusions of these studies reinforce the urgent need for:
raising the awareness of the role of literacy in the learning of all content areas;
the development in all teachers of a shared vocabulary and grammar about reading and
writing regarding texts and literacy skills;
the recognition by teachers that to know instructional strategies includes literacy
development strategies;
the promotion of classroom conditions for students to intentionally interact with texts,
through texts and about texts through which they acquire knowledge (Dionsio et al. 2011).

Time, frame and quality standards of CPD

CPD is conducted by Professors (at Universities or Education Colleges) or by teachers who have been
certified as trainers. The modalities of the CPD are Courses, Workshops, Study circles, Short courses,
Conferences or Seminars, and varying from 12 hours (usually theoretical lectures) up to 50 hours (with
practice in classrooms). Teachers must attend a minimum of 50 hours every two years: 2/3 of that time
training in the content area; 1/3 may concern more general topics or any other subject of their choice,
such as special education, school administration, socio-cultural stimulation, educational guidance,
curriculum development and organisation, teaching-practice supervision and training the trainers,
training management and stimulation, communication in education and information management
(Decree-Law nr. 22/2014, 11th February).

According to information available in Eurypedia, recently, the Portuguese Ministry of Education and
Science came to an agreement with teaching federations and trade unions in relation to the legal
framework for in-service teacher training.

This new legislation foresees that in-service training focuses on: improving the quality of teacher
performance, emphasising training system on priorities identified by the school and teachers
professional performance; supporting the human resources of training bodies and schools by creating
pools of internal trainers; ensuring the training quality given by the different regulating mechanisms of
the Directorate-General of School Administration and the external assessment undertaken by the
Inspectorate-General of Education and Science.

Although it is compulsory for teachers to grow in their careers many of these training courses are not
free.

Moreover, school associations identify individual and school professional development needs, and
provide training directly or in association with higher education institutions. The Ministry of Education
may establish protocols with teacher education institutions or other bodies to implement specific plans
for priority areas (European Commission/EACEA/Eurydice, 2015)

57
Participation in CPD

Following the information available in Eurypedia, in Portugal, "On-going education is ensured as a

right and a duty and has the aim of up-grading and up-dating the teachers professional knowledge
and competences, his/her professional mobility and progress in his/her career" and 25 hrs of CPD per
year are mandatory.

According to Key data on education in Europe 2012 (European Commission/EACEA/Eurydice, 2012:

118) and the Decree-Law nr. 22/2014, 11th February, CPD is clearly linked to career progression or
promotion, i.e. advancement to a different occupational grade; non-participation in CPD activities may
even be penalised or regarded as a negative element in teachers' appraisal. Thus, teachers need to
complete successfully a minimum of 25 or 50 hours (depending on their grade) of accredited in-
service training sessions (European Commission/EACEA/Eurydice, 2015).

Support by the employer for attending CPD

The Decree-Law nr. 22/2014, 11th February sets out that the Ministry of Education shall ensure that all
teachers have access to free actions in continuous training. Additionally, it is established that if the
training is offered by the Government, it is free of charge and the Government should give days off.
Another incentive is the fact that the training course is deemed working time and, as such, is
remunerated. Yet, teachers may only attend the training after the school /Group of schools ensure that
there will not be a break in the lessons that the teacher usually gives and, if the training course is an
initiative of the teachers, it will have to be done when there is no teaching (for instance, during the
school holidays).

According to the Teaching Profession in Europe: Practices, Perceptions, and Policies (European
Commission/EACEA/Eurydice, 2015), in Portugal, teachers have their travel expenses to attend CPD
courses paid by Government, but only if the distance between a teachers home and place of training
is greater than a fixed minimum.

In Portugal 29% of teachers undertook professional development activities without receiving any type
of support. This fact might reflect a high commitment of teachers in that country to improving their
effectiveness and performance (OECD, 2014b, p.97).

Time spent on professional development related to literacy

In PIRLS 2011 teachers were asked how much time they had spent on professional development in
reading in the past two years. In Portugal, 45% of the students have teachers who spent 16 hours or
more (EU-24 average: 18%), 36% had teachers who spent some time but less than 16 hours (EU-24
average 53%), and 1% had teachers who spent no time (EU-24 average 29%) (Table 28). These figures
show a relatively high engagement of Portuguese teachers in CPD (as defined by PIRLS).
Table 28: Percentages of Students with Teachers Allocating Varying Amounts of Time to Professional
Development Related to Reading in the Last Two Years Portugal and EU-24 Average

More than 35
16-35 hours 6-15 hours Less than 6 hours None
hours
Portugal 33 11 22 14 19
EU-24 9 9 25 28 29
Source: PISA 2011 database (see Mullis et al. 2012a: 196 ; Table J4 in Appendix C).

58
Challenge/Need for action: Improving the quality and participation rates of continuing professional
development targeted at building literacy expertise of teachers is needed. CPD should closely connect
theory to practice and systematically integrate practical application of the newly learned content and
methods into the teachers regular classrooms.

Literacy promotion and literacy instruction across the curriculum should be a systematic part of CPD
addressing teachers of all grades and all subjects

5.2.5 Digital literacy as part of initial teacher education and Continuing Professional
Development

Following the Portuguese Legislative Order nr. 13608/2012, the Ministry of Education of Portugal has
launched the ERTE, a multidisciplinary team that develops activities under the guidance of the
Directorate of Educational Project Services. Among others, the ERTE has as its goals: to manage, to
keep, to widen and to improve the educational repository of educational digital resources; to create
the guidelines for educational use of ICTs to be used in the context of initial teacher training and
continuing professional development (Legislative Order nr. 13608/2012).

Moreover, in order to ensure the technological modernisation of education, in 2008 the Portuguese
Ministry of Education published Technological Plan for Education. According to the Ministry of
Educations diagnostic study on technological modernisation of the educational system in Portugal,
ICT ought to be totally and transversally integrated in teaching and learning methods (Rizza, 2011, p.
12).

So, although the steering documents recommend ICT as part of the initial education of all teachers, in
Key Data on Learning and Innovation through ICT at School in Europe, it is said that institutions are still
free to decide whether or not to include ICT in initial teacher education courses (European
Commission/EACEA/Eurydice, 2011, p. 66).

Challenge/Need for action: Classroom practice should be more aligned with steering documents.

Investments in research and development as well as in identifying effective support tools for teaching
are urgent (Looney & Michel, 2014).

5.2.6 Improving the quality of literacy teaching for children and adolescents: Programmes,
initiatives and examples

Improving the quality of preschool

In Portugal, the curriculum for preschool education was established in 1997, enshrining the preschool
as the first stage of the lifelong learning process. The Orientaes Curriculares para a Educao Pr-
escolar (Ministrio da Educao/Ncleo da Educao Pr-escolar, 1997) (Curricular Guidelines for
Preschool Education) is the reference document for all educators, from the National Network of
Preschool Education, and it provides guidance for all educators decisions in the educational process
leading to the development of the children. This guideline document aims at promoting an
improvement of the quality of preschool education in Portugal, and organising the educational
component. The curriculum for preschool emphasises the role of literacy for children and for lifelong
learning.

59
Providing more cognitively demanding literacy instruction in school

The project EMA Escola Melhor Amares (For a Better School)

In 2014, the Schools Grouping of Amares has implemented the project EMA Escola Melhor
Amares (For a Better School), which was supported by the Calouste Gulbenkian Foundation, through
the programme EMA- Estmulo Melhoria das Aprendizagens (Stimulating the Learning
Improvement). The main goals of EMA Escola Melhor Amares are to promote more and better
learning across all school grades, from preschool to basic education, and consequently improve the
educational achievement, and motivate teachers about the relevance of literacy practices in the
acquisition of disciplinary knowledge. The intervention of the project builds in three action plans:
consolidation of a set of students' support mechanisms, extending their scope and
improving their efficacy, by, for instance, providing support to students in the grades with
national examinations (4th , 6th , 9th grades)
Development of reading across all grades and subjects.
Opportunity to broaden the use of information literacy within classrooms32

The project FENIX Mais sucesso Escolar (More Educational achievement)

This is a national initiative which aims at providing conditions and opportunities for learning and
consolidation of knowledge. This project is based in a school organisational model which enables the
provision of a more personalised approach for students with learning difficulties in Portuguese,
Mathematics or other subjects, for instance through pedagogical differentiation33.

Early identification of and support for children and adolescents with literacy difficulties

Monitorizao do Risco de Dificuldades de Aprendizagem Especificas na Leitura de Alunos do 4 ano

(Use of monitoring based on the curriculum as a way to identify students at risk of developing
learning disabilities in the reading area)

Developed by the Research Centre in Education (CIEd) of University of Minho, and financed by The
Foundation for Science and Technology, the main goal of this study was to describe the use of
curriculum-based monitoring (CBM) of reading fluency for identifying students at risk for presenting
dyslexia. One hundred and forty-six students in the 3rd grade from a group of schools in Braga,
Portugal, have participated in the study. They were monitored twice during the school year. The
students whose result was below or in the 20th percentile were considered at risk.

The results of the project show that:

1) The CBM reading fluency test was economic, quick and easy to apply and measure and well
accepted by teachers and students;
2) On average, the students' results for the first application were 85.21 (SD=28.41) correct words
per minute (cwpm), and 97.46 (SD=30.07) cwpm in the second application (at the end of the
school year);
3) The weekly increase was 0.49 (SD=0.38) cwpm;
4) After the second application, 11 boys and 18 girls were considered at risk for presenting
dyslexia;
5) The difference in results between class groups was statistically significant;

32
See http://correiodominho.pt/cronicas.php?id=6124 (Accessed October 13, 2015).
33
See http://agrupamentodmariaii.pt/userfiles/file/Projeto_Fenix.pdf (Accessed October 13, 2015).

60
 6) Considering the sample results, at the end of the school year in two classes, more than 30% of
students were at risk;
7) 70.55 % did not reach the goal of 110 cwpm stipulated by the Ministry of Education for that
school level;
8) The Cronbach's Alpha coefficient for the first application was 0.981 and 0.978 for the second
application.

This project has contributed to the extension of the existing knowledge in the field of reading and risk
for reading failure, in a population of 1,400 students who were screened from second through fourth
grade with Curriculum-Based Measurement probes (Mendona & Martins, 2014).

Pre-service and in-service teacher training

Programa Nacional do Ensino do Portugus (PNEP) (National Plan for the Teaching of Portuguese)

In Portugal, between 2006 and 2010, the government has implemented the 'National Plan for the
Teaching of Portuguese'. It was an initiative to improve the teaching of the Portuguese language in
schools, in particular, the teaching of reading comprehension and oral and written communication.
One teacher from each school applying for the programme was selected to be trained in a higher
education institution for one school year. In the following year, this same teacher should disseminate
the knowledge gained, by delivering the same training, to a group of teachers within the school
(Decree-law nr. 546/2007, 11th January).

5.3 Increasing participation, inclusion and equity

The High Level Group of Experts on Literacy drew attention to persistent gaps in literacy, namely the
gender gap, the socio-economic gap, and the migrant gap (EU HLG, 2012, pp. 4650). These gaps
derive from the reading literacy studies that repeatedly show unequal distribution of results among
groups of children and adolescents (PIRLS, PISA).

The socio-economic gap in literacy refers to the fact that children and adolescents from
disadvantaged families have lower mean performance in reading than students from more advantaged
families. However, the degree to which family background relates to the reading literacy performance
varies from one country to another even in Europe. Family background measured as parents
educational level and/or occupation or measured as economic, social and cultural status is one of the
most important predictors of reading literacy performance. Family background also explains some of
the performance differences between schools.

The migrant gap refers to unequal distribution of learning outcomes between the native students and
immigrant students who in most countries have lower levels of performance in reading than the native
students. In many countries the migrant gap is associated with the socio-economic gap but this
explains only a part of it, because the migrant gap is also associated with home language differing
from the language of instruction at school, which increases the risk of low performance in reading. It is
noteworthy that even language minorities with high status in the society (and above-average
socioeconomic background) show below average performance if the language of school is not
supported at home, which signals the importance of a good command of the language used at school.

Another alarming gap in reading literacy in many countries is the gender difference, which is more
vital for adolescents than for children. In all PISA studies, 15-year-old girls outperformed boys in

61
reading in all the European countries, and boys are frequently overrepresented among the low
performers. PISA 2009 results showed that these differences are associated with differences in student
attitudes and behaviours that are related to gender, i.e. with reading engagement, and not gender as
such. Therefore the gender gap is also related to growing up in a family or in a school environment
that values reading and learning and considers reading as a meaningful activity.

To achieve fairer and more inclusive participation in literacy learning we need to close these gaps,
which already start in early childhood, by supporting children, adolescents and adults at risk. The
groups of students at risk must have access to language screening and flexible language learning
opportunities in school, tailored to individual needs. Furthermore early support for children and
adolescents with special needs is necessary.

In the section below we address the following questions:

Compensating socio-economic and cultural background factors
Support for children with special needs
Promoting preschool attendance, especially among disadvantaged children
Provisions for preschool children with language difficulties
Support for children and adolescents whose home language is not the language of school.
Preventing early school leaving
Addressing the gender gap among adolescents

This section (s. 1.5) refers to children and adolescents who, for different reasons, can be considered as
a group at risk (from disadvantaged homes, those whose home language is not the language of
school, or those with special needs). The focus is on preventing literacy difficulties among members
of these groups. There is a certain overlap with the topic Identification of and support for struggling
literacy learners, dealt with in the section, Improving the quality of teaching, which is concerned with
those who have already developed literacy difficulties (s. 5.2.4).

According to Santiago, Donaldson, Looney and Nusche (2012) little is known about educational
disadvantage in the Portuguese education system. There is no differential analysis on student
performance across specific groups such as migrant students, students from disadvantaged families or
those who live in a remote location. The authors also highlighted that no measures of equity in the
education system have been developed in order to monitor progress towards reducing inequities
(Santiago et al. 2012, p.31). The absence of good information about the socio-economic background
of students hinders the ability to conduct good research about its impact on student performance, and
therefore limits the ability of the system to assess whether it is achieving its equity objectives
(Santiago et al. 2012, p. 125).

Challenge/Need for action: Equity and inclusion are areas for further policy attention, and also
targets for school and teachers actions.

5.3.1 Compensating socio-economic and cultural background factors

The childs socioeconomic and cultural background has a strong impact on literacy. Material poverty is
well-recognized main factor influencing literacy (World Bank, 2005; Naudeau et al. 2011). Socio-
economic background also influences biological risks to children, by determining early exposure to risk
factors and increased susceptibility (Jednorg et al. 2012). The primary language spoken at home also
influences literacy development (Sylva et al. 2004).

62
In order to describe the socioeconomic and cultural factors that influence emergent literacy, several
indicators were used which stem from international surveys, thus providing comparability across
Europe (for more information concerning the concepts and indicators s. Appendix A).

Gini index

The Gini index is the most commonly used measure of inequality, and represents the income
distribution of a nation's residents with values between 0% (maximum equality) and 100% (maximum
inequality). In the European countries participating in ELINET the range is from 22.6% in Norway to
35% in Spain (for an overview of European countries see table A1 in Appendix B). With 34.5% Portugal
is very close to Spain.

Child poverty

An indicator of child poverty is the percentage of children living in a household in which disposable
income, when adjusted for family size and composition, is less than 50% of the national median
income (UNICEF/Innocenti Research Centre, 2012). The range is from 4.7% in Iceland to 25.5% in
Romania (for an overview of European countries see table A2 in Appendix B). With 14.7%, Portugal is in
a group in the middle of the distribution.

Mothers education level

The PIRLS 2011 database offers information about mother`s level of education referring to ISCED
levels. The figures for Portugal are presented below and point to a high level of education, compared
with the average figures for the European countries participating in PIRLS (shown in parentheses) (for
an overview of European countries see table A3 in Appendix B).

No schooling: 0.38% (0.6%)

ISCED 1: primary education: 19.1% (5.3%)
ISCED 2: Lower secondary education: 18.8% (16.7 %)
ISCED 3: Upper secondary education: 33.13% (36.1%)
ISCED 4: Post-secondary non-tertiary education: 3.7% (7.1 %)
ISCED 5B: Tertiary education (first stage) with occupation orientation: 3.33% (9.5%)
ISCED 5A: Tertiary education (first stage) with academic orientation: 18.08% (13.9%)
BEYOND: 3.35% (10.1%)
Not applicable: 0.84% (0.9%).

Teenage mothers

According to UNICEF (2001) the percentage of teenage mothers is 21.2% for Portugal. The range for
the European countries participating in ELINET is from 5.5% in Switzerland to 30.8% in United Kingdom
(for an overview of European countries see table A4 in Appendix B).

Single parent

According to Eurostat (2012, Figure A 7), in Portugal the percentage of children living mainly with a
single parent is 7.90%. The range for the European countries participating in ELINET is from 1.4% in
Croatia to 30% in Denmark (for an overview of European countries see table A5 in Appendix B).

63
Migrant Background

About 5.5% of students of 15 years old, in Portugal, have an immigrant background. In the last decade
the number of immigrants has increased considerably, many of whom do not have Portuguese as a
mother tongue. This is a development which represents a new challenge to the education system
(Donaldson et al. 2012).

In Portugal, according the General Directorate of Statistics on Education and Science (Direo-Geral de
Estatsticas da Educao e Cincia/Direo de Servios de Estatsticas da Educao, 2015, p. 28), in the
school year 2013/2014, there were 56,184 students of other nationalities enrolled in the educational or
training system.

Primary language spoken at home different from language used at school

In Portugal, 90% of pupils reported that they always spoke the language of the PIRLS reading test at
home above the corresponding EU-24 Average (80). Ten percent of students in Portugal reported
that they sometimes or never spoke the language of the test at home. The difference in achievement
between pupils in Portugal reporting that they always or sometimes/never spoke the language of the
test was 12 score points some 14 points lower than the corresponding EU-24 average difference (26).

According to Santiago, Donaldson, Looney and Nusche (2012), given the importance of the mastery
level of the language of instruction and the growing number of students whose mother tongue is not
Portuguese, gathering information is surely needed, not only to improve decision making at school
level, but also to determine a national strategy and teachers guidance for these populations.

Challenge/Need for action: Due to the socio-economic and cultural factors that influence emergent
literacy, policies and action for parental support is urgent, together with more cognitively stimulating
school activities.

It is desirable to gather more comprehensive data on the linguistic profiles of basic and secondary
students, when planning a language strategy at the national level and when making decisions about
specific resources and support for second language learners.

5.3.2 Support for children with special needs

Not only children from culturally disadvantaged families are at risk in their literacy development but
also those with very low birth weight and severe prematurity, factors that are associated with
developmental disabilities, including reading and writing disabilities. Also cognitive and sensory
disabilities must be considered.

Very low birth weight and severe prematurity

According to the report European Perinatal Health Report. The health and care of pregnant women and
babies in Europe in 2010 (EURO-PERISTAT Project/SCPE/EUROCAT, 2013, p. 149) the percentage of live
births with a birth weight under 2500 grams in Portugal was 7.3%. The range is from 3.0% in Iceland to
8.8% in Cyprus (for an overview of European countries see table E1 in Appendix B).

According to the same source (EURO-PERISTAT Project/SCPE/EUROCAT, 2013, p. 155) the percentage
of live births with a gestational age <32 weeks is 1% in Portugal (with a range from 0.7% in Iceland to
1.4% in Hungary). The percentage of live births with a gestational age between 32 and 36 weeks was

64
6.6% (with a range from 4.5% in Lithuania to 7.5% in Hungary (for an overview of European countries
see table E2 in Appendix B).

Cognitive or sensory disabilities

In Portugal, to achieve political correctness, the terms disability and impairment are no longer in use.
The term now is special educational needs. Special educational needs are classified with regard to
pupils special educational requirements into the following categories (percentage of children in
parenthesis) (Correia, 2008):
physical development (1.10%);
learning (48%);
communication development (22%);
hearing (1.3%);
vision (0.5%);
mental illness (14%);
behavioural problems (10%);
autism (0,12%);
Oher health problems (1%);
skull fracture (0,01%);
multiple (1,95%);
Others (6%).

In the school year 2014/2015, there were 75.032 students (boys and girls) with Special Educational
Needs that attended public and private schools34.

Figure 4: Number of students (boys and girls) with Special Educational Needs that attended public and private
schools, in the school year 2014/2015.

Type of school
Educational Total Public Private
level
Boys and Boys and Boys and
Girls Girls Girls
girls girls girls
Total 75 032 28 408 67 695 25 603 7 337 2 805
Preschool
3 731 1 168 2 906 917 825 251
education
Basic education 62 323 23 641 57 226 21 643 5 097 1 998
Secondary
8 978 3 599 7 563 3 043 1 415 556
education

Challenge/ Need for action: As mentioned in the report Polticas Pblicas de Educao Especial
(Public policies in Special Education) (Conselho Nacional de Educao, 2014, p. 36), several
improvements are needed in the area of Special Educational Needs:
relevant mechanisms and support for students progress between cycles;
adequate solutions for students when they have completed the school career;

34
See http://www.dgeec.mec.pt/np4/224/ (Accessed October 13, 2015).

65
 educational resources and solutions concerning school organisation;
skills profile of students for teachers of Special Education Needs;
a material and technological resources databases;
more human resources for a better inclusion of children into schools full-time.

5.3.3 Promoting preschool attendance, especially among disadvantaged children

According to European Commission/EACEA/Eurydice/Eurostat (2014, Figure C1 p.62), the enrolment

rate at age 4 is 95.4%. Portugal almost reaches the European benchmark for at least 95% of children
between age 4 and the start of compulsory education participating in ECEC (for an overview of
European countries see table C1 in Appendix B).

The OECD Family Database (2014) offers more differentiated figures for participation rates at ages 3, 4
and 5. According to 2010 statistical data, the participation rate is 97.5% for 5-year-olds, 86.2% for 4-
year-olds, and 68.0% for 3-year-olds (OECD 2014) (for an overview of European countries see table C2
in Appendix B).

The benefits of attending preschool institutions have been proving in many studies. The duration of
attendance is associated with greater academic improvement (Mullis et al. 2012b).

There is a positive relationship between the length of preschool education attendance in Portugal and
the average reading score in grade 4, as PIRLS 2011 data show (Mullis et al. 2012a, p. 128). These are
the figures for Portugal:
3 years and more: 45% (average reading score 549)
Between 1 and 3 years: 37% (average reading score 544)
1 year or less: 8% (average reading score 533)
Did not attend: 9% (average reading score 522)
(For an overview of European countries s. table C3 in Appendix B).

In Portugal, there is a significant difference in reading competence at grade 4 for students

participating and not participation in preschool: the reading score of pupils who attended pre-primary
education for 3 years and more was 27 points higher than that of pupils who did not attend at all.

5.3.4 Provisions for preschool children with language problems

Literacy competence strongly builds on oral language proficiency, word knowledge, and syntactic
knowledge. Measures must be taken by governments and institutions to ensure that children with
poor language development (second-language speaking children and those from a low socio-cultural
background, as well as others who experience difficulty in learning language) acquire adequate levels
of oral language in kindergarten, preschool institutions and in school.

In Portugal, the new programme Metas de Aprendizagem para a Educao Pr-Escolar (Learning
goals for Preschool Education), defines, for the content area oral language and written approach, that,
at the end of the preschool, all pupils should be able to mobilise linguistic knowledge which is crucial
not only in the learning process of written language, but also in school success. In this document
verbal interaction abilities are emphasised, the phonological awareness as well as emergent behaviours
of reading and writing35.

35
See http://metasdeaprendizagem.dge.mec.pt/educacao-pre-escolar/apresentacao/ (Accessed October 15,
2015).

66
Also, in the specific profile of professional development for kindergarten teachers, in the area of
expression and communication, it is mentioned that the teacher should:
create a communication environment in order to provide specific opportunities of
interaction for children with other kids and with adults;
promote the development of oral language, especially among children of disadvantaged
groups;
foster the development of emergent behaviours of reading and writing, through the use of
written materials;
organise activities and projects that allow the motor development, in order to develop
narrative capabilities and verbal and non-verbal Communication skills (Decree-Law nr.
241/2001, 30th August).

5.3.5 Support for children and adolescents whose home language is not the language of school

When a foreign pupil enters the public education system, they first take a Portuguese as non-mother
tongue (Portugus Lngua No Materna, PLNM) diagnostic test at school. The test provides teachers
with information on the pupils knowledge of Portuguese and, according to the results obtained,
permits the student to be placed at an according level of linguistic proficiency to carry out specific
PLNM activities.

In order for teachers to define specific strategies to these students, information is gathered on pupils
prior formal education, language spoken at home and expected length of stay in Portugal, among
others36.

In national examinations at Grades 6 and 9, considering pupils' progress, some students are given the
option of taking the Portuguese examination as non-mother tongue speakers (OECD, 2012b).

Foreign pupils are integrated in the school year equivalent to that of their country of origin,
considering their previous formal education. Foreign pupils will attend regular classes, but will benefit
from specific language support.

The Portuguese Ministry of Education and Science believes that knowledge of Portuguese is essential
for pupils, in order to access the curriculum and hence achieve academic success. Knowledge of the
language of the host country also favours the integration of students, not only at an educational level,
but also at a socio-affective level37.

Challenge/Need for action: There is a considerable migrant gap in reading achievement, as PIRLS (12
score points) and PISA (26 score points) data show. The government should ensure that there are
intensive programmes of language and literacy development to support all children and young people
with migrant backgrounds or without adequate competence in the Portuguese language.

36
See https://webgate.ec.europa.eu/fpfis/mwikis/eurydice/index.php/Portugal:Support_Measures_for_Learners
_in_Early_Childhood_and_School_Education (Accessed August 27, 2014).
37
See https://webgate.ec.europa.eu/fpfis/mwikis/eurydice/index.php/Portugal:Support_Measures_for_Learners
_in_Early_Childhood_and_School_Education (Accessed August 27, 2014).

67
5.3.6 Preventing early school leaving

The rate of early school leavers

One important, but certainly not sufficient, precondition for raising performance levels in literacy for
adolescents is literacy provision during secondary schooling, as functional literacy is mainly acquired in
school-based learning. Thus, the provision of secondary education for all adolescents and the
prevention of early school leaving may serve as indicators for the opportunities of adolescents to
improve their literacy performance especially related to basic functional literacy.

Following the Eurostat, in Portugal, the rate of early school leavers was 19.2% in 2013, 1.6% less than in
2012. However, it is important to remember that the target value of the early school leaving (ESL) rate
set for 2020 is 10%. (European Commission, 2014, p. 2).

Regarding students (ISCED 1-6) aged 15-24 years, in Portugal, 61.8% were in some form of education
in 2011, which was around the average EU-27 value of 61.9%. This indicator is on a slightly increasing
trend: by 2012 it stood at 62.1%. The percentage of 18-year olds in education was 77.5% in 2011, and
by 2012 this indicator increased somewhat to 77.7% (European Commission/EACEA/Eurydice, 2012).

According to Santiago, Donaldson, Looney and Nusche (2012), the high proportion of early school
leavers could be related to the relatively low appreciation of schooling by large groups of the
population. It could also result from the parents low educational attainment and the availability of
unskilled jobs. The impact of family background on the probability to drop out is also stronger in
Portugal than elsewhere: 98.9% of men aged between 25 and 34 who dropped out before the end of
upper secondary school have a low-educated father. This is more than 10% above the average across
European OECD

Challenge/Need for action: It is important to review and update policies in order to make the
Portuguese educational system even more inclusive, by allowing all individuals to acquire relevant
skills (OECD, 2010b).

Programmes such as I will not give up or New Opportunities should be reimplemented.

Besides making national the fight against early school leaving, local authorities should identify specific
situations and act accordingly, at the same time, accountability measures and the motivation of
communities to tackle this problem are recommended (Coimbra & Fernandes, 2013).

5.3.7 Addressing the gender gap among adolescents

In Portugal, there arent specific official (Ministry of Education and Science) measures to address the
gender gap among adolescents.

However, data provides by PIRLS 2011 shows that there are a difference of 14 score points between
girls (548 score points) and boys (534 score points) in Reading Achievement (table 6). In PISA 2012, the
score difference in Reading performance between boys (468 score points) and girls (508 score points)
is 60 score points (table 16).

Furthermore, in national examinations of Portuguese Language, girls are better performance than
boys: girls have more levels 4 and 5 (on a scale from 0 to 5) than boys (Direo-Geral da Educao/Juri
Nacional de Exames, 2014).

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Challenge: Given the difference between boys and girls in international surveys and in the National
Assessments, programmes and policies specifically aiming at supporting boys reading engagement
are needed, in Portugal.

It is desirable to enhance monitoring measures of students progress by gender in order to allow the
tracking of improvement and to permit the investigation of the impact of student gender on
performance, and consequently the development of policies and programmes (Santiago et al. 2012).

5.3.8 Increasing participation, inclusion and equity for children and adolescents: Programmes,
initiatives and examples

Programmes for inclusion

The programmes named Territrios Educativos de Interveno Prioritria (TEIP) (Priority Intervention
in Education Territories) (TEIP) are designed to promote education in schools located in
underprivileged areas with high dropout levels. The main goal of the last TEIP 3 Programme
(Legislative Order nr. 20/2012, 3rd October) is to: respond to social contexts that encourage the risk of
failure in the normal education system, due to the fact that academic success is rarer in socially and
economically disadvantaged areas than the national average, where violence, indiscipline, dropouts,
school failure and child labour are examples of problems. It is expected that TEIP 3 promotes learning
and academic success, makes more effective use of available resources, and achieves better results.

Thus, its objectives can be listed as follows:

Improving the quality of learning, and hence pupils achievement;
Combating indiscipline, early school leaving and school absence;
Enhancing educational guidance and support transition from school to working life;
Promoting cooperation among schools, social partners and training institutions in the same
educational area.

Tutoring and other kinds of support are organised for individual pupils and pupil groups. Intervention
measures include, inter alia: pedagogical support, tutorials, cultural mediation supplementary activities,
and parental involvement. These are designed for pupils at risk of early school leaving38.

Family literacy programmes for migrant parents

Programa Metropolitano de Leitura para Grupos Desfavorecidos

The project Programa Metropolitano de Leitura para Grupos Desfavorecidos (Programme Reading
Metropolitan for disadvantages groups) was developed between 2004 and 2006, in the Metropolitan
Area of Porto (AMP), in a partnership between PRIMUS (Regional Development Agency) and Local
Authorities from nine cities of the Metropolitan Area of Porto. Those nine cities were divided into two
groups: one group, dedicated to children and young people, which was comprised of Maia,
Matosinhos, Porto, Pvoa do Varzim, Vila Nova de Gaia and Vila do Conde; a second group dedicated
to immigrants, which has involved Espinho, Gondomar and Valongo.

38
See https://webgate.ec.europa.eu/fpfis/mwikis/eurydice/index.php/Portugal:Support_Measures_for_Learners
_in_Early_Childhood_and_School_Education (Accessed August 27, 2014).

69
The project was based on two priority actions:
Creating regular Reading Workshops aiming to train Readers and improve their skills as well
as to provide new opportunities to enhance reading skills of disadvantaged groups such as
immigrants.
Creating a Reading Metropolitan Network, comprised of librarians, technical experts and
other responsible persons for reading services in the Metropolitan Area of Porto, with the
purpose of encouraging the exchange of information in order to coordinate the work
developed in Reading Workshops.

The main objectives of the Programme Reading Metropolitan for disadvantages groups are to raise
awareness and foster reading as a continuous and regular practice; to promote the acquisition of
language knowledge and its correct use as well as of new knowledge through reading; to foster the
intercultural dialogue and citizenship, especially, along the road to cultural diversity; to provide
reading moments and spaces for reading; to increase the qualifications of reading professionals; to
enhance the exchange between libraries and readers; to encourage the partnerships between local
authorities and cultural institutions (Lopes & Queiroz, 2006).

KCidade - Programa de Desenvolvimento Comunitrio Urbano (KCity community and urban

development programme)

This programme was developed by the Aga Khan Foundation, in 2004, with the purpose of promoting
the processes of social change that respects the communities, in a process of gradual autonomy and
reinforcement of the different players. It also aims to respond to the challenges of urban communities,
from Lisbon, especially the poor and socially excluded, such as immigrants and ethnic or cultural
minorities.

The activities were carried out in partnership with several local institutions. They were divided into four
priority intervention axes:

1) Citizenship encouraging the interventions in a territorial approach, intended to foster the

empowerment of communities and other players.
2) Education and Childhood promoting children's welfare, by improving quality and access to
essential services.
3) Families into community addressing the needs of the most vulnerable communities, through
an integrated approach which should involve and support families.
4) Lifelong Learning and employment strengthening of skills, knowledge and qualification,
within a personal, civic, social and/or employment-related perspective, by promoting social
inclusion, namely through the development of literacy and numeracy initiatives for adults, in a
lifelong learning perspective.

The mission of the programme is to enable the excluded urban communities, with the aim of
improving their quality of life39.

Promoting School attendance, especially among disadvantaged children

In Portugal, there is a nationwide network of Commissions for the Protection of At-Risk Children and
Youth, managed by the municipalities. Each commission is composed of a small executive team of 3

39
See https://grupocomunitarioalta.wordpress.com/quem-somos/programa-kcidade/ (Accessed October 15,
2015).

70
to 5 full-time members which usually include staff from the municipality, social security services, local
NGOS and teachers. This team works directly with a larger team too, representing health services,
education, security, parents and local associations where ESL is a high and legal priority amongst the
additional and broader duties of these different teams. By law, both teams are responsible for ESL and
the protection of childrens rights to remain in education until the age of 18 (European Commission,
2013a, p. 34).

Portugal has a national database that collects, on a monthly basis, information from school staff,
students and social support benefits. It collects information on students on an individual basis.
Information is biographic (age, special needs, social support benefits, information on parents such as
profession and employment status as well as education level) and refers to the activity of each student
in the system: absences, class, school year, evaluation. Data is accessible at individual, school, regional
and national level and is delivered on a business intelligence system that is a support system for school
managers and other decision makers (European Commission, 2013a, p. 35).

In order to reduce grade repetition in basic education, Portugal has introduced an extraordinary period
at the end of the school year where students from 4th and 6th grades who failed national exams
(Portuguese and Math) receive additional support from teachers and have the opportunity to repeat
the exam. Students or groups facing difficulties also have a Pedagogic Support Plan designed by
teachers, parents and school psychologists if needed (European Commission, 2013a, p. 37).

Regarding multi-professional cooperation in schools, in Portugal, school multidisciplinary teams are

composed of counsellors, psychologists, social workers and mediators who support individuals and
groups facing difficulties. In some cases, when learning difficulties are more severe, additional
resources are deployed to cooperate with external specialised therapists that come to schools to
support students (European Commission, 2013a, p. 38).

Different programmes are specifically designed for territories, schools, classes or pupils who are at risk
of ESL or that are performing below target. These secondary prevention programmes include: the
Territrios Educativos de Interveno Prioritria (TEIP) (Priority Intervention in Education Territories)
for schools located in socially and economically disadvantaged areas; the Mais Sucesso Escolar
("More School Success); the Percursos Curriculares Alternativos (Alternative Curricula Pathways).
They are run by the Ministry of Education and Science and have nationwide coverage. The TEIP and
Mais Sucesso Escolar Programmes have recently been extended and now cover over 25% of pupils
and schools in Portugal (15.6 % for TEIP and 10.2 % for Mais Sucesso Escolar). They provide extra
support to pupils (academic, personal, social) inside and outside the classroom in the form of
mentoring/tutoring, intercultural mediation, guidance and vocational experiences. They include in-
service teacher training, as well as parent and community involvement. It is worth noting that Mais
Sucesso Escolar was originally a teachers initiative, later recognised and supported by the Ministry
(European Commission, 2013a, pp. 39-40).

Regarding individual support as a form of ESL prevention, EPIS Empresrios Pela Incluso Social
(Entrepreneurs for Social Inclusion), which is a NGO established in 2006 and supported by more than
250 corporate and business associates, has the aim to empower low performing pupils (12 to 15 years
old) and motivate them to complete compulsory education. The programme is full-time, and delivered
by specially trained mediators for school success, who work in cooperation with schools (but outside
classes). Based on a well-established methodology, EPIS mediators help selected at-risk pupils develop

71
their non-cognitive skills that will enhance their beliefs, self-esteem, conscientiousness and openness
to experience, which are essential for school success (European Commission, 2013a, p. 43).

Besides that, as a form of compensation, early school leavers over 15 years old can complete their
lower secondary education in the Integrated Programme of Education and Training (PIEF). PIEF classes
may be held in regular schools, NGOs, communities facilities and enterprises. Each group has a full-
time tutor and a small group of teachers develop a tailored curriculum with a high degree of flexibility
and strong vocational focus. Students may enrol and finish their studies at any time of the year and the
duration of the course depends on their own pace. There are also some experiences of Second Chance
Schools, namely in the Oporto Metropolitan Area (European Commission, 2013a, p. 44).

72
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