Dynisco Extrusion Handbook C0d23e

The
Dynisco
Extrusion
Processors
Handbook
2nd edition
Written by:
John Goff and Tony Whelan
Edited by:
Don DeLaney
Acknowledgements
We would like to thank the following people for their contributions to this latest edition
of the DYNISCO Extrusion Processors Handbook. First of all, we would like to thank John
Goff and Tony Whelan who have contributed new material that has been included in this
new addition of their original book. In addition, we would like to thank John Herrmann,
Jim Reilly, and Joan DeCoste of the DYNISCO Companies and Christine Ronaghan and
Gabor Nagy of Davis-Standard for their assistance in editing and publication. For the fig-
ures included in this edition, we would like to acknowledge the contributions of Davis-
Standard, Inc., Krupp Werner and Pfleiderer, Inc., The DYNISCO Companies, Dr. Harold
Giles and Eileen Reilly.
CONTENTS
SECTION 1: INTRODUCTION TO EXTRUSION
Single-Screw Extrusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1
Twin-Screw Extrusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3
Extrusion Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6
Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11
SECTION 2: MATERIALS AND THEIR FLOW

PROPERTIES
Polymers and Plastics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15
Thermoplastic Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .19
Viscosity and Viscosity Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .25
Flow Properties Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .28
Elastic Effects in Polymer Melts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .30
Die Swell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .30
Melt Fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .32
Sharkskin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .34
Frozen-In Orientation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .35
Draw Down . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .36
SECTION 3: TESTING
Testing and Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .37
Material Inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .40
Density and Dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .42
Tensile Strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .44
Flexural Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .46
Impact Strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .47
Hardness and Softness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .48
Thermal Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .49
Flammability Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .57
Melt Flow Rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .59
Melt Viscosity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .62
Measurement of Elastic Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .64
Chemical Resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .66
Electrical Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .66
Optical Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .68
Material Identification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .70
SECTION 4: THE SCREW AND BARREL SYSTEM

Materials Handling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .72
The Hopper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .75
The Barrel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .76
The Screw . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .79
Screw Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .83
Screw Mixing Sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .87
Breaker Plates, Screen Packs, and Gear Pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .92
Screw Drive System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .96
Motor Size and Thrust Bearing Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .99
SECTION 5: THE DIE AND POST EXTRUSION
EQUIPMENT
Die Design Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .101
Materials of Die Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .103
Die Heating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .105
Flat Film and Sheet Dies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .107
Blown Film Dies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .108
Pipe Dies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .111
Wire and Cable Covering Dies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .113
Profile Dies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .114
Cooling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .115
Extrudate Take Up . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .116
Cutting and Stacking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .118
SECTION 6: EXTRUSION OPERATIONS

Start Up . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .119
Process Monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .122
Process Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .127
Shut Down Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .130
Purging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .130
Stripping and Cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .133
Reclaimed Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .136
Machine Setting and Running . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .139
SECTION 7: DEFECTS AND DEFECT FINDING

Defect Determination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .143
Minimizing Defects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .145
Extrusion Defects and Causes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .146
Production Problems and Flow Behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .147
SECTION 8: GUIDELINES FOR THE FOLLOWING

MATERIALS
ABS (Acrylonitrile-Butadiene-Styrene) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .150
HIPS (High Impact Polystyrene) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .159
PA 6 (Nylon 6) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .165
PA 66 (Nylon 66) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .175
LDPE (Low Density Polyethylene) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .183
LLDPE (Linear Low Density Polyethylene) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .191
HDPE (High Density Polyethylene) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .198
PP (Polypropylene) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .206
PMMA (Polymethyl Methacrylate) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .216
PPVC (Plasticized Polyvinyl Chloride) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .223
UPVC (Unplasticized Polyvinyl Chloride) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .234
SECTION 9: USEFUL INFORMATION

SI Units Advice on Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .245
Unit Conversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .246
Temperature Conversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .251
Thermocouple Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .251
Applications of Rheological Data for Extrusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .254
Material Property Guidelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .260
Glossary of Extrusion Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .262
Book List . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .284
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1. Standard Abbreviations (Based on ISO and ASTM)
for Selected Thermoplastics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .17
Table 2. Common Abbreviations and Trade Names/Trademarks for
Extruded Thermoplastics and Thermoplastic Elastomers . . . . .22
Table 3. Standard Tests Used for
Property Guidelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .39
Table 4. Moisture Content Limits for Extrusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .42
Table 5. Shrinkage (Mold Shrinkage) Values for Some
Thermoplastic Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .51
Table 6. Average Specific Heat and Heat Content for
Some Thermoplastic Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .52
Table 7. Glass Transition Temperatures (Tg) and Melting
Temperatures (Tm) for Some Thermoplastic
Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .53
Table 8. Typical Thermal Properties of Some
Thermoplastic Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .55
Table 9. Comparison of Softening Temperatures for
Some Thermoplastic Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .56
Table 10. Typical Limiting Oxygen Index (LOI) Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . .57
Table 11. Typical Results from the UL 94 Vertical
Burning Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .58
Table 12. Suggested Temperatures (C) and Loads (Kg)
for MFR Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .61
Table 13. Suggested Temperatures for High
Shear Rate Rheometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .63
Table 14. Suggested Drying Conditions for Extrusion
Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .74
Table 15. Heat Contents of Some Thermoplastic Materials . . . . . . . . . .116
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1. Single Screw Extruder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2
Figure 2. Twin Screw Extruder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4
Figure 3. Gear Pump . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6
Figure 4. Pipe Extrusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7
Figure 5. Blown Film Extrusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7
Figure 6. Sheet and Film Extrusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8
Figure 7. Wire Coating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9
Figure 8a. Viscosity Curves for Some Commodity Thermoplastics . . . . . .27
Figure 8b. Viscosity Curves for Some Engineering Thermoplastics . . . . .27
Figure 9. Capillary Rheometer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .29
Figure 10. Die Swell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .31
Figure 11. Melt Fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .33
Figure 12. Melt Flow Rate Tester . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .59
Figure 13. The Basic Extrusion Screw . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .80
Figure 14. Polymer Melting on the Extrusion Screw . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .80
Figure 15. Flow Profiles in the Extruder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .81
Figure 16. Elements of an Extrusion Screw . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .82
Figure 17. Tapered and Parallel Screws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .83
Figure 18. Barrier Screw Designs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .85
Figure 19. Zero Compression Screw (Variable Pitch) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .86
Figure 20. Standard Two Stage Screw for Venting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .86
Figure 21a. Dispersive Mixing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .88
Figure 21b. Distributive Mixing Sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .88
Figure 22a. Dispersive Mixing Sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .89
Figure 22b. Distributive Mixing Sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .90
Figure 23. Static Mixer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .91
Figure 24. Breaker Plate and Screen Packs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .93
Figure 25. Screen Changers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .94
Figure 26. Breaker Plate and Screen Pack Clamp Assembly . . . . . . . . . . .95
Figure 27. Extrusion Gear Pump System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .96
Figure 28. Flat Film and Sheet Dies (T, Coathanger) . . . . . . . . . . . . . .107
Figure 29. Blown Film Die . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .109
Figure 30. Pipe Die . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .111
Figure 31. Multi-Layer Wire and Cable Die . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .113
Figure 32a. Pressure Transducers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .122
Figure 32b. Dyniscos Pressure Gauges, Transducers and
Transmitters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .123
Figure 33a. Thermocouples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .124
Figure 33b. Dyniscos Melt Thermocouples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .124
Figure 34. Dyniscos ATC770 Pressure/Process Controller . . . . . . . . . . .129
Figure 35. Polymer Flow Curves Used for the
Determination of w . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .255
Figure 36. Shape Factors for Rectangular Dies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .256
Figure 37. Polymer Flow Curves Shown as Viscosity
vs. Shear Rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .257
Figure 38. Flow Through a Die for a Newtonian Fluid
and Polymer Melt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .258
Figure 39. Shear Rates in a Die for a Newtonian Fluid
and Polymer Melt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .259
1
SECTION 1:
section 1: introduction to extrusion

INTRODUCTION TO EXTRUSION
SINGLE SCREW EXTRUSION
TWIN SCREW EXTRUSION
EXTRUSION PROCESSES
SAFETY
SINGLE SCREW EXTRUSION

Extrusion may be defined as a process for making a product (an extrudate) by
forcing a material through an orifice or die to form a shape, or alternatively,
the production of finished, or semi-finished products, using an extruder.
Scope of the Handbook

This book will be mainly concerned with the extrusion of thermoplastic prod-
ucts because of their importance in extrusion processes. Thermoplastics are
by far the largest group of plastic materials extruded; approximately 65% of all
plastics pass through an extruder. As the most popular type of extruder is the
single screw machine, this book will mainly concentrate on processes based
on that type of machine. Single screw machines are the most popular because
they are relatively simple, cheap and easily give a continuous output.
Extrusion and Thermoplastics

In extrusion of a thermoplastic, heating first softens the material so that it can
be shaped. The extrusion machine, or extruder does this process. This heat
softening is called by various names, such as plastication, plasticization or
thermal softening. Most extruders are single screw machines. It is the screw
which forces the material towards, and then through, the die. Shape is impart-
ed by the die, and/or by post-extrusion forming, and then the product is set to
shape by cooling it while maintaining its shape. The equipment that does this
is called the post extrusion equipment, while the whole system is called an
extrusion line.
Extruder Classification
Extruders may be classified by three figures, for example, 1-60-24. The first
number states how many screws the machine has, the second number speci-
fies the screw diameter in millimeters (mm) and, the third number specifies
the effective screw length as a multiple of the screw diameter. In the example
given therefore, a single screw machine is being described that has a screw of
diameter 60 mm and a length of 24 screw diameters (that is, a L/D ratio of
24/1).
Machine Construction
A cut-away drawing of a simple single screw machine is shown in Figure 1.
This shows the arrangement of the different parts of the machine. The screw
and barrel are the two units that interact to convey the plastic material, melt
the material and then force it through the die. The electric motor drive unit and
gearbox rotate the screw at a predetermined speed. Temperature controllers
2 are connected to heating/cooling elements on the barrel to hold the tempera-
ture at the set-point temperatures. The ability of the screw and barrel assembly
to extrude a given material is dependent on the characteristics of the plastics
material, the characteristics, or construction, of the screw and barrel, and the
conditions under which the system is operated.
Hopper
Gear Box
Heaters
Barrel Screw
Die
Cooling Fans
Drive Motor
Figure 1. Single Screw Extruder (courtesy of Dr. Harold Giles)
Post Extrusion Equipment

Once the extrudate leaves the die it can either be set to the shape to be pro-
duced or have its shape altered and then set to shape. The equipment that
does this is called the post extrusion equipment or the haul off and in terms
of size it is usually far larger than the extruder. One reason is that plastics take
a long time to cool. This cooling process often determines how fast the line
will operate.
Products of Extrusion
The products of extrusion include:
Feedstock for Other Plastics Processes: Extruders are widely used as com-
pounders, or mixers. The output from an extruder compounder is granulated
or chopped to form the feed for another process, such as, injection molding
or extrusion
Plastic Film: This is usually used for packaging or sealed into bags
Plastic Pipe: Used for gas, water, drains, etc.
Plastic Tubing: Used for hose and tubing for automobiles, laboratories, etc.
Plastic Insulated Wire and Cable: Used in the home and industry
for appliances, for electric power distribution, communications etc.
Profile: Used for tracks, windows, doors, home siding, gaskets, etc.
Filaments: Used for brushes, ropes, twine, etc.
Sheet: Used for signs, lighting, glazing, etc.
Nets: Used for packaging, soil stabilization, etc.
Plastic Coated Paper and Metal: Used for packaging
Co-Extrusion
Co-extrusion is a process where two, or more, melt streams are combined in a
die to produce an extrudate formed from two, or more, materials. The process
is now associated with thermoplastics materials although it was first practiced
with rubbery polymers to produce an extrudate with different colored layers. 3
With thermoplastics, the layers of materials are commonly combined in the
die. The simplest example combines just two layers, for example a colored

layer on a natural core, which saves on colorant costs. In the packaging indus-
try, films based on three or more layers are now common. Laminating two or
more layers of different polymers together can produce a product that has
barrier properties far superior to those obtained when only one polymer is
used. Frequently, one of the polymers used is a gas or moisture barrier layer
based on polyvinyl alcohol (PVAL). To produce three layered structures, two or
three extruders are usually used. In the blow-molding process it is possible to
combine co-extrusion with bi-axial orientation to produce strong, lightweight
bottles which give a long storage life to the products.
Layered co-extrusion is not the only type of co-extrusion. By
arranging for the materials to be combined one after the other, a sequential
co-extrudate may be produced. This may consist of a hard thermoplastic
material joined to a soft thermoplastic material. Alternatively, two materials
may be extruded side-by-side, such as a clear material alongside an opaque
material, to produce sheet to make thermoformed trays.
Vented Extrusion
A vented extruder is an extruder that contains a vent, which is used to extract
volatiles from a plastic material during the extrusion process. The water
(moisture) and volatiles content in a plastic material may be reduced to
acceptable levels by the use of a vented machine. Part of the way along the
extrusion barrel the melt is decompressed by reducing the screw root diame-
ter. A vent, through which the vapor escapes, is located at this point in the
barrel (the vent may be plugged and not used when venting is not required).
The vapor-free melt is then conveyed towards the die and re-compressed by
increasing the screw root diameter. To ensure that melt does not escape
through the vent, a dam or torpedo section is incorporated on the screw just
before the vent. Because of the way that vented machines are constructed (a
high L/D ratio and a variable screw geometry) and operated, it has been found
that they produce very good mixing. It should be remembered, however, that
pre-drying of the polymer may be more appropriate, since heating some plas-
tics in contact with water may cause their decomposition, or degradation.
TWIN SCREW EXTRUSION

Twin screw extrusion machines or, twin screw extruders, are the simplest
example of multi-screw machines (Figure 2.). The two screws may rotate in
the same direction (co-rotation) or they may rotate in opposite directions
(counter or, contra-rotation). The flights of the screws may intermesh or they
may not intermesh. As intermeshing, or partially intermeshing, types of
machines are the most popular the discussion which follows is restricted to
this type of machine.
Uses of Twin-Screw Extruders

Twin-screw machines have always been popular for certain processes, for
example, where there is a need for a compounding step as well as an extru-
sion step. This is particularly true for un-plasticized polyvinyl chloride (UPVC).
This material is often stabilized against heat degradation by the use of heavy
metal compounds (like organic tins, or lead) and such stabilizers are expen-
4
Drive Motor
Gear Box Main

Feed
Port
Down Stream Feed
Removable
Twin Screws with

Changeable Elements
Removable
Barrel
Sections
Figure 2. Twin Screw Extruder (courtesy of Krupp Werner & Pfleiderer)
sive. Thus, for economic reasons, the amount of these heat stabilizers must
be kept as low as possible. One way of doing this is to compound and extrude
in one step. This saves a further heating stage (if the material is first com-
pounded, cooled and then re-extruded). Twin screw machines are widely used
to make UPVC pipe and profiles. Today they are often used to compound
other plastics, or resins, with additives to make compounds for use in other
extrusion or injection molding operations.
Operation and Characteristics

With a single screw extruder the hopper is filled and the screw takes in the
material at the rate it wants. Such a scheme, called flood feeding, is often not
possible with twin screw machines. This is because the very positive feeding
characteristics of twin screw machines may result in very high forces being
generated. These forces may be so high that thrust-bearing failure is a real
danger. Twin-screw extruders are therefore often starve fed, resulting in a
through-put independent of screw speed. The average residence time is
inversely proportional to the screw speed and feed rate and, therefore,
decreases with increasing output. The Specific Energy Consumption, or the
energy input per unit mass of material, also decreases with increasing
throughput. The output is often virtually independent of the size of die used.
Because of the mixing action, twin screw machines can achieve more melting,
mixing and conveying in a shorter machine length than a single screw
machine. They are, however, much more expensive.
Co-Rotating or Counter-Rotating Machines

Both types of twin screw extruders have distinct advantages that lead to their
use in specific applications. Counter-rotating machines are used for the extru-
sion of UPVC and co-rotating machines are used for compounding applica-
tions. The counter-rotating machine has very positive material feed and con-
veying characteristics. The residence time and material temperature control in
the machine are also uniform. However, air entrapment, generation of high
pressure, low maximum screw speed and output are disadvantages usually
encountered. The advantages of the co-rotating machine are that the screws
wipe each other clean (self-wiping), high screw speeds and high outputs are
possible, particularly for materials which are not very shear, or heat, sensitive
(such as PE). Less screw and barrel wear are also found. The output is, how- 5
ever, dependent on die-head pressure and at high pressures the material resi-
dence time distribution becomes broader (the clearances between the flanks of

the screws are usually greater for this type of machine). At the high shear
rates possible in this type of machine, this non-uniform residence time can
result in decomposition of heat sensitive materials. However, the greater inter-
channel flow results in better mixing or compounding.
Tapered Machines
Because of the very positive feeding characteristics of counter-rotating twin
screw machines, very high forces may be generated. These forces can be so
high that thrust-bearing failure is a real danger. Such machines therefore often
have to be starve fed and/or run at low screw speeds. This is because it is dif-
ficult to incorporate adequate thrust bearings in the small space available.
Tapering the screw diameter from the feed section to the die can increase the
space available. Thus the screws have a larger diameter at the feed end and
larger thrust bearings can then be incorporated, permitting higher outputs.
The shear seen at the screw tips is also reduced.
Compounding Extruder
The mixing efficiency of a twin screw extruder can be increased by incorporat-
ing mixing elements along the screws. These and other elements may be slot-
ted onto a central shaft to build up the screw section required. On some
machines the length, number, and form of the elements used may be easily
changed. The elements may take various forms such as reversed screw
flights, kneading discs, pins, etc. Thus, in the process, the material may be
heat-softened in an extrusion section, passed into the mixing section, and then
conveyed into another section. This process may be repeated several times,
for example in devolatilizing extruders or machines used to carry out chemical
reactions.
Cascade Extruder
The simplest type of cascade extruder consists of two single screw extruders
(two screw and barrel assemblies, one mounted above the other) where the
output (melt) from the first machine feeds the second. A passageway that may
be vented for devolatization connects the two screw assemblies. This type of
machine may also be classified as a vented extruder. It offers the advantage
that each screw may be driven at a separate speed, so their output can be
matched. Valves may be also used to optimize the output from each stage.
Gear Pump
A gear pump is a very simple twin-screw extruder that moves a fluid material
through the action of two intermeshing gears (Figure 3.). A gear pump
extruder may be used to produce fibers from polymers that have low viscosi-
ties at their processing temperatures. Examples of this type of polymer are
polyamides, polypropylenes, or PET.
A gear pump fitted between the end of the barrel and the die of a
single-screw extruder will produce a steady high pressure and a more consis-
tent and higher output from the die. Thus, a gear pump can make the output
of an extruder virtually independent of back-pressure and, within reason, of
screw wear. As the accuracy of output is improved, significant down gauging
of the extrudate is possible (approximately 10%). Since the gear pump is used
to build up pressure in the die (>70 MPa/10,000 psi), the screw is not
required to develop high pressures. This usually results in a reduction in melt
6 temperatures (approximately 10C/18F). The combination of down gauging
and melt temperature reduction results in material savings and a higher out-
put, as cooling rate often limits output (See Breaker Plates, Screen Packs
and Gear Pumps in Section 4.).
Gear Pump
Breakerplate and Screenpack
To the Die
Extruder
Figure 3. Gear Pump
EXTRUSION PROCESSES
Although a single screw or a twin screw extruder may be used to produce the
products described in this section, most commonly single screw machines
are used as they are simpler and cheaper. For un-plasticized polyvinyl chloride
(UPVC), however, twin screw machines are widely used as they can both
compound and then shape the material.
Tube or Pipe
Tube or pipe is extruded from an annular die, usually mounted as an in-line
extension (Figure 4.). Within this extension is a mandrel which forms the
inner surface of the tube. Low air pressure is usually applied through the
mandrel. The tube is held to shape by this internal air pressure as it leaves the
die. The molten tube proceeds to a sizing arrangement that sets its dimen-
sions and then to a water-bath or a series of air-cooling rings that fix its
dimensions. The sizing equipment, used to control the external diameter of
the tube, is normally a water-cooled cylinder (that is, a sizing die), which is
positioned close to the extruder die. For small-diameter tube or pipe an
arrangement of sizing plates or rings, located in the cooling bath, are used
instead. Internal air pressure forces the molten tube outward against the inner
surface of the sizing die, plates or rings.
With larger tubes or pipes the circular profile can be maintained by
applying a partial vacuum through fine holes in the inner surface of the sizing
die. For optimal control of OD and roundness vacuum sizing tanks are often
used, which combine accurate sizing with controlled product cooling. After
passing through the cooling bath, the tube goes to a haul-off, a unit based on 7
rubber caterpillar bands or a system of moving clamps, and then to winding
equipment or to a cutting device.

Pressure Screen Gear
Transducer Changer Pump Die
Sizing Tank Cooling Unit Haul-Off Unit Cutting Unit
Figure 4. Pipe Extrusion
Blown Film
Film can be extruded either as a thin-walled tube, cooled by air, or as flat sheet
cast onto chilled rolls or into water. In the blown film process (Figure 5.) the
melt is extruded through an annular die to produce a tube of controlled diame-
ter and wall thickness. Vertical extrusion, where the die is mounted in a right-
angle cross-head, is generally used. The extruded melt is partially cooled in
the vicinity of the die, often by passing the tube through a carefully controlled
stream of air from a cooling ring. The tube of film is then inflated to a bubble
of the required diameter, by low-pressure air introduced through the mandrel
in the annular die. The film is hauled off between a pair of nip rolls, located 1
to 10+ meters (3 to 30+ feet) from the die. Thus, the inflation air is trapped
within the bubble formed between the nip rolls and the die. After passage
through the nip rolls, the cold film is reeled up under constant tension.
Nip (or Pinch) Stainless Steel

Rolls Nip Roll
(Driven)
Rubber Treater
Nip Rolls Bar
Framework Supporte d
Forming Guide Polyethylene
Tent Rolls Film Curtain
(Canopy)
(Alternative)
Idler or
Guide Rolls
Blow
Bubbl e Tube
(Bubble)
Frost Line
Frost Lin
Extruder Cylinder Dancer Roll for

Tension Control
Mandrel
Windup
Die Ring Rolls
Resin
Heaters
Breaker Plate
Air Entry
Figure 5. Blown Film Extrusion

8 It is important to maintain a steady bubble that feeds to a constant
position in the nip rolls. The diameter of the bubble and hence the width of
the flattened tube (the lay-flat width) is determined by the amount of infla-
tion. The thickness of the film depends on the output from the extruder, the
bubble blow ratio (diameter of bubble: diameter of die) and the film haul-off
rate. Thus, by varying the blow ratio and the haul-off rate, a range of lay-flat
widths and thickness can be produced from the same die. Changing the extru-
sion conditions may also vary the optical and mechanical properties of film
produced from a given polymer.
Blocking during the manufacture of tubular film is one of the
most serious limitations to high-speed production. Blocking is the tendency
of opposite faces of films to adhere to each other, thus making separation dif-
ficult. If sufficient air-cooling time is not allowed before the tube of film is
closed at the nip rolls, then blocking will result. Blocking additives in the poly-
mer such as erucamide or TiO2 can also be used to alleviate this problem.
Flat Film
In the extrusion of flat film the melt is extruded from a straight slit die and
cooled either by quenching in water or by casting onto highly polished water-
cooled chill rolls (Figure 6.). Both systems involve a rapid cooling of the film,
after which it is wound up on take-off rolls. In the casting process, high tem-
peratures may be used because of the fast cooling possible with chill rolls.
Therefore, much higher output rates can be achieved than in the tubular
process. The slit die, which is usually center-fed, is fitted with heaters along
its length. When a water-bath is used for cooling, carry-over of water can be a
problem. Hence, the chill-roll process, which involves no direct water contact
with the film, is usually preferred. The chill rolls must be highly polished
because the film surface is an exact reproduction of the roll surface.
Extrusion Screen Gear Static Calender

System Changer Pump Mixer System Gage
Slitter Scanner
Sheet Pull Roll
Die Conveyer Unit
Figure 6. Sheet and Film Extrusion
Extrusion Lamination
The application of polymers such as polyethylene or polypropylene to paper,
fabrics, metal foils and various other flexible substrates by the extrusion-lami-
nation process is a rapid and economical method of producing laminates for
packaging. The thermoplastic material is extruded in the form of a flat film
through a slit die. As the very hot film leaves the die lips, it is cast into a nip-
roll assembly formed by a water-cooled steel casting roll and a rubber-cov-
ered pressure roll. The substrate to be coated is fed continuously over the
rubber pressure roll into the nip, which presses the molten film on-to and into
the substrate to form a laminate. As the laminate runs around the steel roll the
plastic layer is cooled and the laminate is taken off by wind-up mechanisms.
The extruder output rate and the speed of the substrate control the thickness
of the applied coating.
9
Wire Coating
In the wire coating process wire or a bunched cable core passes through a

mandrel, mounted in a cross-head, which directs the conductor centrally into
the die orifice. Here the conductor comes into contact and is coated with soft-
ened plastic. The wire is drawn away from the die under conditions that pro-
duce a predetermined insulation thickness (Figure 7.). The position of the tip
of the mandrel relative to the die parallel is very important for most materials,
because it controls the tightness of the covering of the wire. Some machines
use a vacuum system to control the tightness of this covering. The insulated
conductor then passes through one or more cooling baths to a haul-off, or
capstan, maintained at constant speed, and from there to a wind-up drum.
Generally, an accumulator is inserted between the capstan and the wind-up
arrangements to allow completed reels to be changed without interfering with
the extrusion operation. Cooling must be gradual, for if the insulation is cooled
too rapidly the outer layers will freeze and contract, resulting in voids between
the insulation and the conductor.
Foamed coatings can be extruded directly onto wire using a com-
pound containing a blowing agent; a chemical compound that will liberate
nitrogen or some other inert gas on heating. Extrusion conditions should be
such that the blowing agent decomposes on the last few flights of the screw.
The melt issuing from the die is then in an un-blown state and expands to its
final dimensions as it leaves the die. Premature expansion leads to a product
with a rough external finish.
Preh Spark Tension

Pay-Off Input Eccentricity Controller
(Input Drum) Capstan Tester Gauge
Extruder
Preheat
Preheater Cooling Diameter Output er
Trough Gauge Capstan
Figure 7. Wire Coating
Sheet
Sheet is extruded through a slit die (See Figure 6.). After leaving the die it is
cooled gradually by passing it over a serpentine of water-cooled rolls. With
some materials, for example, polypropylene and polystyrene, it is desirable to
use a series of polishing rolls to achieve sheet with a good surface finish. The
haul-off equipment is designed to prevent distortion of the sheet during cool-
ing and to minimize draw-down. Sheet is generally cut to length with a travel-
ling circular saw or shear.
Incorporating a corrugation unit in the haul-off produces corrugat-
ed sheet, with transverse corrugations. A system is also available for forming
longitudinal corrugations by using water-cooled forming dies.
Embossed sheet, such as embossed acrylic sheet for lighting fit-
tings, is produced by passing the extruded sheet between a pair of embossing
rolls mounted close to the die. The sheet is air cooled as it leaves the die in
order to retain a sharp impression.
10
Profile
Profiles of open or hollow cross section can be extruded from specially
designed dies. Each shape presents its own problems of die design and post-
extrusion handling. Profile dies are frequently intricate and thus difficult and
expensive to make. Unless CAE is used, a lengthy process of trial and error is
required to establish both die design and extrusion conditions (A case in
point, is to prevent preferential flow in the thicker sections).
Such dies can be used for small sections, but a simpler technique
is desirable for larger profiles (for example, for diffusers for fluorescent light-
ing fittings). One technique involves post-forming sections extruded from
tube dies. Compared with profile dies, these large tube dies can be made at
low cost and their symmetry facilitates uniform flow.
The inner lip of the die can have a reeded surface that imparts a
pattern to the extrudate. A knife mounted in the die face, slits the emerging
reeded tube and the tube passes to a shaping and cooling jig. Alternate inner
and outer formers do the shaping with polished forming surfaces. Cooling is
accomplished by internal and external perforated copper rings through which
is directed a gentle flow of air. The haul-off may be the rubber caterpillar-band
type, and an on-demand knife cutter can cut off sections. Trial and error will
again be necessary to establish conditions and former design, but adjust-
ments to formers are made more quickly and cheaply than changes to a pro-
file die.
Extrusion Blow Molding

Hollow articles (such as bottles) are produced using the blow molding
process. This process normally starts with the extrusion of a short thick-
walled tube, or parison, from a tube die mounted in a cross-head. This tube
is extruded vertically downward between the two halves of a split, water-
cooled mold. The two halves of the mold are closed, sealing the ends of the
molten tube. Air is then applied to the interior of the tube, blowing it outward
against the inner surface of the mold. Frequently, as one molding is cooling
another is made ready to receive a fresh parison. The split molds may be
mounted on a turntable below the extruder die. Alternatively, the melt can be
delivered to two or more static molds by arranging for melt to be diverted, in
turn, to different dies connected to the same extruder. All extrusion-blown
moldings involve welds of the open-ended parison which are potential
sources of weakness. Thus care must be taken in the design of the mold to
ensure the formation of strong, bead-type, welds. In the blow-molding field it
is possible to combine co-extrusion with bi-axial orientation and so produce
strong, lightweight bottles which give a long storage life to the products.
Fiber from Film

The extrusion process can be used to produce fibers or tapes from film. Such
products are usually based on polyethylene or polypropylene and they may be
used as string, rope or as a woven product (such as a sack). The polymer
may be extruded on a single screw machine into a flat sheet using the chill
roll process. The sheet may is then slit into tapes by either stationary or rotat-
ing knives. Godet rolls are then used to stretch the tape (mono-axial orienta-
tion) while it is heated in a hot air oven or on a hot stretching table. In the
production of film tape, the width of the tape may decrease to 1/3 of its origi-
nal slit width as a result of this stretching process. This imparts a significant
strength to the tape, in the machine direction. Annealing may then be per-
formed on the tape before it is wound into packages suitable for weaving.
11
Nets
Polymer nets are commonly used in the packaging industry to package fruit.

The polymer may be extruded through slots cut in a circular die. By rotating
the outside of the die, relative to the center, a circular net may be produced in
a wide range of patterns. If the slots are large then heavy gauge nets may be
produced which are suitable for landscaping and soil stabilization applications.
Product Identification
In order to ease recycling, the above products or components are frequently
marked with a symbol or abbreviated term identifying their component poly-
mers. Legends suitable for the generic identification and marking of plastics
products have been suggested by standards organizations such as the
International Standards Organization (see ISO 1043). In the simplest case, a
series of letters associated with a plastic material (See Table 1. on page 17)
are stamped onto a product between inverted (reversed angle) brackets (for
example, >ABS<).
ISO also suggests how to identify fillers, flame retardants, plasticiz-
ers etc. For example, the presence of a flame retardant may be indicated by a
molded or printed legend which contains FR as in >PA 66-GF30-FR(52)<. This
legend shows that the product is made from a nylon 66 material that contains
30% glass fiber. The FR(52) indicates that the nylon contains also a red phos-
phorous (code number 52) type flame retardant. Other flame retardants have
their own numbers.
SAFETY
This section is written to help an operator, who runs an extruder or an extru-
sion line, to work in a safe way. It cannot cover all the possible hazards, as it
is only a general guide. Safety is the responsibility of everyone. It is very
important that everyone who is concerned with an extrusion process fully
appreciates the possible hazards. This means that safety education and train-
ing are very important.
A New Machine
Before a new extruder is put into service a responsible person must check that
the machine is acceptable from a safety point of view and that it conforms to
local and national safety codes and practices. This means listening to the
advice of the machine supplier, local government officers, etc. A local plastics
association, or federation, will offer useful advice in regard to whom should be
contacted and what codes of practice should be followed. Any legislation in
force should be considered, as the minimum required. It is very important to
ensure that all those concerned with extrusion processing develop a common
sense, responsible attitude, and are trained to increase their safety awareness.
Materials Handling
It must be emphasized that most thermoplastic materials do not present prob-
lems during normal handling as they are usually supplied as granules or pel-
lets. However, to prevent material contamination, the thermoplastic material
should not be touched or handled, with the bare hand. Remember, it makes
sense not to allow any material to come into contact with the skin or eyes,
particularly if the material is dusty (for example, the material may have been
dusted with a lubricant or coloring system). If during normal operation, the
atmosphere becomes dusty then the operating procedure should be reviewed
12 and modified until the contaminated atmosphere is eliminated.
When handling a thermoplastic material, the biggest danger is
often one of spilled material. Because of the shape of the pellets, the spilled
material makes the floor very slippery and can cause falling injuries.
Therefore, any spilled material must be collected immediately and disposed of
in an approved way. This usually means sweeping up the spilled material and
placing it an appropriately labeled bag for reclamation.
Burns
Some extruders operate at temperatures of as high as 750F/400C or above.
As any temperature above 140F/60C is unpleasant to touch, burns must be
recognized as a common source of accidents in the extrusion processing
industry. It is one of the reasons that a cover or guard usually protects the
extruder barrel. Like any other guard it should not be needlessly opened, or
removed, as it is there for protection of both the operators and the equipment.
At the processing temperatures employed, hot thermoplastic mate-
rials (resins) behave like hot melt adhesives and can be very difficult to
remove from the skin. These resins are organic materials that have high spe-
cific heats and low thermal conductivities. Thus, as the hot melt contains a
large amount of heat, severe burns can result. The burning process can be
very painful as the hot melt releases the heat it contains very slowly. An
instinctive reaction, when hot melt comes into skin contact, is to pull the hot
melt away with a bare hand, but this simply transfers the hot, sticky resin to
another area. One should quickly scrape off the resin, plunge the covered area
into cold water and obtain medical advice.
Resin Decomposition and Fumes

Thermoplastic materials (resins) are organic materials, which, generally, have
low thermal stability. At the processing temperatures employed they can easily
be degraded to give unpleasant, irritating odors and, if seriously overheated,
they can produce a large quantity of noxious gas. Such gases should not be
inhaled, and treated as harmful. This means that if, for example, the extruder
barrel is stripped for cleaning it should be done in an extremely well ventilated
area. Gloves, long sleeved overalls and a facemask should be worn when the
barrel and screw are stripped and cleaned.
If the gas produced by resin decomposition becomes trapped
inside the machine, it can cause serious accidents. It can blow hot resin (plas-
tic or melt) from the nozzle or even through the hopper. In the worst case, it
could produce an explosion and cause damage to the machine, such as shear-
ing the bolts holding the die/nozzle. Thus one should be careful and follow the
correct operating procedures, particularly at the start up of an extrusion oper-
ation.
Rolls
Rolls, such as the rubber covered rolls for pulling and steel rolls for cooling,
are widely used in extrusion processing. The gap between them, called the
nip or bite, is very dangerous, as it is capable of trapping fingers or clothing
causing serious injury. Such nips must be guarded, treated with respect, and
avoided. Long hair should be kept covered; neckties and other loose clothes
should not be worn as they can also become trapped. Be particularly careful if
you have to wear gloves as these can become trapped; it is probably best to
make the gloves as small as is convenient (for example, slit the backs and
remove the cuffs). Learn a start-up technique that avoids the possibility of
trapping a hand in the nips. Above all, find out what to do if something, or
somebody, does get trapped. This means knowing how to stop the machine in 13
a hurry and how to release or open the nip.

The Screw
Normally the only part of the screw that the operator sees is that which is
exposed when the machine runs out of material, that is at the base of the hop-
per. It looks fairly harmless but it is very dangerous and will easily remove
your fingers. So, keep your hands out of the hopper and only put them into
this danger area when you are satisfied that it is safe to do so; when the screw
is stopped, the power is off and the machine is isolated. Always check that the
machine is isolated yourself.
To protect the expensive screw, do not put metal tools into the
hopper when the screw is turning. There should be a guard between the base
of the hopper and the screw (to prevent finger trapping) and ideally, the screw
should not turn if the hopper is removed. Do not remove the hopper, and
expose the screw, until the extruder is stopped and you have checked that the
machine is isolated.
The Die or Nozzle

The die (sometimes called the nozzle) is often the part of the extruder that an
operator sees the most during machine operation. Accidents involving the die
are a major hazard because of failure to protect the operator against danger
from burning or finger trapping. Therefore, do not reach over moving equip-
ment and never remove a guard or, attempt to bypass a guard.
When cleaning or stripping the die make sure that the equipment is
locked in the non-running mode and that the power (electric) supply is discon-
nected. Specific cleaning instructions from the die maker should be followed
to prevent danger to the operator and damage to the forming surfaces of the
die.
Other Equipment
Cutting, grinding, sawing and chopping equipment must, of course, be well
guarded. They usually are the most common dangers that arise when a safe
working approach is ignored. Do not reach over moving equipment and never
remove or attempt to bypass a guard. If you have been specifically authorized
to do something like this, then make sure that the equipment is locked in the
non-running mode and that all electric power is disconnected.
Work Handling Devices

A work-handling device, also known as a robot, is an item of parts handling
equipment (PHE). When guarding a parts handling device, such as a robot,
consideration should be given to the area covered by the machine, the speed
of operation of the arm, the speed of acceleration/deceleration of the arm, the
complexity of the movements involved and the time-scale over which the
movements occur. This last point is very important as often an operator can
be mislead into believing that the PHE is in-operative as it appears to be
switched off when it is standing still.
When guarding a parts handling device (or a robot) both the down-
stream operations and the working area of the PHE must be considered.
Special custom-built enclosures must often be built for each application.
Electrical Equipment
Most extrusion equipment is heated by electric resistance elements and driven
14 by electric motors. Machine control cabinets are often kept locked to protect
the operator from coming into contact with the main electrical supply. Leave
such equipment alone unless you are trained and authorized to inspect, repair
or adjust it. Report any damaged, or frayed, wires or cables immediately, and
do not disconnect the equipment ground wires. Any damaged plugs or con-
nectors should be reported.
Safety Guards
An extrusion line contains dangerous machinery that must be guarded appro-
priately. Safety guards cover many mechanical, electrical and heat hazards
and these must be kept in place. Remember: the guards are there for your
protection. Machine guarding is just one way of making the process safer and
should not be relied upon to the extent that inspection, maintenance and train-
ing are neglected.
15
SECTION 2:

MATERIALS AND THEIR FLOW
PROPERTIES
POLYMERS AND PLASTICS
THERMOPLASTIC MATERIALS
VISCOSITY AND VISCOSITY TERMS
FLOW PROPERTIES MEASUREMENT
ELASTIC EFFECTS IN POLYMER MELTS
DIE SWELL
MELT FRACTURE
SHARKSKIN
FROZE-IN ORIENTATION
DRAW-DOWN
POLYMERS AND PLASTICS

A polymer is a chemical compound made up of a large number of identical
molecular repeating units. A plastic material is a polymer, generally modified
with additives, which is capable of being shaped or molded under reasonable
conditions of temperature and pressure. It generally is solid at room tempera-
ture and is distinguished from a rubber/elastomer by having a higher stiff-
ness/modulus and a lack of reversible elasticity. A thermoplastic is a plastic
material that will soften (melt) on heating and harden on cooling. This soften-
ing (or melting) by heat and hardening by cooling can be repeated. This allows
thermoplastic materials to be recycled.
Synthetic Polymers
Most commercial polymers and rubbers/elastomers are composed of mole-
cules based on the element carbon; that is to say, they are organic. They are
synthesized, or made, from simple, oil-based raw materials called monomers.
A process, known as polymerization, connects these simple low molecular
weight materials together to form polymers, which consist of long chains con-
taining many identical repeat units. Polymers and rubbers based on one
monomer are known as homopolymers, while those based on two (or more)
monomers and are known as copolymers. They may be linear, branched or
cross-linked (i.e., two or more polymer chains are connected). Usually, poly-
mer chains of a wide range of lengths (chains of varying molecular weight) are
present in commercial materials.
Since the final molecular weight (and size) is generally large, these
materials are frequently referred to as high polymers or macromolecules.
Although a high molecular weight is necessary to obtain useful properties
(such as stiffness and strength) in a plastic material, it also means that the
material is difficult to process.
16 All plastics are polymers but not all polymers are plastics.
Cellulose, for example, is a polymer, but it cannot be processed like a plastic
material unless it is modified.
Long Chain Structure

The high polymer molecules, or macromolecules, that are used in plastics
are incredibly long. There may be, for example, 50,000 atoms linked together
in a long chain-like molecule or structure. Because of the structure of the car-
bon to carbon bond on which they are based, they generally are not straight,
but are twisted or coiled. As a result of the nature of the polymerization reac-
tions, the chains also have a distribution of different lengths.
When there is no order in the system (an amorphous material), the
chains prefer to exist in a random, coiled-up state (just like the shape
obtained when a piece of string is dropped on the floor). The separate long
chain molecules (or chains) are also normally intertwined one with the
other. If crystallization of the polymer is possible, then the chains, or portions
of the chains, may either fold back on themselves or lie side-by-side in a more
ordered fashion. The great length of the chains and the entanglements
between them prevent thermoplastic materials from crystallizing completely
on cooling. This is why they are called semi-crystalline thermoplastics. Such
materials contain both crystalline and amorphous regions.
Amorphous Thermoplastics
Thermoplastic materials may be divided into amorphous materials and semi-
crystalline materials. An amorphous thermoplastic is usually a glassy, hard
material that, in the unfilled state, is transparent and rigid. This type of plastic
material does not have a sharp melting point, but softens to a melt over a
broad range of temperature. It, therefore, can be molded or processed over a
comparatively wide temperature range. A major advantage of amorphous
polymers is their low and consistent shrinkage, relative to that of semi-crys-
talline materials. As the natural color of an amorphous material is generally a
clear, water-white, a very wide range of transparent or opaque colors may be
produced.
Typical amorphous polymers include polystyrene (PS), poly-
methylmethacrylate (PMMA), styrene acrylonitrile (SAN), polycarbonate (PC),
polysulfone (PSU or PES) and polyvinyl chloride (PVC). Modified polypheny-
lene oxide (PPO-M) and acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS), although not
usually transparent, are based on amorphous thermoplastic materials. Some
widely used abbreviations for thermoplastic materials are shown in Tables 1.
and 2..
Semi-Crystalline Polymer
The amount of crystalline material (% crystallinity), in an extrudate made from
a polymer that will form crystals, is typically not 100%. Amorphous areas are
always present. Thus these materials are referred to as semi-crystalline.
Typical semi-crystalline polymers are polyacetal (POM), polyamides (PA 6 and
PA 66), polybutylene terephthalate (PBT), polyethylene terephthalate (PET),
low-density polyethylene (LDPE), high-density polyethylene (HDPE),
polyphenylene sulfide (PPS), and polypropylene (PP).
Semi-crystalline polymers are usually malleable, tough, durable,
and have a good chemical resistance. Usually they are not clear because the
crystal structures that they contain scatter light. Semi-crystalline polymers
may have a sharp melting point or, more usually, a fairly narrow melting point
range. Considerable care is required in their processing. The properties of
formed components may be greatly affected by the degree of crystallization 17
and crystalline morphology (structure) that occurs during solidification. In
addition, they exhibit greater shrinkage variations than amorphous polymers.

Therefore a greater emphasis on the uniformity of cooling is required when
processing a semi-crystalline material.
Orientation
The most commercially important polymer conversion processes involve melt-
processing methods in which the polymer is heated and made to flow. In the
melted form all polymers are amorphous; that is they have no structure. When
the polymer flows, the polymer chains slip, or slide, over each other while
rotation around the carbon-to-carbon bonds also occurs. Layers slip one over
the other in what is called laminar or shear flow. As the individual polymer
molecules move relative to each other, they may change their direction or ori-
entation as a result of chain entanglements and friction between layers. The
chains thus become drawn out in the direction of flow. Because of the rapid
cooling often employed in polymer processing, this orientation may be
frozen-in and the product will contain, what are referred to as, frozen-in
stresses or, frozen-in strains. These products thus contain molecules that are
orientated in the flow direction, which means that there is a grain effect pre-
sent just like that which exists in wood. As the result of the grain, the wood
is stronger in one direction that it is in another.
Because of orientation, thermoplastic products may be much
stronger in one direction than in another; that is, the product is anisotropic.
Commercial use is made of this uni-axial effect in extrusion in the produc-
tion of the tape used for strapping packages. Biaxial orientation (orientation in
two perpendicular directions) allows the production of strong, stiff, film from
brittle polymers, such as polystyrene (PS).
Table 1.
Standard (Based on ISO and ASTM) Abbreviations
For Selected Thermoplastics
Abbreviation Name
ABAK acrylonitrile-butadiene-acrylate (was A/B/A in ISO)
ABS acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene
A/B/A See ABAK
A/CPE/S See ACS
ACS acrylonitrile-chlorinated polyethylene-styrene
(was A/CPE/S in ISO)
AES acrylonitrile-ethylene-propylene-diene-styrene
(was A/EPDM/S in ISO)
A/EPDM/S See AES
A/MMA See AMMA
AMMA acrylonitrile-methyl methacrylate (was A/MMA in ISO)
AS acrylonitrile-styrene (SAN is more usual in Europe)
ASA acrylonitrile-styrene-acrylate
CA cellulose acetate
CAB cellulose acetate butyrate
CAP cellulose acetate propionate
CN cellulose nitrate
CP cellulose propionate
E/EA See EEAK
EEAK ethylene-ethylene acrylate (was E/AK in ISO)
E/MA See EMA
18 Abbreviation Name
EMA ethylene-methacrylic acid (was E/MA in ISO)
E/P See EP
EP ethylene-propylene (was E/P in ISO)
EPDM ethylene-propylene-diene
E/TFE See ETFE
ETFE ethylene-tetrafluoroethylene (was E/TFE in ISO)
EVAC ethylene-vinyl acetate
EVAL See EVOH
EVOH ethylene-vinyl alcohol (was EVAL in ISO)
FEP fluorinated ethylene-propylene
LCP liquid crystal polymer
MABS methyl methacrylate-butadiene-styrene
MBS methacrylate-butadiene-styrene
PA polyamide
PAEK polyaryletherketone
PAI polyamideimide
PAK polyacrylate
PAR polyarylate
PAUR poly(ester urethane)
PB polybutene-1
PBAK poly(butyl acrylate)
PBT poly(butylene terephthalate)
PC polycarbonate
PCTFE polychlorotrifluorethylene
PE polyethylene
PEBA poly(ether block amide)
PEEK polyetheretherketone
PEEKK polyetheretherketoneketone
PEEST polyetherester
PEI poly(ether imide)
PEK polyetherketone
PEKEKK polyetherketoneetherketoneketone
PEKK polyetherketoneketone
PEOX poly(ethylene oxide)
PES poly(ether sulfone)
PESTUR poly(ester urethane)
PET poly(ethylene terephthalate)
PEUR poly(ether urethane)
PFA perfluoro alkoxyl alkane
PFEP perfluoro(ethylene/propylene)
PI polyimide
PIB polyisobutylene or polyisobutene
PMMA poly(methyl methacrylate)
PMP poly-4-methylpentene-1
PMS poly--methylstyrene
POM polyoxymethylene or, polyacetal or, polyformaldehyde
PP polypropylene
PPE poly(phenylene ether)
PPOX poly(propylene oxide)
PPS poly(phenylene sulfide)
PPSU poly(phenylene sulfone)
PS polystyrene
PSU polysulfone
PTFE polytetrafluoroethylene
PUR polyurethane
Abbreviation Name 19
PVAC poly(vinyl acetate)
PVAL poly(vinyl alcohol)

PVB poly(vinyl butyral)
PVC poly(vinyl chloride)
PVDC poly(vinylidene chloride)
PVDF poly(vinylidene fluoride)
PVF poly(vinyl fluoride)
PVFM poly(vinyl formal)
SAN styreneacrylonitrile
S/B styrenebutadiene
S/MS styrene--methylstyrene
SMA styrenemaleic anhydride
VC/E See VCE
VC/MMA See VCMMA
VC/VDC See VCVDC
VC/VAC See VCVAC
VC/MA See VCMAK
VC/OA See VCOAK
VC/E/MA See VCEMAK
VC/E/VAC See VCEVAC
VCE vinyl chloride-ethylene (was VC/E in ISO)
VCEMAK vinyl chloride-ethylene-methyl acrylate
(was VC/E/MA in ISO)
VCEVAC vinyl chloride-ethylene-vinyl acetate
(was VC/E/VAC in ISO)
VCMAK vinyl chloride-methyl acrylate (was VC/MA in ISO)
VCMMA vinyl chloride-methyl methacrylate
(was VC/MMA in ISO)
VCOAK vinyl chloride-octyl acrylate (was VC/OA in ISO)
VCVAC vinyl chloride-vinyl acetate (was VC/VAC in ISO)
VCVDC vinyl chloride-vinylidene chloride
(was VC/VDC in ISO)
The above abbreviations may be modified by the addition of up to four speci-
fied letters after the abbreviation for the polymer under discussion. For exam-
ple, PS could become PS-HI when high impact polystyrene is being described.
In the case of PE, this would become PE-LD when low-density polyethylene
(LDPE) is being described.
When mixtures are made from two or more polymers (blends or
alloys), ISO 1043 suggests that the symbols for the basic polymers be sepa-
rated by a plus (+) sign and that the symbols be placed in parentheses. For
example, a mixture of * polymethyl methacrylate and * acrylonitrile-butadiene-
styrene should be represented as (PMMA+ABS)
When a copolymer is being discussed, it is recommended (ISO)
that an oblique stroke / be placed between the two monomer abbreviations.
(For example, E/P for an ethylene propylene copolymer.) The oblique strokes
may be omitted when common usage so dictates according to ISO 1043-
1:1987 (E).
THERMOPLASTIC MATERIALS
Over the past 50 years the usage of plastic materials throughout the world has
increased dramatically and now stands at well over 100 million tons. In terms
20 of tonnage, thermoplastics are by far the most important, as they are approxi-
mately 80% of all plastics used throughout the world.
Advantages of Plastics
Plastic materials are widely used because they can be formed into complex
components, or shapes, relatively easily. They also have a useful combination
of properties that can be modified for use in a wide range of applications.
Some of these desirable properties (which are not possessed by
any one plastic) include physical strength, resilience, corrosion resistance,
elasticity, electrical insulation, wide color range, thermal insulation, lightness
in weight, chemical resistance and moldability. These materials are therefore
versatile in their applications. Their use frequently simplifies production, due
to the fact that they often allow several discrete parts to be incorporated into
one component. The ease with which complex parts may be produced from
plastic compositions at high speed, in many cases outweighs the disadvan-
tages of plastic materials. Attractive decoration of such products adds to their
sales appeal.
However, thermoplastic materials sometimes lack strength, stiff-
ness, temperature resistance, and fire resistance. Not only do some plastics
burn relatively easily, but also they often evolve large quantities of smoke and
fumes when they do burn. Many plastic components will creep or change
their dimensions if subjected to relatively small loads for prolonged periods of
time. Environmental stress cracking (ESC), changes of dimensions with tem-
perature and humidity, and a sudden change from tough to brittle behavior are
other factors that should be investigated before thermoplastics are used.
Major Thermoplastic Materials

There are two main categories of plastic materials, thermoplastics and ther-
mosetting plastics (thermosets). Because of the commercial importance of
thermoplastic materials this book will concentrate on their extrusion process-
ing. This important group of materials has been divided into four groups:
1. Commodity or Bulk Thermoplastics
2. Engineering Thermoplastics
3. Thermoplastic Elastomers or Rubbers
4. Blends and/or Alloys
Commodity thermoplastics, such as the polyolefins (polypropylene
and polyethylene), polyvinyl chloride plastics and styrene-based plastics com-
prise, the major tonnage of material produced.
Commodity or Bulk Thermoplastics

Because of their relative ease of manufacture from readily available mono-
mers, their low cost and versatility, usage of polyolefins has grown dramati-
cally in recent years. Both homopolymers and copolymers in this family are
available, as are rubbers and thermoplastics materials. The members of the
polyethylene family include; linear low-density polyethylene (LLDPE), low den-
sity polyethylene (LDPE), high-density polyethylene (HDPE) and very low den-
sity polyethylene (VLDPE). The term polyethylene (PE) therefore covers a
range of materials. A new class of these resins has recently been produced
using metallocene or single site constrained geometry catalysts. These
catalysts allow the production of homopolymers and copolymers with mole-
cules of more uniform size and structure.
The term polyvinyl chloride (PVC) plastic refers to homopolymers
and copolymers, both of which may be used with or without plasticizers. This
gives rise to unplasticized grades (UPVC) and plasticized grades (PPVC). The 21
term styrene-based plastic also refers to a range of materials. These include
the homopolymer polystyrene (PS), the copolymer styrene-acrylonitrile (SAN),

the rubber-toughened material called high impact polystyrene (HIPS) and
acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene (ABS).
The importance of commodity thermoplastics cannot be over-
emphasized because of their high volume of production and usage. The advent
of new catalyst systems (for example, metallocenes) will further increase the
usage of bulk thermoplastics, as new types of polymer may be produced. It is
also now being realized that the properties of this class of materials can be
up-graded, so they can compete with many more expensive engineering ther-
moplastics.
Engineering Thermoplastics
The term engineering thermoplastics generally refers to materials that can be
used to replace metal, glass or wood in manufactured products. They include
both amorphous and semi-crystalline polymers. These plastics, characterized
by properties such as high strength, stiffness, impact resistance, temperature
resistance and fire resistance are widely used in automotive, transportation,
appliance, electronics, communications and aerospace applications. These
materials are produced in smaller volumes than commodity plastics, but they
command a much higher price. Materials that are considered to be engineer-
ing thermoplastics include: polycarbonate (PC), polyethelene terephthalate
(PET), polybutylene terephthalate (PBT), polyoxymethylene (acetal), polysmide
(nylon), polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA) and acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene
(ABS).
New Material Supply

Raw material manufacturers or their distributors can supply a material as, for
example, either prime grade material or as transitional material. Some may
also supply reclaimed material. Prime grade material, also known as virgin
material (or as first pass material or as first grade material) is a thermoplastic
material (in the form of pellets or granules) that has not been subjected to
use, or processing, other than that required for its original manufacture.
Transitional material is material that does not meet the manufactur-
ers specification for prime grade material: it is off-spec or substandard mater-
ial. Such material may be obtained from a continuous compounding line when
a change is made from one grade to another. This means that the melt flow
rate and the base color may be somewhat variable. The cost of virgin material
is greater than that of these off-spec materials.
Thermoplastic Grades
A large number of grades may be available for any one material. These grades
may differ in molecular weight, molecular weight distribution, chain branching,
purity and the presence of additives or modifiers. Therefore, any properties
quoted in the literature should be used only as a general guideline, as each of
the many plastics available consists of a family of materials. Thus it is possible
to get a wide range of properties for each material group. The properties of
these thermoplastics may also be dramatically changed by the processing
conditions employed. Processing may alter the materials color, its physical
properties, amount of molecular orientation and even the type, and amount, of
crystallinity.
22
Additives
It is generally understood in the thermoplastics industry that most plastic mate-
rials used contain small amounts of additives, as most of these materials can-
not be commercially used without them. The properties of a particular material
are altered by the use of these additives. Since additives are essential in com-
mercial plastics, the size and scope of the additives industry is now enormous.
It is estimated that approximately 7 million tons of additives of various kinds
are used in plastics annually. In the thermoplastics industry, the largest amount
of additives is used in polyvinyl chloride (PVC).
With most thermoplastic materials, variations of the basic formulas
are available to provide improved properties, such as, improved heat resistance
or weatherability, by the use of additives. Processing and performance additives
such as antistatic, nucleating and mold release agents may also be added to an
existing material. These additives may form part of the color masterbatch (a
masterbatch is a concentrate). Concentrates containing foaming agents, for
structural foam molding, are also available for many materials.
Examples of other additives are reclaimed material, fillers, reinforce-
ments, impact modifiers, colorants, antioxidants, heat stabilizers, light stabiliz-
ers, lubricants, coupling agent, flame retardants, cross-linking agents, plasticiz-
ers, extenders, nucleating agents, antistatic agents and blowing agents.
Material Modification
The use of the term materials modification usually means the addition of larg-
er amounts (greater than a few percent) of an additive. An additive is used in
relatively large concentrations may be referred to as a modifier. Modifiers may
include elastomers, flame-retardants and fillers. Material modification with rub-
ber impact modifiers, fibers or fillers has been extensively used with engineer-
ing plastics to obtain a desirable combination of properties. These formulations
may offer improved impact strength, tensile strength and heat distortion tem-
perature together with ease of flow.
Trade Name/Trademark Usage

It is common within the thermoplastics industry to refer to a plastic material by
a trade name because they are often simpler, and more widely known, than the
chemical name of the polymer. The same trade name/trademark, however, is
often used for a range of materials, the properties of which may vary widely.
Such materials are usually based on the same type of thermoplastic material,
for example, acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene (ABS). However, one material may
be largely unmodified whereas another, with the same brand name, may contain
large amounts of glass fiber or other additives (Table 2.).
Table 2.
Common Abbreviations and Trade Names/Trademarks
for Thermoplastics and Thermoplastic Elastomers
Abbrevia- Common Common Trade Names
tion Name or Trade Marks
ABS Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene Cycolac; Lustran
AMS Alpha methyl styrene Elite HH
ASA Acrylonitrile styrene acrylate (AAS) Luran S
BDS Butadiene styrene block copolymer K Resin; Styrolux
CA Cellulose acetate Cellidor; Tenite
CAB Cellulose acetate butyrate Cellidor; Tenite
Abbrevia- Common Common Trade Names 23
CAP Cellulose acetate propionate Cellidor; Tenite

CN Cellulose nitrate Celluloid; Xylonite
CP Cellulose propionate (CAP) Cellidor; Tenite
CPE Chlorinated polyethylene (PE-C) Bayer CM; Tyrin CM
CPVC Chlorinated polyvinyl chloride (PVC-C) Lucalor
EA-MPR Elastomer alloy melt processable
rubber or melt processable rubber Alcryn
EA-TPV Elastomer alloy thermoplastic
vulcanizate Lomod; Santoprene
ECM Ethylene-carbon monoxide Carilon; Ketonex
ETFE Tetrafluorethylene-ethylene copolymer Tefzel
EVA Ethylene vinyl acetate copolymer (EVAC) Evatane
EVAL Ethylene vinyl alcohol copolymer Clarene; Eval
EVOH Ethylene vinyl alcohol copolymer Clarene; Eval
FEP Fluorinated ethylene propylene
(TFE-HFP) Teflon FEP
HDPE High density polyethylene (PE-HD) Lupolen HD; Rigidex
HIPS High impact polystyrene (TPS or IPS) Lustrex; Polystyrol
LCP Liquid crystal polymer Vectra; Xydar
LDPE Low density polyethylene (PE-LD) Alathon; Hostalen
MBS Methacrylate butadiene styrene Paraloid
MDPE Medium density polyethylene (PE-MD) Fortiflex
MPR Melt processable rubber or, elastomer
alloy melt processable rubber Alcryn
PA Polyamide or nylon
PA 6 Polyamide 6 or nylon 6 Akulon K; Ultramid
PA 11 Polyamide 11 or nylon 11 Rilsan B
PA 12 Polyamide 12 or nylon 12 Rilsan A; Grilamid
PA 46 Polyamide 46 or nylon 46 Stanyl
PA 66 Polyamide 66 or nylon 66 Maranyl; Zytel
PA 610 Polyamide 610 or nylon 610 Brulon; Perlon N
PAA 6 Polyaryl amide or, poly-m-xylene-
adipamide (PA MXD6) Ixef
PAN Polyacrylonitrile Acrilan; Barex; Orlon
PBT Polybutylene terephthalate Pocan; Valox
PC Polycarbonate Lexan; Makrolon
PCT Polycyclohexanedimethylol
terephthalate Thermx; Valox
PCTFE Polychlorotrifluorethylene Hostaflon C2; Kel-F
PE Polyethylene Alathon; Lupolen
PEBA Polyether block amide (TPE-A) Pebax
PEEK Polyether ether ketone Victrex PEEK
PEEL Polyether ester (TPE-A or YPBO) Arnitel; Hytrel
PE-HD Polyethylene-high density Lupolen HD; Rigidex
HDPE
PEI Polyether imide Ultem
PEK Polyether ketone Hostatec
PEKK Polyether ketone ketone(from DuPont)
PE-LD Polyethylene- low density Alathon; Lupolen LD
PE-MD Polyethylene- medium density Fortiflex
PE-VLD Polyethylene- very low density Norsoflex
PET Polyethylene terephthalate Arnite A; Techster E
PES Polyether sulphone (sulfone) Victrex
PI Polyimide Vespel
PK Polyketone Carilon
24 Abbrevia- Common Common Trade Names
PMMA Polymethyl methacrylate (acrylic) Diakon; Plexiglas
PMP Polymethyl pentene TPX; Crystalor
POM Polyoxymethylene or, acetal
or, polyformaldehyde Delrin; Hostaform
POM-H Acetal homopolymer Delrin and Delrin II
POM-CO Acetal copolymer Hostaform; Ultraform
PP Polypropylene Profax; Propathene
PPE Polyphenylene ether (see PPO)
PPO Polyphenylene oxide-usually modified
polyphenylene oxide (PPO-M) Luranyl; Noryl
PPS Polyphenylene sulfide (sulphide) Fortron; Ryton
PPPS Polyphenylene sulfide sulfone Ryton S
(polyphenylene sulphide sulphone)
PPVC Plasticized polyvinyl chloride (PVC-P) Solvic; Vinnol
Plasticised polyvinyl chloride (PPVC)
PS Polystyrene (GPPS or PS-GP) Lustrex; Polystyrol
PSU Polysulfone (polysulphone) Udel
PTFE Polytetrafluoroethylene Fluon; Teflon
PVC Polyvinyl chloride Corvic; Geon
PVDC Polyvinylidene chloride copolymers Saran
PVDF Polyvinylidene fluoride Dyflor; Kynar
PVF Polyvinyl fluoride Tedlar
SAN Styrene acrylonitrile copolymer Lustran SAN; Tyril
UPVC Unplasticized polyvinyl chloride
(PVC-U) Unplasticized polyvinyl
chloride (UPVC) Corvic; Geon
RMPP Rubber modified polypropylene a TPO
(also known as RRPP or PP/EPDM) Uniroyal TPR; Keltan
SBS Styrene butadiene styrene block
copolymer or thermoplastic elastomer
styrene based (TPE-S) Cariflex TR; Solprene
SEBS Styrene butadiene styrene block
Copolymer (saturated) or thermoplastic
Elastomer styrene based (TPE-S) Cariflex
TPE Thermoplastic elastomer (rubber)
TPE-A Polyether block amide (PEBA) Pebax
TPE-E Thermoplastic elastomer - ether ester
or polyether ester elastomer Arnitel; Hytrel
TPE-OXL Thermoplastic elastomer - polyolefin
based with crosslinked rubber Levaflex; Santoprene
TPE-S Thermoplastic elastomer styrene
based (usually styrene butadiene
styrene block copolymer) Cariflex TR; Solprene
TPE-U Thermoplastic polyurethane (TPU) Elastollan; Estane
TPO Thermoplastic polyolefin - may be a
blend, (see RMPP), a thermoplastic
vulcanizate (see TPV) or a reactor
made product
TPR Thermoplastic rubber (elastomer)
TPU Thermoplastic polyurethane Elastollan; Estane
TPV Thermoplastic vulcanizate
(a TPE with crosslinked rubber) Lomod; Santoprene
ULDPE Ultra low density polyethylene (ULDPE)
VLDPE Very low density polyethylene (ULDPE) Norsoflex

25
VISCOSITY AND VISCOSITY TERMS
To shape a polymer or plastic into a part requires that the material first be

softened or melted and then forced to flow through a die or into a mold. Thus
it becomes very important to understand how polymer and plastic materials
flow. Shear flow is one of the most important types of flow occurring in poly-
mer melts during conversion processes. In this type of flow, one layer of melt
flows over another on application of a shearing force. This process is
described by the relationship between two variables, the shear rate and the
shear stress.
Shear Rate
Shear rate is usually designated by the Greek letter gamma with a dot above
the letter (). No matter what system of units is used, it is represented by
1/time (in seconds). That is 1/sec or s-1. The larger the number the faster is
the material being sheared.
The shear rate (the true shear rate) at the wall of a die (w) is given
by:
w = (3n1+1) (4Q) (Eqn. 1)
4n1 R3
where, n1 = [dlog(PR/2L)]/[dlog(4Q/(R3)]
w = shear stress at the wall of the die = PR/2L
P = measured pressure
R = die radius
L = die length
w = shear rate at the wall of the die
Q = volumetric output rate
By plotting shear stress (Pa or Nm-2) against shear rate (s-1) a flow
curve may be obtained.
Apparent Shear Rate

The expression for the shear rate at the wall of a tube or die is rather complex
and in practice it is often simplified to give w,a = 4Q/R3, where w,a is the
apparent (or uncorrected) shear rate at the wall of a die.
For Newtonian fluids, the apparent (or uncorrected) shear rate at
the wall of a die (w,a) is equal to the true shear rate (w) However, with non-
Newtonian fluids, such as polymer melts, the two are not equal but are related
by the equation:
w = [(3n1 +1)/4n1] w,a (Eqn. 2)
where, n1 = [dlog(RP/2L)]/[dlog(4Q/(R3)]
Shear Stress
Shear stress is the stress or force applied to a body in the direction of one of
its faces. In rheology, shear stress is that force that is applied to a material to
cause shear flow. Thus, it may be defined as the stress (the force per unit area
F/A) required to make one layer of melt to flow over another at a specific
rate. It has the dimensions of force per unit area and is usually designated by
the Greek letter tau ().
The shear stress at the wall of the die (given the symbol w) and is
w = PR/2L (Eqn. 3)
where, P = measured pressure
26 R = die radius, and
L = die length
Shear stress has the units of force per unit area. 1 Nm2 = 10 dyn
cm-2 = 0.000 145 lbf in-2 (psi). By plotting shear stress (Pa or Nm-2) against
shear rate (sec-1) flow curves may be obtained. Dividing the shear stress by
the shear rate gives the viscosity () with units of (Pa-sec) or (Nsm-2).
Apparent Viscosity
Viscosity is defined as the resistance to flow. By dividing w (the shear stress
at the wall) by the apparent wall shear rate (w,a) one may obtain the viscosity
(a) at a particular shear rate. This is the apparent viscosity. (In practice the
word apparent is often omitted and the symbol is used in place of (a).
Another form of viscosity, the kinematic viscosity is obtained by dividing the
viscosity (the coefficient of viscosity) of a fluid by its density. The units are
m2s-1.
Dynamic viscosity is an alternative name for the viscosity or coeffi-
cient of viscosity of a fluid. The usual symbol is but is sometimes used.
In the cgs system, the units are dyne sec cm-2 and such units may be referred
to as poise (P). One poise = 1P = 10-1 Pa-s = 10-1 Nsm-2 = 0.000 014 5 s ft-2.
That is, one poise = 1P = 0.1 Pa-s = 0.1 Nsm-2 and 1 Pa-s = 1 Nsm-2 =
1 kgm1s-1 = 10P = 0.020 88 lbf s ft-2 = 0.000 145 lbf s in-2.
Units Used
Property Symbol System of Measurement
cgs fps ips S.I.
Shear stress dyn cm-2 lbf ft-2 lbf in-2 Nm-2
Shear rate s-1 s-1 s-1 s-1
Apparent viscosity a dyn s cm-2 lbf s ft -2
lbf s in-2 Pa-s
cgs. - abbreviation used for centimeter-gram-second.
fps. - abbreviation used for foot-pound-second.
ips. - abbreviation used for inch-pound-second.
SI. - abbreviation used for Systme International dUnit.
Flow Curve
Polymer melts are not Newtonian, but pseudoplastic fluids (i.e., the viscosity
decreases with increasing shear rate or stress.). Since there is not a linear
relationship between pressure and flow, the flow properties cannot be repre-
sented meaningfully by a single number. Therefore, flow testing over a range
of conditions is required. The information so obtained is usually presented in
the form of a series of flow curves where each one represents data obtained
at a particular temperature. Figure 8a. shows individual flow curves for a
number of commodity resins while Figure 8b. shows similar curves for some
engineering polymers.
A flow curve is sometimes referred to as a rheogram. It is general-
ly a plot of apparent shear stress (w,a) against apparent shear rate at the wall
of a die (w,a). This is done because the expressions for the true shear stress
and shear rate at the wall of a die are rather cumbersome. In practice it is
often just as useful to use the much simpler expressions w,a = RP/2L and w,a
= 4Q/R3. It may be shown that, as with the true shear rate, there is a true
shear stress at the wall of the capillary. To obtain this from capillary rheometer
measurements one must correct for the pressure drop caused by the polymer
entering the die. (This is called the Bagley correction.) Flow curves generated
in most industrial laboratories are, however, generally obtained by plotting w,a
against w,a.
27
6
10
LLDPE (190C)

PVC (195C)
PP (230 C)
5
10
Shear Stress (Pa)
104
3
10
0 1 2 3
10 10 10 10 104
Shear Rate (1/s)
Figure 8a. Viscosity Curves for Some Commodity Thermoplastics
105
PMMA (230C)
ABS (217C)
104 PA6 (250C)
Viscosity (Pa-s)
103
102
1
10
1
10 102 10
3
10
4
Shear Rate (1/s)
Figure 8b. Viscosity Curves for Some Engineering Thermoplastics
By plotting shear stress in Pa (Nm-2) against shear rate in s-1, a vis-

cosity in Pa-s (Nsm-2) may be obtained by from the slope of the flow curve.
The shear stress is generally plotted on the vertical axis and the shear rate
plotted on the horizontal axis. Conversion from shear rate to shear stress is
also obtained for plastic melts by reading from such a flow curve. Flow curves
are used because the equations, used to describe the flow behavior of pseu-
doplastic fluids, can be imprecise. Log-log plots are generally use to easily
read the curves over several decades of shear rate.
Although the wall of the die is specified in the measurement, this is
simply a place at which the shear stress and shear rate may be calculated
from knowledge of flow rates and pressures. The relationship between w and
w will, however, be independent of the position in the flow system and indeed
will be equally applicable to flow in other geometries such as slits.
28
FLOW PROPERTIES MEASUREMENT
The information necessary to generate a flow curve may be obtained from a
variety of types of machines. These include cone and plate and parallel plate
rheometers, co-axial cylinder viscometers and capillary rheometers. Because
of the similarity of its operation to that of many conversion processes and its
ability to generate rheological information at processing conditions, the capil-
lary rheometer is possibly the most useful of these instruments.
Capillary Rheometer
A capillary rheometer (Figure 9.) is a test instrument that is used to measure
the rheological properties of polymer melts. It does so by using a piston to
forcing polymer melt, from a reservoir, through a capillary die. This type of
rheometer is of greatest interest to the plastic technologist as it, in many
respects, is similar to injection molding and extrusion machinery and provides
data in the shear rate range used in these processes (in fact, early extruders
and injection molding machines used rams rather than screws to move the
molten resin). The data so obtained may in turn be used, for example, to size
dies or runner systems. A capillary rheometer, when used in the shear rate
range seen in melt processing, may sometimes be called a high shear rate
rheometer.
The analysis of shear flows in a capillary rheometer employs some
important assumptions. Of these the most important are:
1. The flow is isothermal.
2. There is no slip on the die wall.
3. The melt is incompressible.
4. The flow pattern is the same throughout the die.
5. Dissipation of energy at the die entrance, or due to chain uncoiling, is negli-
gible.
Measuring w,a and w

When the above assumptions are considered to be valid, then the shear stress
and shear rate may be calculated as follows. If the piston speed of the
rheometer is s (measured in mm/s) and the barrel diameter is D (measured in
mm), then the volumetric flow rate Q is
Q = SD3/4 (Eqn. 4)
This is the same in both the barrel and the capillary. The apparent shear rate
at wall is given by
w,a = 4Q/R3 (Eqn. 5)
Where R is the radius of the capillary in mm.
Combining the above equations and simplifying,
w,a = SD3/R3 s-1 (Eqn. 6)
If the barrel diameter is 9.550 mm (the standard size) then, the formula
becomes
w,a = 91.203S/R3 s-1 (Eqn. 7)
(when the capillary radius is in mm and the ram speed is in mm/s).
Since the shear stress at the wall is given by w = PR/2L then, for a 20:1 die,
w = P/80
(where P is the recorded pressure at the entrance to the capillary). 29
By plotting w against w,a a flow curve may be obtained.

Figure 9. Capillary Rheometer
Flow Data
Below are shear flow data obtained from a capillary rheometer. Such informa-
tion is available in several material databases, such as those maintained by
Moldflow Inc. These data are used, for example, to help predict how an injec-
tion mold will fill. For this application the effect, on the viscosity, of changing
shear rate at a constant temperature is required. In addition, the effect of
changing temperature a constant shear rate is required. A die with a high L/D
ratio, for example 20/1, is generally used.
The viscosities (in units of Pa-s ) at 1,000 s-1 for the following
grades of PA 6 (Akulon from Akzo) at a range of temperatures are:
Grade 240C/464F 260C/500F 280C/536F 300C/572F
Easy flow 98 78 63 50
Medium flow 149 115 89 69
Stiff flow 394 319 259 210
The viscosities (Pa-s) at a temperature of 240C/464F for a range of shear
rates (s-1) are:
100s-1 1,000s-1 10,000s-1 100,000s-1
Easy flow 197 63 20 6
Medium flow 323 89 25 7
Stiff flow 1220 259 55 12
30
Ease of Flow
The data in the above table were obtained when samples of nylon 6 (PA 6)
were tested. They clearly show that the three injection molding grades tested
have very different viscosities. The first grade, which has the lowest viscosity,
(it is the easiest flowing grade) can be used where mold filling is difficult, or
where long flow lengths are involved. The viscosity of all three materials falls
as the shear rate is increased. Thus mold filling becomes easier. Raising the
melt temperature, while keeping the shear rate constant, reduces the amount
of injection pressure required to maintain a certain rate of flow. This is
because most plastic melts become less viscous (flow more easily) with
increasing temperature.
Such information is frequently presented in tabular form in the
Flow Properties section for a material. Although the viscosity of most plas-
tics falls as the temperature is raised, with some materials the effect is more
pronounced. Thus, for materials whose viscosity falls markedly with a rise in
temperature (for example, PA 66, PC and POM) the ease of mold filling is
helped significantly by a moderate increase in melt temperature. For materials
where the effect of temperature increases is less pronounced, it is more use-
ful to increase the mold temperatures and/or the molding pressures to ease
the filling of a mold.
Flow Property Assessment

Because most methods of shaping plastics are melt processes, such as extru-
sion or injection molding, the measurement of melt flow properties is
extremely important. A large number of tests have been devised, many of
them empirical, to measure these properties. Such tests may be roughly
grouped into low shear rate tests and high shear rate tests. A low shear rate
test, such as the melt flow rate (MFR) (or melt flow index (MFI)) test, is one
of the most widely used tests (See the Section 3 on Testing).
ELASTIC EFFECTS IN POLYMER MELTS

The long chain molecules that make up polymeric materials become distorted
when they are subjected to shearing forces during processing operations.
Such shearing tends to stretch the molecules. However, when the shearing
process ceases the molecules tend to coil up again, providing they are still
molten. If cooling occurs rapidly after shear, this re-coiling may not be com-
plete. Such un-coiling/re-coiling processes can give rise to a number of
effects, which are often referred to as elastic effects. The most important elas-
tic effects are die swell, melt fracture, sharkskin, frozen-in orientation and
draw down.
DIE SWELL
When polymer melt emerges from a die the extrudate may swell, so that its
cross-section as it leaves the die is greater than that of the die orifice. For a
capillary die, the ratio of the extrudate diameter to the die diameter is known
variously as the die swell ratio, swelling ratio or as the puff-up ratio. For a slit
die, the relevant ratio is thickness of extrudate/depth of slit.
Causes of Die Swell

Die swell (Figure 10.) occurs because shearing of the melt as it passes
through the die causes the molecules to become extended (with the greatest
orientation near the die wall). On emergence from the die, the molecules tend 31
to coil up (recoil) resulting in a contraction in the flow direction and an expan-
sion in directions perpendicular to the flow. If an extrudate is cut at the die

face, it will be seen that the leading edge of the extrudate is convex. This indi-
cates that the greatest contraction in the flow direction is nearest to the wall
where the shear has been greatest.
Figure 10. Die Swell
Reducing Die Swell

For a given material, die swell may be reduced by:
Decreasing the extrusion rate
Increasing melt temperature
Increasing the length of the die parallel or lands
Streamlining and/or reducing the die entry angle
Increasing the draw down ratio
Often the addition of a lubricant will reduce the die swell. The lubri-
cant will cause slip at the wall and ease the flow of polymer through the die.
Low molecular weight polymer functions as a lubricant and so broadening the
molecular weight distribution of a material will also reduce die swell.
Changing Shape
It is common industrial practice to compensate for die swell by stretching, or
drawing down, the extrudate so that it can just pass through a sizing die.
When this technique is used it is not necessary that the two be exactly bal-
anced. It should, however, be noted that drawing down causes molecular ori-
entation, which gives rise to an increase in strength in the flow direction and a
decrease in directions transverse to the flow. This may or may not be desir-
able. The method is also somewhat limited where the solid extrudate has vary-
ing section thickness. Shear rates, and hence die swell, will be higher at the
thinner sections. These thin sections may also have a shorter die parallel, to
32 ensure that extrusion rates are constant across the cross-section, and this will
increase the die swell even further.
In the production of pipe and tubing, the situation is further com-
plicated by the fact that the extrudate is usually inflated to the dimensions of a
sizing die. In this case it may be assumed that on emergence from the die, the
wall thickness will expand appropriate to the die swell for the shear rate used.
Subsequently, the wall thickness will be reduced proportionally to the amount
of inflation given by the ratio diameter of the sizing die/ the external diameter
of the pipe die.
Die Entry Angle

The die entry angle is the angle of convergence provided for the melt entering
the extrusion die. As the melt leaves the extruder barrel the shape of the flow-
ing melt stream must be changed to that of the shaped extrudate. This transi-
tion takes place in the die adapter and is best done as gradually and as
streamlined as possible. The higher the viscosity of the melt, the more
streamlining is required. It is also necessary to keep the lengths of the flow
paths, to each part of the die, the same in the streamlined region, as this will
reduce subsequent extrudate shape changes.
The die entry angle for a particular material can be found practical-
ly by using a plate die, which has a properly shaped die orifice, in a non-
streamlined die holder. Plastic is then run through the die, followed by a
change in the color of the material. When the second color starts to extrude
from the die, the machine is shut down. The hot die and the die holder are
removed and cooled and the cross section of the cold material is examined.
The color changes seen in the cross section will show the streamlined shape
required. A thermoplastic material, which contains a heat fugitive dye, may
also be used to show the streamlining required.
Predicting Die Swell

Computer programs are available that simulate the flow of polymeric materials
through a die and will predict die swell. This type of program takes die swell
into account in predicting the die shape and size required to produce a
desired profile shape and size. To do this, the program incorporates a materi-
als database that contains the data (thermal, rheological and viscoelastic
properties) needed to do a flow analysis. Such software allows the design of a
die that is balanced to produce uniform flow. Methods for the measurement of
die swell are given in a later section.
MELT FRACTURE
It is frequently observed that when extrusion is carried out at high rates, a
distortion of the extrudate may occur. The distortion may be due either to the
phenomenon known as melt fracture (also known as elastic turbulence or
bambooing) (Figure 11.) or, it may be due to sharkskin. Although not fully
understood, these do appear to have different origins.
Critical Shear Rate

Melt fracture occurs when the shear rate in a die exceeds a critical value for
the polymer melt at a particular temperature (the critical shear rate). There is
also a critical shear stress. The point on the shear rate-shear stress diagram
(flow curve), corresponding to these two values is known as the critical point.
Melt fracture is believed to occur in the die entry region where material is 33
being funneled from the melt reservoir into the capillary or die. In a full-scale
extruder, this would correspond to the point where melt moves into the die

parallel portion of the die. Some further complicating effects may occur at the
wall of the die.
Figure 11. Melt Fracture
Form of Distortion
The form of the melt fracture distortion varies from one polymer type to
another, but it is generally helical in nature. With materials such as polyethyl-
ene and polypropylene a distortion like a screw thread may appear, while with
polystyrene the extrudate may form a spiral. Other polymer melts may show
ripples, or bamboo-like repetitive kinks. With all melts, the helical nature
becomes obscured by severe distortion that looks random, at rates well above
34 the critical point. Melt fracture is most likely to occur where small diameter
extrudates are being extruded at high rates. The most notable example occurs
with wire covering.
Factors Affecting Melt Fracture

Since it is easily observed in the laboratory, melt fracture has been widely
studied and experiments have shown that:
The critical shear rate (c) increases with increasing temperature
The product wMw is a constant. Melt fracture will start at lower shear
stresses and shear rates as the molecular weight of the material is
increased (w is critical shear stress and Mw is weight average molecular
weight)
Two polymers differing in their levels of branching, but which have similar
melt viscosities tend to have similar critical points
The extrudate quality may be markedly improved by tapering the die entry.
When this is done externally, undistorted extrudates may be obtained at
rates well above the critical point. However, there is some evidence that
there may still be some internal distortion
There is some evidence that increasing the length to diameter (L/D) ratio of
the die parallel increases the critical shear rate. Tapering the die parallel may
also substantially increase the critical point
The above factors have now been well known for some years and
as a result high speed wire covering, and other operations involving high
shear rates are operated without undue trouble from melt fracture effects.
SHARKSKIN
The phenomenon of sharkskin has been less widely studied than melt frac-
ture, but it is probably a greater problem in industrial extrusion.
Melt Tearing
In the case of sharkskin, the distortion consists of transverse ridges (as
opposed to helical distortions). It is believed to occur as a result of the melt
tearing as it extrudes from the die. This occurs because, within the die, melt
close to the wall is moving very slowly (in the case of the layer next to the
wall this movement is zero). As the melt emerges, the whole extrudate moves
away from the die face at a constant speed so that the outer layers are sud-
denly stretched and may tear.
Incidence of Sharkskin
Experimental studies indicate that the critical shear rate for onset of sharkskin
(c.sh) is inversely proportional to the die radius (R); that is, c.sh R = a constant.
This means that the critical shear rate is much lower with larger diameter
dies. One result of this is that the small dies (such as those used in typical
laboratory rheometers) generally show melt fracture occurring at shear rates
below those for the onset of sharkskin, while the reverse may be seen with
typical full-scale industrial dies.
Critical Linear Extrusion Rate

It can be shown, as a consequence of the above relationship, that sharkskin is
likely to occur above a critical linear extrusion rate irrespective of the die size.
35
For example, for a particular hypothetical polymer melt, it may occur at an
extrusion rate of approximately 30 in./min whatever the die size.

Conditions Favoring Sharkskin
Sharkskin is most pronounced when the melt is partially elastic and has the
consistency of a friable cheese. Improved results may sometimes be obtained
by reducing the melt temperatures, so that the melt is more strongly elastic as
it emerges from the die. Alternatively, some improvement has been seen when
the die is heated at the point of exit. This makes the surface layers of melt
more fluid, thus making melt tearing less likely. The severity of sharkskin may
vary enormously. At one extreme, the distance between a ridge and adjacent
trough may be 1/3 of the extrudate cross-section. At the other extreme, the
effect may be barely detectable to the naked eye, but shows up as a matt fin-
ish or, may be felt by running a fingernail over the surface. In blow molding, a
rough surface on the inside of a bottle is indicative of sharkskin (The outside
is usually flattened against the wall of the blow mold).
Molecular Factors
The only molecular factor within a polymer type that appears to greatly influ-
ence sharkskin is molecular weight distribution (MWD). A broad distribution is
generally effective in reducing any tendency to show sharkskin effects.
FROZEN-IN ORIENTATION
In the molten state, and when not subject to external stresses, polymer mole-
cules tend to coil up. That is, they prefer to exist in a random coil configura-
tion. When external stresses are applied (as occur during extrusion, molding
and other shaping operations) the molecules become distorted from their ran-
domly coiled state and tend to become oriented. In most processing opera-
tions it is generally desirable to set the polymer as soon as possible after it
has been shaped; usually by cooling in a water bath after the extrusion die. In
such circumstances, the polymer molecules may not have time to coil up (re-
coil) completely before the melt freezes. This results in the effect known as
frozen-in orientation.
Anisotropy
As a result of frozen-in orientation, plastic products may be anisotropic in
their behavior. That is, their properties differ if measured in different direc-
tions. For example, tensile strength is greatest in the direction of orientation.
Impact strength is also affected by frozen-in orientation. When the sample has
been injection molded with the gate at one end of the sample, the molecules
will be roughly aligned with the long axis of the sample. Thus to break the
sample, in a standard Izod test, requires fracture across the elongated mole-
cules, which gives a higher impact strength than is recorded with unoriented
samples. On the other hand, if impact strength is measured by dropping a
weight onto a flat plate, lower impact strength will be seen with more oriented
moldings. In this case fracture can occur more easily parallel to the direction
of orientation since this largely requires fracture between, rather than across,
molecules.
36
Biaxial Orientation
Increased orientation may be introduced into a system by stretching the poly-
mer melt just before it freezes. Uniaxial orientation, that is stretching in one
direction, is important in the manufacture of tapes and fibers, while biaxial
orientation, simultaneous stretching in two directions, is important in film
production. It may also be desirable to build-in biaxial orientation into piping,
bottles, and other hollow containers, in order to enhance the hoop strength
and fracture resistance of these products.
Desirable or Undesirable?
Frozen-in orientation may thus be either desirable or undesirable according to
circumstances. It is greater when the melt is subjected to higher stresses and
when there is a short interval between shearing and freezing (or setting) of
the melt. Such conditions are obtained with low melt temperatures and low
cooling temperatures after shaping, as found with low injection mold tempera-
tures or low extrusion cooling bath temperatures.
DRAW DOWN
In a number of extrusion processes, such as the manufacture of film, the
extrudate may be subject to extensive stretching after leaving the die. In other
cases, like chill-roll casting of film, it is important that the extruded web does
not tear on stretching.
Viscous Behavior
In cases where stretching is important, viscous rather than elastic behavior is
often more important. It is reasonable to expect that, although the melt should
have some strength and elasticity, the main requirement is that the molecules
of the melt can flow past each other.
Neck-In
One phenomenon associated with chill roll casting is that of neck-in. The edge
of the extruded web tends to shrink inward towards the center of the web and,
at the same time, tends to become thicker than the bulk of the film. It is found
here that more elastic melts, which can maintain a tension in the extrusion
direction, are less susceptible to neck-in.
Parison Sag
Elastic effects may also influence the parison sag that occurs during blow
molding. Parison sag is the thinning of the parison caused by the stress of its
own weight as it leaves the die. Part of the sag may be due to an elastic effect
(chain uncoiling) and part due to viscous flow as the molecules slide past
each other. It is reasonable to assume that the elastic component of the sag
increases as a proportion of the total as the:
Molecular weight, and hence viscosity, increases
Melt temperature decreases (increasing viscosity)
The length of parison per unit weight increases. This is because an elastic
deformation under a standard load depends on the length of the part being
stretched, whereas the viscous flow does not (as long as the weight of the
parison is constant).
37
SECTION 3:
section 3: testing
TESTING
TESTING AND STANDARDS
MATERIAL INSPECTION
DENSITY AND DIMENSIONS
TENSILE STRENGTH
FLEXURAL PROPERTIES
IMPACT STRENGTH
HARDNESS AND SOFTNESS
THERMAL PROPERTIES
FLAMMABILITY TESTING
MELT FLOW RATE
MELT VISCOSITY
MEASUREMENT OF ELASTIC EFFECTS
CHEMICAL RESISTANCE
ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES
OPTICAL PROPERTIES
MATERIAL IDENTIFICATION
TESTING AND STANDARDS

The word test means an examination performed to evaluate performance or
capability of a material, a compound, a test piece or a component. A test may
be performed on a raw material (in powder or granular form), a piece specifi-
cally made for testing, or a formed part.
Reasons for Testing

Testing is often time consuming and expensive, so, before considering specific
tests, the purpose or object of the testing in general has to be decided. Testing
is nothing new. Over the years, many tests have been devised to enable judge-
ments to be made on the:
Quality and consistency of raw materials
Quality and consistency of associated products
Merits of new or modified materials
Suitability of a particular design
The need to carry out adequate fitness-for-purpose, and quality
control testing, has increased greatly in recent years as a result of legislation
on liability for product performance. New legislation is making the risk of
punitive damage claims for product liability a very real possibility that manu-
facturers and suppliers must face and guard against. They must ensure that
their materials and products are not in any way defective.
38
Standards Organizations
Tests are performed as specified by a test standards (Table 3.) which are
issued by national or international standards organization (see separate
Appendix). An example of a national standards organization is the American
Society for Testing of Materials (ASTM). The International Standards
Organization (ISO) is an international organization.
It should be noted that the same answers may not automatically
be obtained if a material/test piece is tested by one standard and then by
another, for example, by an American Society for Testing and Materials
(ASTM) method and then by an ISO method. Differences in the reported val-
ues are not necessarily due to changes in the material, but may be due to dif-
ferences in test piece preparation, dimensions, conditioning or to changes in
the actual test method used.
Factors Influencing Test Results

There are a large number of factors that will influence the results obtained
from a test such as test machine design, test piece size, shape and method of
production, conditioning of the samples, temperature during the test, etc.
Standardization of test methods is essential, if people in the same laboratory
or in different laboratories, are to obtain the same result on the same material.
Since there are a large number of factors that will influence the results
obtained, it is obvious that standardization of test methods is essential.
Standard test sample conditioning must be employed. Often this
conditioning is simply storing the specimens at a standard temperature, for a
specified time, before testing. Despite its simplicity, such physical aging is
important as post-molding changes commonly occur. For many materials,
such as some engineering thermoplastics, the specimens should be stored for
a specified time under conditions of specified humidity.
Test Results and SI

Most test results are measured and quoted in the units specified by the
Systme International dUnit (SI). The formal content of SI is determined and
authorized by the General Conference of Weights and Measures. The units
issued by the SI are a coherent international system of units now widely used
for scientific and technical work. As there is coherence between units, this
removes awkward factors in calculations involving quantitative relations.
The seven basic units are the meter (length), kilogram (mass),
second (time), ampere (electric current), degrees Kelvin (temperature), mole
(amount of substance) and the candela (luminous intensity). There are sup-
plementary units for plane angle (radian) and solid angle (steradian) and
some SI derived units that have special symbols. These SI derived units that
have special symbols include the Newton and the Pascal. Certain other non-SI
units are permitted, for example, cm and C. SI units were derived from the
MKS system and are sometimes occasionally known as MKSA metric.
Families of Materials
Each of the many plastics and rubbers available is, in effect, a family of mate-
rials that differ in such factors as molecular weight and molecular weight dis-
tribution. What this means is that it is possible to get a wide range of proper-
ties for each of the materials groups. Properties quoted in the literature
should, therefore, only be used as a general guideline as, for example, where
the exact composition or structure of material tested is not known. The prop-
erties of plastics may also be dramatically changed by the processing condi-
tions employed and by the use of additives.
With many materials, variations of basic formulations are available 39
using additives to provide for improved properties such as, heat resistance or,
weatherability. Some formulations offer improved impact strength while oth-
section 3: testing
ers, which contain fillers, are used where the moldings require tensile strength
or or higher heat distortion temperature. Processing and performance modi-
fiers such as anti-static or nucleating agents may be added. These additives
may form part of the color masterbatch.
Restriction of Testing
Most of the tests described here, although standardized, are usually only suit-
able for relatively simple purposes such as for checking the quality of a mater-
ial being produced. Even so, such testing is expensive and it is therefore
important to restrict it as much as possible. Unnecessary testing, on materials
or products, should not be performed. (For example, the testing of gloss, or
finish, on parts, which are to be hidden in service, would seem to be point-
less.) Before a test is performed it must always be decided what will be done,
with the results and with the components, after testing. It is very important
that test specifications are drawn up at a very early stage in the production
process. The use of written specifications and procedures is vital. Once pro-
duction has started, periodic reviews of the tests are essential to ensure that
the test programs continue to provide what is required.
Table 3.
Standard Tests Used for Property Guidelines
ASTM ISO BS DIN Other
Conditioning and Test Sample Preparation
Cond. of materials 291 2782 Pt10
Test piece preparation 2782 Pt9
Cond. of test pieces 2782
Density & Dimensions
Density/rel. density D 792 1183 2782 Pt6 53479
Dimensions 2782 Pt6
Apparent bulk density 2782 Pt6
Bulk factor 2782 Pt6
Short Term Mechanical Tests
Tensile strength D 638M R527 2782 Pt3 53455/7
Elongation at break D 638M R527 2782 Pt3 53455/7
Tensile yield strength D 638M R527 2782 Pt3 53455/7
Tensile modulus D 638M R527 2782 Pt3 53455/7
Specific modulus See Tensile strength and Density/rel. density
Compressive strength D 695 604 2782 Pt3 53454
Compressive modulus D 695 604 2782 Pt3 53454
Flexural strength D 790 178 2782 Pt3 53452
Flexural modulus D 790 178 2782 Pt3 53452
Izod impact strength D 256 180 2782 Pt3
Charpy impact strength D 256 179 2782 Pt3 53453
Tensile impact strength D 1822 2782 Pt3 53448
FWIS D 3029 2782 Pt3
Mechanical Surface Tests
Abrasion resistance D 1242
Taber abrasion res. D 1044 3537 2782 Pt3 52347
Friction D 1894 2782 Pt8
Ball hardness 2039-1 2782 Pt3 53456
Rockwell hardness D 785 2039-2 2782 Pt3
Shore hardness D 2240 868 2782 Pt3 53505
Scratch hardness
Softness 2782 Pt3
40 ASTM ISO BS DIN Other
Thermal and Temperature Dependent Properties
Thermal conductivity C 177
Coeff. of thermal exp. E 228 or 831 53752
Shrinkage - linear D 955 294-4 2782 Pt9
Specific heat C 351
Glass trans. temp Tg D 3418
Melting point - Tm D 3418 3148 2782 Pt1
Softening point 2782 Pt1
Vicat softening temp D 1525 306 2782 Pt1 53460
HDT 1.82 MPa/264 psi D 648 75 2782 Pt1 53461
HDT 0.45 MPa/66 psi D 648 75 2782 Pt1 53461
Relative temperature index UL 746B
Cold flex 2782 Pt1
MFR/MFI D 1238 1133 2782 Pt7 53735 JIS K7210
Melt viscosity 54811
Flammability and Smoke Testing
Vertical testing D 635 2782 Pt1 UL94V/
CSA
C22.2
Glow wire 6458 IEC 695-
2-1
Needle flame 6458 IEC 695-
2-2
Limiting oxygen index D 2863 4589 2782 Pt1
Smoke testing D 2843
Permanence Tests
Water abs. in 24 h D 570 62 2782 Pt4
Saturation water abs D 570 62 2782 Pt4
Chemical resistance D 543 2782 Pt8
ESC 4600 2782 Pt8 IEC 538A
Ageing G 26/G 53
Electrical properties
Volume resistivity D 257 6233 IEC 93
Surface resistivity D 257 6233 IEC 93
Relative permittivity D 150 2067/4542 IEC 250
Dissipation factor D 150 2067/4542 IEC 250
Dielectric strength D 149 2918 IEC 243-1
Arc resistance D 495
CTI 5901 IEC 112
Optical Properties
Refractive index D 542 2782 Pt5 53491
Haze D 1003 2782 Pt5
Gloss D 523 2782 Pt5 67530
Long Term Mechanical Properties
Creep D 2990 53444
Fatigue D 671
MATERIAL INSPECTION
Most thermoplastic materials are supplied as granules or pellets in bags,
sacks, or bulk containers. When supplied in 50 lb/22.6 kg sacks, the material
is often supplied in 20 bag (1,000 lb) loads. If supplied in 25 kg/55 lb bags
then, the material is often supplied in 1,000 kg/2240 lb lots. Considerable dis-
counts may be obtained if the plastic material is purchased in bulk and sup-
plied in bulk containers. With some materials, this form of supply may not be
acceptable in such cases as when excessive water absorption may occur.
41
Preliminary Inspection
Most plastic materials are accepted as being satisfactory until something
section 3: testing
goes wrong during a processing operation. It makes sense, however, to
inspect the material before processing for color, particle size, particle size con-
sistency and any obvious contamination. There is no point in processing out-
of spec material as out-of spec products will be the result. This applies par-
ticularly to recycled material. The feed to many extrusion processes is a mix-
ture of virgin and regrind or recycled material.
A major problem with recycled or reclaimed material is contamina-
tion (which may take the form of discolored material and/or fines). Therefore,
a sample of the material should be inspected under a consistent light source
for color and contamination and the regrind should be sieved to check the
concentration of fines. Only that material with a specified concentration of
fines should be used. The moisture content of the material should be checked
and the material dried if necessary. Blend the dried, reclaimed material with
virgin material in a precisely agreed to ratio and check appropriate properties
(for example, flow rate and color) before the material is certified as being
good enough for processing. If there is any uncertainty in regard to the quality
of the material being fed to the machine, then it should not be used.
Moisture Absorption
Moisture absorption is a measure of how much water (moisture) a compo-
nent, or material, will absorb under specified conditions and over a certain
time. Many plastic materials absorb water (that is, they are hygroscopic). This
absorbed water changes dimensions and properties including electrical insula-
tion, dielectric properties, mechanical properties and surface appearance. The
melt flow will also be affected.
In general, the level of water/moisture in the material fed to melt
processing equipment must be kept very low as its presence in many poly-
mers may lead not only to problems with processing, but also to post-extru-
sion problems and to chemical degradation. For instance with PC, the mois-
ture causes chemical degradation that is detrimental to the performance of the
finished product (impact strength is affected). The maximum permissible limit
for moisture in the granules for production of good extrudates varies from
polymer to polymer but, in general, should be kept below 0.1% as measured
by the water absorption in 24 hours.
Water Absorption in 24 Hours (24 h)

Test pieces are generally molded discs 2 inches/50.8 mm in diameter and 0.32
mm thick. Three test pieces are used. Each test piece is conditioned by being
heated at 50C/122F for 24 hrs. The test pieces are cooled, in a desiccator,
and weighed. The test pieces are then immersed in distilled water at a speci-
fied temperature and for a specified time. For example, the test pieces are
placed in a container with water at 23C/73C: after 24 h the test pieces are
wiped dry and weighed. The change in weight is usually expressed as a per-
centage of the original weight, for example, 0.1%. Such a test gives the 24 hr.
water absorption at room temperature. In general, if the 24 hr. water absorp-
tion is greater than 0.2% then, for injection molding, drying is usually neces-
sary. For extrusion-based processes, the level is approximately 0.1%.
An accelerated water absorption test may be performed by
immersing the weighed, dried, test pieces in boiling water for 30 minutes,
cooling for 15 minutes at 23C/73F and re-weighing.
42
Saturation Water Absorption
A saturation water absorption value is also quoted for many materials. This
value is obtained by immersing the weighed and dried test pieces in water at
23C/73F until there is no further increase in weight upon re-weighing.
For some materials such as nylon 6, that have a very high water
absorption, graphs are published by the material manufacturers that indicate
how the water content varies with humidity. This may be referred to as an
equilibrium water content.
Measuring Moisture Content

Methods of measuring of the moisture content in a thermoplastic material
include drying to constant weight and the Karl Fischer method. The Karl
Fischer method, however, is time consuming, involves the use of pyridine (an
unpleasant smelling liquid) and requires considerable technical skill. Drying to
constant weight is also time consuming and often not satisfactory where very
low levels of moisture need to be measured.
Consequently proprietary instruments, which require little skill and
which give a direct reading of moisture content in less than 30 minutes have
been developed. An example is the OmniMark moisture analyzer. A separate
weighing facility as well as the instrument is required. Ideally such an instru-
ment should be sited close to the processing operation, rather than in a
remote quality control laboratory, so that the moisture content of the material
being processed may be readily checked. See Table 4. below for recommend-
ed moisture limits for extrusion processes.
Table 4.
Moisture Content Limits for Extrusion
Material Moisture Content Limit %
Acrylic 0.05
Acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene * 0.02
Cellulosics 0.40
Nylon 6 and 66 0.25
Nylon 11 and Nylon 12 0.01 - 0.10
Polycarbonate 0.02
Polystyrene 0.10
Polyvinyl chloride 0.08
Styrene-acrylonitrile 0.10
Thermoplastic polyester * 0.01
DENSITY AND DIMENSIONS

Most tests involve the measurement of one or more dimensions. The density
of a material is of importance since materials are usually bought by weight
and sold by volume. Apparent density measurements may be performed on
material before an extrusion operation, as a quality control check. Melt density
can be measured during a melt flow rate test (See Method A to B Conversion
in Flow Rate Testing).
Units of Density and Specific Gravity

Density is defined as mass per unit volume. When expressed in grams per
cubic centimeter (g/cc) it is numerically equal to relative density (specific
gravity or SG). It is often given in kg/m3 (kilogram per cubic meter) although 43
grams per cubic centimeter is more common (g/cm3 is the same as g/cc and
gcm-3). It is suggested, for ease of understanding that when density is dis-
section 3: testing
cussed, the units used should be Mg/m3 rather than kg/m3. This gives values
that have the same numerical values as the well established g/cm3 values or
SG values. 1 Mg/m3 = 1 g/cm3 = 1,000 kg/m3.
Relative density is more usually referred to as specific gravity (SG).
Relative density (rd or RD) is the ratio of the mass of a substance to the mass
of an equal volume of water, at a specified temperature. Specific gravity or rel-
ative density has no units, as it is a ratio.
Density of Filled Materials

The densities of most commercial thermoplastics are low since they are gen-
erally based on carbon and hydrogen. Addition of inorganic fillers and fibers
usually increases the density of the polymer blends since these materials usu-
ally have a density greater than that of the polymer. To calculate the density of
a polymer composition, divide the total mass of the polymer composition by
the total volume. For example, if 100 g of unsaturated polyester resin (UP) of
density 1.28 g/cc is mixed with 50 g of glass filler (density 2.55 g/cc) then the
Compound Density =
100g + 50g / [100g/1.28g/cc + 50g/2.55g/cc] = 1.52 g/cc. (Eqn. 8)
This equation assumes that all the air spaces, or voids, in the mixture are
filled.
Measurement of Density and Specific Gravity

Relative density (RD), more commonly known as specific gravity (SG), may be
obtained by dividing the weight of a sample in air by the difference between
the weight in air and the weight in water. Special balances (such as the
Lhomme and Argy) are available for direct measurement of relative density
(RD or SG) based on this principle. A measurement of RD can be used to
determine if opaque test pieces contain voids.
If an accurate measurement of density is required, then this may
be obtained from a flotation method. For example, the density of polyethylene
(PE) may be obtained by the use of a water/alcohol mixture. Small pieces of
the PE are placed in a beaker which contains a water/alcohol mixture with a
density of approximately 0.9 gcm-3 (obtained by mixing 35 ml of methanol
with 25 ml of distilled water at 23C). Additional water is then slowly added to
the beaker. When the density of the liquid is the same as the density of the PE,
then the pieces of PE will remain suspended. It is important to add the addi-
tional water slowly and to keep the solution well stirred. These precautions
ensure that the liquid density is uniform and that the heat of mixing does not
cause the temperature to rise to an unacceptable level. The density of the
water/alcohol mixture may then be determined by a weighing bottle technique.
A density gradient column may also be used for measuring density.
The density of such a column gradually changes from top to bottom, so a
small piece of a material dropped into it will come to rest at the point where
its density matches that of the column. Glass floats of known density are used
to calibrate the column. Some liquid mixtures used in such a column include
water and ethanol (density range 0.8 to 1.0), ethanol and carbon tetrachloride
(density range 0.8 to 1.6), water and calcium nitrate (density range 1.0 to 1.6)
and, carbon tetrachloride and bromoform (density range 1.6 to 2.9).
44 For foamed plastics, one can weigh a known volume of the materi-
al. In this case, a cube of the material is cut and weighed: the density is
weight over volume.
Melt Density
Sometimes a measure of melt density is required. This is most easily mea-
sured on an apparatus used for measuring Melt Flow Rate by what is called
Method B. Method B uses an electronic method to sense the plunger displace-
ment and thus the volume of polymer displaced. Some machines can calcu-
late the flow data from such measurements at the same time. (See Flow
Rate) It should be noted that, for polymers, the melt density is always lower
than the solid density.
Dimensions
Many tests require that the dimensions of the test piece are known and are
known very accurately. The measurement of dimensions, such as length,
width, and thickness of rigid materials is relatively easy to do and may be
done with a simple external micrometer. Spring-loaded dial gauges are com-
monly used for soft or flexible materials and electronic non-contacting gauges
are also available.
Gravimetric thickness is sometimes used, for example, to measure
the thickness of an embossed component. This is a method of obtaining the
thickness of a component from a determination of dimensions, mass and rela-
tive density. The gravimetric thickness in millimeters (mm) equals 10.0 W/A x
RD: where A is the area, W is the mass and RD is the relative density. The
gravimetric thickness in inches (in.) equals 0.394 W/A x RD: where A is the
area, W is the mass and RD is the relative density.
TENSILE STRENGTH
Tensile testing is a very widely used test as it is relatively easy to perform,
gives reasonably reproducible results and yields a great deal of information.
From this one test one can obtain not only tensile strength, but also elonga-
tion and modulus. The same basic machine may also be used to perform a
number of other tests (for instance, flexural strength and compressive
strength) with relatively simple modifications.
Description of the Test

The tensile test machine is constructed so that as the test specimen is
deformed at a pre-selected speed the resistance to deformation and the
amount of extension are measured. In order to ensure that breaking does not
occur at the grips, used to hold the test sample, the sample is usually dumb-
bell shaped. If a cut sample is used (for example, cut from sheet) then the
surface finish of the cut edges must be controlled so as to minimize errors.
The sample dimensions in the waist region (gauge section) are
measured with a micrometer or dial gauge and then the sample is firmly
gripped in the jaws of the machine. An extensiometer may then be clipped to
the sample. One jaw of the machine is drawn away from the other (usually by
an electric motor) at the specified speed. A load cell that is connected to one
of the jaws, measures the resistance to deformation. A load/extension curve is
usually produced automatically by the machine. Five specimens are normally
tested and the average result(s) quoted together with the standard deviation.
45
Stress and Strain
The application of the tensile stress causes the specimen to stretch from its
section 3: testing
original gauge length (lo) to a longer length (Il). Tensile strain (1), commonly
referred to as strain, may then be defined as the change in length/original
length which is
1 = (Il - lo)/(lo) (Eqn. 9)
Percentage strain = strain x 100.
If sufficient stress is applied then the sample will break. The per-
centage elongation at break (B) is usually expressed as a percentage of the
original length and this, therefore, may be expressed as longer length (Il)
minus original gauge length (lo) divided by original gauge length (Io) times
100.
Tensile strength at break, also called the ultimate tensile stress,
may be obtained by dividing the force necessary to cause failure during a ten-
sile test, by the cross-sectional area at break. As this area is difficult to mea-
sure, the tensile strength that is commonly quoted is that given by F/Ao. Where
F is the force which causes failure and Ao the original cross-sectional area.
Yield strength may be calculated from the force at which the specimen con-
tinues to elongate without additional load. The stress and strain obtained by
using the original sample dimensions are sometimes referred to as nominal
or engineering stress and/or strain.
Youngs Modulus
The ratio of stress/strain, when stress is proportional to strain, is called the
elastic modulus or the Youngs Modulus. It is a tensile modulus, obtained
from the results of a tensile strength test. This value is commonly quoted for
many materials as it gives an appreciation of the stiffness of a particular mate-
rial. For materials such as steel the value of Youngs Modulus, obtained from
the slope of a stress/strain plot (up to the yield point), does not depend
markedly on the test conditions and has come to be regarded as a material
constant. This is not the case for polymeric materials, since the results
obtained depend markedly on the test conditions, for example, on the speed or
temperature of testing.
Youngs Modulus, which is the elastic modulus for uniaxial exten-
sion, is the slope of the stress strain plot for small extensions: that is, stress
divided by strain. It has the units of force per unit area, for example, N/mm2 or
psi. For small extensions, this elastic modulus is approximately the same as
the compressive modulus.
Creep Testing
A short term test, such as a tensile test, is not capable of giving information
which can be used in the design of a continuously stressed component in a
particular environment. It is only really suitable for quality control purposes.
On the other hand, a creep test will indicate that a small load applied for a long
period, to a thermoplastic material, can cause a significant deformation. Tests,
such as a tensile test, are referred to as single point tests while creep tests
take into consideration the effects that changes in time, temperature and envi-
ronmental conditions have on the deformational properties of polymers.
Creep tests are performed by weight loading a plastic sample,
maintained at a specified temperature. Periodic measurements of the exten-
sion are made, perhaps over several years. Often a dumbbell specimen is cho-
46 sen that has a very long parallel section, so the small deformations, which
result upon loading, can be measured accurately. The material is tested at a
specific temperature by applying a weight (or stress) by means of a lever sys-
tem. Since large loads may produce only small extensions, a very sensitive
and accurate extensiometer is required. Sample conditioning is extremely
important and may involve regulation of test temperature and/or humidity for
several months to ensure that the specimens are in equilibrium with their sur-
roundings. In the case of nylon 66, such storage will allow water take-up to
occur as well as allowing post-molding crystallization to develop.
The results of creep testing may be expressed in various ways, for
example, a creep modulus may be obtained by dividing the applied stress by
the time dependent strain. If the creep modulus is divided by the room tem-
perature elastic modulus (the Youngs Modulus) then a reduced stiffness
value is obtained. Creep modulus/time curves are obtained by plotting creep
modulus against log time. A family of tensile creep modulus curves, as a
function of strain and log time, may be obtained.
FLEXURAL PROPERTIES
Flexural properties are measured to obtain a measure of stiffness or rigidity.
This may be a more appropriate test than measuring tensile strength if the
extrudate is to be deformed by bending during its service life.
Test Specimens
The specimens used for flexural or bending tests are simple rectangular bars
the length of which must be at least 20 times the thickness. The width and
thickness can vary, but the preferred dimensions are width 10 mm and thick-
ness 4 mm. All samples should be conditioned at the test temperature and
appropriate humidity for a standard time. As for tensile testing, at least five
specimens should be tested and the arithmetic mean and standard deviation
of the five individual results reported. Where there is anisotropy, five speci-
mens should be tested in two directions at right angles.
Flexural Strength and Modulus

Flexural strength is the strength determined from the load and the test piece
dimensions in a flexural test. Flexural strength is also known as breaking
strength and is usually measured by applying a stress at the center of a rec-
tangular bar which is supported at two other points. That is, three-point load-
ing is applied in a bending test. During the test, the force applied and the
resulting deflection are measured. The test is usually performed on a univer-
sal testing machine (as used for tensile strength tests).
Bending the specimens in a three point bending jig (on which the
span or distance between the two outer supports is set 15 to 17 times the
thickness) gives a load/deflection curve or graph. From this curve flexural
strength and modulus are determined.
Calculations
If the specimen is brittle and breaks at very low strain (less than 0.05) then,
the breaking or flexural strength is calculated from
B = (3 FB L)/(2 b h2) (Eqn. 10)
Where B is the flexural strength, FB = load at break, L = span width, b and h
are width and thickness of the specimen, respectively. If the sample does not
break but simply bends then the stress measured when the sample deflection 47
reaches 1.5 times the sample thickness is used. The breaking strain is often
given the symbol and equals 6D h/L, where D is the deflection at mid-span.
section 3: testing
The elastic modulus in flexure, symbol E, can be calculated from
E = [L/(4 b h3 )](F/Y) (Eqn. 11)

where F/Y is the slope of the initial linear load-deflection curve.
IMPACT STRENGTH
In the plastic industry the most common type of impact test is a pendulum-
type test (such as the Izod or the Charpy Test). However, this is not the case
for the extrusion industry where an impact test is required to assess the
behavior of products such as film, sheet and pipe.
Falling Weight Impact Strength

The falling weight impact strength (FWIS) is the energy that on average caus-
es 50% of test specimens to fail in a FWIS Test. This test is a very useful type
of impact strength determination. It is usually performed on actual products,
or on samples cut from them. The test is performed by allowing a projectile to
fall on the piece to be tested. End-use service performance can, therefore, be
easily simulated, as the sample will fail, as in a real life situation, along the line
of least resistance. There are two main types of tests employed and these have
been called the conventional falling weight and instrumented falling weight
tests.
Conventional FWIS Test

In this test, widely used for testing film, sheet and pipe, the sample is struck
by a weight attached to a hemispherical dart or tup that falls from a constant
height. By testing a large number of specimens the energy, which on average
causes 50% of them to fail, is determined.
When extruded film is tested the BS method requires that 14 m (45
ft) of film be available and that the film width is 260 mm. At least 60 succes-
sive but not overlapping test portions are obtained. It is usual to leave the film
in the form of a strip. A vacuum is used to clamp the film taut and then a dart
is dropped on it from a specified height. If the film is punctured then this is
recorded as a failure and the procedure is repeated for a range of dart masses.
Sets of ten test pieces are used with at least six different dart masses. The
percentage of failures for each dart mass is recorded. The results are quoted
as an M50 value. This figure is the mass, in grams, of the dart that would be
expected to break 50% of a large number of specimens. For sheet the F50 value
is quoted. This figure is the energy of the striker which caused 50% failure,
that is, the mass of dart (kg) x acceleration due to gravity (m-2) x height of fall
(m). In this case the result is given in Joules (J).
A graph is drawn on probability paper of dart mass against the per-
centage of test pieces punctured for each set of ten test pieces. The best fit
straight line is drawn through the points and the M50 value read off. This is
reported as the falling weight impact strength of the film.
Instrumented Falling Weight

In this test a dart, or tup, is used which is so heavy that it will break the speci-
men easily, without a significant decrease in striker speed. A transducer is
48 mounted behind the nose of the striker and the information that this generates
is used to measure the maximum force and to calculate the energy to break
the specimen. Only a relatively small number of components or test speci-
mens are required for this test.
The test is normally performed at room temperature and the signal
from the transducer, as it breaks the sample, is amplified, recorded and/or
displayed. To get more consistent results, and to stop the sample wrapping
around the nose of the tup, a striker with a flat face is sometimes used. The
speed of the tup is measured photo-electrically. It is relatively easy to perform
this test with only a few specimens over a range of temperatures to obtain
information about ductile to brittle transitions. To show the effect of process-
ing on properties, the results obtained by testing the actual components may
be compared against results obtained when compression molded specimens
of the same thickness, are used. Compression molded samples are assumed
to be free of orientation, that is, isotropic.
It has been found that a reasonably good approximation of the
energy causing breakage (E*) can be obtained by multiplying the impact
speed (V0) by the area under the force-time graph up to the point where fail-
ure begins, if the speed of impact (V0) remains virtually unchanged during the
impact. That is:
E* = V0 fdt (Eqn. 12)
If the dart speed changes during the time it is forcing its way
through the specimen, then a correction must be applied to E*. The corrected
value of the energy of breakage (E) is then calculated from:
E = E* (1- E*/4E0 ) (Eqn. 13)
where E0 is the kinetic energy of the dart at the moment of impact.
HARDNESS AND SOFTNESS

The hardness and/or softness of a material commonly means resistance to
indentation or penetration by a blunt indenter (a probe or a ball) loaded with a
spring. Both the indenter and the spring have precisely fixed characteristics,
since indentation is dependent on the indenter profile. The loaded indenter
remains in contact with the test material and the depth of penetration is mea-
sured after a fixed time. Such a test is typically used for rubbers and plastics
where rapid recovery, after removal of the deforming force, makes it impossi-
ble to measure the dimensions of the indentation.
Rockwell Hardness
The Rockwell Hardness is a number that indicates the hardness of a material
as measured by an indentation test. The use of different loads and procedures
gives several Rockwell hardness scales. Scale C is used for metals. Those
used for plastics include R, L and M. Two procedures are used. The first when
there is no appreciable recovery when the indenting force is removed and the
second gives Rockwell hardness values when there is recovery.
For the first procedure, the test specimen is placed on a flat anvil
below the indenter, and a minor load of 10 kg is applied, forcing the indenter
into the material. Within 10 seconds the scale is set to zero. A major load of
60 kg, or 100 kg depending on the scale, is applied for 15 seconds and then
immediately removed, with the minor load remaining. The hardness reading is
taken from the scale 15 seconds after removing the major load.
The second method is used with the R scale only and gives 49
Rockwell values. The indentation is noted 15 seconds after application of the
major load, with the major load still applied. The Rockwell hardness value is
section 3: testing
then obtained by subtracting the indentation from 150.
Shore Hardness
The Shore Hardness is a measure of the hardness or softness of a material as
assessed by the resistance (on a scale of 0 to 100) experienced by an inden-
ter. 100 on the scale corresponds to a high resistance (that given by a sheet of
glass) and 0 corresponds to zero resistance. Two different indenters are used:
Type A for soft materials and Type D for hard materials. This means that there
are two scales of Shore Hardness, Shore A and Shore D.
Type A measurements are made on soft materials using a truncat-
ed 35 cone with a blunt tip of 0.79 mm diameter as an indenter. Type D mea-
surements are made on harder materials with a 30 steel cone rounded to 0.1
mm radius tip as an indenter. The depth of penetration is inversely indicated in
thousandths of an inch. The harder the surface the higher the reading.
The specimen must be conditioned prior to testing and it has to be
sufficiently flat over an area of at least 6 mm/0.25" radius from the indenter
point to allow contact with the foot of the instrument. It must also have a
thickness of at least 6 mm unless it is known that identical results can be
obtained with a thinner specimen. Measurements are made at several points
over the surface simply by pressing the instrument against the surface of the
specimen. Readings should be taken after a standard period of time, the ISO
recommends 15 seconds and the ASTM one second.
Softness
The softness number gives a measure of softness. It is a measure of the resis-
tance to indentation of a polymeric material, such as plasticized polyvinyl chlo-
ride (PPVC) compound. An indentor is pressed into a sheet of the PPVC com-
pound under a specified load and the depth of penetration of the indenter is
measured.
The British Standard softness number is a number that indicates
the softness of a material. The higher the number the softer the material. An
abbreviation used for this term is BS Softness Number. A flat sheet or disc is
used which is between 8 and 10 mm thick, conditioned at the test temperature
and humidity. The time and temperature of conditioning is important. For
example, it is recommended that temperature conditioning be seven days at
23C for plasticized polyvinyl chloride (PPVC) compounds. This is because the
properties of such compounds are known to change over several days after
molding.
The test is performed using a duro-meter. This measures the
increase in depth of penetration of a steel ball, 2.5 mm in diameter, into the
flexible material, when the force on the ball is increased from 0.30 N to 5.70
N. The minor or contact load of 0.30 N is applied for 5 seconds and then the
load is increased to 5.7 N. The reading on the dial is noted when 5.7 N has
been applied for 30 seconds. Four readings are taken at different points on the
surface, away from the edge of the specimen, and the average is expressed as
the BS softness number.
THERMAL PROPERTIES
Plastic materials are very sensitive to changes in temperature. When the tem-
perature is raised many thermoplastic materials will soften at a comparatively
50 low temperature. If the temperature is lowered then the material may harden
at another comparatively high temperature. Thus the temperature range of use
of many thermoplastic materials is limited. Such use is limited, not by chemi-
cal breakdown, but by hardening or softening. Other problems associated with
the use of thermoplastics are the low thermal conductivity, high specific heat,
high coefficient of thermal expansion and a high and non-uniform, shrinkage.
The flammability of plastics materials and the smoke produced by their burn-
ing, may also be serious disadvantages.
Shrinkage
Shrinkage is the reduction in volume that occurs when a material is cooled
from its processing temperature (often quoted shrinkage values are based on
injection molded components). Shrinkage is much greater for a semi-
crystalline thermoplastic material, such as high-density polyethylene (HDPE),
than it is for an amorphous, thermoplastic material, such as polystyrene (PS).
For PS it is about 0.6% whereas for HDPE it may reach 4%. Shrinkage may
also be different from one grade of material to another and will be influenced
by changing the processing conditions. It may also be significantly different in
different directions (anisotropy), across the flow and along the flow. Because
of this it is usual to quote a shrinkage range for each plastic material and the
values quoted (Table 5.) should only be taken as a guide.
Mold shrinkage is defined as the change in dimensions between
the size of the cavity and the molded part 24 hours after the part is ejected
from the mold. Mold shrinkage is quoted as a percentage, for example, 0.4%,
or as a linear shrinkage, such as 0.004 in/in or 0.004 mm/mm. A widely used
test for the measurement of mold shrinkage is ASTM D 955-51. For injection
molded specimens, an end-gated bar of thickness 3.2 mm is usually used.
The cavity length, both parallel and perpendicular to the flow direction are
measured to the nearest 0.02-mm at 23 2C. At least three test specimens
are then molded. After molding the specimens are allowed to cool to room
temperature. This cooling time (before initial mold shrinkage is measured) is
1 to 2 hours when the thickness is 3.2 mm. The length (both along and trans-
verse to flow) are measured and then the specimens are returned to storage
in a standard laboratory atmosphere (typical conditions are 23C at 50% RH).
Measurements are made again at 24 hours and 48 hours after molding in
order to obtain 24 hour shrinkage and the 48 hour (or normal mold) shrink-
age.
Results are usually given as mm/mm (same as in./in.) and this is
obtained by subtracting the dimension of the sample from the corresponding
dimension of the cavity and then dividing by the latter. The mold shrinkage
(MS) is given as a percentage if the following formula is used:
MS = [(L0 - L1) / (L0)] x 100. (Eqn. 14)

where L0 is the length in mm of the cavity L1 is the length in mm of the mold-
ing (to the nearest 0.02 mm).
51
Table 5.
Shrinkage (Mold Shrinkage) Values for Some
section 3: testing
Thermoplastic Materials
Abbrev. Material Linear MS % MS
(in/in or mm/mm)
ABS Acrylonitrile-butadiene- 0.004-0.007 0.4-0.7
styrene
CA Cellulose acetate 0.003-0.007 0.3-0.7
CAB Cellulose acetate butyrate 0.002-0.005 0.2-0.5
EVA Ethylene vinyl acetate 0.007-0.020 0.7-2.0
FEP Fluorinated ethylene 0.030-0.060 3.0-6.0
propylene
HDPE Polyethylene (high density) 0.015-0.040 1.5-4.0
HIPS Polystyrene (toughened) 0.002-0.008 0.2-0.8
LDPE Polyethylene (low density) 0.0165-0.040 1.65-4.0
PA 6 Nylon 6 0.010-0.015 1.0-1.5
PA 66 Nylon 66 0.010-0.020 1.0-2.0
PBT Polybutylene terephthalate 0.015-0.020 1.5-2.0
PC Polycarbonate 0.006-0.008 0.6-0.8
POM Acetal 0.018-0.025 1.8-2.5
PMMA Acrylic 0.002-0.010 0.2-1.0
PPO Polyphenylene oxide 0.005-0.007 0.5-0.7
(modified)
PP Polypropylene 0.010-0.030 1.0-3.0
PS Polystyrene (GP) 0.002-0.008 0.2-0.8
PTFE Polytetrafluoro-ethylene 0.050-0.100 5.0-10.0
UPVC Polyvinyl chloride- 0.002-0.004 0.2-0.4
unplasticized
PVC Polyvinyl chloride 0.015-0.050 1.5-5.0
(plasticized)
PVF Polyvinylidene fluoride 0.020-0.030 2.0-3.0
SAN Styrene-acrylonitrile 0.002-0.006 0.2-0.6
Thermoplastic Elastomers
PP/EP(D)M Rubber reinforced 0.010-0.020 1.0-2.0
polypropylene
SBS Styrene-butadiene- 0.004-0.010 0.4-1.0
styrene
PEEL Thermoplastic polyether 0.004-0.016 0.4-1.6
ester
TPU Thermoplastic polyurethane 0.005-0.020 0.5-2.0
Specific Heat Capacity

Also known as specific heat and sometimes abbreviated to c or to, sp ht or Cp
(when measured at constant pressure). Heat capacity divided by mass (heat
capacity is the amount of heat energy required to change the temperature of a
body, or of a substance, by 1C (or 1K). The amount of heat which must be
added to unit mass of a material in order to raise its temperature by one
degree. Values are commonly expressed in J/kgK, Btu/lbF or in cal/gC. To
convert from Btu/lbF or cal/gC to J/kgK multiply by 4186.80.
As specific heat varies with temperature, it is necessary to specify
the temperature employed when quoting a specific heat value. With a crys-
talline polymer the heat of fusion causes a large increase in the specific heat
52 value at the crystalline melting point. Beyond that temperature the value falls
again. Table 6 gives average values for some materials. The high specific
heats and heat contents of plastic materials should be noted together with the
difference between amorphous and crystalline materials. The specific heat of
filled systems, such as rubber compounds, is a cumulative property of all the
compounding ingredients.
Heat content is the amount of heat energy that a system contains.
Specific heat is commonly measured by determining the heat content
(enthalpy) over a temperature range (such as upper processing temperature
to room temperature) by methods such as differential scanning calorimetry
(DSC) method. If such an average specific beat is known, then the amount of
heat that must be removed, for example, by the mold cooling system in injec-
tion molding can be estimated as:
Heat Content = mass x specific heat x (melt temp - mold temp) (Eqn. 15)
As the DSC method can take account of the latent heat of fusion at
the crystalline melting point, no allowance need be made for it. However, if
enthalpy data are available it is best to use them directly. If the information is
used for injection mold cooling calculations, assume that only half the heat
needs to be removed from components. This is because the cool surface lay-
ers of the molding provide sufficient rigidity so that ejection can occur even
though the temperature of the inside of the molding may still be very high.
Table 6.
Average Specific Heat and Heat Content for Some
Material Melt Mold Temp. Specific Heat to be
Abb. Temp Temp Difference Heat Removed
(C) (C) (C) (Jkg-1K-1) (Jg-1)
FEP 350 220 150 1600 240
POM 205 90 115 3000 345
SAN 240 60 180 1968 354
PC 300 90 210 1750 368
ABS 240 60 180 2050 369
PMMA 260 60 200 1900 380
PPS 320 135 185 2080 385
PS 220 20 200 1970 394
ASA/AAS 260 60 200 2010 402
HIPS 240 20 220 1970 433
PPO 280 80 200 2120 434
PA 6 250 80 170 3060 520
LDPE 210 30 180 3180 572
PA 66 280 80 200 3075 615
PP 260 20 240 2790 670
HDPE 240 20 220 3640 801
Glass Transition Temperature

The glass transition temperature, also known as Tg or the glass-rubber transi-
tion temperature is the temperature at which a polymer becomes glass-like on
cooling or rubber-like on heating. It is not defined by a sharp, precisely locat-
ed point, but by a temperature range (Tables 7. and 8.).
At the Tg there is a volume increase in polymeric materials on heat-
ing. This arises from segmental movements of the molecular chains. The tem-
perature at which this change in volumes occurs may be measured by 53
dilatometry and used as a measure of glass transition temperature (Tg).
Enthalpy changes are also used to determine Tg as are modulus, refractive
section 3: testing
index, and thermal conductivity changes. Each method may give a different
answer and such differences help account for the differences found in the lit-
erature between reported glass transition temperatures (Tg) which may be as
high as 30C.
Melting Point
The melting point, also known as the melting temperature (strictly speaking
this is the temperature at the melting point) is the temperature at which a solid
material becomes a liquid on heating. It is the temperature at which the solid
and liquid phases of a material are in equilibrium at a specified pressure (usu-
ally atmospheric).
Unlike low molecular weight materials, polymers do not normally
have a sharp melting point. Even a semi-crystalline, thermoplastics have broad
melting points of as much as 20C. An amorphous thermoplastics does not
exhibit a melting point, but on heating, but will soften, as the temperature
increases, until it becomes a high viscosity melt. True melting is a first order
transition and the melting temperature given the symbol Tm. A melting point
approximation may be obtained by heating small pieces of the material on a
hot plate and noting the temperature at which the material melts. For a more
accurate determination, a capillary tube method may be used.
The capillary tube method (see, for example, ASTM D 2117) may
be used to obtain an accurate measurement of the melting point of a crys-
talline polymer such as a polyamide (PA). A thin strip of PA is placed inside a
capillary tube. The tube is then slowly heated inside a heating apparatus to the
temperature where the sharp edges of the specimen become rounded.
Reported results have been obtained in different ways, for example, when the
last traces of material become a melt. This gives a relatively high Tm and helps
account for the differences found in the literature between reported melting
points (Table 7.).
Table 7.
Glass Transition Temperatures (Tg) and Melting
Temperatures (Tm) of Some Thermoplastic Materials
Abbreviation Material Name Tg (C) Tm (C)
ABS acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene -20/105
AS acrylonitrile-styrene - see SAN
CTA cellulose triacetate 105 306
CTB cellulose tributyrate 183
CAP cellulose tripropionate 234
FEP fluorinated ethylene-propylene 271
HIPS high impact polystyrene 100
IPS I sotactic polystyrene 100 240
IPMMA isotactic polymethyl methacrylate 45 160
PA 6 nylon 6 50 215
PA 11 nylon 11 185
PA 12 nylon 12 175
PA 46 nylon 46 295
PA 66 nylon 66 55 265
PA 610 nylon 610 40 227
PAA 6 polyaryl amie/an aromatic nylon 90 236
54 Abbreviation Material Name Tg (C) Tm (C)
PAN polyacrylonitrile 80/104 D
PAR polyarylate 180
PB polybutene-1 -25 126
PBAK polybutyl acrylate 40 195
PBT polybutylene terephthalate 30 225
PC polycarbonate 150 225
PCTFE polychlorotrifluorethylene 49 220
PEHD high density polyethylene 130
PELD low density polyethylene -20 120
PELLD linear low density polyethylene 127
PEEK polyetheretherketone 334
PEI polyether imide 215
PEK polyetherketone 154 367
PEOX polyethylene oxide -56 66
PET polyethylene terephthalate 69 260
PMMA polymethyl methacrylate 99
PMP poly-4-methylpentene-1 55 250
PMS poly--methylstyrene 120
POMCO polyoxymethylene/acetal
copolymer 165
POMH polyoxymethylene/acetal
homopolymer -13 175
PP polypropylene 0 165
PPE polyphenylene ether 210
PPOX polypropylene oxide -62 75
PPS polyphenylene sulfide 85 282
PS polystyrene 100
PSU polysulfone 190/230
PTFE polytetrafluoroethylene 126 327
PVAC polyvinyl acetate 30
PVAL polyvinyl alcohol 50/70 D
PVC polyvinyl chloride 87 212
PVDC polyvinylidene chloride -25 190
PVDF polyvinylidene fluoride 177
PVF polyvinyl fluoride -20 200
SAN styrene-acrylonitrile 105
SP saturated polyester - see PBT and PET
SPMMA syndiotactic polymethyl methacrylate 110 >200
(D = decomposes before melting)
Softening Point
The softening point is the temperature at which thermoplastic material softens
by a specified amount in a softening point test. The amount of softening is
usually measured by the indentation of a weight-loaded needle (a Vicat
Softening Point apparatus will provide this information) or by the bending of a
weight-loaded bar as the temperature is slowly increased. A softening point
test is a thermal yield test.
Cantilever SP Test
A common softening point test for thermoplastic materials is a cantilever or
bending test. Such a test uses a rectangular strip, or bar, which is 31.8
mm/1.25" by 6.35 mm/0.25" by 1.52 mm/0.06". A 1.5 mm/0.062 diameter
hole is located centrally 1.57 mm/0.25 from one end. A 20 g weight is
attached to the bar by a piece of cotton thread (which passes through the
hole). The end of the strip opposite the hole is held in a clamp, so that 25.4 55
mm/1" of the strip is protruding. The 20 g weight is attached to the free end.
Initially the weight is supported so that there is no load on the test
section 3: testing
piece. The clamp assembly is then immersed in a liquid heating bath that is
approximately 30C below the expected SP and the support removed from the
weight. While stirring, the temperature of the bath is raised at 1C/minute and
the temperature noted when the upper edge of the free (weighted) end coin-
cides with a 30 graduation on the clamp assembly. The mean of two tests is
taken as the softening point.
When the clamp assembly is immersed in the liquid heating bath,
the liquid must not affect the properties of the material being tested. Liquids
used include liquid paraffin for cellulose acetate (CA) and glycerol for poly-
styrene (PS), high impact polystyrene (HIPS) and unplasticized polyvinyl chlo-
ride (UPVC).
Vicat Softening Point

This is a softening point test that is performed using a Vicat Softening Point
needle instrument. This term is sometimes abbreviated to VSP. The result, the
Vicat Softening Temperature (VST), is usually quoted in C or F. It is measured
by applying a standard load (10 N or 50 N), via a circular indenter (a round
flat-ended needle of 1 mm2) onto a plastics specimen. The test assembly is
heated at a constant rate of either 50C/122F or 120C/248F per hour. The
result is reported as 100C (10 N, 50C). This means that the indenter pene-
trated into the thermoplastic sample at 100C/212F for the set distance (for
example, 1 mm) while carrying a load of 10 Newtons and at a heating rate of
50C.
ISO method 306 describes two methods: Method A which uses a
load of 10 N, and Method B which uses a load of 50 N. As two heating rates
are allowed (50C/hr and 120C/hr) this means that the results may be report-
ed as:
Vicat A50 = load 10 N and heating rate 50C/hr
Vicat A120 = load 10 N and heating rate 120C/hr
Vicat B50 = load 50 N and heating rate 50C/hr
Vicat B120 = load 50 N and heating rate 120C/hr
Table 8.
Typical Thermal Properties of Some Thermoplastic
Materials (C)
Material Tg Tm SP HDT VSP
(0.45 Mpa) (1.8 Mpa)
ABS 105 - 94 96 84 95
HIPS 100 - 84 85 72 86
PA 66 55 265 180 183 75 185
PE-HD 130 115 75 45 125
PE-LD -20 120 45 85
PMMA 99 95 97 80 90
POM-H -13 175 170 120 165 175
PP 0 165 145 140 60 150
PS 100 - 92 97 90 98
Tg = glass transition temperatures, SP = cantilever softening point test,
Tm = melting temperature
SP = cantilever softening point test, VSP = Vicat softening point test,
HDT = heat distortion temperature
56
Heat Distortion Temperature
The heat distortion temperature is also called the heat deflection temperature.
However, it should more accurately be called heat deflection under flexural
load or, the heat deflection under load (HDUL). It is often abbreviated to HDT
(which may stand for heat distortion temperature or heat deflection tempera-
ture). In test specifications, HDT is called deflection temperature under flexural
load. Two different flexural loads are generally quoted: 1.8 MPa or 0.48 MPa
(264 or 66 psi).
In the HDT Test a plastic bar (for example, 110 x 10 x 4 mm which
is 4.4 x 0.4 x 0.16") is subjected to three-point bending, by a load that pro-
duces a maximum stress of either 1.8 MPa or 0.48 MPa (264 or 66 psi), at its
mid-point, while being heated. If the breadth (b) is 4 mm, the depth (d) is 10
mm and the stress required is 1.8 MPa then, the load (F) in Newtons which
has to be applied to the mid-point (if the span (L) is 100 mm) is equal to
2Pbd2/3L. That is, 2 x 1.8 x 100/ 3 x 100 which equals 4.8 N. This load is
applied and the temperature raised at 120C per hour. When the bar deflects
by 0.32 mm (0.012") that temperature, in C or F is recorded and called the
HDT.
A comparison of some HDT temperatures for thermoplastic materi-
als is given in Table 9.
Cold Flex Temperature

This is the temperature measured in a Cold Flex Temperature Test. This cold
flex temperature test is a brittleness temperature test used to assess the low
temperature properties of plasticizers or of plasticized compounds such as
plasticized polyvinyl chloride (PPVC).
A rectangular strip of plasticized PVC (64 x 6.4 x 1.27 mm thick) is
cooled in a bath of methanol and solid carbon dioxide. The temperature is
raised at a rate of 20C/minute and the strip is twisted using a specified
torque: initially the strip is twisted by more than 400. A graph is plotted of
temperature against time and the temperature for a deflection of 200 is read
off the graph and called the cold flex temperature.
Table 9.
Comparison of Softening Temperatures for Some
Material Abbreviation HDT (C) VST (C)
( 1.8 Mpa) (0.48 Mpa) (10N 50C/hr)
Polymethyl
methacrylate PMMA 71-99 77-110 114
Polypropylene PP 50-60 107-120 134
Unplasticized
polyvinyl chloride UPVC 60-77 60-82 85
Acetal POM 85-120 154-166 160-185
Nylon 66 PA 66 74 245 240
Polycarbonate PC 132 138 155
Stress Relaxation
The stress relaxation (sometimes called reversion) is the shrinkage, or change
in shape, that occurs when a thermoplastic material is heated to a specified,
elevated temperature, generally a temperature above the glass transition temp-
erature (Tg). This change of shape is caused by release of molecular orienta-
tion, or stress, introduced by alignment of the polymer molecules in the direc- 57
tion of flow.
A measure of stress relation may be obtained in the following man-
section 3: testing
ner: A component is placed on a piece of paper and an image of the part is
traced. The image is then cut out and weighed. The component is heated at
the specified temperature for a fixed time. The distorted component is then
removed, cooled and placed on another piece of paper similar to the first. The
outline of the distorted component is marked and the shape cut out and
weighed. A measure of stress relaxation is obtained by comparing the two
weights. If the product is a plastic sheet then marking a circle on the sheet
and measuring the change in length of two diameters at right angles to each
other is used to assess stress relaxation. Usually the two dimensions are the
machine direction and the transverse direction.
FLAMMABILITY TESTING
The ability of a plastic material to withstand heat and flame without burning is
critical to how it may be used. The requirements placed on appliances, house
furnishings, electrical parts and clothing will be much stricter than those for
packaging or outdoor furniture. Thus flammability testing is required to assure
the suitability of a plastic material for many applications.
The flammability testing of plastics is complicated by many factors
that may affect the results. The thickness of the sample, location of the flame,
orientation of the test specimen, the oxygen concentration, the ambient tem-
perature and air velocity may all have an influence on the results. Two meth-
ods for evaluating the flammability are generally used, the Limiting Oxygen
Index (LOI) and the Underwriter s Laboratory rating system (UL94). Some
flammability testing results are shown in Table 9.
Limiting Oxygen Index (LOI)

The LOI Test is one of the few, reproducible, flammability tests that produces
quantitative results. It measures the amount of oxygen required for a material
to support combustion. In this test the sample is ignited in a chamber contain-
ing a controlled nitrogen/oxygen atmosphere in which it will burn. The oxygen
level is then reduced until the sample is extinguished. The LOI is the lowest
percent oxygen that will support combustion of the sample. Thus this test can
be used to test the performance of plastic materials that will not normally burn
in air. In general, any material with an index greater than 28 (air contains 21%
oxygen) is considered flame resistant.
Table 10.
Typical Limiting Oxygen Index (LOI) Results
Material Abbreviation Oxygen Index (%)
Acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene ABS 19-35
Acetal POM 15-16
Nylon 6 PA 6 21-24
Nylon 66 PA 6 21-30
Nylon 11 PA 11 25-32
Phenol-formaldehyde PF 35
Polyarylate PAR 34
Polycarbonate PC 26
Polybutylene terephthalate PBT 18
58 Material Abbreviation Oxygen Index (%)
Polyether ether ketone PEEK 35
Polyether sulphone PES 34
Polyethylene PE 17
Polyethylene oxide PEO 15
Polyethylene terephthalate 30%GF PET 30%GF 31
Polyimide PI 32
Polymethyl methacrylate PMMA 17
Polyphenylene oxide (modified) PPO 28
Polypropylene PP 17
Polystyrene PS 18
Polysulphone PSU 30
Polyvinyl chloride PVC 23-43
Polyvinyl alcohol EVOH 22
Polyvinylidene chloride PVDC 60
Polyvinylidene fluoride PVDF 44
Polytetrafluoroethylene PTFE 95
UL94 Flame Class Rating

The Underwriters Laboratory has established a series of qualitative ratings of
flame retardance, listed in their UL94 Bulletin, that are broadly accepted in the
plastics industry. In the tests, variables such as the flame size as well as the
sample form, preparation and orientation are strictly controlled. The ratings
generated include:
HB - Horizontal burn (inches/min.)
V-0 - Vertical burn, average burn of 5 sec. or less
V-1 - Vertical burn, average burn of less than 25 sec. (no burning drops)
V-2 - Vertical burn, average burn of less than 25 sec. (burning drops)
5V - More severe than V-0 (5 inch flame, 5 positions, 5 ignitions,
no burn through, no drips)
Other generally accepted flammability tests include the ASTM D-
635 Horizontal Burn Test, the ASTM E-84 Tunnel Test, the ASTM E-162
Radiant Panel Test, and the Ohio State Cone Calorimeter Test.
Table 11.
Typical Results from a UL 94 Vertical Burning Test
Material UL 94 coding
Acetal HB
ABS HB
ABS/PVC alloy V-1
ABS/PC blend V-0
Nylon 6 V-2
Nylon 66 V-2
Glass reinforced nylon 66 V-0
Glass reinforced PET V-0
Glass reinforced PPS V-0
Glass reinforced polycarbonate V-0
Glass reinforced polysulphone V-0
Polyarylate V-0
Polycarbonate V-2
Polyether ether ketone V-0
Polyetherimide V-0
Polyphenylene oxide HB to V-0
Polyethersulphone V-0
Polysulphone V-0

59
MELT FLOW RATE
The most commonly used test is usually referred to as MFR or MFI. Both
section 3: testing
terms refer to the same test and stand for melt flow rate and melt flow index,
respectively. This test is popular, particularly for polyolefins, since the test is
easy to do and understand and the instrumentation is inexpensive. A specified
force, produced by an accurate weight, extrudes a heated plastic material
through a circular die of a fixed size, at a specified temperature (Figure 12.).
The amount of PE extruded in 10 minutes is called the MFR and results are
reported as, for example, MFR (190, 2.16) = 2.3. This means that the temper-
ature was 190C and a force, producing load of 2.16 kg, was used. Under
these conditions, 2.3 g of the plastic material was extruded in 10 minutes.
MFR is general a low shear rate test where the shear rate may be as low as
1 sec-1. Weights larger than 2.16 kg may be used as well as different temper-
atures. These will depend upon the material and the grade of material being
tested (Table 12.). With UPVC a weight of 20 kg may be employed, while the
suggested temperature (in ASTM D 3364) is 175C (347F). (See Flow Rate
Testing).
Figure 12. Melt Flow Rate Tester
Method A
Method A, also known as Procedure A, is a manual cut-off operation used for
materials having flow rates that fall within 0.15 to 50 g/10 minutes. The piston
position during the timed measurement, (that is, the position of the piston tip)
is required to be between 51 and 20 mm (2.0 and 0.8 in) above the die. The
test specimen can be in any form that can be introduced into the heated bar-
rel. The conditions of temperature and load can be selected by consulting the
standard. For example, for a PE with an expected MFR of 2, the temperature
would be 190C and the load would be 2.16 kg. After packing a precisely
measured amount of PE (in the range of 3 and 5 g) into the barrel, the sample
is allowed to heat for 4 minutes with the piston in contact with the material.
60 Then the weight (2.16 kg) is placed on top of the piston. After a further 3 min-
utes (usually between 2 and 4 minutes) the lower reference mark on the pis-
ton must be level with the top of the barrel. The material is then allowed to
freely extrude for a specified time (such as 3 minutes), after which the extru-
date is carefully cut off and saved. This should be repeated three times if pos-
sible, before the upper reference mark reaches the top of the barrel. The three
samples are then individually weighed, to the nearest milligram (0.001g), and
the average mass in grams is found. The flow rate is reported as the rate of
extrusion in grams in 10 minutes (obtained in this case, by multiplying the
average mass of polymer extruded (Mp) by 3.33). Thus
MFR = MFI = Mp (600/t) (Eqn. 16)
where: t = the cut-off interval expressed in seconds (s)
Mp = the mass of polymer extruded
Method B
Method B is also known as Procedure B and is an automatically timed flow
rate measurement used for materials having flow rates that fall within 0.50 to
1,200 g/10 minutes. To ensure reproducibility, the timing device must be
accurate to within 0.1 seconds and the position of the piston foot at the end
of the test must be 25.4 mm (1 in) above the die. During the measurement,
the length of timed piston movement must be measured to within 0.025 mm
(0.001 in) over a prescribed distance. This measurement may be achieved by
using an opaque flag, hung from the piston, which interferes with the passage
of light to an electronic eye. It is more common today, however, to use a
mechanical encoder connected to the piston. If the system is computerized,
then all the operator has to do is to select the test conditions of temperature
and load by consulting the standard or the memory and load the material. The
test specimen can be in any form that can be introduced into the barrel. The
electronics will automatically control the temperatures and time the measure-
ments (and even change the weight during the test run if required). The
apparent melt density of the polymer (see Method A to B Conversion) at the
test temperature must be entered to allow the calculation of the weight of
extrudate from the piston displacement. Once the test has been performed
then the electronics can calculate flow rate, flow rate ratios, viscosity, shear
rate and shear stress. The electronics also may contain the statistical equa-
tions for SPC/SQC analyses of the data for quality control purposes.
Method A to B Conversion
Conversion from Method A to Method B may be obtained on machines where
an appropriate electronic optical eye, mechanical encoder or computerized
control system is used. The operator runs the test as if it is a Method A test,
while the machine conducts a Method B test. Upon completion of the test the
apparent density is obtained using the data from both tests and setting the
equations equal and solving for melt density.
By Method A, the melt flow rate (MFR) is MFR = Mp (600/t)
Where Mp is the average mass extruded (M) within the cut-off
interval t (expressed in seconds).
By Method B,
MFR = R2 L DM (600/T) (Eqn. 17)
Where R is the piston radius in cm, L is the effective length of the
flag in cm, A is the apparent melt density in g/cm3 and T is the time taken for
the test measurement (in seconds). If the two MFRs are the same then, the 61
equations may be solved for A (Table 5.). The advantage of this system is that
by using an apparent density obtained from any given machine, Method B will
section 3: testing
always equal Method A and it takes into account frictional and other variations
for that specific instrument.
Increasing Shear Rate and Stress

Melt Flow Rate (MFR) testing is a low shear rate test (the shear rate may be as
low as 1 s-1). Larger weights and/or different temperatures may be used
depending on the material and grade of material (Table 12.) to produce higher
shear rates or to make the test practical. With un-plasticized polyvinyl chloride
(UPVC) a weight of 20 kg/44.1 lb is often employed at a temperature (ASTM D
3364) of 175C/347F. When the test is run with such a high load, or with the
even higher load of 21.6 kg/47.62 lb, then it may be referred to as the high
load melt index or the HLMI.
Flow Rate Ratio

Since polymer viscosity varies as a function of shear rate, the single point
determination by a melt indexer does not fully characterize material flow. To
obtain more useful information, flow rate testing may be done with more than
one load. For example, in blow molding the sag behavior of the parison is best
measured by the low shear flow, while the flow through the die lips is best
measured by the higher shear flow. The Flow Rate Ratio is obtained by divid-
ing the flow rate obtained when a large load is used by the flow rate obtained
under a smaller load. The load ratio, which is generally 10:1, may, on some
instruments, be measured automatically during a single test run.
Melt Volume Index

An abbreviation used for this term is MVI. MVI is defined as the volume of
thermoplastic material extruded through a die during a specified time and is
expressed in cm3/10 min (MFI is in g/10 min). It is measured by performing a
Method B test and doing the calculation without using the melt density.
Specifications for this test can be found in DIN 53735. A rating of MVI (250/5)
means that the melt volume index, in cm3/10 min, was measured at 250C and
under a load of 5 kg.
Table 12.
Suggested Temperatures (C) and Loads (Kg) for
MFR Tests
Material Temp. (C) Load (Kg)
Acetal (POM-H & POM-CO) 190 2.16 or 1.05
Acrylic (PMMA) 230 1.2 or 3.8
(a) Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene
(ABS) 200 5.0
(b) Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene
(ABS) 230 3.8.
(a) Cellulose esters 190 0.325, 2.16 or 21.6
(b) Cellulosic esters (CA, CAB CP) 210 2.16
Nylon 66 (PA 66) 275 0.325
Nylon 6 (PA 6) 235 1.0, 2.16 or 5.0
Polychlorotrifluorethylene (PCTFE) 265 12.5
(a) Polyethylene (PE) 125 0.325 or 2.16
(b) Polyethylene 190 0.325, 2.16, 10 or 21.6
62 Material Temp. (C) Load (Kg)
(c) Polyethylene 310 12.5
Polycarbonate (PC) 300 1.2
Polypropylene (PP) 230 2.16
(a) Polystyrene (PS or HIPS) 190 5.0
(b) Polystyrene 200
(c) Polystyrene 230 1.2 or 3.8
Thermoplastic polyester (PBT or PET)
(a) Polyterephthalate 210 2.16
(b) Polyterephthalate 250 2.16
(c) Polyterephthalate 285 2.16
Polyphenylenesulfide (PPS) 315 5.0
Unplasticized PVC (UPVC) 175 21.6
MELT VISCOSITY
This is the viscosity of a polymeric material in its melted form. An abbreviation
used for this term is MV. Viscosity is resistance to flow or internal friction. The
term viscosity is sometimes used as an alternative way of saying coefficient of
viscosity or dynamic viscosity.
Ease of Flow
Plastic materials differ widely in their viscosity, or ease of flow. The problem of
testing such materials is made more difficult by the fact that each material is
available in a range of grades, each of which also may have a different flow
behavior. The situation is made even more complicated by the fact that the
flow properties of plastics are non-Newtonian. In most cases, plastics are
pseudo-plastic materials. This means that they become less viscous (easier
flowing) when they are moved faster. Therefore, there is not a linear relation-
ship between pressure and flow. This means that the flow properties cannot be
represented meaningfully by one number. Thus flow testing over a range of
conditions is required.
Viscosity Units
Shear stress is usually designated by the Greek letter and has the units of
force per unit area.
1 dyn cm2 = 0.002088 lbf ft2 = 0.0000145 lbf in2 or psi.
Shear rate is usually designated by the Greek letter gamma () with
a dot above the letter, that is, gamma dot or g. No matter what system of
units is used, 1/time (in seconds) represents the units of shear rate. That is,
reciprocal seconds or sec-1.
Viscosity (a) at a particular shear rate is obtained by dividing
(the shear stress) by the corresponding (the shear rate). This is an apparent
viscosity. In practice the word apparent is often omitted. Apparent viscosity
has the units of force per unit area times time (in seconds).
One poise = 1P = 10-1 Pa-s = 10-1 Ns/m2 = 0.000 014 5 lbf s in2
One poise = 1P = 0.1 Pa-s = 0.1 Ns/m2
1 Pa-s = 1 Ns/m2 = 0.102 kgf s/m2 = 10 P = 0.02088 lbf s ft2 =
0.000145 lbf s/in2
63
Capillary Rheometer Studies
Viscosity values are obtained by dividing the shear stress required for polymer
section 3: testing
flow by the shear rate of that flow. Both these values may be obtained from
capillary rheometer studies. A capillary rheometer is a test instrument used to
study the rheological properties of polymer melts by forcing the melt through
a capillary (fine) die using a piston, driven at a known speed, at a constant
material temperature. The pressure opposing constant flow or the force need-
ed to maintain the specified flow rate is measured. The piston speed is then
changed and the new force/pressure (needed to maintain this speed) is mea-
sured and recorded. This procedure may be repeated at different barrel
temperatures. Knowing the barrel dimensions and the ram speed, the volumet-
ric flow rate through the die can be calculated. In turn, the shear stress and
the shear rate may then be calculated and used to construct flow curves.
Therefore, characterization of a materials shear flow properties may be done,
over a range of temperatures and imposed rates, (Table 13.) using the labora-
tory capillary rheometer (LCR). (See Flow Properties Assessment in
Section 2)
The shear stress and shear rate conditions used for a test may
closely approximate those used in a production process, so that the measured
flow properties are representative of those seen at different points in the pro-
duction process.
Extrusion Testing
Checks may be made on incoming raw materials and thermoplastics by using
a small, single-screw extruder as a rheometer. For example, a rod die may be
specified and the machine set at specified temperature. The extrusion behavior
is measured over a range of screw speeds and graphs are plotted of output
against screw speed. Graphs of temperature against screw speed or die swell
against screw speed can yield valuable data. In this way, the flow behavior of a
particular material is characterized over a series of melt temperatures.
One of the major problems is maintaining the set temperature, as
any alteration in screw speed quickly alters the extrusion cylinder tempera-
tures and then the melt temperature, as a result of shear heating. For this rea-
son the extruder should be fitted with an efficient cooling system which can
remove excess heat from the barrel.
TABLE 13.
Suggested Temperatures for High Shear Rate
Rheometry
Polymer Test Temperature Range
(Abbreviation) (C/F) (C/F)
ABS 240/464 230-270/446-518
ASA 260/500 250-280/482-536
BDS 220/428 190-230/374-446
EVA 180/356 140-225/284-437
FEP 350/662 300-380/572-716
HDPE 240/464 205-280/401-536
HIPS 240/464 200-270/392-518
LDPE 210/410 180-280/350-536
LLDPE 210/410 160-280/350-536
PA See PA 6, PA 11, PA 12 & PA 66
PA 6 250/482 230-280/446-536
PA 11 255/491 240-300/464-572
64 Polymer Test Temperature Range
(Abbreviation) (C/F) (C/F)
PA 12 255/491 240-300/464/572
PA 66 280/536 260-290/500-554
PBT 250/482 220-260/428/500
PC 300/572 280-320/536-608
PE See HDPE, LDPE and LLDPE
PEEK 370/698 360-380/680-716
PEI 380/716 340-425/640-800
PET 275/527 260-300/518-572
PES 360/680 330-380/626-716
PMMA 240/464 210-270/410-518
POM-CO 205/401 190-210/374-410
POM-H 215/419 190-230/374-446
PP 240/464 220-275/428-527
PPE See PPO
PPO 280/536 260-300/500-572
PPS 320/608 290-360/554-680
PPVC 180/356 175-200/347-392
PS 220/428 200-250/392-482
PSU 360/680 330-380/626-716
PVC See PPVC and UPVC
PVDF 225/437 220-250/428-482
SAN 240/464 200-270/392-518
UPVC 195/383 185-205/364-401
RMPP 240/464 220-275/428-527
TPE See TPE-A, TPE-E, TPE-S, TPE-U and TPE-OXL
TPE-A 200/392 185-240/364-464
TPE-E 220/428 195-255/383-491
TPE-S 170/338 150-200/302-394
TPE-U 200/392 180-230/356-446
TPE-OXL 190/374 180-200/356-392
MEASUREMENT OF ELASTIC EFFECTS

The most important elastic effects are die swell, melt fracture, sharkskin,
frozen-in orientation and draw down. The conditions necessary to initiate the
occurrence of melt fracture and sharkskin can easily be measured on a high
shear capillary rheometer. However, melt fracture, sharkskin and draw down
are often measured, or studied, on laboratory-sized extrusion equipment and
the results correlated with the appropriate production-sized equipment that is
running the same grades of material.
Extrusion Testing
A small, single-screw extruder may be used as a rheometer. Such a machine
might have a screw size of 19 mm and a length to diameter ratio (L/D) of
20:1. Usually a rod (capillary) die is specified so the shear rate through such a
die may be easily calculated. The machine is usually fitted with transducers to
measure die pressures and melt temperatures.
The machine is set at a specified temperature profile and once the
set temperatures have been reached the extrusion behavior is measured over
a range of screw speeds. Output, screw speed and melt temperature are all
measured and recorded. Samples of the extrudate may be kept and identified
for subsequent examination to reveal defects such as sharkskin and melt frac-
ture. The temperatures are then changed and the procedure followed again. 65
Graphs are plotted of output, melt temperature and die swell against screw
speed. The shear rates and stresses that cause problems, then can be calcu-
section 3: testing
lated from the equipment dimensions and the output rate.
Such an extruder can also be fitted with different dies and ancillary
equipment so that cast film can be produced at the shear rates where produc-
tion problems occur. However, even the use of a small extruder is expensive
(in terms of both capital outlay and running costs) and so, most studies are
performed on capillary rheometers (See Flow Property Assessment Section).
Die Swell
Die swell is usually measured on samples of circular cross-section that have
been extruded downward from a capillary rheometer fitted with a circular die.
Accurate measurement and interpretation of die swell measurements requires
care since, the weight of the extrudate may cause drawing down of the extru-
date. To ensure that a circular cross-section is obtained from the die, the
extrudate must be given time to freeze while suspended, since it can distort if
it is allowed to lie on a surface before it has hardened. Drawing down can be
avoided by extruding into a bath containing a liquid of the same density as the
polymer, which is placed immediately below the die.
Draw down minimization may also be done graphically. Measure-
ments of extrudate diameter are made at several points away from the leading
end of the extrudate (obtained by cutting the extruded sample at the die out-
let). By means of a graph, the theoretical die swell at this leading edge may be
found by extrapolation. Somewhat more simply, there is little loss in accuracy
if the experimenter always makes measurements at the same distance from
the leading edge. The distance chosen should be the point at which the die
swell is approximately a maximum.
If the extrudate is smooth and circular, then extrudate measure-
ments may be made using a projection microscope. A laser micrometer, how-
ever, allows very accurate measurements of both the extrudate and of the die.
If the sample is not round and smooth (due to sharkskin, melt fracture or
some other problem) the best procedure is to weigh (M) a known length (L) of
the extrudate and from a knowledge of the density () calculate the extrudate
diameter (D) by the formula D2 = 4M/L. For amorphous materials, it is sat-
isfactory to use the density of the solid polymer. In the case of crystalline
polymers, however, the density will depend on the rates of cooling from the
die and for accurate measurement the density should be obtained from the
extruded sample.
Anisotropy and Orientation

As the result of the rapid cooling occurring in production processes, such as
injection and blow molding, the moldings usually contain molecules which are
orientated in the flow direction: this means that there is a grain effect pre-
sent like the one that exists in wood. Because of the grain, the wood is
stronger in one direction that it is in another, that is, the products have
anisotropic properties. An easy way of quantifying the anisotropy, or orienta-
tion, is to cut samples from the product, at two directions at right angles to
each other (along the flow and across the flow). Then measure a property
which varies significantly with orientation, such as flexural modulus or tensile
strength.
Impact strength is also affected by such frozen-in orientation. In an
Izod impact test, where the sample has been injection molded with the gate at
one end of the sample, the molecules will be roughly aligned with the long
axis of the sample. Thus to break the sample, in a standard Izod test, would
66 require fracture to occur across the elongated molecules. This will give a
higher impact strength than would be recorded with non-oriented samples.
On the other hand, if impact strength is being measured by dropping a weight
onto a flat plate, lower impact strengths will be recorded with more oriented
moldings. This is because fracture can occur more easily parallel to the direc-
tion of orientation and allows fracture to occur between, rather than across,
molecules.
Shrinkage caused by oven heating is also used to assess the
amount of stress relaxation that will occur on heating a plastic molding or
extrusion product. Such a test is used as a measure of how well the product
was produced and/or, if a product will withstand use at elevated temperatures.
The greater the orientation the more the component will shrink on heating.
The dimensions of the product are checked after oven heating for a specified
time and at a specified temperature (See Stress Relaxation in Section 2).
CHEMICAL RESISTANCE
Guidelines
Generally, plastics demonstrate a good resistance to chemical attack. Of
course this resistance is dependent on the plastic and the nature of the chem-
ical agent. The reported resistance of a plastic, to attack by a chemical agent,
should only be considered as a guideline. There are frequently many grades of
the same material and some may display better resistance than others. In
general, the chemical resistance of semi-crystalline thermoplastics is superior
to that of amorphous resins. With all plastics the chemical resistance is
reduced as the temperature is increased.
Environmental Stress Crack Resistance (ESCR)

The short term chemical resistance of most plastics is generally well known.
The long term effect of exposure to various chemical environments, some-
times referred to as Environmental Stress Crack Resistance (ESCR), however,
often shows quite different results. While a plastic may appear resistant to a
particular environment, such as water, a long term exposure (~100 hours or
more) may show a totally different result. Even if it survives this test it may
fail if the sample is under stress. The only way to obtain this information is by
doing the test, usually by immersion or direct contact with the chemical
agent. Sometimes the samples are stressed on special jigs. The resistance is
then reported as the time to first appearance of cracking or degradation and
the calculated stress on the part.
With metals the attack of a chemical agent is usually confined to
the surface and involves corrosion and loss of weight. Plastics, however, may
absorb the chemical reagent and display swelling and softening, accompanied
by a gain in weight. In extreme cases, this may be followed by a loss in
weight as the surface is dissolved, swollen or decomposed and crumbles
away.
ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES
Some of the earliest applications for plastics was as electrical insulators. They
have excellent insulating properties as well as being easily shaped.
67
Resistivity
Most plastics are good insulators and have a high resistance to the passage of
section 3: testing
electrical current. Since the resistivity of the surface and bulk of a plastic may
be different they are both quoted. In both cases, the higher he value, the better
the insulating qualities. A good conductor, such as gold, has a volume resistiv-
ity of 10-6 (Ohm-cm), while carbon is 10-3, conductive plastic ~10+2, cellulose
10=6, PVC 10+14 and polystyrene is 1018.
Insulation resistance, a combination of surface resistivity and vol-
ume resistivity, is also sometimes quoted. It is the ratio of the direct current
voltage applied to the electrodes to the total current between them.
Dielectric Strength
Dielectric strength is a measure of the maximum electrical load a material can
withstand before failure. To test dielectric strength, increasing levels of voltage
are applied to a sample until fails. It is defined as the voltage per unit of thick-
ness that will cause a catastrophic failure of the insulating material, resulting
in the flow of current through the material. It can depend on thickness. For
example, the dielectric strength of a 0.001 inch film may be as much as twice
that for a 0.005 inch film of the same material (25.4V/mil = 1 KV/mm). The
value decreases rapidly with increasing AC frequency and for some materials
the value is decreased by increasing humidity.
Arc Resistance or Tracking

While dielectric strength measures the maximum voltage a material can with-
stand, and volume resistivity measures its resistance to the flow of electricity
per unit thickness, arc resistance measures a materials resistance to an
applied voltage over time. It measures the time, in seconds, that an electrical
spark can be applied to a materials surface before it chars. Charring is the
cutting of a carbon track across the materials surface, which causes it to
become conductive. Plastics that degrade on heating to produce volatiles
(gases) show a higher arc (or tracking) resistance than those that do not.
Dielectric Constant
The dielectric constant (also referred to as the permitivity or specific inductive
capacity) is a measure of how well a material will store an electrical charge.
The lower the value the better the insulating properties. It is the ratio of the
storage capacity of a material relative to that of air and has no dimensions.
Power and Dissipation Factors

For most insulators (dielectrics) these two factors are the same and refer to a
measure of how much power is converted to heat. This generation of heat is
undesirable in an insulator and should be as low as possible. The term loss
factor (or dielectric loss index) is the product of the dissipation factor and the
dielectric constant. As a result, PVC, which has a high loss factor can be vibra-
tion welded, while PE, with a low loss factor, cannot.
Improving Conductivity
For insulation purposes the high resistivity of plastics is an advantage.
However, it also has the disadvantage of the capacity for building up a high
static charge. This can in turn lead to spark generation or attraction of dust.
This can be eliminated by the addition of a conductive filler such as carbon
black. The incorporation of lubricants can minimize the generation of static,
68 while the addition of some semi-incompatible liquids can cause static to leak
away.
OPTICAL PROPERTIES
Optical properties is a term often used in plastics technology to describe
those tests used to characterize the appearance of a film or sheet. The proper-
ties commonly measured include refractive index, clarity (usually means see-
through clarity), gloss, haze and light transmittance. The melt and die surface
temperatures employed in extrusion may have a significant effect on proper-
ties such as surface gloss. In general, the higher the melt and die surface
temperatures, the better the surface gloss.
Refractive Index
The refractive index is the ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence (sin ) to
the sine of the angle of refraction (sin ), when light is refracted from a vacu-
um into a medium. (Air is often used in place of a vacuum.) As the refractive
index varies with the wavelength of light, the wavelength of light used for the
measurement is taken as being that for yellow light (sodium D-line = 589.3
nm) unless otherwise stated.
The refractive index may be measured approximately by using a
microscope: the opposite faces of a uniformly, thick test piece is determined
by focusing on opposite faces alternately and measuring the traverse distance.
Refractive index is obtained by dividing the true thickness by the apparent
thickness. According to ASTM, the preferred method of measuring the refrac-
tive index is by use of an Abb refractometer. A small test piece is kept in
touch with the fixed prism with a suitable liquid: the ASTM procedure sug-
gests suitable liquids. White light and a test temperature of 23C are used.
Gloss
Gloss is a measure of the ability of a material to reflect light. It is an optical
feature of all materials whether transparent or opaque. When a beam of light
strikes a surface, the amount reflected will depend not only on the type of
surface finish, and refractive index of the material, but also on the angle of
incidence and the angle of viewing of the reflected beam. Because of such
variations, many methods of measuring gloss exist, varying mostly in the
angle of incidence and reflection used.
The primary standard of gloss is usually a highly polished, plane,
black glass surface with a refractive index of 1.567. This standard is assigned
the value of 100 gloss units for each of the geometries, or arrangements, of
the incident and reflected light beams. For example, in ASTM tests, 20 and
85 (to the vertical) are used. The 20 angle is used for high gloss materials
and the 85 angle is used for low gloss materials.
In many instances tests are made on specimens cut from finished
products. No further preparation is usually necessary unless test temperature
and humidity are known to affect the result (when careful conditioning prior to
testing will be needed). Specimens made for comparison by injection and/or
compression-molding need to be made very carefully as the result may be
affected by many factors. The following are important in injection molding:
Mold temperature, the rate of mold filling and mold finish.
69
Light Transmittance
The transparency of a material is defined in terms of two parameters or mea-
section 3: testing
surements. These are its light transmittance and haze. Light transmittance is a
ratio obtained by measuring how much light passes through a sample of a
material compared to how much light is passed without the material. Light
that is not transmitted is reflected, scattered or absorbed. The upper limit for
light transmittance achieved by high quality acrylic sheet is about 92%.
Light transmittance is measured by placing a flat test specimen in
front of, and at right angles to, a collimated (parallel) beam of light. A photo-
cell measures the amount of light passing directly through the material. The
specimen is then removed and the amount of light reaching the photocell is
measured again. The ratio of the two measurements, expressed as a percent-
age, is the light transmission.
When the specimen is thin and flexible (thin film rather than rigid
sheet) an integrating sphere haze-meter must be used. This consists of a light
source and lens which gives a collimated beam that passes through the speci-
men into an integrating sphere. The inside of the sphere is coated with a high-
ly reflective white powder. The sphere can be moved so that all the light enter-
ing it either passes into a light trap, or falls on the wall of the sphere where it
is repeatedly reflected until it reaches a photocell. Output from the photocell is
displayed on a galvanometer.
Light transmittance measurements are made by first setting the
instrument so that without a specimen in position, the galvanometer reads
zero (that is, all the light passes into the trap) and 100 when the sphere is tilt-
ed and all the available light reaches the photocell. Interposition of the speci-
men causes the galvanometer reading to fall to a value of less than 100, and
this figure is the light transmittance percentage.
Haze
Haze is the amount of light scattered in a forward direction, either by surface
irregularities and/or non-homogeneities within a translucent or transparent
material. The latter can be such things as dust, filler particles, or crystalline
regions of different refractive index from the rest of the material. When the
percentage of haze is greater than 30% the material is considered to be
translucent rather than transparent.
It is possible to distinguish between haze due to surface roughness
from that due to non-homogeneities by coating a small area of the specimen
on both sides with a liquid of the same refractive index as the polymer (for
instance, 1.49 for polypropylene). If the transmission in this wetted area
improves, then the haze is mainly due to surface imperfections.
After a light transmittance measurement, and with the specimen
still in position, the integrating sphere haze-meter is set so that all the avail-
able light reaches the photocell (See Light Transmittance). The galvanometer
reading is increased from its value below 100 to read 100 exactly by using the
sensitivity setting of the galvanometer. The sphere is then moved so that all
the light except that scattered by the haze passes into the light trap. The scat-
tered light or haze then registers on the photocell, which outputs the value
directly on the galvanometer. Haze is the percentage of incident light that is
scattered by more than 2.5 from the original, incident beam.
See-Through Clarity
See-through clarity is defined as the ability to see objects, or print, which are
in contact with a thermoplastics film. It is a measure of the distortion and/or
70 obscuration of an image when seen through a material. Long distance viewing
is often not possible when looking through many plastics films while contact
viewing is, however, often possible. See-through clarity may be measured by
assessing the optical definition of, for example, Snellen charts at a specified
chart-to specimen distance. Such charts consist of sets of parallel lines that
differ in line spacing. The charts are viewed with and without the specimen.
The narrowest, most closely spaced lines, which can clearly be seen as lines,
with and without the specimen in front of the chart is a measure of see-
through clarity.
The see-through clarity may also be assessed by judging the defin-
ition of a well-illuminated, wire grid when viewed through a film. The view of
the grid is compared with a set of eight photographs that cover the range of
clarity usual with the material. The test film is then assigned a number (which
corresponds with the photograph number that resembles what is seen).
Another way of assessing see through clarity is by small-angle scatter. This
assumes that small-angle scatter controls the definition of an object.
The small angle test uses a stabilized light source to illuminate a
hole which is 2.03 mm (0.08 in.) diameter: another hole of the same diameter
is located 1.98 m (78 in.) away. A lens located approximately halfway between
the two holes, focuses the light from the first hole (the illuminated hole) onto
the second hole. When the film is placed behind the lens, that is, closer to the
second hole, only light which is transmitted by the film with a deviation of
less than 4 minutes is measured by a photocell located behind the second
hole. The photocell reading, expressed as a percentage of the intensity of the
incident beam, is called the see-through clarity.
MATERIAL IDENTIFICATION
Complete identification of most polymer compounds is very difficult because
of the complexity of the formulations. Often, however, what is required is the
separation (or identification) of lots of material whose identity has been lost
or an identification of the type of material used to make a molded part. Useful
simple tests to identify plastic materials include a preliminary examination,
density, melting point and behavior on heating.
Preliminary Examination
The material should be inspected before processing and the color, particle
size, particle size consistency and any obvious contamination, noted. If a
component is being examined then note size, weight, color and any features,
or clues, which indicate how the component was made. By way of illustration,
a gate scar would indicate injection molding whereas the presence of flash
lines would indicate manufacture by compression molding. Such preliminary
examinations may indicate if a material is a thermoplastic material or a ther-
moset.
Density
The densities of most commercial thermoplastic materials are low as they are
usually based on carbon and hydrogen. Density is defined as mass per unit
volume and therefore has the units of mass and of volume. When expressed
in grams per cubic centimeter (g/cc) it is numerically equal to relative density
(specific gravity or SG).
Very often the absolute density of a material is not required. What
is required is an approximate value so as to assist in material identification.
An approximate measure of specific gravity/density may be obtained by 71
observing whether the material sinks or floats in a limited range of liquids, for
example, water and saturated magnesium chloride. The former has a density
section 3: testing
of 1 g/cm3 and the latter has a density of 1.34 g/cm3. Most olefin-based mate-
rials will float in water (and therefore also in saturated magnesium chloride).
Most unfilled, styrene-based thermoplastics will very slowly sink in water, but
will float in the saturated magnesium chloride. Most UPVC materials will
quickly sink in water and more slowly in saturated magnesium chloride. This
test is most useful when performed in conjunction with a burning test.
If an accurate measurement of density is required, then a flotation
or displacement method (See Density and Dimensions Section) can be used.
Melting Point
The simplest way of obtaining an approximate value is by heating a small
sample of the material on a metal hot plate while measuring the temperature.
A heating rate of approximately 50C/hour or 100F/hour, should be used. It is
useful to have a glass rod so that the sample may be moved, or prodded, dur-
ing heating. Note the mid-point of the obvious softening range. An amorphous
thermoplastic material will not have a sharp melting point, whereas a semi-
crystalline thermoplastic will usually have a relatively sharp melting point
(Table 7.).
Behavior on Heating
Often this test may be combined with the melting point test. A glass rod is
used to move the material while it is being heated. If the material does not
soften on heating then it is probably a thermoset (some heavily filled engineer-
ing thermoplastics behave in the same way). If it does soften then it is proba-
bly a thermoplastic. An amorphous thermoplastic will have a much broader
softening range (not a melting point), whereas a semi-crystalline thermoplas-
tic material will have a melting point. The way that the material burns and the
fumes evolved may also indicate the type of material used.
72
SECTION 4:
THE SCREW AND BARREL
SYSTEM
MATERIALS HANDLING
THE HOPPER
THE BARREL
THE SCREW
SCREW TYPES
SCREW MIXING SECTIONS
BREAKER PLATES, SCREEN PACKS
AND GEAR PUMPS

SCREW DRIVE SYSTEM
MOTOR SIZE AND THRUST BEARING LIFE
MATERIALS HANDLING
The subject of materials and component handling is one that appears to be
ignored in many extrusion shops. Thus, material and component contamina-
tion is common. The most common source of resin contamination is water.
Generally oil, grease and dust are observed in the contamination of products
as well.
Material Feed
The feed to machines involved in processing thermoplastics is very often a
mixture of virgin (new) material, regrind, and colorant (often in the form of a
master batch). All of these materials must be kept clean and dry. A controlled
ratio of the materials must also be used if consistent machine operation and
component quality (such as surface appearance) are to be maintained.
The extruder can be fed with plastics (resins) or compounds in
various forms. The feed may be fine powder, regrind material or virgin pellets.
If the material is available in more than one form, feeding problems will prob-
ably occur if a mixture of forms is used. In terms of feeding efficiency, spheri-
cal granules (of approximately 3 mm/0.125 in diameter) are the most efficient,
while fine powders are usually the worst. Frequently, regrind material can be
almost as difficult as fine powder. Cube-cut granules are better and lace-cut
(or face-cut) granules are better still.
As a result of feeding differences, machines must be fed with a
consistent raw material mix or a pre-blended masterbatch. The use of a mas-
terbatch mixture can produce significant cost savings as a compounding step
may be eliminated. However, the use of such a mixture can sometimes cause
problems. There may be a color shade differences between the same material
processed on different machines. Another problem is the separation of the
components of the masterbatch in the hopper.
73
Stock Control
All storage and unloading areas must be kept clean and dry to minimize fire
section 4: the screw and barrel system

hazards. Storerooms should be separated from the processing area by fire
resistant doors. The materials should be stored away from direct sunlight and
on properly constructed racks. Usually, the use of unheated storage areas,
with natural ventilation, is sufficient. To ensure that the material does not stag-
nate in the stores a strict first-in, first-out policy (Fi-Fo) policy is wise.
Strict stock control is important. Within a shipment of material
there can be several different batches and one of these may be faulty. By
adopting a strict stock control system, a faulty batch can be readily identified
and isolated, thus preventing defective products from being produced.
Condensation Minimization
Many thermoplastic materials are supplied in pellet or granular form in sacks
or bags. Before use, it is important that the granules inside the sack reach the
temperature of the workshop to prevent condensation from forming on the
surface of the granules. Even if a material is said not to absorb water, it is rec-
ommended that the material be stored in the extrusion shop for at least 8
hours prior to opening the sack. This advice applies particularly during the
colder months and at times of high humidity. At such times, it is advisable to
store the days requirements in the shop.
Before opening the bag, wipe it clean to avoid dust being trans-
ferred with the material when the bag is tipped or inverted. After the bag has
been opened and the required amount of polymer removed, reseal it immedi-
ately and label the bag with the amount remaining, the date and your signa-
ture. Only put sufficient material into the hopper for about 1 hour of operation
and keep the hopper covered. Wherever possible use dried material and a
hopper heater or a direct feed loader.
Hygroscopic Behavior
If a polymer or compound contains water or another low boiling point materi-
al, the temperatures seen in many extrusion processes will be above its boil-
ing point. Visible bubbles will then form within the thermoplastic as the exter-
nal pressure falls when the material emerges from the die of an extruder.
Generally speaking, the higher the processing temperatures, the lower the
amount of water (or other volatiles) that can be tolerated. This is because the
higher temperatures will generate larger volumes of steam from the same
quantity of water. The water may be introduced into the compound by addi-
tives that contain excessive water. Usually commodity thermoplastics do not
suffer from water-related problems. Engineering thermoplastics, however, do
often absorb water; that is, they are hygroscopic.
Drying
While many processors have drying facilities, they rarely check the moisture
content of the material, but dry it for a set number of hours at a particular
temperature. Such a drying procedure may not always be satisfactory, as
many factors affect the drying process.
It is a given that the higher the initial moisture content, the longer
the time needed to reach the required low moisture content or limit. Therefore,
there is a need to measure the moisture content of the material at various
stages in the cycle; for example, as supplied and after drying. A generally
standard measure of how much water a material will absorb is given by the
amount it will absorb in 24 hours at room temperature. If the value is greater
74 than approximately 0.1%, drying is usually necessary before extrusion. If it is
lower, drying is not normally required.
Drying should be done in a hot air oven, desiccant drier or in a
vacuum drier. The last two methods are the more efficient as they are faster
and reduce the water content to lower values. They take approximately half
the time required by a hot air drier and, for some resins, they are the only way
of getting the material dry.
Consistent Drying
Many virgin thermoplastic materials do not require drying before processing;
that is, they are supplied dry and are ready to use. However, hygroscopic
materials need to be dried before melt processing. To reduce problems, in
general, it is suggested that all materials be dried to predetermined moisture
content levels as a matter of course. After drying, the material should not be
placed into an open hopper for extended periods, as it will reabsorb moisture.
Ideally, material usage should be calculated to determine how much should be
loaded into the hopper to prevent storage for an extended length of time.
Where space is at a premium and storage in the hopper is necessary, then a
hopper heater should be used to prevent re-absorption of water. The region of
the barrel under the hopper (zone 0) should also be held at a known, elevated
temperature.
Table 14.
Suggested Drying Conditions for Extrusion
Materials
(Based on drying conditions for Injection molding materials)
Abbrev. Water Abs. Hot Air Drying Desiccant Drying
(%) (C) (# of hours) (C) (# of hours)
ABS 0.2-0.35 70-80 2-4 70-80 2
HIPS 0.08 70 2-3 70 1-2
LDPE <0.2 65 3 80 1-1.5
HDPE <0.01 65 3 80 1-1.5
LLDPE <0.2 65 3 85 1-1.5
PP (H + CO) <0.2 65 3 85 1-1.5
PA 6 1.6 80 16 105 12
PA 66 1.5 85 16 105 12
PMMA 0.3 75 2-4 90 3-4
PPVC - - - - -
UPVC <0.2 65 3 80 1-1.5
Materials Management
Material provides the biggest single cost of producing an extrudate. We do
not want to waste time and material by producing rejects. Even if the material
can be reclaimed, we will have lost production capability and wasted money.
Machine manufacturers produce machines that can be started up
quickly and which maintain consistently the preset operating conditions. The
die and haul off have been designed and manufactured so that they produce
extrudate at the required rate producing the minimum amount of regrind.
Such efforts will be wasted unless you play your part by looking after the
material.
What does this mean? It basically means that one should keep the
material clean, dry and free from contamination. Remember and apply the fol-
lowing:
Only open sacks when they have reached workshop temperature 75
Only use material when you have double-checked that it is the correct type
and grade

Check to see that the machine has been set correctly for that material
Reseal containers immediately after use and check that the material is
labeled correctly
Ensure that regrind is kept clean, dry and used in the correct proportions
THE HOPPER
The hopper is the material holding unit attached to the barrel at the feed port.
It is used to hold and feed plastic material into the extruder (See Figure 1).
Conical Hopper
Usually the hopper is shaped like a tapered cone, the smaller end of which is
attached to the hopper block on the barrel. The larger end, through which it is
filled, is closed by a lid. At the base of the hopper is the hopper slide (throat
gate) which can be used to block the material feed into the machine.
The taper angle of the hopper (usually between 20 and 45) must
be greater than the angle of repose of the material being extruded to reduce
the risk of bridging. The inner surface of the hopper must be smooth and
highly polished to minimize material stagnation and to prevent any material
from adhering to the metal surface. Often the hopper is made from aluminum
although stainless steel is preferable.
Simple gravity feed is most often used with a conical hopper,
unless the material does not flow uniformly. To avoid material feed problems,
such as bridging, the hopper may be vibrated and/or the material may be
stirred by means of a rotating arm. It is desirable to keep the level of material
in the hopper as constant as possible to assure a constant output from the
die. The material temperature should also be kept as constant as possible
using a heated hopper assembly.
Hopper Block
The hopper block is that part of an extruder that supports the feed hopper and
contains the throat. To ensure that material freely enters the feed section of
the screw, cooling water is generally passed around the hopper throat assem-
bly. The flow rate and temperature of the cooling water is important, as these
variables affect how the material is converted from solid to melt (plasticized)
within the barrel. Usually, the water passing around the hopper throat is from
the local supply and is, therefore, subject to a seasonal temperature variation.
This variation can affect the melt temperature and cause product variation. To
overcome this problem a temperature control system (similar to a mold tem-
perature controller) can be installed with the flow rate and temperature of
coolant standardized for each machine. Alternatively, a solenoid-actuated valve
fit into the coolant supply can be used to provide water flow when the tem-
perature exceeds a preset value.
Hopper Heater and Drier

A hopper drier is used for drying a material, (for example, an engineering ther-
moplastic) before, melt processing. Heated air is blown through the base of
the hopper and filters through the material. Part of this air is bled-off during
the drying process to prevent it from becoming saturated with moisture. With
such a system, drying times are measured in hours (See Table 6.), but this
76 can be reduced by the use of a desiccant drier or vacuum drier. Because of
the relative inefficiency of many hopper dryers it is best to refer to them as
hopper heaters. Such hopper heaters should be used to keep a material hot
before melt processing. The material may have been dried in another system
and the heated hopper simply acts to prevent the regain of moisture and to
maintain material temperature.
Hopper Loading
Although a hopper may be loaded with material manually, it is easier, safer
and more efficient to use one of the commonly available alternatives such as a
negative pressure (or vacuum) hopper loader. This may be connected to a
floor-mounted material bin via a conveying tube through which the applied
vacuum draws up the material to the receiver. Once the receiver is filled, the
vacuum application is stopped and the material discharges by gravity. Some
negative pressure hopper loaders have a reverse flow feature to pressurize the
vacuum receiver and break up potential bridging. Some of these hopper load-
ers, designed to handle dusty materials such as regrind, are known as powder
loaders.
The hopper may be loaded using timed loading cycles or filled to a
predetermined level by means of a level control which senses a full receiver
and switches off the conveying action to save energy. When materials are
conveyed in automatic systems, the dangers of dust generation, and dust
inhalation, should be recognized and all equipment must be properly ground-
ed.
It should be noted that individual machines may also be fed from a
centralized supply (a bulk handling loading system). An augur conveyor (flexi-
ble worm hopper loader) is used to convey dusty or difficult-flow materials
over short distances. Such conveyors can require considerable cleaning
between material changes.
Material Measurement and Blending

The blending of materials is now common, as many machines run on a mix-
ture of virgin material and regrind. Most systems use volumetric blending
where the ingredients of a blend are measured by volume and then fed either
to a separate blender or to a blender hopper on the machine (in a blender
hopper the material may fall through a series of baffles to cause blending). An
accuracy of approximately 0.1% is achievable by volumetric measurement.
Alternatively gravimetric blending may be used. With this type of
system the ingredients of a blend are measured by weight. For example, a
receiving vacuum hopper may be mounted over a blender supply hopper that
is mounted on load cells. As material is metered away from the supply hop-
per, the amount being fed to the extruder can be weighed by difference. Gravi-
metric measurement can provide a guaranteed accuracy of 0.05% to 0.005%.
THE BARREL
The barrel of an extruder is a hollow chamber in which the screw (or screws)
operates (See Figure 1.). If one screw is used the barrel has a cylindrical
cross-section: if two screws are used, the barrel has a figure eight (8) cross-
section. It is the screw and the barrel, which interact to melt, convey, and
generate pressure on a polymeric material within an extruder. It is essential
that this be done under controlled conditions since the extruder must produce
a uniformly plasticized material, of constant composition, at the required rate.
To achieve this, the barrel must be made very accurately. The total out-of- 77
alignment error, after machining, must be less than one half of the screw/bar-
rel clearance. A barrel is generally rated in terms of its diameter (D) in inches

or millimeters.
Barrel Construction
Because the pressures generated within an extruder can reach very high val-
ues (up to 10,000 psi or 70 Mpa), the barrel is constructed to withstand these
high pressures without distortion. The barrel, therefore, is made from thick
walled alloy steel tubing or pipe and is usually designed to operate safely at
twice the estimated operating pressures. Wear and corrosion resistance are
often provided by ion nitriding, although a bimetallic barrel is preferred for
wear resistance.
The feed throat, cut through the barrel wall, is approximately the
same size as the barrel diameter. It is very important that adequate provision
is made to cool the barrel in this region, as otherwise the extruder will not
feed properly. Provision is made to attach the adapter and die at the discharge
end of the barrel.
Barrel Wear
Frequently, there is an increase in the clearance of the screw/barrel system,
especially in the hopper region, over time of operation. The screw and barrel
assembly operates in a very aggressive environment that may cause severe
wear problems. As material modification becomes more common with abra-
sive materials, like flame retardants and fillers (such as glass), being added to
more plastic materials, wear has become a major problem. As it is preferable
to replace a screw than a barrel, the barrel must be harder than the screw.
To improve the wear resistance of the barrel (which is required
mostly in the transition zone) it may be modified or lined. Modification may be
by processes such as nitriding or ion implantation, but these treatments are
not as good as lining (which gives a bimetallic barrel). This produces a barrel
that is based on two different metallic materials, in which one metallic material
surrounds the other. The inner layer, in contact with the melt, possesses good
wear and/or corrosion resistance characteristics and is about 1.5 mm thick
(the thickness is approximately 2 mm thick for a grooved barrel). This layer
may be based on one of a number of materials or alloys such as a nickel alloy
matrix reinforced with particles of 25% iron boride or of tungsten carbide. The
inner liner is cast inside a flanged steel backing cylinder of a high quality ten-
sile steel (AISI 4140), which resists crushing and distortion. An outer assem-
bly, generally a cast aluminum housing, contains heating elements, cooling
channels and pockets for the temperature sensors. The barrel may be made in
sections, the number of which corresponds to the number of barrel zones.
Barrel Heating and Cooling

Most extruders are electrically heated and use resistance coils, bands, or cuffs
that are strapped or bolted around the barrel. Upon demand, initiated by a
thermocouple, electrical current is passed through the resistance wire, inside
the coil. The resistance produces heat that causes the temperature to rise. If a
PID controller is used, as the set point temperature is approached the power
is progressively reduced and then finally turned off completely at the set point.
For a given machine, the actual barrel settings required to achieve a desired
melt temperature will depend on the screw rotational speed, the pressure
within the system and the polymer throughput.
78 As it is very easy to exceed the extrusion set point temperature,
many machines are equipped with cooling systems. Air cooling systems are
the simplest to install and consist of fans that circulate air around the barrel
on demand. These are not as efficient as liquid cooling systems. A popular
system is based on a closed loop, heat exchanger that uses distilled water
contained inside a sealed coil surrounding the barrel. When the set point is
exceeded, the vapor from this water is cooled by water flow so that the dis-
tilled water vapor condenses to absorb more heat.
Zoned Heating
A zone is a part or section of an extruder barrel. For ease of control, the barrel
is divided into zones or regions. Zoned heating is the separate heating, and
temperature control, of each zone of a machine. The smallest machines usual-
ly have three zones while larger machines may have as many as twelve. A
temperature sensor and its associated electronics, (such as a microprocessor-
based, three term (PID) controller), controls each of these zones.
Barrel Temperature Settings

These are the temperatures set on the control instruments. It is the melt tem-
perature, however, that is important and any barrel temperatures quoted (in
the literature) are only guidelines. When there is no experience in the process-
ing a particular grade of material, it is best to start with the lowest settings re-
commended. Usually the first zone temperature is set at the lowest value as
this helps prevent premature melting and bridging of the resin in the feed
throat. The temperatures of the other zones are gradually increased until the
die is reached. In extrusion processes the die temperature is sometimes set
slightly higher to put a higher gloss on the product.
As it is easier to heat a barrel than to cool it, it makes sense to
approach the final operating temperatures slowly to minimize the risk of tem-
perature over-shoot. Setting the temperatures 20C/30F below the run set-
tings during initial barrel heating most easily does this.
Barrel Residence Time

This is the average time during which a material resides within the extruder
barrel. It is important because time at temperature controls of the rate of
decomposition of plastics. A plastic may be degraded by a short exposure to a
high temperature or by a longer exposure to a lower temperature. How long
the plastic is in the barrel is therefore important. The actual residence time
may be determined experimentally by measuring the time taken for colored
plastic to pass through the extruder.
Vented Extruder
The barrel of a vented extruder contains a vent or port that is used to reduce
the water (moisture) and/or volatile content of a plastic material. The melt is
decompressed partway along the barrel by reducing the screw root diameter.
At this point in the barrel a vent is located to allow the vapor to escape (the
vent may be plugged when venting is not required). The vapor-free melt is
then conveyed towards the die and re-compressed by increasing the screw
root diameter. To ensure that melt does not escape through the vent, a dam or
torpedo section is incorporated on the screw just before the vent. As a result
of the way that vented machines are constructed (high L/D ratio and variable
screw geometry) and operated they produce very good mixing. It must be
remembered, however, that the action of heating some plastics in contact with
water can cause decomposition, or degradation.
In some cases a vent may be used to add something to the barrel. 79
For example, a relatively high loading of filler may be added to a plastic mater-
ial if it is first softened in the screw/barrel assembly. Thus the filler may be

added partway down the barrel via a vent or vents.
Grooved Barrel Extruder

This is an extruder that contains grooves in the feed section of the barrel. It
may also be referred to as an axial grooved barrel extruder as the barrel con-
tains axial grooves. The barrel contains a number of grooves running parallel
to the screw that improve the feeding characteristics of the system. The
grooved section is of the order of 3 to 4 D in length and tapers out as it pro-
gresses along the barrel. Temperature control of the grooved section is impor-
tant. It is generally held at a temperature of 70C by intensive circulation of
water. To decrease heat generation, a zero compression screw may be used.
By using a grooved feed throat, the output of the extruder is
increased (compared to a machine with a plain barrel), but there is an increase
in power consumption (approximately 10% more). The output, however, is vir-
tually independent of the back-pressure. The peak pressure within the barrel
often occurs at the end of the grooved section. A grooved barrel extruder is
said to be driven from the back as compared to an extruder fitted with a
gear pump that is said to be driven from the front.
The use of axial grooves and a barrier screw produces a machine
that can uniformly plasticize plastics at high outputs and comparatively low
melt temperatures. A lower melt temperature improves the capacity of the
downstream cooling equipment and thus allows an increase in the output.
THE SCREW
The most popular type of extruder is the single-screw type machine. In this
extruder it is the screw and the barrel that interact to convey, melt and gener-
ate pressure with a plastic material. It is required that this be done in a con-
trolled way, since the die must be supplied with uniformly plasticized material,
of constant composition, at a constant and controllable rate. For this reason,
many single screw machines are fitted with mixing sections and/or a gear
pump.
Flow Mechanism
The screw consists of a cylinder of steel with a helical channel cut into it. This
screw rotates inside the extrusion barrel and conveys the plastic material from
the hopper to the die along the screw channel (the open section between the
flights of the screw) (Figure 13.).
In the ideal case, as the screw rotates, the material slips on the
screw and adheres to the inside the barrel, producing a purely axial (forward)
movement of the polymer. If the material sticks to the screw and slips on the
barrel then there will be zero output, as the material and the screw rotate
together. In practice, the flow behavior lies between these two extremes since
the material adheres to both the screw and the barrel.
Extruder Output
As the polymer moves along the screw a thin film of the material initially
forms on the barrel wall. The screw rotation scrapes this thin film of melted
polymer away from the barrel wall and it flows down the front face of the
80
Feed Section Transition Section Metering Section
(Constant Root Diameter) (Tapered Root Diameter) (Constant Root Diameter)
Screw Shank Screw Tip
Keyways
Core Hole
Figure 13. The Basic Extrusion Screw
screw flight. It is then forced (or dragged) along the core of the screw and up
the rear face of the flight giving what is called drag flow. Drag flow, which is
due to the interaction of the screw and the barrel, produces a circulatory flow
in which the melt surrounds un-melted granules. Ideally the melt pool then
expands until there are no granules left. The generation of uniform melt is
promoted because the material flow is not purely axial. The material also
rotates with the screw producing rotary flow and melt leaks over the screw
flights (Figure 14).
The output from an extruder is the result of drag flow minus the
sum of the pressure flow plus the leakage flow. Pressure flow, which opposes
output, occurs because of the pressure built up at the die and leakage flow
reduces output as melt leaks over the screw flight (Figure 15).
Extruder Barrel
Melt Film Region
Melt Pool
Pushing Flight Pushin Trailing

g Fl Flight
Direction of Plastic Travel
Screw
Figure 14. Polymer Melting on the Extrusion Screw

81
Length and Diameter
Screws are usually rated in terms of their diameter (D), measured in inches or

millimeters. In order to allow rotation there must be a clearance between the
screw and the barrel. There is, therefore, a difference in radius between the
screw and the barrel. To illustrate, a 100 mm diameter extruder may be fitted
with a screw of radius 49.9 mm or, 99.8 mm diameter. The screw clearance is
the difference between the radii of the screw and the barrel.
To obtain the desired melt properties of uniform high temperature
and a stable output the screw length (L) is, generally, relatively long (L is mea-
sured from the rear of the hopper to the front of the screw). Screw length is
usually expressed as a ratio of its length to the diameter: the L/D ratio. The
use of a long screw (an L/D ratio of, say, 28:1) gives a stable output, improves
mixing and gives scope for the use of mixing elements.
Velocity Profiles in the Extruder Metering Section

Barrel
Leakage
Flow
Flight
Flight
Drag Pressure
Flow Flow
Screw
Output = Drag Flow - (Pressure Flow + Leakage Flow)

Barrel
Flight
Flight
Screw
% Exit Closure = 0 33 66 100
Open Discharge Closed Discharge
Figure 15. Flow Profiles in the Extruder
Screw Zones
A screw may be divided into zones or regions. Typically a general-purpose
screw has three distinct zones: the feed zone, the compression (plasticating)
zone, and the metering (pumping) zone. The feed section, which conveys the
material from the hopper, starts at the rear of the hopper and usually has a
constant depth. In the transition zone, the root diameter of the screw increas-
es as compression is applied. In the metering section the depth becomes con-
stant again. The feed section, is generally about 50% of the length (50% L),
the transition section is about 30% L and the metering section is 20% L.
Compression Ratio
The ratio of the volume of the flight in the feed zone to that in the metering
zone gives the compression ratio. This reduction in volume compensates for
the reduction in volume of the feed (solid material + air) which occurs as the
82 plastic melts and fuses together. Compression ratio is related to channel
depth, so if the depth is 0.373" at the hopper and 0.125" at the screw tip, then
the compression ratio is said to be 3:1. A typical compression ratio is 2.0/1
(or 2.5/1) and the length to diameter ratio (L/D) is about 20:1. The terms used
to describe a screw are shown in Figure 16.
When a three-zone screw is used to process a material, a large
amount of heat may be generated as a result of the compression ratio. To
avoid this heat generation, extruders are now being built that have screws
with zero compression, that is, the depth of the screw flight is the same along
its entire length. Such screws give very little mixing but they do prevent the
generation of excessively high melt temperatures (melt temperature override).
Mixing can be improved by the use of mixing sections, fluted sections, or
mixing elements located near the screw tip. Such screws are widely used in
extrusion blow molding where high melt temperatures must be avoided if high
production rates are to be achieved.
Pitch
Axial Flight
Width Axial Channel
Width
Helix Angle
Screw Root
Diameter Diameter
Perpendicular
Flight Width
Perpendicular
Channel Width
L/D = Screw Length/Screw Diameter

Compression Ratio = Channel Depth Start/Channel Depth Final
Figure 16. Elements of an Extrusion Screw
Helix Angle and Volumetric Efficiency

In extrusion, the helix angle () is the angle between the screw thread and the
transverse plane of the screw. For most screws the pitch of the screw equals
the screw diameter and = 1740'. The volumetric efficiency of the screw is
dependent on the helix angle. If volumetric output rate is designated Q then,
the volumetric efficiency of the screw may be expressed as
Qmax/Qideal = 0.5cos2 (Eqn. 18)
Where Qmax is the maximum volumetric output rate, Qideal is the ideal volumet-
ric output rate and is the helix angle of the extrusion screw. The volumetric
efficiency depends on the helix angle only and in cases where the pitch equals
the screw diameter ( = 1740') then the volumetric efficiency is 45.4%.
Shear Heat
The energy expended in turning the screw and pumping the material forward
is turned into heat. Because the material is being sheared, the heat generated
is known as shear heat. The shear heat is not spread uniformly throughout the
material, but is greatest where the shear rate is the highest. It can be high 83
enough that it can cause localized overheating and material decomposition, or
degradation at the tips of the screw flights.

For a given material, the amount of shear heat depends on the
screw speed and on the screw diameter. If possible, the machine size should
be matched to the anticipated output. It may be possible to achieve the
required output with a small diameter machine running fast or with a larger
diameter machine running more slowly. It is generally found that the larger
machine will produce a melt of significantly lower temperature and higher out-
puts are achieved. A higher screw/barrel L/D is another answer, as this will
give the same throughput as a lower one, but at a lower screw speed.
SCREW TYPES
Over the years many different types of screws have evolved for the processing
of thermoplastics materials (Figure 17). Some are designed to improve mixing
whereas others may be designed to suit a particular material or process. With
the advent of cheap computing power, and a greater knowledge of the extru-
sion process, computer design of extrusion screws is now extensively used.
Tapered and Parallel Extruders (Figure 17.)

A very popular type of extruder contains a tapered parallel screw. A tapered
parallel screw has a gradually tapering screw root (the channel depth gradually
changes) in the compression zone. The feed zone and the metering zone are
parallel and of constant depth. Unlike the double parallel screw, the velocity of
the un-melted portion of the melting material bed is maintained and there is
less risk of polymer stagnation.
The double parallel screw has a step that is, a rapid decrease in
channel depth (over one screw turn or less), between the parallel feed and
metering sections. In the stepped screw (a double parallel screw or nylon
screw), it is claimed, that the rapid decrease in channel depth acts as a barrier
to forward flow of un-melted granules and therefore fixes the melting point at
the step.
Tapered Parallel Screw (with Decreasing Helix Angle)
Double Parallel Screw
Screw with Tapered Root Diameter over Full Length
Figure 17. Tapered and Parallel Screws

84 A tapered screw may be selected for heat sensitive materials
(UPVC). This is a screw which has a gradually tapering screw root, that is, the
channel depth gradually changes usually the diameter of the screw root
increases steadily from the hopper end to the die end of the extruder so as to
gradually compress the material.
Poor Mixing
A conventional screw does not provide very good mixing. This is because of
the way that the material flows, or is transported, along the screw. Since the
material towards the center of the flight can easily remain undisturbed, the
output from the machine will not be of uniform quality. It will be inhomoge-
neous as it has a non-uniform shear history (even if nothing else happens, the
melt temperature will be non-uniform). Ideally the system should break up
agglomerates (provide dispersive mixing) and then produce a random spatial
distribution of any dispersed material (provide distributive mixing) (See
Screen Packs Section and Mixing Section).
High L/D Ratio Screws

There is a tendency towards the use of longer extrusion screws with length to
diameter ratios (L/D ratio) exceeding 24/1. Such long assemblies are used
where high melt flow rates and excellent melt homogeneity are required, since
they will produce the same throughput as a shorter screws but, at lower
speeds. This is particularly important when high frictional heat generation
must be avoided. The use of a longer screw/barrel assembly gives increased
operating flexibility, as there is more opportunity for the use of shearing and
mixing elements. Some extrusion screws are now as much as 32 D long.
Screw Cooling
When screw cooling is used, the temperature of part or all of the screw is
reduced or maintained, during machine operation, by circulating water from
the rear end of the screw through a bore in the center of the screw. Screw
cooling is done to resolve feeding problems (to improve operating consisten-
cy), to improve mixing and/or to minimize material decomposition. In some
cases it may only be necessary to cool the screw in the feed section, while in
other cases it may be necessary to bore out the whole length of the screw
(almost as far as the screw tip). In the second case, the cooling water freezes
a layer of material at the screw tip that effectively increases the compression
ratio of the screw. Mixing efficiency is improved, but the output rate goes
down and the power consumption goes up. A big disadvantage in both cases
is that the actual temperature of the screw is not known. Screw cooling
should be turned off before shutdown to minimize material adhering to the
screw.
Dedicated Screw
A dedicated screw is a screw that is designed to suit one type of material, for
instance, nylon (PA 66) or polyvinyl chloride (PVC). A general-purpose (GP)
screw is designed to suit as wide a range of plastics as possible and is not
the ideal answer for the processing of any specific material. For example, a
screw designed for a semi-crystalline, thermoplastics material, such as PA 66,
must provide a greater heat input than one designed for an amorphous, ther-
moplastic material. If a machine will be dedicated to one plastic for a long
time, then it is worthwhile considering the purchase of a specially designed,
or dedicated, screw.
85
Barrier Design Screw
This type of screw (Figure 18.) contains a barrier to hold back un-melted

material. The flights of a conventional screw are often filled with a mixture of
solid and molten plastic. It is difficult for the screw to grip the solid resin
Barr Screw
Dray & Lawrence Screw
Kim Screw
Figure 18. Barrier Design Screws
since it floats or swims in a pool of melt. Barrier design screws are used to
improve the ability of the machine to produce melt, and to give more uniform
melt. The barrier screw has two separate flights that are separated by the
flight land. These two separate flights may only run for part of the screw
length. For example, it may run for 13 diameters (13 D), in place of the com-
pression zone, on a 24 D screw. As the resin melts it is transferred from one
flight to the other over the narrow land. Thus the screw separates the melt
pool and solid bed. This produces improved output per rpm and a lowering of
melt temperature.
Zero Compression Screw

A large amount of heat will be generated, when a conventional screw is used
to extrude a plastic material, because of the compression ratio on the screw.
To avoid this heat generation, machines are now built which have screws
where the depth of the screw flight is the same along its entire length (zero
compression)(Figure 19). Such screws give very little mixing, but this can be
improved by the use of mixing sections located near the screw tip. Such zero
compression screws are commonly used with barrels that have longitudinal
grooves in the feed section. These grooved barrel assemblies are now consid-
ered essential for the processing of high molecular weight PE, and PP, at high
throughput rates. These assemblies give consistent outputs even if the die-
head resistance alters due to the use of parison programming in blow molding
operations. For blow molding machines, such barrels are available in diame-
ters of up to 90 mm (3.5") with L/Ds of 20/1 or greater (See The Barrel
Section).
86
Vented Systems
Vented extruders were developed in order to allow gas or vapor to be
removed from a molten polymer. In some cases this gas is simply air, but it
may also be a vapor given off by the plastics compound (water vapor, residual
monomer, or gaseous degradation products). If this vapor is prevented from
escaping it will be compressed by the incoming melt and carried to the die,
Figure 19. Zero Compression Screw (Variable Pitch)
where it will expand to produce bubbles in the product. To remove the gas
before it reaches the die, the melt is decompressed partway along the extru-
sion barrel by reducing the screw root diameter partway along its length. A
vent or port, through which the gas escapes, is located at this point in the
barrel (Figure 20.) (The vent may be plugged when venting is not required).
The vapor-free melt is then re-compressed, by increasing the screw root
diameter, and conveyed to the die. To ensure that melt does not escape
through the vent, a dam or torpedo section may be incorporated on the screw
just before the vent
Venting
Figure 20. Standard Two Stage Screw for Venting
Wear Resistant Screws

Screw and barrel assemblies frequently operate in very aggressive environ-
ments that can cause severe wear problems. If the clearance between the
flight and the barrel increases, then the pumping efficiency of the screw will
decrease and temperature differences in the screw channel will increase.
Usually the screw is made from a good quality tensile steel such as AISI
4140, which resists torque and distortion, and is oil quenched and tempered
or hardened by induction heating. It is easier to replace a screw than a barrel.
Thus the barrel must be harder than the screw.
The wear resistance of the screw may be improved in various
ways. If the screw is deep nitrided to 67 Rockwell C, this will improve wear
and give protection against chemical attack. It will also stop plastic from
adhering, and then decomposing, on the screw. The screw need not be of the
same composition over its entire length, as those parts that are subject to the 87
severest use can be given extra protection. For example, the screw may be
constructed from 4140 heat-treated steel and the flights may be surfaced with

a wear resistant alloy such as Colmonoy 56. Ion nitrided screws are also used,
as are hard chromium plated screws. If the thermoplastic material evolves
corrosive gases, as in the case of UPVC, then a stainless steel screw (AISI
316) may be specified.
Computer Software
Computer simulation software is available, which allows many different
designs of screws and changes in operating conditions to be tested quickly,
without the high cost of machining and running extrusion trials. Software is
available which deals with solids transport, material melting, and melt pump-
ing performance within a single screw extruder: These programs predict the
presence of un-melted material and variations of temperature, pressure and
energy along the screw. Such predictions can be used for screw design and to
determine the effect of changes in material properties, screw speed and barrel
temperature profile on the performance of the system.
SCREW MIXING SECTIONS

Unless the screw in the single screw extruder is fitted with special mixing sec-
tions, it is unlikely that it will do a very good job of mixing. It is essential that
mixing is done under controlled conditions, as production of uniformly plasti-
cized material, of constant composition, delivered at a constant and control-
lable rate, is essential.
Uniform Feed
The extruder must be fed with a uniform feedstock if a uniform product is to
be obtained. This means that all of the ingredients must be accurately dis-
pensed and well dispersed throughout the plastic material before the feedstock
reaches the screw. For most materials this simply means emptying known
weights of material into a conical blender and then adding a color master-
batch. A simple tumbling operation is then performed. This may be done con-
tinuously, on the machine, if the output is sufficient. For PVC, high-speed dry-
blending is usually used and the uniformly blended materials are then fed to
the screw of the extruder for melt mixing.
Poor Melt Mixing

A conventional screw (for example, a three zone screw) does not give very
good melt mixing because of the way that the material is transported along the
screw. The material in the center of the flight can easily remain undisturbed,
while the material at the edges is circulated and repeatedly sheared. This
means that the output from the machine will not be of uniform quality, that is,
it will be inhomogeneous, as it has a non-uniform shear history. Even if no
mixing is required, the melt temperature will be non-uniform and this non-uni-
formity can cause product distortion and alterations in output due to viscosity
variations.
Cooling and Mixing

The viscosity of plastic materials is higher at lower temperatures. In fact, for
some materials, a slight variation in the melt temperature will have a very
88 large effect on the viscosity. If the melt viscosity is low, then agglomerates
can escape the mixing action. Improved dispersive mixing is obtained if the
melt temperature can be kept low and uniform. This means that barrel cooling
must be very efficient and heat transfer must be good: particularly in those
regions where dispersive mixing is being performed. A great deal of shear
heat is generated in those regions.
Improving Melt Mixing

A simple way to improve mixing in a single screw extruder is to increase the
density of the screen pack by adding fine screens (See the section on Screen
Packs). However, the use of mixing sections, offers a more efficient way of
improving mixing. Barrier design screws improve the ability of the extruder to
produce a more uniform melt, as the screw has two separate flights separated
by the flight land. As the resin melts, it is transferred from one flight to the
other. That is, the screw separates the melt from the solid bed and produces
an improved output per rpm and lower melt temperature. Mixing sections may
also use this principle. For example the Egan mixing section uses barrier
flights. Longer screws give improved mixing, but, perhaps, more importantly,
they give scope for the use of mixing sections.
Dispersive and Distributive Mixing

Ideally the extrusion system should reduce additive agglomerates such as pig-
ment or impact modifier agglomerates. That is, it should provide dispersive
mixing (Figure 21a.). Once the solid agglomerates have been broken up, then
uniform distribution (random spatial orientation) of the dispersed additive is
required. This is known as distributive mixing. The two mixing processes are
not totally separated. When dispersive mixing is performed, there always is
some distributive mixing, (Figure 21b.) but the converse is not always true.
One could have a uniform distribution of agglomerated pigment particles. If,
in a subsequent process, stresses acting on the agglomerates become too
high, the agglomerates may break up, producing color streaks.
Figure 21a. Dispersive Mixing
Figure 21b. Distributive Mixing

89
Mixing Section Requirements
A system should first provide dispersive mixing and then produce distributive

mixing. These two mixing processes may be repeated more than once. Ideally,
any mixing section should:
Not cause a pressure drop and, ideally, should have a positive pumping
action.
Not possess dead spots or material hang-up regions. Flow through the
section should be streamlined.
Completely wipe the barrel surface.
Be easy to strip, clean and re-assemble.
Be cheap to purchase, install and maintain.
Dispersive Mixing Sections

A large number of dispersive mixing sections are now available (Figure 22a.).
They may be classified into four main groups (1) shear or blister rings, (2)
fluted mixers (such as the Egan, Maddock or Zorro mixing sections), (3) cross
barrier mixers (such as the EVK and the straight cross-channel barrier mixing
sections) and, (4) planetary-gear (PG) extruder mixers.
When judged by the criteria outlined above, the planetary gear
extruder (PGE) mixers are probably the best all round single screw machines.
The excellent heat transfer obtained, as a result of the large surface areas in
contact with the melt, make them well suited for processing heat sensitive
materials, such as UPVC. Good distributive and dispersive mixing are
obtained. However, it should be possible to obtain slightly better dispersive
mixing by the use of relatively simple, fluted mixing sections, such as the
Egan, Maddock or Zorro mixing sections,
LeRoy/Maddock Mixer
Blister Ring
Spiral Barrier
Figure 22a. Dispersive Mixing Sections
Distributive Mixing Sections

Many distributive mixing sections are now available. They may be classified
into four main groups (1) slotted flight mixers, (2) pin mixers, (3) cavity mix-
ers and (4) variable depth mixers (Figure 22b.).
90 If judged by the criteria outlined above, slotted flight mixers are
probably the best The Dulmage mixing section (Dow) is probably the best
known. It has several, shallow-angled, multi-flighted sections separated by
tangential grooves. The section is formed by machining several flights over
approximately 3 D in length and then making three cuts completely across
(around) the flights. Because these grooves do not overlap, the barrel surface
is not completely wiped by the rotating screw. A Saxton mixing section
(DuPont) overcomes this problem by using helical grooves. It gives good dis-
tributive mixing with a low pressure drop as the mixing section has some for-
ward conveying action.
Pin Mixer
Dulmage Mixer
Figure 22b. Distributive Mixing Sections
Mixing Pins and Sections

Pins, which protrude from the root of the screw into the plastic, are some-
times used to improve mixing, by breaking up laminar flow. The screw may
also be fitted with mixing sections or elements. Typically, for a blow molding
machine running a high molecular weight PE (HMWPE), the zero compression
screw used is lengthened so that a fluted barrier section may be fitted, fol-
lowed by a section which contains mixing pins. The fluted barrier section
(also known as a Maddock mixing section or element) is a cylindrical shearing
section, of approximately 2 to 3 D in length, which forms the screw tip. It has
inlet passages from which melt can only reach the outlet passages via the
land of the mixing section. Thus the melt must pass over a narrow gap before
it can escape. This produces dispersive mixing (Figures 22a. & 22b.). How-
ever, at high output rates, this type of mixing section often cannot homoge-
nize high molecular weight melts satisfactorily. So, use is also made of a mix-
ing pin section after the Maddock mixing section. This arrangement also
allows the melt to become thermally homogenized after it has been sheared.
Thus it provides distributive mixing. Other arrangements are possible. For
example, two mixing pin sections may sandwich a Maddock mixing section
(see Dispersive Mixing Sections).
91

Mixing Elements
ow
Fl
Figure 23. Static Mixer
Static Mixers
In addition to using the extruder screw to mix the polymer, one can use a sta-
tic or motionless mixer (Figure 23.). These mixers typically consist of a
number of metal blades or ribbons, inserted in an adapter pipe between
the end of the extruder and the die. As it flows through this section, the extru-
date is continuously divided and re-combined by the blades or ribbons to thor-
oughly mix its components.
Vented Machines and Mixing

It has been found that vented machines give very good mixing because of the
way they are constructed (high L/D ratio and variable screw geometry) and
operated.
Material Changes
During the material handling, shaping and post-extrusion processes there
should be little or no change in a plastic material. Any change is usually
undesirable. Some of the changes that can occur are:
Water contamination caused by the material absorbing water or by conden-
sation. This will affect the material flow.
Volatiles loss when the material is contaminated with volatile materials like
water. During melt processing the volatile material (e.g., water) will turn to
vapor and on exiting from the die will cause foaming or surface marking.
Oxidation, that occurs when plastics are heated in contact with oxygen. The
first sign of this may be a change in color that will be followed by changes
in other properties.
Degradation or decomposition will occur if plastics are overheated, even if
there is no air present. Dangerous gases may be produced.
Surface property changes such dust contamination can easily cause pro-
duct rejection. It is easy to generate static electricity on plastics and this
attracts dust, or dirt, very quickly.
92
Thermal Considerations
The large amounts of heat, carried from the extrusion process by thermoplas-
tics, causes post extrusion heat removal problems. Heat removal is made dif-
ficult by the very low thermal conductivity of the thermoplastic material. This
means that diffusion of heat from the center of the product to the outside and
along the length of a product is slow and difficult. Thus, local temperature
variations are extremely difficult to eliminate. Shear heating (induced when the
molten material passes through a restricted gap or section, or the long chain
polymer molecules create friction as they pass over each other) may cause
some areas to become hotter than others. This may alter the flow properties
of the material. Different rates of cooling will then occur in different areas of
the extrudate. The stresses introduced within the product, as a result of differ-
ent heat removal rates, may affect its properties.
BREAKER PLATES, SCREEN PACKS, AND

GEAR PUMPS
In order to get good quality melt from an extruder, it is important that the
material be uniformly heated/melted and well mixed. Proper melting and mix-
ing require that the correct screw be used and sufficient pressure (or back-
pressure) in the barrel to obtain mixing and thermal uniformity. Screen packs,
supported by a breaker plate, are often used to build up pressure within a
conventional machine.
Breaker Plate
A breaker plate is a disc, or plate, that has a series of uniform holes (approxi-
mately 3 mm/0.125") machined through the thickness which are aligned in the
flow direction (Figure 24.). As the holes are there to permit the plastic materi-
al to flow they should offer minimum restriction. The holes should be polished
in the line of flow and the entrances, and exits, should be tapered. The breaker
plate fits in the die-end of the barrel and is used to support one or more fine
metal screens (the screen pack). These screens remove contamination from
the melt and build up pressure within the system, thus improving mixing.
Screens
A screen may be a metal plate with holes of a specified size and shape or a
woven metal sieve with a specified number of holes per unit area. A screen
may be classified by mesh number and by open area. The mesh number is
used to classify a screen. The higher the mesh-number, the finer the screen
and the better the screen pack is at contamination removal. Open area is the
percentage of the total area of a screen that is open. It does not change signif-
icantly going from a coarse screen (40 mesh) to a fine screen (200 mesh).
For example, the open area of a 40 mesh screen may be 38% while that of a
200 mesh screen is 34%. The fine screen, however, will block more quickly.
Sintered powder and metal fiber screens have been used for gel
removal in polyolefin extrusion and polymer fiber production.
Screen Pack
Combining more than one screen or gauze makes a screen pack, also called a
filter pack. A screen pack may be made from an assembly of a 40 mesh, 60
mesh, 100 mesh, 60 mesh and 40-mesh gauze, that is, 40/60/100/60/40. The
finer mesh gauze removes the fine contamination while the coarser mesh
materials are there to provide support and to minimize fine mesh blocking.
93
Breaker Plates

Screen Packs
Figure 24. Breaker Plate and Screen Pack
Therefore, a screen pack supported by the breaker plate, is used not only to
remove contamination from the melt, but also to build up pressure within a
conventional extruder.
Two pressure transducers, one on either side of the screen pack,
are used to indicate when the screen pack is becoming blocked and needs to
be changed. The signals from the transducers may also be used to increase
the screw speed to keep the output steady as the screen pack becomes
blocked.
Ready Made Packs

It is possible to buy commercial screen packs with a binding made of a soft
metal. This soft metal edge helps the pack to make a good seal in the head
assembly and minimizes gauze movement. One should be careful to ensure
that the screen pack is used in the correct orientation, that is, with the fine
gauze supported by the coarser gauze.
Screen Changers
In addition to breaker plates, which are built into the extruder barrel or
adapter, the are also screen changers, which are devices that allow one to
change screens without disassembling the extrusion line. There are three
basic types of screen changers (Figure 25.):
1. Manual screen changers
2. Hydraulic screen changers
3. Continuous screen changers
The manual screen changer is the simplest of least costly of the
three. It consists of a slide plate with two cavities, each designed to accept a
breaker plate with screen packs. The spacing of these cavities is such that one
breaker plate will be in line with the extruder flow, while the other is clear of
the machine. This allows for the insertion of a clean breaker plate and screen
pack combination. When it is time to make a screen change, the extruder
pressure is reduced to zero and the operator moves the clean breaker
94 plate/screen pack assembly into the line by moving a handle attached to the
side plate. The dirty breaker plate an screen pack are then removed and
replaced with clean units for the next change.
The hydraulic screen changer consists of a slide-plate with two
cavities to accept breaker plates with screen packs. They are spaced so that
one is in-line with the extruder flow and the other is in a position clear of the
machine, which allows insertion of a clean breaker plate and screen pack. The
slide plate is attached to a hydraulic cylinder, which moves it back and forth to
remove a clogged screen pack and insert a clean one. The shifting procedure
typically takes less than one second and causes only minimal interruption of
the extrudate flow. The major advantage of the hydraulic screen changer is
that the screen pack can be change with the extruder running at full speed.
However, it may cause an interruption in the finished extrudate due to the
introduction of air from the clean breaker plate/screen changer combination.
The continuous screen changer is designed to insert clean screens
without disturbing the extrudate flow. Of the various designs available the
most common are the dual bolt or dual slide-plate, continuous screen, and the
rotary disc. The dual bolt or dual slide-plate design uses two bolts or slide-
plates that hold the screens. During a screen change, one bolt or slide-plate is
removed from the line by diverting the flow through the remaining bolt or
slide-plate. Continuous type screen changers use a roll of filter screen that is
continuously moved across the flow of melt in the extruder to provide new fil-
tration area. The rotary disc type uses a wheel with multiple breaker plates.
This system slowly indexes a clean screen pack into the extrudate flow, while
the old, clogged, screen pack is indexed out.
Hydraulic Screen Changer
Manual Screen Changer
Figure 25. Screen Changers
Disadvantages of Screen Packs

A simple way to improve mixing in a single screw extruder is to increase the
density of the screen pack by using finer screens. However, the improvement
in mixing may not justify the loss in output, increases in material residence
time and residence time distribution, melt temperatures and the chances of
stagnation and degradation. There will also be an increased risk of variability
as the screen pack will suffer more chances of becoming blocked as the extru-
sion run continues. The use of screw mixing sections offers a more efficient
way of improving mixing. The use of longer screws gives improved mixing,
but perhaps, more importantly, gives more scope for the use of mixing ele-
ments.
95
The Adapter
The heated adapter holds the breaker plate assembly and directs the melt flow

to the extruder die. Streamlined flow must be attained to minimize pressure
losses and reduce material stagnation. If cross-head extrusion is being per-
formed, then the adapter must turn the melt through the required angle (for
example, 90).
The extruder head is hinged for access so that the screw and the
breaker plate can be removed for cleaning when required. When closed, the
head must be sealed against the barrel so that material cannot escape, even at
maximum extrusion pressure (Figure 26.).
Clamp
Barrel Flange
Breaker Plate
Screen
Figure 26. Breaker Plate and Screen Pack Clamp Assembly
Rupture Disc
A rupture disc is a hollow, threaded plug with a thin metal diaphragm welded
to the plug housing. The diaphragm is exposed to the melt on one side. If the
melt pressure exceeds the strength of the diaphragm it will burst and reduce
the extrusion pressure by venting material from the machine. Such a plug is
generally located between the screw tip and the breaker plate.
Gear Pumps
A gear pump (See Figure 3.) is frequently installed between the breaker plate
or screen pack (or changer) and the die (Figure 27.). Its function is to build
pressure and maintain precise flow of material to the die. As mentioned in
Section 1 the gear pump is a very simple form of the twin-screw extruder, in
which the screws are replaced by intermeshing gears that accurately pump the
extrudate. The precise control of pressure and flow, provided by the gear
pump, allows one to reduce the gauge variation in the extrudate and to mini-
mize the amount of material required to produce a given product. By building
the the required die pressure more efficiently, a gear pump will also reduce the
load on the extruder, resulting in lower extrudate temperature and increased
extruder output.
96
Figure 27. Extrusion Gear Pump System
SCREW DRIVE SYSTEM

An extruder drive system consists of an electric motor, gearbox, linkage, and
thrust bearings. An appropriate power supply is also required. The electric
motor (usually a DC motor) is mounted in the base of the machine and is
connected via a system of pulleys to a reduction gearbox. This arrangement
reduces the (screw) speed and increases the torque. A flexible coupling con-
nects the gearbox to the screw. The backwards thrust generated by the screw
in pumping the material through the die is absorbed by a thrust bearing
assembly. The total drive system is designed to support the screw in the bar-
rel and to efficiently rotate it at a selected speed.
AC and DC
The drive motor can be either AC or DC. A common type of AC motor is the
cage induction motor that is very popular because it is simple in construction,
rugged and has low maintenance requirements. It is recommended for all
applications (such as driving hydraulic pumps) where a single speed is
acceptable. However, an extruder requires a drive system that gives step-less
speed control with minimum speed variation in response to torque require-
ments.
The big advantage of a direct current (DC) motor is that its speed
can be readily varied so that the speed can be corrected very quickly if neces-
sary. Such a motor will also run under conditions that would stall an AC
motor. However, DC power does not lend itself to efficient transmission and
distribution over more than a short distance (couple of hundred yards/meters
at most). For this reason electricity is nearly always generated and distributed
as alternating current (AC). Electricity is transmitted over long distances at
high voltages (V) to take advantage of the lower current (I) needed (as power
P = VI). This means that smaller diameter wires are needed and power losses
are low as P = I2R (where R = resistance). AC voltage can be readily changed,
by means of a transformer and may be converted by means of a rectifier into
DC.
97
DC Motor
A direct current (DC) motor is the most popular type of motor for the modern

extruder. The motor speed is regulated by solid state systems based on thyris-
tors. Such a drive may operate on 460 V three phase AC with a fixed field of
300 V, a variable armature of 0 to 500 V, and a base speed of 1750 rpm. As
the armature voltage is reduced the speed decrease linearly, while the full load
torque capacity is maintained. A plot of power available versus speed pro-
duces a straight line through the origin. Thus, a motor speed of 1500 rpm
gives a screw speed of 90 rpm while at a motor speed of 500 rpm the screw
speed will be 30 rpm. At either speed, the full load torque is maintained.
Motors are usually found in a packaged drive (with a solid state,
electronic rectifier and a speed controller) ready for connection to an AC sup-
ply. The transformer and rectifier are designed as a unit and employ solid
state, power devices that can be turned off and on for voltage and current
control. Starting speed, running speed and torque can be very closely regulat-
ed to give efficient operation and screw protection. This is necessary, as the
weakest point in the drive system is the screw because the screw root is
thinnest (weakest) in the hopper area and can be snapped by over-loading.
AC Flux Vector Motor

AC Vector drives are a relatively new method of controlling AC induction
motors. The first commercial applications of AC Vector drives only became
possible after high speed micro processor electronics were developed. These
drives control the field orientation of the induction motor by synthesizing the
motor flux current and the torque current, permitting control from full speed
to nearly zero shaft speed with full torque. The high speed electronics are
necessary because the control scheme requires that the motor be mathemati-
cally modeled and updated continuously.
As with all variable speed AC drives, Vector controllers vary the
frequency to the induction motor to control the speed. Usually, a pulse width
modulated (PWM) drive takes the incoming AC line voltage, where a diode
bridge converts it to a stable DC supply. This DC voltage is then fed to the
inverter section - usually an insulated gate bipolar transistor (IGBT). The IGBTs
regulate the voltage and frequency to the motor and produce a sine like wave
output that can vary from 2 to 400hz. The drives are called PWM because the
sine wave is actually the sum of a series of pulses that a shaped and timed to
look like a true seamless sine wave.
Two variations of Vector drives have evolved.The first uses a sen-
sor, usually an encoder, to provide phase feedback. This type of Vector drives
can provide nearly full torque down to zero shaft speed.The second type of
Vector drive is sensor-less (no encoder!) and only recently became possible.
This family of Vector drives employs the relatively new high speed digital sig-
nal processors (DSP) electronics to permit even faster processing of the com-
plex motor simulation algorithms required for sensor-less control of induction
motors. The DSPs also permit for on the fly adjustments to the motor simu-
lations to compensate for changes to the induction motor due to temperature
and age. This type of Vector drive requires a minimum signal to maintain con-
trol of the motor, thus control down to zero shaft speed is not possible.
Control down to very slow shaft speeds, even 2 to 4 Hz, are still attainable
though, and because most applications do not require control down to zero
shaft speed, the sensor-less vector drives are gaining in popularity.
The control accuracy of the vector drives is approaching and in
some application surpassing that of DC motor and drives. This fact coupled
with the efficiency advantages of AC motors has led to the increased use of AC
Vector drives.
98
Gearbox
If the motor speed is 1500 rpm and the required screw speed is 90 rpm then
a reduction gearbox with a ratio of 16.67:1 is required. Often the exact gear-
box ratio required is not available. Then different sized pulleys, connected by a
system of belts, are used to make the final adjustments. For example, the
speed of the motor may be reduced, at the input to the gearbox, by using a
larger pulley on the gearbox shaft and a smaller pulley on the drive shaft. A
belt drive provides some safety against sudden overloads, but power losses
can be as high as 10%. All belts and pulleys must be guarded. A change of
pulleys can be useful if the extruder is used for another application whose
power requirements are different. Pulleys whose size can be altered during
running (by using expanding pulleys) can provide a non-electrical method for
changing screw speed.
Because extruder motors deliver approximately constant torque
over their entire speed range, the power available increases linearly with
speed. For maximum power therefore, the motor should be run at its top
rated speed and the power transmission capability of the gearbox must be
matched to the maximum motor power. If herringbone style gears are used
(usually in a two stage process) the efficiency of the gearbox is high (96 to
98%). The gearbox is connected to the screw through a flexible coupling. The
flexible coupling accommodates any slight errors in alignment that exist
between the output shaft of the gearbox and the thrust assembly and helps to
isolate thrust loads (generated by the screw) from the gearbox. Regular main-
tenance of the gearbox is essential.
Screw Support Bearings

The shank of the screw is fitted into a driving sleeve in the bearing housing.
Normally a single slotted key is used, but a splined fitting is better at distribut-
ing the torque around the shaft. The bearing must support the screw horizon-
tally, so that it does not contact the barrel wall. It must transmit the motor
torque to the screw and withstand the considerable thrust loads generated by
the screw. For example, a 4 inch (100 mm) diameter extruder will have a back
thrust of 28 tons (30.8 tonnes) if the pressure at the end of the screw is 4000
psi (276 bar). Although ball bearings allow high rotation speeds, their load
bearing capacity is not as high as roller bearings and so these are employed
to withstand the high thrust loads. Programmed lubrication of the screw sup-
port bearings is important.
Bearings do wear out and damaged bearings will affect the perfor-
mance of the extruder by producing increased motor current and reduced out-
put (because of increased wear of the screw and barrel). Bearings are sold
with a predicted life under prescribed loading conditions.
Screw Surface Speed and RPM

In extrusion screw speed means screw rotational speed which is usually mea-
sured in revolutions per minute (RPM or sec-1). However, it is the screw sur-
face speed that determines the amount of shear heat generated. The faster the
screw is rotated, the higher is the temperature of the melt (due to the amount
of shear being increased). This means that to obtain the same amount of
shear, the screw on a larger machine should be rotated more slowly than the
screw on a smaller machine. This will keep the shear rate down and prevent
localized overheating. The speed of rotation will also differ from material to
material. UPVC is limited to a maximum, screw surface speed of 0.25 ms-1 (15
m/min or, 50 ft/min), whereas with other more shear resistant materials, high-
er speeds can be employed. To convert from rpm to ms-1, multiply the rpm by 99
the screw diameter in mm and then by 0.000.052.4.

Screw Surface Speed = ms-1 = 0.0000524 [RPM x Ds(mm)] (Eqn. 19)
MOTOR SIZE AND THRUST BEARING LIFE

The drive system is designed to support the screw in the barrel and to rotate it
at a selected speed. Once the speed is set it must remain constant, despite
changes in the load on the screw or in the temperature of the drive system. It
is very important that the screw speed selected is held constant during opera-
tion as it controls the amount of material fed to the die, the shear history of
that material, and the melt temperature. The torque supplied must overcome
the resistance of the screw to turning, even at low speeds, such as those seen
during start-up. It is the torque and speed desired which determine the power
requirements of the system.
Torque and Horsepower

Torque is a measure of rotary force or the turning effort of a motor. It is a
product of the length of a lever arm and the force applied to the end of the
lever arm that is measured in Newton meters (Nm).
In North America, motors are rated in horsepower whereas in
Europe, motors are rated in kilowatts (kW). Horsepower (HP or hp) is a unit
for measuring the rate of work which is equivalent to 550 ft lbs/s or 0.746 kW.
HP = 6.28 x rpm x torque/33,000 = rpm x torque/5255. (Eqn. 20)
This means that in order to obtain the same HP from a slow speed
motor, more torque must be developed. As torque is what produces stress on
the mechanical parts of a motor, a slow speed requires a motor that is larger
than a high-speed motor. A 1 hp motor running at 1750 rpm is approximately
twice the size of a 1 hp motor that runs at 3500 rpm.
Motor Size
The size of the motor required to drive a screw can be estimated from the
experience based rule of thumb that approximately 10 lbs/hr of polymer can
be extruded per horsepower (HP) on a single screw machine. Some typical
power requirements for various sizes of single screw extruders (24/1 L/D
ratio) are given below. This assumes a smooth barrel, no vents and an L/D
ratio of 24/1. If a grooved barrel or a vent is used, then extra power will be
required.
Diameter Power
(in.) (mm) (kW) (HP)
1.5 38 12 16
2.5 50 40 50
3.5 90 85 115
4.5 100 130 175
6.0 150 230 310
8.0 200 400 530
The motor must be sized to match the workload and this depends
not only upon the diameter of the extruder, but also on the application. For
example, with a 6" (150 mm) extruder, the motor power can vary from 160 kW
to 280 kW according to what is being processed, as shown below.
100 Application Polymer Output Power
(lb/hr) (kg/hr) (kW) (HP)
Sheet PMMA 1260 573 160 215
Pipe coating HDPE 1150 523 230 310
Blown film LDPE 2000 909 280 375
Multi-filaments PP 1750 795 280 375
Life of a Thrust Bearing

The B10 life of a thrust bearing is the length of time in hours when 10 out of
100 bearings are expected to fail if run continuously under the specified con-
ditions. Many manufacturers quote B10 life assuming that the extruder will
run at 100 rpm with a 5000 psi (345 bar) head pressure. If the extruder is run
faster or at a higher head pressure, there is a reduction in the expected bear-
ing life. The following tables indicate the B10 multiplying factor for a range of
conditions other than the standard conditions. For example, if a ball thrust
bearing has a predicted life of 100,000 hours at 100 rpm, then its expected
life at a screw speed of 125 rpm and head pressure of 7,000 psi (483 bar) is
only 30,000 hours. (0.3 x 100,000). (Note: 100,000 hours is about 12 years of
7 day per week 24 hour per day operation.)
Multiplying Factor for Thrust Ball Bearings

Head Pressure Screw Speed (RPM)
psi bar 75 100 125 150
3000 207 6.45 4.84 3.87 3.23
4000 276 2.72 2.04 1.63 1.36
5000 345 1.33 1.00 0.80 0.67
6000 414 0.80 0.60 0.48 0.40
7000 483 0.51 0.38 0.30 0.25
8000 552 0.35 0.26 0.21 0.17
101
SECTION 5:
section 5: the die and post extrusion equipment

THE DIE AND POST EXTRUSION
EQUIPMENT
DIE DESIGN CRITERIA
MATERIALS OF DIE CONSTRUCTION
DIE HEATING
FLAT FILM AND SHEET DIES
BLOWN FILM DIES
PIPE DIES
WIRE AND CABLE COVERING DIES
PROFILE DIES
COOLING
EXTRUDATE TAKE UP
CUTTING AND STACKING
DIE DESIGN CRITERIA

The die is the assembly, located at the end of an extruder, which contains an
orifice used to shape a plastics melt (Figure 1.). Basically the die is a block of
metal containing an internal flow channel that can be divided into three parts:
1. The adapter section that connects with the output channel of the extruder
2. The distribution section that spreads the melt into the correct shape
3. The land, which maintains a constant cross section to the flow channel until
it reaches the die exit lips
General Design Criteria

When designing or evaluating dies there are certain general criteria that can be
applied. The prime requirement is to produce the correct extrudate shape or
cross-section. This often involves producing an extrudate of constant thick-
ness (film, sheet, pipe, cable coating etc.). To do this the die must:
Provide a uniform flow rate of material through its exit gap
Maintain a uniform melt temperature over the whole of the exit gap
Produce melt that has the same shear history for all parts of the exit gap
Failure to meet any one of these criteria may result in poor thick-
ness distribution in the extrudate. Regions of the extrudate that are hotter than
the bulk will deform more readily and thus become thinner than average. The
viscoelastic nature of molten plastic means that it can remember how much
it has been deformed. This memory is short term (generally, a few seconds
at processing temperatures), but the shear history within this time frame may
alter the stiffness of the melt and its die swell behavior.
Polymer Degradation
Degradation within the die must be avoided. This requires smooth flow chan-
nels without step changes in size. Steps in the flow channel provide places
where the melt can hold up for long periods and degrade. Specks of black
102 degraded polymer are then carried into the melt stream and hence to the
extrudate. Any leakage into the die that provides a source for air to enter will
also cause degradation of the melt.
The residence time of the melt in the die also will determine how
much degradation will occur. The average time in the die is the ratio of the
weight of molten polymer held in the die to the output rate. For example, a 15
inch (380 mm) pipe die holds about 200 lb (91 kg) of molten unplasticized
polyvinyl chloride (UPVC). If the output rate is 1100 lb/hr (18.3 Ib/minute or
8.3 kg/min) then the average residence time in the die is 200/18.3 = 10.9 min-
utes (91/8.3 = 10.9 min). The weight of material in the die can be determined
by experiment or by calculation. In the latter case the volume of the die must
be calculated and then multiplied by the density of the molten polymer (in the
case of PVC, its molten density is about 1020 kg/m3 (1.02 g/cm3) as com-
pared to a solid density of 1400 kg/m3 (1.4 g/cm3) at room temperature).
Minimizing the size of the internal die channels thus reduces the possibility of
degradation.
(Note that the above calculation only gives average residence time
in the die. Material in the center of the flow channel travels through the die
faster than material next to the walls of the die; this material takes much
longer to pass through).
Material Changes
Polymer grade changes are frequently made during production and the time
for the changeover depends on how rapidly the composition of the extrudate
changes to the new material. The die design affects this rate of change. Dies
with short residence times, and no areas where polymer can hangup, are
preferred. Because of the nature of the flow pattern in the die channels, the
new material will appear first at the center of the extrudate and the old materi-
al will remain the longest in the outer skin layer.
Surface Finish
The surface finish of the extrudate is affected by the die design. For the best
surface finish, the land should be reasonably long and the lead in angle to the
land should be low (Note: If the lead in angle is too low, the length of the die
is increased. This is usually not an advantage). Blocking, or partial blocking,
of flow channels by contamination or degraded melt, which leads to the for-
mation of die lines, can occur if the flow channels are too narrow. For this
reason the minimum dimension of a channel should usually not be less than
0.03 inch (0.762 mm).
Back Pressure
Back-pressure, from the resistance to flow through the die, is an important
consideration. If the pressure needed to force material through the die, at the
correct output rate, is too high, it will:
Tend to stretch and distort die bolts
Cause leakage from joints
Increase the power requirements of the extruder possibly causing it to stall
Increase the working of and amount of shear heat generated in the resin
Increase wear of the screw and extruder
On the other hand too low a pressure can give:
Poor thickness distribution
Weld line effects in the extrudate
Poor mixing of the material in the extruder
Calculations of the estimated pressure drops in a die are very use- 103
ful in design and evaluation procedures. A simple method to do this is given in
the section Estimation of Pressure Drops in Extrusion Dies.

Die Maintenance
Die maintenance is another important consideration. The ideal die is low in
size and weight, made from very few components, easily lifted, disassembled
and easily reassembled. Simplicity is a virtue here as well as use of designs
that allow the die to be rebuilt in one way only. The use of both conventional
and wire electro-discharge techniques enable complex extruder dies to be
machined in one or two component assemblies. This prevents problems of
leakage during production and damage during disassembly and assembly.
MATERIALS OF DIE CONSTRUCTION

The properties required of a die material are as follows:
High modulus to prevent the die channels from deforming under pressure or
under its own weight
Toughness and robustness to withstand constant use
Wear and corrosion resistance to give a long production life.
Good machinability characteristics so that a high surface finish may be
maintained throughout the working life of the die (this is especially impor-
tant near the die exit. For this reason the die land, or sections of the die
lands are made interchangeable).
High thermal conductivity and low density to provide a uniformity of temper-
ature
Low Carbon Steels (Mild Steel)

Untreated low carbon steels are easily machined, but are far too soft for extru-
sion dies due to their inability to be through hardened. In their natural soft
state the wear characteristics are poor and the die will not last. Processors
who need to manufacture simply shaped extrudates at low output rates with
relatively low production requirements often use mild steel.
A considerable number of prototype dies are made from low car-
bon steels. To improve its wear resistance and dimensional stability the sur-
face of the steel is frequently ion implanted or titanium nitrided.
Pre-toughened Steels
The main advantage of quenched and tempered, or pre-toughened, steels, is
that they can be used to manufacture dies that include intricate shapes. Its
inherent hardness is sufficient (42 Rockwell C) to resist deformation during
use and, therefore, no subsequent heat treatment is needed. Elimination of
this second heat treatment means the die does not need to be re-machined to
remove deformation incurred from the first heat treatment process. Therefore,
savings in die manufacturing times and costs are realized.
If the internal surface of the die requires a higher hardness, then
surface treatments such as titanium nitriding, ion implantation, flame harden-
ing and chromium plating are used. Since many dies are manufactured by
electro-discharge machining (EDM), care should be taken in selecting the cor-
rect type of pre-toughened steel. Sulfur containing types are not recommend-
ed when using EDM. The designation given to the pre-toughened steel is AISI
P20, or DIN 40 CrMnMo7.
104
Brass
This material, though poor in wear, is easily machined and does not require
heat treatment. It is, therefore, sometimes used to make prototype dies to
evaluate their performance, before going to the expense of building the final
die. Changes to the flow channels are relatively easy to make and the die will
last long enough for trials to be carried out. However, certain polymer melts
are attacked by the constituents of brass which initiate degradation of the
polymer in the molten state. This causes a reduction in the physical properties
of the resultant extrudate. The polymers most reactive with brass are PP, PE
and ABS.
Case Hardening Steels

These steels, also called low carbon or mild steels, (with a carbon content of
less than 0.2%) are heat treated after the die shapes have been manufactured.
The die parts are heated to a temperature of 1,470F to 1,650F (800C to
900C) and then quenched. High hardening temperatures and fast quenching
give harder steel surfaces, but with a greater dimensional change after hard-
ening.
The surface structure of these case hardened steels will differ from
the structure in their interior due to different thermal histories. The softer inte-
rior is tougher than the hard skin. The hardened skin, depending upon the
grade of steel, can reach as high as 62 Rockwell C. For extruder dies, an oil
quench bath at about 390F (199C) gives the most suitable combination of
hardness and minimal dimensional change. Carburizing of the steel to
increase the carbon content of the surface will produce an increase in surface
hardness. The thickness of the hardened skin ranges from 0.008 to 0.0394
inch (0.2 to 1.00 mm).
The major drawback to case hardened steel is the change in
dimensions upon heat treatment. This is especially problematic for wide sheet
or complex profile dies. Modification of the die sometimes requires a further
re-hardening operation since the machining operation may remove the hard-
ened skin. Hence the surface hardening and quenching processes must be
carried out correctly to give the proper properties to the steel and the required
die dimensions.
Nitrided Steels
These materials contain additives such as chromium or molybdenum that
form hard nitrides when heated to 1100F (600C) in an atmosphere of ammo-
nia. Quench cooling is unnecessary and distortion of the die is less likely.
Excellent surface finishes can be achieved when using these types of steels.
Corrosion Resistant Steels

For dies used to process polyvinyl chloride (PVC), steels with a content of up
to 16% chromium will give excellent corrosion resistance. This type of steel is
able to hold temperature during processing (it has a low thermal conductivi-
ty), is readily machined to complex shapes and heat treated to relatively high
hardness values (54 Rockwell C) while possessing a very high surface finish
and minimal dimensional changes.
This material is inherently corrosion resistant and hence the pro-
duction life of a die is often increased three fold when compared to other
types of steels. The two corrosion resistant steels that are most commonly
used are classified as AISI 414 and AISI 420. AISI 420 steel can contain either
13% or 16% chromium. The higher the amount of chromium the more corro-
sion resistant the steel becomes. Both types of steel are supplied in a pre- 105
toughened condition (similar to the hardness of the P20 type steel). However,
the lower the percentage of chromium the higher the hardness value that can

be achieved. For PVC dies, the 16% chromium grade is preferred, whereas for
general use the 13% grade tends to be selected.
Anodized Aluminum
Anodized aluminum alloy is now used for extrusion dies due to its ability to
resist wear, its overall dimensional stability and the fact that it can be polished
to a mirror finish. Special grades of anodized aluminum, that need to be
machined by the EDM process, have been produced for extruder dies. Such
grades now provide the die maker with the opportunity to obtain a high gloss
surface finish of the internal flow channels of the die.
Chromium Plating
During the plating of a die, a layer of chromium about of 100 microns in thick-
ness is deposited electrolytically. The electrodes must be shaped for the die to
give a uniformly thick layer. The chromium protects against corrosive attack
from PVC decomposition products. Re-plating is necessary in time, due to
wear and chipping of the chrome laminate; particularly at the entrance edges
of the flow channels/die lands. Chrome plating, although still used, has been
largely replaced by a process called titanium nitriding (TiN). This is due to the
non-stick properties associated with TiN and the use of corrosion resistant
steels.
DIE HEATING
The temperature of the die should not be used to control the melt temperature
of the polymer, but should present the melt with a channel whose walls are at
the same temperature as the molten material (melt). Electrical heating ele-
ments, with thermocouples as sensors and PID (three-term) controllers (with
cascade feedback control) are used. In some cases, where a glossy finish on
the extrudate is required, the die temperature may, in fact, be hotter than the
extrudate itself.
Zoning
The die should be divided into as many zones as necessary to maintain the
desired temperatures across the die, each having a temperature feed back
device and control function. This allows the overall temperature profile of the
die to be set globally or individually. Control of the temperature can then be
programmed to be global, in zones, or as individual portions (areas) of the
die. This provides better temperature control especially during heating of the
cold die and during production, particularly when a heating element fails.
Cartridge Heaters
These tubular heaters consist of a nickel chrome resistance element wound
onto a magnesium oxide former and contained in a brass or stainless steel
outer sheath. The heating element is electrically insulated from the sheath by
magnesium oxide powder or paste. Positioning of the heating elements inside
of the die gives them protection and places the heat source close to the chan-
nel. However, care must be taken not to place the heaters too close to the
channel. Apart from mechanical considerations, there is a non-uniform tem-
106 perature distribution in the immediate vicinity of each element. The tempera-
ture, however, becomes more uniform as the distance from the cartridge
heater increases.
When fitting the heaters into the die, there should be a close fit
(maximum gap 0.012 inch (0.3 mm) between the cartridge sheath and the die
material. Poor contact gives rise to cold spots next to the gap and hot spots
on the other part of the heater, leading to reduced life. To prevent premature
failure, the cartridge heater is often covered with a polytetraflouroethylene
(PTFE) paste so that all the inherent air gaps are filled with the paste. Tapered
outer sheaths are preferred nowadays due to the ease with which a failed car-
tridge heater can be extracted from the die body.
Band and Plate Heaters

These heaters are clamped onto the outside of the die body and provide a
cheaper heating system than internal heaters. Because of their position they
are prone to damage and less efficient in the use of power than internal
heaters. They should be used with deeply imbedded thermocouples and PID
type controllers. When fitting, care must be taken to get good thermal contact
between the heater and the surface of the die over the whole area of the
heater. Any contamination will lead to a hot spot on the heater and a reduction
in heater life. If a number of band heaters are used their clamping bolts
should be staggered in position as a neat line will lead to a cold band on the
die.
Cast Heaters
Aluminum alloy cast heaters with internal sheathed heating elements can be
manufactured to give a close fit to the outside of the die. Though more expen-
sive than band heaters, their life expectancy is considerably greater, they give
better temperature uniformity and the heat energy density or watt density, can
be higher (up to 50 watts per square inch, or 7.73 watts per square cm).
Sizing of Heating Elements

The selection of the correct power rating for heating elements is very impor-
tant to ensure that the die heats up to temperature in a reasonable time and
that different parts of the die and extrusion system heat up to temperature
uniformly. This reduces the risks involved in heating a system when it con-
tains solidified polymer.
One method is to calculate the actual power requirements for each
individual extrusion die. The weight of metal to be heated by each separately
controlled heating zone, is first determined and the target time to reach tem-
perature is selected. The heater power is calculated from knowledge of the
specific heat of the steel and the temperature rise required. For example, sup-
pose a die part to be heated weighs 350 Lbs. (159 kilos) and is required to
raise its temperature from 70F to 400F (20C to 204C) in 30 minutes. To cal-
culate the heater power, multiply the weight by the temperature rise by the
specific heat of steel and divide by the time in seconds. The specific heat of
steel is 119 Joules (J)/lb/F (470 J/kg.K).
Heater Power =
[Wt. x Csp]/ t (sec) = (350 x 330 x 119)/30 x 60 = 7,640 watts (Eqn. 21.)
This calculation ignores any heat losses from the surface of the die. To allow
for such losses, a 10 kW heater would be recommended.

107
FLAT FILM AND SHEET DIES
The main characteristic of these dies is the presence of a manifold that distrib-

utes the melt across the width of the die (Figure 28.). Melt flows out from the
manifold through a slit channel. These dies are normally made in two halves.
In symmetrical dies the flow channel is cut equally from each half of the die.
Asymmetric dies have one half with a flat plane surface and the flow channel
cut in the other half. Asymmetric dies are cheaper, but exhibit an inferior flow
distribution across their surfaces.
Side View
T-Type Die
V-Shaped
Cross
Section
Deckle
Adjustable Channel
Jaw Internal
Die Deckle
Face Die
Lands
Coat Hanger Die
Adjustable
Jaw
Die Land External
Deckle
Figure 28. Flat Film and Sheet Dies (T, Coathanger)
T and Fishtail Designs

The simplest manifold is in the T die. The melt enters the center of a cylindri-
cal channel, of uniform cross section, which goes from one side of the die to
the other. This is the manifold. Its axis is at right angles to the machine direc-
tion. The material escapes from the manifold through a slit running the length
of the manifold. Because the size of the manifold cross-section is much
greater than the slit, the pressure drop along the manifold is very small and
there is nearly uniform output from the manifold across the entire width of the
die.
108 There are problems with the T manifold design resulting from
hang-up of polymer at the ends of the manifold and a small but finite pres-
sure drop across the manifold. Fishtail designs are better in that the manifold
is angled and opens gradually like a fish tail. Though suffering less from poly-
mer hang-up, fish-tail designs do not give a perfect flow distribution over the
die width for a system where the polymer or the production conditions are
changing (Figure 28.).
Coat-Hanger Dies
The most satisfactory design is the coat-hanger manifold. It is based on the
T manifold, but it slopes towards the die exit at the edges of the die, like the
shape of a coat-hanger. Usually the slit downstream of the coat-hanger mani-
fold has a constant channel thickness. In a correctly designed coat-hanger
die, the flow rate per unit width is constant from the exit of the slit. This
means that the flow rate in the manifold should decrease linearly from the
center to the edge of the die. The pressure drop between the entrance to the
manifold and the end of the slit should be equal for all flow paths.
Ideally the shear rates in the manifold should be the same along
the whole width of the manifold. Dies designed to fulfill these requirements
have a manifold whose radius decreases as the 1/3 power of the distance
from the center and a slit whose length in the machine direction varies as the
2/3 power of the distance from the center.
Die Adjustment
Following the manifold, the melt passes under a choker bar. The height of the
flow channel under the choker bar can be adjusted by moving the choker bar
normal to the flow channel. Tension and compression bolts are provided for
this purpose at about 1 inch (25.4 mm) intervals. This gives some adjustment
to the overall die resistance and can correct differences between one side of
the die and the other. These bolts may be adjusted automatically by means of
built in heaters and associated controllers on some machines.
The use of heat pipes help to longitudinally distribute the excess
heat in the center of the die to the outer edges. Monitoring of this temperature
dissipation and using the thermal die resistance control technique can suitably
optimize the corresponding output rates across the die length.
In the common Flex-Lip flat die design, one side of the exit lips
is adjustable. There are a number of closely spaced adjusting bolts that can be
used to alter the die gap at the exit. Since each part of the extrudate width can
be separately adjusted with a bolt, the system allows for a more even exit
pressure across the die, and as a result, the production of close tolerance
sheeting.
The width of an extrudate can be reduced, by up to a third, by
blocking the edges of the die exit gap with deckels. However, the use of these
deckels creates a dead-space on each side of the die where material will stag-
nate and eventually degrade. Thus deckeling can only be used with very heat
stable polymers at low temperatures. They will also alter the flow balance for
the die and so thickness tolerances will be more difficult to maintain.
BLOWN FILM DIES

There are three basic die designs used in the manufacture of blown film.
These are the sidefed, bottomfed and spiral mandrel types. All three designs
aim to produce a uniform melt around the circumference of the die exit lips. A
uniform melt temperature, shear history, and flow rate are required to achieve 109
this. A typical blown film die is shown in Figure 29.

Gap
Land
Inner Die Lip Outer Die Lip
Die Gap
Adjusting Bolts
Relaxation Chamber
Mandrel
Spiral Distribution System
Body
Heater
Inflation Air
Ports
Die Gap
From Extruder and

Screen Changer
Block
Figure 29. Blown Film Die
Outer Ring
All three basic die designs can be fitted with an adjustable outer ring that
forms the outer boundary of the die exit gap. It can be moved relative to the
inner mandrel to correct for variations in the thickness distribution around the
circumference of the film (that is, in the transverse direction). However, move-
ment of the outer ring alters the die gap on both sides of the die. So, if the
thickness of one side of the die is increased, that on the opposite side will be
reduced. The outer ring must be bolted to the body of the die, at the correct
torque, to allow movement when the gap is adjusted, while preventing leak-
age.
Side-Fed Film Dies

The oldest design is the side-fed type. Melt is directed at the side of the man-
drel and flows around it before joining on the side opposite the feed. Because
of this, there is an inherent difference between the two sides of the die. Careful
design of the thickness of the flow channel and the provision of flow restric-
tors on the feed side of the die will produce a reasonably uniform flow.
However, any change in operating conditions, the plastic, or the melt viscosity
of the material being used will invalidate the design balance. Hence, the film
produced will become non-uniform.
110
Bottom-Fed Film Dies
A more axially symmetric design is found in the bottom-fed type of die in
which the melt is directed at the center of the base of the mandrel. Stream-
lined spider arms are used to support the mandrel in the die body. The flow of
the melt around the spider arms will produce a disturbance in the flow path at
each spider arm producing potential flaw in the film. One advantage of the
bottom-fed design is that the flow channels in the die have a low total volume.
This leads to short residence times and the design is used extensively for
manufacturing soft PVC films and other easily degraded polymers.
Spiral Mandrel Film Dies

The most common blown film die design is the spiral mandrel type. The melt
stream is divided into four or more equal flows, each of which passes through
its own port at the base of the mandrel. Each port connects with a flow chan-
nel cut into the mandrel that takes the melt in a spiral path up the outer sur-
face of the mandrel. The depth of the spiral channel decreases as it spirals up
the mandrel, while, at the same time, the gap between the mandrel and the
outer die body increases. This design geometry aims to allow plastic melt
from a port to flow increasingly upwards in the gap between the mandrel and
outer die body as the melt moves away from the port. In a correctly designed
die, the rate of flow in the spiral channel decreases uniformly to give an even
transfer of flow to the upward direction. Melt from each port is spread evenly
over about three-quarters of the die circumference. Since there are a number
of ports, typically six or eight in the best dies, the combined flows give a very
even output around the circumference of the die exit gap.
Blown Film Die Land Design

The are a number of factors to be considered in the design of the land section
of a blown film die.
Sufficient back-pressure must be generated to ensure good performance of
the die distribution section
The film must be drawn down to its final thickness after it has left the die
The wider the die land the greater the necessary draw-down
The die gap must be large enough to prevent blockage by any contaminants
in the melt
It is necessary to operate in the land area at a melt shear stress below that
at which melt fracture will occur.
Widening the land gap will reduce the shear stress in the land.
Increasing melt temperature or reducing output has the same effect. The criti-
cal stress above which melt fracture occurs depends on the plastic material.
For LDPE a die gap between 0.03 and 0.04 inch (0.762 to 1.016
mm) has proved successful even at output rates up to 20 lb./hour/inch (3.6
kg/hour/cm) of circumference. The length of the land is usually 10 to 15 times
its gap width. With this design, the draw down in the machine direction is
about 12 for a 100 gauge (40 micron) film at a blow up ratio of 2.
LLDPE Land Design

The melt rheology of LLDPE leads to a different blown film die land design.
Because LLDPE is more Newtonian than LDPE the shear stresses found in the
die at high shear rates are higher than those seen for LDPE. It has been found
that above a critical land shear stress of 15 psi. (1 bar), melt fracture will
occur and give rise to a rough appearance in the film. The source of this melt
fracture is thought to originate from slip at the walls of the land. There are at
least three ways of reducing the melt fracture tendency and hence increasing 111
possible output rates for LLDPE films.
The die gap is increased to reduce the shear stress. The minimum

gap required for a range of melt temperatures and outputs is shown in the fol-
lowing table:
Output Rate 200C/392F 220C/428F 250C/482F
(in.) (mm) (in.) (mm) (in.) (mm)
5.6 Ib/hr/in. 0.104 2.64 0.086 2.18 0.089 2.26
11.2 Ib/hr/in. 0.152 3.86 0.122 3.10 0.099 2.51
22.4 lb/hr/in. 0.213 5.14 0.170 4.32 0.134 3.40
If the die design is such that high pressure drops over the land are
needed to ensure the correct functioning of the distribution section, then the
land is restricted in width upstream of the exit and opened out to the above
figures immediately before the exit.
The material of the walls of the die land is chosen to minimize the
slip that produces melt fracture. It has been found that alphabrass once run
in allows higher output without melt fracture. The running in period is to
allow wear to modify the surface of the land.
Additives, such as fluor-elatomers, can be incorporated into the
polymer. These anti-melt fracture materials are deposited on the die surface
and reduce melt fracture. Unless they are replenished their effectiveness
diminishes. Grades of LLDPE are available with these types of additive includ-
ed. Alternatively, master-batches with a high concentration of the additives
may be blended with the virgin resin in the extruder hopper or used from time
to time, in concentrated form, to replenish any coating that has worn away.
PIPE DIES
Standard pipe dies are made for pipes with diameters from 0.5 to 30 in. (12.7
to 762 mm). Most of these dies feed the melt to the base of a mandrel from
which it spreads out, around the mandrel (Figure 30.). The mandrel is sup-
ported in position by up to 24 spider arms. These supports are streamlined to
give the least disturbance to flow. Nevertheless, the melt must rejoin after the
spiders. To assist fusion and prevent weld lines in the pipe, the channel cross
Figure 30. Pipe Die

112 section is reduced in the next section. There is a reduction in both diameter
and channel width. In the final land section of the die (in all except the largest
dies) there is an outer ring, which is adjustable relative to the mandrel, to cor-
rect for variations in pipe wall thickness. The length of the land varies from 10
to 30 times the pipe wall thickness. Dies for polyolefins tend to be longer
between the spider section and the land. They are often designed with zones
to compress and decompress the melt before it enters the land.
Sizing of Spider Arms

The spider arms must be strong enough to withstand the shearing forces
exerted by the high pressures upstream of the mandrel. For example, if the
die mandrel has a diameter of 12 inches (304.8 mm) at the die exit and the
pressure at the entrance to the die is 4000 psi (276 bar):
The total load on the mandrel = 4000 x x 62 in. = 452,448 Lbs.
(276 x x 15.242 = 201,412 kg).
If there are eight spider arms, the shear force experienced by each
arm is 56,500 lbs. (25,496 kg). Assuming that the maximum shear stress that
should be applied to the steel spiders is 60,000 psi (4,138 bar), then the
cross section of each spider must be about 1 in2 (6.45 cm2). Increasing the
number of spider arms obviously allows for the reduction of the size of each
individual arm.
Alternatives to Spider Arms

A number of alternatives to spider arms have been tried and used successfully
in dies for polyolefins. They include a screen pack die in which the mandrel is
supported by a metal screen containing many small holes through which the
polymer melt passes. The holes are about 0.02 to 0.04 inches (0.5 to 1.0 mm)
in diameter and spaced 0.05 to 0.07 inches (1.25 to 1.78 mm) apart. The
screen is cylindrical in shape and fits onto the back of the mandrel. The dies
are more compact than spider arm designs as there is no need for a large
compression after the spider section. They have been used mainly for large
diameter polyolefin pipes. Spiral mandrels, similar to those used in blown film
dies, have also been successful.
Die Size Range

By using adapters and replaceable components, the rear section of a die,
which includes the spider support, can be used to produce a range of pipes of
differing diameter and wall thickness. This approach is obviously cheaper than
buying a complete new die for each size. In the case of polyolefin production,
the following table shows how four basic dies can cover a range of pipes of
0.4 in. to 28 in. (10 to 700 mm) in outside diameter.
Die Pipe Diameter Wall Thickness Max. Output
(in.) (mm) (in.) (mm) (lb/hr) (kg/hr)
1 0.4-2.5 10-63.5 0.08-0.15 2-3.8 450 203

2 0.8-6.3 20-160 0.08-0.25 2-6.4 1,000 451
3 3.5-16 89-406 0.10-1.1 2.5-27.9 1,300 587
4 9.0-28 229-711 0.35-1.4 8.9-35.6 2,000 903
Multiple Outlets
Dies can be purchased with more than one exit, so two or more pipes can be
manufactured simultaneously. For PVC dies with two outlets are used, while
for polyolefins triple heads are available. These dies make more use of the 113
capacity of an extruder in situations where small diameter pipe has to be pro-
duced on an extrusion line generally used for large diameters.

Automatic Centering
To control the pipe dimensions automatically, the pipe wall thickness must be
continuously monitored. This is usually done by means of an ultrasonic mea-
surement in, or just after, the cooling bath. A water layer between the pipe and
the ultrasound probe is required for accurate measurements. Changing the
haul-off speed can reduce departures from the targeted average pipe wall
thickness. Departures from wall thickness uniformity, around the circumfer-
ence of the pipe, require adjustments to the die. Two methods that have been
used are a thermal method and one based on motorized rings. In the thermal
design, the heating of the land section of the die is split into 8 to 12 zones
around its periphery. These zones are thermally separated by air gaps. The
temperature of each zone is separately controlled in the range from 355F to
390F (180C to 199C) to adjust the pipe thickness distribution. In the alterna-
tive method, the pipe ring is positioned relative to the mandrel by means of
slightly eccentric rings. Rotation of these rings shifts and alters the die gap
distribution. By driving the rings through a gearing system, any departures
from wall thickness uniformity can be reduced by automatic adjustment of the
die gap.
WIRE AND CABLE COVERING DIES

Wire and cable covering dies are crosshead type coating dies, in which the
melt enters from the side. The melt is then wrapped around a mandrel through
the center of which the conductor is fed (Figure 31.).
Figure 31. Multi-Layer Wire and Cable Die

114
Pressure and Tubing Dies
In a pressure coating die the melt and conductor are brought together inside
the die. The conductor travels through the die land with the melt surrounding
it. To prevent back leakage, the gap between conductor and mandrel is no
greater than 0.002 inch. (0.05 mm). With line speeds up to 4,000 ft/min
(1,219 m/min), wear of the mandrel is likely and special hardened inserts are
used where the mandrel contacts the conductor.
For larger conductors and cable coating, it is not possible to pre-
vent back leakage of melt if it joins the conductor under pressure. Therefore,
these act as tubing type dies in which the melt emerges from the die as a
concentric tube around the conductor, as it emerges from the center of the
mandrel. Vacuum is applied to the rear of the die and as the extrudate is
pulled away from the die, the coating is drawn onto the conductor.
Land lengths in coating dies are usually 0.2 to 2 coating diameters
in the case of plasticized PVC and 2 to 5 diameters in the case of polyethylene
(PE).
Distribution System in Coating Dies

These side-fed dies usually have a heart-shaped compensating plate in the
side of the die where the melt enters that prevents the melt from going
straight towards the die exit. The melt has to flow around the plate which con-
verts a single feed into twin feeds from opposite sides of the die. The design
of these plates has been largely by trial and error. Computer modeling of the
flow passages around the mandrel is now common practice. The depth of the
flow channel, throughput of material and the resultant shear rate and shear
stress values are readily determined for a particular polymer and coating
thickness. Such computer aided engineering (CAE) software packages have
now replaced experience and intuition in the design of coating dies.
In small dies, the melt can be split into two flow channels. The
melt then flows around the die (through 90) to converge from opposite sides;
each stream onto its own heart shaped compensating plate. Another system
uses a manifold similar to that found in flat sheet dies. In the wire coating
case the manifold is wrapped round the mandrel.
Pipe and Hose Coating

Circular cross-section substrates, such as steel piping or fabric fire hoses, can
be coated with plastic melt using dies whose design principles are similar to
those discussed above. The distributor can be a side-fed, heart-shaped com-
pensator. Spiral mandrel designs have also been used for larger diameters.
PROFILE DIES
This is the name given to the dies used for the production of extrudates with
complex and often non-symmetrical crosssections. Because of the lack of
symmetry, obtaining the correct crosssection can be difficult.
Differential Flow Resistance

Variations in flow resistance in a die cross-section can result in different flow
velocities in different parts of the extrudate. This will cause the extrudate to
bend as it leaves the die. The flow velocity can be equalized over the profile by
the use of a variable land length over the profile or by the use of restricting
plates in the flow channel, where there is a tendency for too rapid a flow.
Differential die swell can also distort the extrudate. Die swell is 115
directly related to the shear stress in the land. As the shear stress increases,
so does the die swell. These complicating factors have made the design of

profile dies a skill based on experience and trial and error, rather than on an
exact engineering methodology. The use of CAE, however, has enabled the
processor to design complex profile dies with consistent accuracy.
Sectioned Dies
Many profile dies are split into sections. The die is sliced in a direction perpen-
dicular to its major axis. It is then possible to change sections to produce
slightly different profiles or to alter sections in the process of die develop-
ment. In designing a sectioned profile die, it should be remembered that the
flow channel should change size gradually and that supporting struts (spider
arms) should be streamlined.
COOLING
Commercial plastics are poor conductors of heat. In addition, they have high
specific heats and frequently have poor thermal stability. This means that they
will resist absorbing thermal energy and once it is absorbed they will resist
giving it up. And prolonged exposure to this absorbed heat may cause degra-
dation. In addition, heat must be removed from a formed thermoplastic in
order for the part to retain its shape. Because of the poor heat transfer proper-
ties of thermoplastics, the heat removal step may control the rate of produc-
tion. In general, semi-crystalline polymers require more heat to raise them to
their processing temperatures than amorphous resins. This extra heat, which
is required to melt the polymer crystals, must also be removed when the part
is cooled.
Extrudate Cooling
The heat contained in a molten extrudate is either lost to the surrounding air
or to the cooling system/haul-off. Polymer extrudates are most commonly
cooled by air or water. It is best to cool all sides of the product, however, this
may not always be feasible. It may be necessary, especially for thick extru-
dates, to cool different parts at different rates. This is especially true for semi-
crystalline or filled materials that may distort if cooled unevenly. The aim
should be to cool the extrudate as quickly as possible while ensuring that
defects such as poor surface appearance, changes in physical properties, etc.,
are avoided. For example, with thick walled products, hot water may be used
initially to prevent the outside of the extrudate from cooling too quickly.
Heat Calculations
The amount of heat contained in a polymer melt can be calculated if the output
rate, the specific heat of the polymer, and the melt temperature are known.
From the output rate we can obtain the mass/ time and calculate the heat con-
tent or enthalpy from:
Heat Content = (Mass)Polymer X (Specific Heat)Polymer X [(Melt Temp)Polymer

(Final Temp)] (Eqn.18)
The heat contents calculated for several polymers, using a typical
processing temperature for the melt and 20C (68F) as the final temperature,
are shown in Table 15 (the differences between amorphous and semi-crys-
116 talline should be noted). Since the specific heat changes with temperature the
average value, over the temperature range, is used (specific heat has units of
cal/gC, J/KgK, or Btu/lbF). If the heat losses to the surrounding can be esti-
mated, the heat content can then be used to calculate the amount of water
required to cool the polymer extrudate.
TABLE 15.
Heat Contents of Some Thermoplastic Materials
Material Temperature Difference Specific Heat to be
Abbrev. Melt/Mold Heat Removed
(C) (C) (C) (Jkg-1K-1) (Jg-1)
FEP 350 200 150 1600 240

PES 360 150 210 1150 242
CA 210 50 160 1700 272
CAB 210 50 160 1700 272
CP 210 50 160 1700 272
PEEK 370 165 205 1340 275
PET 240 60 180 1570 283
PETP(C) 275 135 140 2180 305
PEEL 220 50 170 1800 306
POM 205 90 115 3000 345
SAN 240 60 180 1968 354
BDS 220 35 185 1968 364
PC 300 90 210 1750 368
ABS 240 60 180 2050 369
PMMA 260 60 200 1900 380
PPS 320 135 185 2080 385
PS 220 20 200 1970 394
ASA/AAS 260 60 200 2010 402
HIPS 240 20 220 1970 433
PPO 280 80 200 2120 434
PSU 360 100 260 1675 436
PETP(A) 265 20 245 1970 483
PA 11/12 260 60 200 2440 488
PA 6 250 80 170 3060 520
LDPE 210 30 180 3180 572
PA 66 280 80 200 3075 615
PP 260 20 240 2790 670
HDPE 240 20 220 3640 801
(Where (A) is amorphous and (C) is crystalline)
EXTRUDATE TAKE UP
The extrudate must be pulled from the die and converted to a suitable form
for removal from the extrusion line, packaging, and subsequent sale. If the
extrudate is flexible, it is commonly collected on a reel or cut to length and
stacked.
Nip Haul-Off
For film and sheet, haul off is provided by a pair of nip rolls which grip the
extrudate across its width. For a constant rate of extrusion, the rate at which
the extrudate is drawn through the haul off determines its average thickness. 117
This means that the nip rolls must be driven at a controllable constant speed
and with no slippage of the extrudate. It is common to have one polished steel

roll and the other rubber coated. The hardness of the rubber roll should be
checked periodically as it may degrade with exposure to the atmosphere.
It is important that haul off rolls and other rolls in the take up sys-
tem are all parallel to each other and parallel to the die face. It is easiest to
make all rolls horizontal as this can be checked with a spirit level. In the case
of blown film, the center of the nip rolls should be above the center of the die
and should be checked with a plumb line. To assure that sets of rolls are par-
allel to each other, check that the distance between them is the same on both
edges of the roll using measuring rods with a micrometer, or vernier adjust-
ment.
Caterpillar Haul-Off
For pipes and some profiles, where the extrudate is rigid, a caterpillar haul-off
is the most suitable. The simplest type consists of two rubber belts that rotate,
one above the other, and grip the extrudate between a long parallel section of
the two belts. Since the pulling forces can be quite high, the length of the
caterpillar track should be sufficient to generate the pulling force without
marking the extrudate. More than two tracks can be used in a single haul-off.
Some manufacturers offer systems with up to 12 caterpillar tracks. The tracks
are driven with a DC geared motor with a tachometer generator and thyristor
control. The soft elements of the caterpillar are generally a shallow V-shaped
in order to grip the extrudate. The following table shows typical properties for
a range of caterpillar haul-offs.
Pipe Speed Max. Pulling Gripping

Diameter Range Force Length
(in.) (mm) (ft/min) (m/min) (tons) (in.) (cm.)
0.5-3.5 12.7-43.8 4-100 1.2-30.5 0.4 30 76
1.25-12 31.8-305 2.5-50 0.76-15.25 1.0 48 122
2.5-12 63.5-305 2-40 0.6-12.19 1.5 48 122
3.5-16 89-406 1.3-25 0.4-76.2 2.0 60 152
3.5-25 89-635 0.3-20 0.1-63.5 2.5 60 152
Other Haul-Off Systems

Belt drives can be used for small bore pipe and tubing above about 100 ft/min
(30.48 m/min) where the caterpillar system becomes unsuitable. For wire and
cable, the coated wire is looped round a capstan drum whose speed is main-
tained to provide the haul-off.
Reel Production
There are two basic types of reeling systems; center fed, in which the wind up
is driven by its central shaft and surface winding, where the rotation is gener-
ated by friction at the surface of the reel being formed. A surface winder is
generally cheaper than a center winding system.
Defects in Reel Production

Problems become apparent in the inner layers of a reel as it grows. The two
most common problems are telescoping and buckling. Both are due to com-
pression of the inner layers by the outside layers. Compression decreases the
diameter of the inner layers and the tension in them. If the tension becomes
negative, then buckling occurs producing a characteristic star shaped mark on
118 the end of the reel. The loss of tension also reduces the friction between the
layers and, if the reel is turned on its end, the layers will slip over each other
to telescope the reel. Using larger cores reduces both of these problems as
does reducing the tension in the extrudate as the reel diameter increases.
Surface winding would be expected to give winding under constant
tension. However, if there is slippage between the layer of film on the lay on
roll and the top layer on the reel, the maximum tension will be set by friction
and not by the line tension. As the reel grows and its weight increases, this
maximum tension will increase, leading to a winding tension pattern which is
the reverse of what is required. Mounting the growing reel on a curved sup-
port, so that the force between reel and lay on the roll remains constant, even
as the reel grows, reduces this adverse effect.
In center winding it is easy to wind under constant torque. Since
the torque is the product of film tension and roll radius, as the radius increas-
es the film tension decreases and so buckling and telescoping are less com-
mon. However, there is a tendency for outer layers to be loose. Various pro-
grammed winding systems are available to give a winding loading between
constant tension and constant torque.
CUTTING AND STACKING

In sheet production the extrudate is cut across its width using circular saws
or shears. For right-angled smooth cuts, it is essential to select the correct
saw speed and blade for the polymer used and the thickness of the sheet.
After cutting, the sheet is lifted by suction cups and stacked. In profile, cutting
saws can be either under floor saws, where the cut goes underneath to the
top, or immersion saws, that operate in the reverse direction. Small diameter
pipes can be cut (up to a wall thickness of 0.75 in. (19 mm) for polyolefin
pipes and 0.215 in. (5.5 mm) for UPVC pipes). Large diameter pipes are sawn
with a planetary saw. Machinery is also available for chamfering the ends of
pipes. Re-heating the ends of the pipe to soften them and then forming them
over a correctly shaped mandrel, bells the pipe ends. The operation takes
place on a moving system so that continuous line production is not interrupt-
ed. Usually the pipe is transferred from the cutting and heating station to an
adjacent position for the forming and re-solidification of the belled end.
Saws should be equipped with protective guards and extraction
equipment to remove both dust and chips.
119
SECTION 6:
section 6: extrusion operations

EXTRUSION OPERATIONS
START UP
PROCESS MONITORING
PROCESS CONTROL
SHUT DOWN PROCEDURES
PURGING
STRIPPING AND CLEANING
REPROCESSING
MACHINE SETTINGS AND RUNNING CHART
START UP
Start up refers to those procedures involved in getting a machine into full pro-
duction. It is very important to have intelligent start up procedures, as adher-
ence to such procedures will minimize dangers to the operator and damage to
the equipment.
Check the Heating System

Before commencing operations, one should first check that the thermocouples
are in their specified positions, of the correct type and are connected to the
appropriate instruments in the control panel. If there is a thermoplastic materi-
al in the hopper, its feed gate should be closed. Make sure that the drive
motor is off and that the speed is at the lowest setting possible. See that the
cooling water is on and flowing at the correct rate through the hopper throat
and the barrel cooling system. Turn off any cooling water to the screw.
Turn on the heating system and set the temperature controllers to
a very low value (for example, 50C). After this temperature is reached and
held, by the control system, one can then begin heating up the machine for
production to begin. The actual procedures may differ if the machine contains
polymer or, if it is empty.
Warming Up an Empty Machine

Check the records or obtain experienced advice on what machine settings are
needed for the job at hand. Turn the main power switches on. Program the
heat input to avoid an overshoot (melt temperature over-ride or MTO) while
heating up the extruder in a reasonably short time. This is usually accom-
plished by using temperature controllers fitted with a three term (PID) control.
As it is easier to heat a barrel than to cool it down, it makes sense to approach
the final operating temperatures slowly to minimize the risk of a temperature
over-shoot (unless it is known that the system will not over-shoot). This is
most easily done by setting the temperatures about 20C/30F below the run-
ning settings, during initial barrel heat-up. Once the system has stabilized at
the preliminary settings then heating to the desired running temperatures is
carried out.
Such a procedure is necessary with some materials, such as
unplasticized polyvinyl chloride (UPVC), where an overshoot can cause seri-
120 ous degradation before processing commences. Once the machine is at the
set temperatures it should be allowed to equilibrate before any material is
introduced into the barrel. Keep this time as short as reasonably possible.
Otherwise, residual material present in the screw flights may burn when heat-
ed in the presence of air.
Warming Up a Full Machine

When a full machine is being warmed up, it is important to ensure that it is
heated in a way that avoids decomposition of the polymeric material. Decom-
position can produce gases that, under pressure, can cause serious accidents
by blowing hot material from the die. All temperatures should be set below
the melting temperature of the particular material (for example, to 135C for
LDPE). Allow the machine to reach and equilibrate at these temperatures. Next
raise the temperature of the die to above the melting temperature of the resin.
Then raise the temperature of the front zone and the rear zone to above the
melting temperature. Finally, working towards the center, raise the tempera-
tures of the other zones. Allow the machine to equilibrate at these tempera-
tures for a short time before purging. Only proceed if the purged material
looks satisfactory, i.e., sufficiently melted, but not excessively hot.
Barrel Temperature Settings

These are the temperatures set on the control instruments essential to reach-
ing a desired melt temperature. Once an extruder is up and running, most of
the heat input required for extrusion is mechanical heat supplied by the screw
and drive system. The heaters are used only to warm up the machine and to
fine tune the system during operation. One should remember that it is the
melt temperature that is important and any barrel temperatures quoted in the
literature are only guidelines.
When there is no experience with the processing of a particular
grade of material, one should start with the lowest recommended settings.
Unless the records show otherwise, use a flat temperature profile (each zone
set at the same value). Recommended temperatures are 100C/200F above
the glass transition temperature (Tg) for an amorphous thermoplastic material
and 50C/70F above the melting temperature (Tm) of a crystalline material.
One should always remember that the melt temperature is almost always
higher than the highest barrel set-point temperature.
Equilibration
Once the machine is at the set temperatures, it should be allowed to equil-
ibrate for about 20 minutes before material is introduced into the barrel. This
time can be used to check that the die is clean and that all parts are opera-
tional. Review the production order for color and quantity and check that all
necessary tools and equipment are in position. Check that ancillary equip-
ment, such as the hopper or feed system, is clean and is functioning as
required.
Initial Purging
Check the records to determine which screw is needed for the job at hand.
Ensure that the correct screw is in the machine and that it is installed proper-
ly. Once the machine has equilibrated at the running temperatures, start the
screw rotating slowly and then introduce some material by hand into the hop-
per. Do not fill up the screw throat, otherwise the material may not melt com-
pletely and the un-melted granules may block the die and destroy any pres-
sure transducers in the die and barrel. If everything appears satisfactory (for
example, no melt frothing, spitting or motor overload) slowly increase the 121
amount of material on the screw until it is covered with material. Then fill the
hopper with material.

Check the melt temperature with a melt probe and also check the
general appearance of the melt. Proceed only if this purged material looks sat-
isfactory, the melt temperature is as specified and the motor amperage is not
excessive.
Starting Up
Before starting up, a lead piece (produced in a previous run) or a piece of
string is threaded through the cooling system and then through the haul off.
The operator should wear suitable gloves. It is also useful to have an arrow
drawn at the end of each roll that shows the direction of roll rotation and the
path taken by the extrudate through the system. The haul off may then be
moved to a convenient position in front of the die and the extruder run at a
low speed.
When the material is extruded from the die it is attached to the lead
piece by tying or by melt adhesion. The operator steadily pulls the piece
through the system. The nips are often left open so that any joints or irregu-
larities may pass. This drawing, or pulling, requires skill and it is essential that
the operator is not distracted as he is guiding the extrudate over obstructions,
around hot rolls etc. Usually the extrudate is cooled as it is being drawn away,
as this gives the product strength. Once the extrudate has passed through the
haul off, the haul off drive is started and the speed adjusted before the nips
are closed (save the lead piece for the next start up). Ensure that the haul off
cooling system is fully operational and adjust its position to the running posi-
tion relative to the die. Gradually increase both the screw speed and the haul
off speed, providing that the machine operating parameters are within previ-
ously stated limits. Adjust the speeds to give approximately the correct dimen-
sions and then adjust the die to produce the required dimensions. Any adjust-
ments must be made slowly as this usually saves time.
Safety Considerations
One of the most dangerous times during processing is at start up. This is
because material being heated in the machine may decompose and spit from
the die. The operator is focused on getting the machine running satisfactorily
and this involves close contact with machinery. So, great care should be taken
at start up. In particular, no one should be allowed to stand in front of the
die/nozzle and the hopper lid should be firmly in place, so that the screw can-
not be seen (and therefore touched). No unauthorized person should be in the
processing area.
Temperature Problems
If the use of a flat temperature profile causes:
Premature melting and bridging of the material (resin) in the feed throat:
gradually decrease the feed zone temperature
High die pressure fluctuations: raise the feed zone temperature
Melt temperature fluctuations: raise the transition zone temperature
The barrel temperature to exceed a set point: slowly raise the set point
temperature of that zone (raising the transition zone temperature can, how
ever, reduce viscous heat generation and may cause incomplete melting)
A loss of product gloss: raise the die exit temperature
122
PROCESS MONITORING
During extrusion both process-based monitoring and product-based monitor-
ing are used to achieve product improvements. Process-based monitoring
watches production process conditions such as melt temperature and pres-
sure. Product-based monitoring follows properties of the product, such as,
clarity and thickness.
Pressure Measurement
Pressure measurement is now most commonly done with a pressure trans-
ducer, or sensor, which senses pressure or pressure changes (Figures 32a.
& b.). Several different types of electrical pressure transducer are used, how-
ever, the most common type is the strain gauge pressure transducer. Because
of its robust nature, accuracy and repeatability, ease of use and universal
character, strain gauge pressure transducers are the most frequently used
instrument for pressure measurement in extrusion processes.
It is usually melt pressure, such as the pressure within an extru-
sion die or barrel that this transducer is required to measure. The transducer
is made in the form of a probe with its tip flush mounted to the inner diameter
of the extruder barrel or die. Since, the high temperatures at the transducer
tip can complicate temperature compensation, the measuring diaphragm and
strain gauge are located away from the tip. The pressure is transmitted from
the transducer tip to the measuring diaphragm, by means of an incompress-
ible fluid such as mercury (in a filled capillary), to strain gauges in a
Wheatstone bridge arrangement bonded to the measuring diaphragm. The
electrical output from this gauge assembly is directly proportional to the pres-
sure on the sensing diaphragm or tip. Cold start-ups and/or rough handling of
the transducer will damage the tip relatively easily.
Figure 32a. Pressure Transducers

123

Figure 32b. Dyniscos Pressure Gauges,Transducers and Transmitters
Important Pressure Measurement Locations

There are several locations on the extruder where pressure measurements
should be made. Along the barrel, measurements help determine screw per-
formance and design; before and after the screen pack, measurements warn of
potential high pressure situations and avoid flow restrictions between the
screw and the die; at the inlet and outlet of the gear pump, pressure measure-
ment ensures a constant melt flow to optimize pump performance and safety;
and pressure measurement at the die maintains stable output and reduces
scrap and material waste. At every location, pressure measurement helps
ensure safety of equipment and personnel and increases machine output and
efficiency.
Temperature Measurement
For reasons of cost and convenience, the thermocouple (TC) is the most com-
mon temperature-measuring element (Figures 33a. & b.). Basically, a thermo-
couple consists of two dissimilar wires that are joined to form a thermo-junc-
tion. A thermo-electric electromotive force (EMF) is generated at the junction
of unlike metals if one thermo-junction (one end of the assembly) is made
hotter that the other. The magnitude of the EMF depends on the metals used
and on the temperature difference of the junctions. For a given combination,
the more the one junction is heated, the greater will be the electrical signal. If
one end is kept at a stable reference temperature (by cold junction compensa-
tion) then the thermocouple may be calibrated, so that a simple and accurate
measurement of temperature can be made. The measurement may be dis-
played asC or F in analog or digital form. Usually, a thermocouple (TC) has
the tip protected by a rigid metal sheath and a flexible metal covering protects
the connecting wires.
124
Figure 33a. Thermocouple
Figure 33b. Dyniscos Melt Thermocouple
The melt temperature is traditionally measured by pumping the

material into the air (an air shot technique) and then immersing the tip of the
TC into the melt. It may also be measured on-line by the use of a melt tem-
perature thermocouple. Ideally, an immersion thermocouple should be
employed unless the use of a surface mounted TC can be justified. It is rec-
ommended that the tip of the immersion thermocouple should be immersed
approximately 0.25 in/6 mm into barrel/nozzle (so that it does not pick up the
temperature of the metal). The sensing tip of such a TC should also be insu-
lated from the body of the sensor. The same adapter as used for a pressure
transducer may be used to house an immersion thermocouple. Commercial
infra-red temperature transducers (sensors) are now available and their use
promises to dramatically improve the extrusion process. Infrared line scan-
ning thermometers may be used to measure the temperature and the temper-
ature distribution across the width of extruded sheet to improve temperature
uniformity.
125
Thickness Measurement
The thickness of sheet is often measured using a beta radiation gauge ( ray

gauge). For a given formulation -ray or particle absorption is directly propor-
tional to mass per unit area. If the extrudate composition is fixed, then the
sensor output can be set to continuously read product thickness. To do this, a
low energy radioactive source, which emits beta particles, is mounted close to
the moving sheet and the transmitted radiation is detected by an ionization
chamber. The amount of beta particle transmission varies with the thickness
and composition of the material through which it passes. If the composition is
constant, the degree of ionization, and hence the conductivity of the chamber,
will vary with the thickness. The changes in the conductivity can be converted
to give a read-out of thickness or weight per unit area and/or used to actuate a
control action.
The read-out from such a gauge gives the gravimetric thickness
value or nominal average thickness. Gravimetric thickness is obtained from
the weight a sample of known area and its density by dividing the weight by
the area and the density. For an non-embossed sheet, the gravimetric thick-
ness is the same as the geometric thickness. For an embossed sheet, the
gravimetric thickness is not the same and is more relevant.
Because of concerns about radioactive emissions, X-rays are being
used in place of beta rays. X-rays are more controllable and the X-ray beam
can be tightly collimated, which reduces the radiation profile risk. Disposal of
the radioactive isotope is also a problem that is eliminated.
Speed Measurement
In extrusion, the screw speed is the screw rotational speed that is usually
measured in revolutions per minute (RPM). However, it should be remem-
bered that it is the screw surface speed that is important. Speed must be mea-
sured and displayed very accurately as, screw speed controls how much
material is pumped, how well it is mixed, shear history, melt temperature and
melt temperature variations. Screw speed must, therefore, be set and read
accurately and held to the set value. The processing machine must have an
accurate display of screw speed (for example, a digital display) and the screw
drive system must be powerful enough to keep the speed constant.
The speed of the screw may be feedback controlled using a tacho-
generator, driven by the motor shaft, which generates a voltage that is propor-
tional to the motor speed. This voltage is used as the feedback signal to con-
trol the motor speed. Screw speed may be measured directly by means of a
transducer and a gear wheel. The gear wheel is mounted centrally on the
screw so that when the screw is rotated, the teeth of the wheel pass the trans-
ducer. As each tooth passes the sensor, this creates a change in the magnetic
field (a pulse) which is sensed by the transducer. When the number of pulses
is counted per unit of time, the screw speed is obtained.
Width Measurement
Several different, non-contacting systems are used to measure the width or
size of an extrudate as it is being produced (on-line). A single laser beam can
measure pipe and tubing diameters. Two lasers, mounted at right angles, have
been used to measure the size and eccentricity of round extrudates such as
pipe, tubing, rod or cable. The collimated laser light casts a shadow on a
detector that can determine the size to 0.002 mm (if the size is outside previ-
ously set limits, the haul off speed or the screw speed may be automatically
adjusted). Pipe wall thickness, and uniformity, may also be determined by
ultrasonic measurements so that low gauge and more uniform pipe can be
126 manufactured. Monofilament diameter can be continuously monitored with a
laser. Several strands can be monitored intermittently using a scanning or tra-
versing laser.
When sheet is being produced its width can be determined by
infrared measurements. The sheet is hotter than the roll on which it lies and
an infrared detector can be used to sense the two edges of the sheet. Lasers
are also used for sheet width measurement. Lay flat film width may be deter-
mined by ultrasonic measurements. The results of such measurements are
used to control bubble size and air exchange in the bubble.
The cross-sectional area of irregularly shaped profiles can be mea-
sured with a pneumatic area sensor: this uses the Bernoulli effect to make on-
line measurements that correlate with the cross-sectional area of the profile.
Production Condition Recording

This is the systematic recording of all production conditions, so that it is
known how a component, or product, was produced. It must not be forgotten
that the object of production is to produce component/product of the required
quality, at a specified cost, within a specified time, and when required. To do
this it is essential to keep accurate records. On many machines, fitted with
microprocessor control, this can be done at the press of a button. Where this
is not possible then, an appropriate record sheet should be completed at peri-
odic intervals. Production samples should also be retained for future refer-
ence.
The importance of careful and accurate recording of process set-
tings cannot be over-emphasized. Not only is it useful to have a full and accu-
rate record for machine re-setting, but such records are useful, as well, for
product liability reasons or to fulfill ISO 9000 requirements. A microproces-
sor-based machine will record all relevant data, print it out if required and
then, instantly reset the machine when that particular job is re-run. Such
instant re-setting saves a great deal of time and gives more accurate settings
than that possible manually.
Product Monitoring
The machine operator may make checks on product quality or a control sys-
tem or a separate system such as a robot-type device can make them. Verifi-
cation of product quality at the point of manufacture can be documented in
statistical quality control (SQC) records. To do this automatically, the system
designer must identify what needs to be monitored and then equip the
machine with appropriate transducers. The outputs from these transducers
are monitored and if the signal from one or more is different from previously
set limits, then various quality control (QC) actions may be taken. For exam-
ple, an alarm may be sounded so that the product may be diverted to an
inspection area. Microprocessor systems can ultimately provide total control
of the extrusion line if the causes and effects of changes in machine and
process parameters are correlated with machine adjustments.
Where robots are used for product removal, a robot measuring
system (for instance a system based on the measurement of different dimen-
sions) may be used to judge, or assess, the extrudate. The information that
the robot measuring system generates may then be transmitted to the micro-
processor control system and used for QC charts. On-line QC, based on prod-
uct measurements, is therefore relatively easy and can be done for every
piece of extrudate produced. If the product is judged to be defective, then it
can be diverted for re-assessment or re-granulation and re-use.

127
PROCESS CONTROL
Processing operations in manufacturing must be performed under conditions

controlled by documented work instructions that clearly define the manufac-
turing process, the conditions employed, the variations allowed in production,
the inspection procedures and the quality expected.
Temperature Control
In the extrusion shop, or factory, the thermocouple (TC) is the most common
temperature-measuring element. When a thermocouple is used to feed a tem-
perature control instrument with information, the well for the TC should be
sunk as deeply into the barrel wall, as safety will allow. The base of the well
should accurately match the shape of the TC tip. The TC may be spring
loaded, so that when inserted into the hole, and twisted, it is locked in place
under a controlled pressure. The TC will then sense the temperature of the
metal close to the polymer. If a three-term control system (PID) is used, the
barrel temperature may be controlled to within 1C/1.8F.
The temperature control circuit, which uses information from the
TC, is commonly kept separate from the remainder of the control system, so
that in the event of a stoppage the heat supply to the barrel assembly is unaf-
fected.
Thickness Control
The control of thickness during production is very important. When extruding
thermoplastic materials it is usually the rate of cooling that limits the rate of
production. Accurate thickness control, therefore, saves not only on material
use, but also gives faster cooling as the product can be held to the bottom of
the allowed tolerance band.
Thickness variations in the extrudate (be it, sheet, cast or blown
film) can have two basically different causes. 1. Gauge variations parallel to
the extrusion direction (along the sheet). These are mainly due to variations in
screw speed (caused by changes in material viscosity), haul-off speed
changes, temperature variations and inhomogeneities of the raw material. 2.
Gauge variations perpendicular to the extrusion direction (across the sheet),
which are primarily due to a non-uniform die gap. The die gap and/or the die
temperatures can be adjusted. If sheet is being extruded, it is often preferable
to leave the die gap constant and to adjust the spreader bar.
Automatic profile control is possible using a system that auto-
matically adjusts itself to control the size of an emerging profile. The die may
have a number of heating/cooling units around its circumference, so that melt
viscosity can be varied, to give the required output at that point, without
adjusting the die gap. The thickness is measured and the temperatures adjust-
ed accordingly. Such a system will improve the stability of the bubble and the
output. Changes in conductivity, from a beta radiation gauge, can be used to
adjust the motors that control roll speed during sheet extrusion.
Drive Control System

A high-speed motor generally drives an extruder screw via a gearbox and pul-
leys. Such an arrangement, of a high-speed motor driving through a reduction
gearbox, gives considerable speed stability (because of rotational inertia). For
many extrusion applications, however, the speed must be held very precisely,
in order to achieve a precise output, despite variations in extruder demand.
Therefore, the drive system will also contain a regulator that compares input
128 signals from sensors (current, speed and torque) with reference inputs (man-
ually set or computer derived). Corrective signals are then sent to the trans-
former-rectifier unit and thyristor controls with tacho-generator feedback hold
the speed of a motor to approximately 1% from zero to full load. That is, at
1750 rpm the speed is held to 17.5 rpm. If a digital, rotary pulse encoder
together with a microprocessor is used, the speed may be held to 1.75 rpm
at 1750 rpm. As a result of this accuracy, DC and AC Flux Vector motors are
widely used as extruder drives.
In some specialized systems, a pressure transducer will feed a sig-
nal into a process controller which, in turn, provide feedback control of the
screw speed. In this way, a specific pressure can be maintained by varying the
screw RPM and thus maintain a steady extrudate output. This system is usu-
ally used in the case where steady die output is necessary, and a melt pump
cannot be used.
Automatic Pressure Control (Figure 34.)

Accurate temperature control can have profound effects on the quality and
yield of extruded products. In the last forty years, temperature control has
progressed through the original percentage timers, to Proportional, Integral
and Derivative (PID) control as adapted by Ziegler and Nichols, to various
self-tuning PID control algorithms both with and without the additional simu-
lation of expert operator intervention called fuzzy logic.
More recently similar principles of automatic control have become
available for the control of extruder pressure. The speed of the extruder screw
is regulated to maintain a preset pressure at the die. PI and PID controllers,
utilize algorithms more suited to pressure control than Ziegler -Nichols.
Automatic tuning has simplified the installation and set up of controllers and
control systems. As an example, the Dynisco ATC770 process controller uti-
lizes two automatic tuning algorithms (Figure 34.). Together they are known
as the SMART function. The TUNE algorithm is invoked in the Manual mode
of operation, and is a "one-shot" algorithm, which will determine the P&I,
parameters based on a change in the manual output. The unique ADAPTIVE
tuning algorithm is based on the Dominant Poles Theory, and is a direct
method based on the analysis of the input signal rather than the error signal.
This algorithm is invoked in the Automatic mode of operation, and as the
name implies, it is a full-time algorithm that adapts to changes in the extru-
sion process. Either or both algorithms may be shut off if manual tuning is
desirable.
In addition to the obvious control of the input to the motor drive,
today's controllers offer a number of beneficial auxiliary functions and options
- all done without operator intervention.
Two or three auxiliary setpoints can be used in a scheme of alarms
and interlocks. The use of auxiliary setpoints can prevent starting of the
extruder prior to operating conditions having been reached. A setpoint may be
set to indicate that it is time for a screen change, thereby avoiding dangerous
pressure build-up. An absolute shutdown pressure setpoint may be set and
latched to ensure safety of equipment and operator. An analog output directly
proportional to the pressure is also available, and digital communications is a
frequently supplied option.
Parameter information may be sent to another device in either ana-
log or digital form. The controller can be a redundant device in a DCS and can
report its activity to an SPC system.
The processor who chooses to automate can realize numerous
benefits:
Dramatic increase in safety in the workplace 129
Monitor machine and screw condition
Protect machinery from inadvertent damage
Section 6: extrusion operations

New controls often enhance the performance of old machines
Relatively unskilled personnel can operate machines
Improve yield and maintain consistency of product
Reduce reject product and maximize return on raw materials
Allows duplication of conditions from run to run
Allows one operator to supervise several machines
Automatic tuning simplifies setup when changing from one product to
another
Figure 34. Dyniscos ATC770 Pressure/Process Controller
Automatic Quality Control

Quality control may also be performed automatically by the production
machine. Because of the power of the microprocessor used for the control
system, it is now relatively easy to incorporate features that verify product
quality during manufacturing, using the output from measuring sensors.
Verification of product quality at the point of manufacture can then be docu-
mented in statistical quality control (SQC) records.
To monitor a process on-line, the production machine must be
equipped with appropriate transducers and measuring equipment. These may
include a melt thermocouple (in the die), pressure transducers (on either side
of the breaker plate) and a (product) thickness measuring sensor. During pro-
duction the output is automatically gathered from these transducers and dis-
played on a visual display unit (VDU). Production trends can then be easily
spotted. If the changes exceed preset limits, the product is then judged to be
out of specification. Such product may be rejected completely, or diverted for
inspection and subsequent disposal decisions. Changes in the product can be
then identified and quantified if the changes are capable of being statistically
analyzed. Such analysis is not necessarily difficult, since the use of relatively
simple statistics can yield a surprising amount of useful information. This
information may be used to adjust the process in order to eliminate defects in
the product, by altering die settings, extrusion speed, or some other process
parameter.
130
SHUT DOWN PROCEDURES
It is most important to adopt a sensible shut down procedure as it can save a
great deal of time and money. If, for example, the resin is prevented from
burning then there will not be so much purging required on re-heating and the
cost of a complete shut down and machine clean out may be saved.
After Processing a Heat-Stable Material

If a thermally stable plastic, such as polystyrene (PS) or polypropylene (PP),
is being processed then, for a temporary (overnight) stop, it is usually only
necessary to perform a few steps:
1. Close the slide at the base of the feed hopper
2. Turn off the cylinder heaters (leave the die heater on)
3. Purge the barrel clean by pumping the screw dry
4. When nothing more comes from the die, put any barrel cooling on maxi-
mum, stop the screw, and, when the machine is cool, turn everything off
The machine is then ready for re-heating when required.
After Processing a Heat-Sensitive Material

Decomposition, or burning of polymer in the extruder barrel, may cause color
changes that will result in the subsequent product being rejected. If this hap-
pens a complete shut down and clean out may be necessary. To prevent this,
it may be necessary to purge a heat sensitive resin with another, more heat
stable, polymer that will withstand subsequent re-heating. If material oxidation
is a problem (with, say polyethylene) then it may be best to leave the cylinder
full of the material rather than pumping the screw dry before switching off. Do
not shut off the cooling water to the feed throat until the temperature of the
first zone has fallen below the melting point of the polymer.
After High Temperature Operation

When high barrel temperatures are used, the shut down procedure should be
modified to prevent thermal decomposition of the resin. One should:
1. Turn off the cylinder heaters (leave the die heater on)
2. Put any barrel cooling on maximum
3. Periodically pump resin through the machine while it is cooling, but make
sure the barrel temperature remains slightly above the melting point of the
resin
4. Close the slide at the base of the feed hopper and purge the barrel clean by
pumping the screw dry
5. When nothing more comes from the die, and when the machine is cool,
turn everything off
The machine is then ready for re-heating when required.
Display Notices
Before leaving a machine, prominent notices should be displayed if the elec-
tric supply to the machine is left on, if the heaters are on or, if parts of the
machine are still hot. Water and air supplies should be turned off. The motors
and pumps should be isolated so that they cannot be started accidentally.
PURGING
A method of cleaning the extruder screws and barrel, without pulling the
screw and disassembling the machine, is through purging. There are several
reasons for purging (cleaning). One may want to change from one grade or 131
color of material to another and/or change from one type of material to anoth-
er. The net result is the same: material is wasted and production time is lost.

Therefore, the object must be to minimize such losses by careful planning of
the work being done to minimize the effects of changes.
Minimizing Effects
One should try to plan production operations so that the work flows in a logi-
cal sequence. Light-colored materials should be processed first. Easy flowing
(high melt flow) materials should be processed before stiff flowing (low melt
flow) materials. If it is necessary when changing from one material to another,
use a polymer that processes at a temperature that is intermediate between
those of two widely dissimilar materials.
It is very important to keep the materials handling equipment clean
and to ensure contamination is not introduced during drying. The screw, bar-
rel and die assembly must be thoroughly inspected to ensure that there are no
worn or broken regions where material can stagnate, degrade, and then be
released into the fresh polymer stream during production.
Temporary Stops
During a temporary stoppage the extruder may be periodically purged, by
passing the material being processed through the machine at minimum screw
speed. Do not allow material to build up on, or around, the die lips. If neces-
sary, and allowable, coat the die lips with a light coat of silicone grease or
other release agent.
If the purged material looks discolored then increase the frequency
of this purging. During a minor repair, the heaters on the barrel should be set
to low values to minimize thermal degradation.
Purging Procedure
In many cases, when changing from one material to another, the barrel is sim-
ply emptied (purged or pumped dry) and the new material is then introduced
into the system. In other cases (for example, when changing from polycarbon-
ate (PC) or polyamide (PA)) a faster changeover is obtained if the barrel is
purged dry and a purge material is then used. Thermoplastic materials such as
polystyrene (PS), high-density polyethylene (HDPE) or cast polymethylmeth-
acrylate (PMMA or acrylic) are widely used as purging materials. Other propri-
etary compounds are available for purging purposes and these should be used
as directed by the manufacturer.
In general, when changing from one material to another, for which
the processing temperature is higher, set the barrel temperatures to those
appropriate for the new material. If, however, they are lower, maintain the old
temperature settings until purging is complete. Then discontinue the material
supply to the hopper, empty the hopper, (carefully save the material), thor-
oughly clean the hopper by brushing and wiping, and replace it on the barrel
(If it has been removed for cleaning). Any remaining material in the barrel
should now be very soft as it has been heated (heat soaked) during the hopper
cleaning. Empty the barrel into the air by rotating the screw. Introduce the new
material and run a few pounds through the system as quickly as possible (that
is, use the new material for cleaning or scouring). Allow the machine to stand
(for approximately 10 minutes) and then rapidly run more of the new material
through the barrel. Repeat this procedure until there is no sign of the old
material.
If it is intended to shut the system down after using a purge, the
132 shut down procedure may then be followed once the purge material or com-
pound is coming through.
Purge Materials and Compounds

A purge material is a polymeric resin used for purging. It is usually a high
molecular weight (high viscosity) polymeric material that is relatively stable at
processing temperatures. Natural, non-flame retardant grades of
polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA) or high-density polyethylene (HDPE) are
often used as purge materials.
A purge compound, also known as a purge, flushing compound or
cleaning compound is a compound specifically designed, or used, to assist
purging, or machine cleaning. It may contain large amounts of filler such as
pumice. Before such purge compounds are used, it is advisable to remove the
die as many purge compounds do not melt, or flow, like ordinary thermoplas-
tic materials, and can damage the die polish or the die outlet.
Purge Compound Cleaning

If a proprietary compound is available for purging purposes then the manu-
facturers instructions should be followed when purging. However, if they are
used correctly, such purge compounds can save considerable production
time. Their use will speed up the cleaning of the barrel unit when changing
from one material to another, or, from one color to another. However, in some
cases, purging will not be enough to remove contamination and stripping and
cleaning of the barrel unit will be required.
Some purge compounds are intended for use over a specified tem-
perature range. For example, one purge material may cover the range 180C to
230C/358F to 446F (which suits PS, PP and PMMA), another 230C to
250C/446F to 483F (which suits ABS and SAN) and another 250C to
310C/483F to 590F (which suits PC, PPO/PS and PBT).
During purging, the die area should be shielded to protect the operator from
being splashed by hot material. The operator must be trained in the purging
procedures appropriate to the particular machine and must be aware of the
dangers to himself and others. At the processing temperatures employed, a
thermoplastic material can be easily degraded to give unpleasant, irritating
odors and, if seriously overheated, some materials can produce a large
amount of high pressure gas. Such gases should not be inhaled, or ingested,
and should be treated as harmful. Gloves, long sleeved coveralls, safety
footwear and a heat resistant face-mask should be worn during purging.
Purging must be done so that there is no danger to the operator or
to any others in the vicinity. The purged material should be dropped into a
bucket of cold water to minimize the formation of fumes and to protect any-
one from touching this hot, sticky, dangerous material.
Note Purging Conditions

During purging, the output and pressure should be noted. These values can
be used to indicate screw or barrel wear. If the pressure needed to obtain a
known output increases, compared to what was measured on a previous trial,
then the screw, and/or barrel, may be worn and the maintenance department
should be informed.
During purging note if any unusual noises are heard such as might
be caused by the screw and/or the screw tip rubbing against the barrel. Note
the pressure employed and the output with the new material, to determine if 133
the screw subsequently wears.

STRIPPING AND CLEANING
In some cases, when changing from one material to another, purging is not
enough and the barrel unit must be dismantled (stripped) so that it may be
cleaned. Cleaning the extruder and die is a long and time consuming operation
and, since nothing is produced, it is to be avoided if at all possible. It must be
remembered that there is a danger that component damage may occur during
the cleaning operation. Before commencing cleaning, the resin suppliers liter-
ature should also be consulted since plastics behave differently when heated:
PVC may decompose to give corrosive acids and PC may stick tightly to the
metal of the die or extruder.
The first stage of this operation is purging and the comments made in that
section should be noted. The operator must be trained in the purging proce-
dures appropriate to a particular machine and must be aware of the dangers to
him and others. When the barrel, is stripped for cleaning, it should be done in
an extremely well ventilated area. Because of this consideration, cleaning is
probably best done away from the processing area. Gloves, long sleeved cov-
eralls, safety footwear and a heat resistant, facemask should be worn when
the barrel and screw are stripped and cleaned. It should always be remem-
bered that the screw and/or die are heavy and difficult, or awkward, to handle.
In many cases such components are also hot enough to cause serious burn-
ing. It must be remembered that most hot plastics, when molten, will stick to
human skin, and cause destructive burns.
Partial Dismantling
In some cases, good results are obtained if the screw and barrel assembly is
only partially stripped and cleaned. The die is removed, or swung to one side,
and all accessible parts, including the joint faces, are cleaned. Before the
screw cools, remove the screw cooling assembly from the rear of the screw
(the rotary union and cooling wand), slacken any locking ring on the drive
shaft and carefully extract the screw by either pushing or pulling. A pusher,
inserted through the hollow drive shaft at the rear of the machine, can be used
to drive the screw out. This slowly forces the screw out of the barrel and
exposes the front of the screw for cleaning. Alternatively, if the screw is to be
pulled out, the nose of the screw must be removed (usually a left-hand thread)
so that a puller can be inserted.
To strip exposed parts of the screw one may remove material by
slowly pulling it away using pliers, while the adhering material is at the leath-
ery stage. More material may then be removed by scraping. On non-chromium
plated screws a steel wall paper scraper shaped to fit the channel shape may
be used. The scraper may be wetted with a little cold water to minimize poly-
mer adhesion. However, if in doubt, use brass hand tools, brass brushes and
brass wool to minimize damage to the screw plating.
During the cleaning operation, all exposed parts of the screw and
barrel should be inspected for wear and damage. This should be noted on the
machine records and, if necessary, the maintenance department informed so
that appropriate action may be taken.
134
Heater Handling
In many cases, it is better to dismantle and clean the extruder and die. As dis-
mantling is done while the machine is hot, heat resistant gloves and a face
shield must be worn. To keep the die as hot as possible, disconnect the
heaters from each zone one at a time. Ideally the power supply should be dis-
connected by the person who is doing the heater band removal. That is,
he/she should pull the electrical plug.
Remove the die heaters and thermocouples from a zone. When
removing a heater, take special care not to damage it. For example, avoiding
excessive flexing and careless handling. One should handle the heaters by the
joint flange or terminal box and carefully store the heaters on a flat smooth
surface (not the floor). All heaters and thermocouples should be labeled.
Die Cleaning
While hot, the die assembly should be carefully dismantled, taking special
care not to damage metal surfaces that contact the melt. Disconnect the
heaters and associated thermocouples and remove any pressure transducers,
from the first part of the die that is to be removed. Then clean each piece of
the die as it comes to hand. Remove as much material as possible from the
die surfaces by slowly pulling it (use pliers) away while it is at the leathery
stage. More material can then be removed using brass hand tools, brass
brushes and brass wool. These may be wetted with a little cold water to pre-
vent clogging. Before each part is removed, the part removed before it should
be cleaned and placed on a clean smooth surface. Treat the die lips with spe-
cial care as any nicks or scratches will introduce die lines, which are immedi-
ately obvious, on the product. When cleaning flat sealing faces ensure that
their edges are not rounded off by the cleaning treatment.
Once the components are clean, each part should be inspected for
wear and damage and repaired, or replaced, where necessary. As they are
cleaned, the component parts of the die should be checked off against an
authorized list before being certified as being ready for use.
Re-assembly
After cleaning, the die should be re-assembled and stored either on the
machine or on a bench to minimize the risk of damage. As the die is being re-
assembled, the alignment between the various parts of the die should be care-
fully checked. If these components are out of alignment, hang-up and degra-
dation of the extrudate may occur. Also, thoroughly check the sealing faces
between the die, the head, and the barrel. Unless there is adequate contact
pressure on the flat sealing faces, contamination from the lubricant used on
the screw threads may occur. Clean all threads with a wire brush and apply
molybdenum disulfide before re-assembly. Do not use oil or grease as these
may oxidize and cause a subsequent blockage. If the die is to be stored it may
be treated with a rust inhibitor: Storage must be in a clean dry storeroom on a
properly constructed rack. If un-plasticized polyvinyl chloride (UPVC) or
another halogenated polymer has been processed, then it will probably be
necessary to wash the metal with hot water to remove any traces of acid,
before the die is protected with a rust inhibitor.
Records must be kept of the work done on the die, where and
what is stored, the tools required for maintenance and the tools required for
use. Note that some dies remain the property of the customer although the
extrusion firm is responsible for their use and care. If pressure transducers
are installed then these must be carefully handled. Care should be taken to
ensure that the correct mounting holes are used and that they are clean. If
this is not done the sensing tip may be damaged, resulting in failure of the 135
probe.

Screw Cleaning
After purging the machine with a brittle material such as polystyrene (PS) or
PMMA, and when no more material can be squeezed from the screw (See
Purging), remove the head assembly from the extruder. Following the manu-
facturer s instructions, start to remove the screw from the barrel. If the screw
can be removed in stages, the material adhering to the screw can be carefully
removed with a brass scraper as each fresh portion of the screw comes from
the barrel. Drop the scrapings into a bucket of cold water. When it is no longer
safe to clean the screw in this way, the screw should be completely removed
from the machine and placed on and strapped to a previously prepared rack.
The screw may then be cleaned, by scraping with a brass scraper
and a brass brush. If the screw was purged with PS, then this relatively brittle
material can be easily broken away when cold. Polish the screw with brass
wool and/or a brass mesh cloth until the screw is gleaming. Once the screw is
clean it should be inspected for wear, and/or damage and repaired where nec-
essary. A light coat of an anti-corrosive spray should then be applied and the
screw should be placed into storage on a special rack.
If the screw cannot be removed in stages then, after extracting the
screw from the barrel, immediately remove as much material from the screw
as possible with a brass scraper. Gently break away as much plastic material
as possible when the screw is cold. If necessary, carefully reheat the screw as
required. The reheat temperature should be approximately 50C/100F below
the polymers processing temperature where the adhering material has a leath-
ery consistency and can be removed by pulling or peeling. After removing as
much material as possible, heat cleaning may be required.
Barrel Cleaning
Prior to cleaning the barrel, make sure that any pressure transducers or
exposed thermocouples have been removed while the barrel is hot. Clean the
barrel by pushing or pulling a hardwood bung, which is a good fit, through the
barrel. Or, one may clean the barrel by pushing or pulling a circular wire-wool
brush, 2 mm/0.8 in. larger than the bore diameter, through the barrel several
times. Insert the wire brush into the barrel and using a power system rotate
the brush while moving the brush back and forth. Periodically clean the circu-
lar wire brush and do not push the brush past the feed opening. Then wrap
emery cloth (240 to 280 grade) around the brush head and polish the barrel
by the same process as above. Finally polish the barrel with a rag wrapped
around the brush head until it is clean and gleaming. Then one should remove
any particles, broken wires, or fragments, with a vacuum hose, and inspect
the barrel for wear.
Other Cleaning Methods

Flame cleaning (with a propane gas torch) should only be used when the poly-
mer is seriously degraded and can be removed in no other way. This is
because the die parts may be distorted by uneven heating. Flame cleaning
must be gently done, if it is done at all. Use the lowest temperature flame,
over as large an area as practical. Do not exceed a temperature of 450C/842F
on the screw flights, as the hardness and wear resistance will be diminished.
After flame cleaning, clean the screw with a soft wire brush and then polish
with emery cloth (approximately 240 to 280 grade).
136 Oven cleaning, with an air atmosphere, is also best avoided as it
can produce fumes and drips. The polymer may also ignite when the oven
door is opened. Uniform heating, and cleaning, by pyrolytic decomposition,
may be accomplished, in an oven with a nitrogen atmosphere, at tempera-
tures in the region of 550C/1022F. If solvents are used then great care is
required, as the solvent may be flammable and/or toxic. Solvent baths should
be treated with respect and a written procedure followed. Ultrasonic cleaning
in a heated fluidized bed is preferred for screws and dies if the equipment is
available.
It should be noted that copper causes rapid decomposition, or
degradation, of polypropylene (PP). Therefore, copper cleaning pads should
not be used to clean equipment used to process this material.
RECLAIMED MATERIAL
The ability to reclaim out of specification product, produced during the extru-
sion of thermoplastic materials, is very often a mixed blessing. It can lead to
the attitude that the production of offspec product does not matter. After all,
the extrudate can be ground up to give reclaimed material and used again, is
an often heard comment. Even if this is true, it should be appreciated that
processing may dramatically change the properties of plastic materials. Even
if this change is minimized, the lost production time, the cost of producing
the scrapped product, the labor costs and the energy costs are considerable
and are best avoided since they are directly reflected in the bottom line.
Terms Used
The re-use, by melt processing, of a formed component is only possible with
thermoplastic materials. In the thermoplastics industry, a reclaimed thermo-
plastic material (sometimes called re-grind) may be defined as a material
that has been recovered from scrapped components and/or the feed system
used to produce such components. One of the most common additives used
with thermoplastic materials is reclaimed material. That is, the feed to the
extruder is a mixture of virgin (new) material, reclaimed material, and a solid
masterbatch (to impart color). All three components are generally used in
granular form. Many machines run on 100% re-claimed material. Terms other
than those used above are:
Recycled plastics material - This is a thermoplastic material prepared from
discarded articles that have been cleaned and ground.
Regrind material - This is material that has been reclaimed by grinding
(usually reworked plastics material). The letter R is used to identify this
material. For example, reclaimed high-density polyethylene (HDPE) may be
identified as HDPER.
Reprocessed plastic material - This is a thermoplastic material prepared
from industrial scrap by other than the original processor.
Reworked plastics material - This is a thermoplastic material prepared from
rejected production components that has been reprocessed in a fabricators
plant after having been processed in that plant.
In this publication, the term reclaim (or reclaimed material) will be
used and unless specified otherwise will refer to reworked plastics material.
Re-granulation
Re-granulation is the process of reclaiming output, which is usually achieved
by feeding unwanted extrudate to a grinder to give re-granulated material. The
grinder consists of a cutting chamber that contains rotating knives. The rotat- 137
ing knives reduce the extrudate in size until the cut pieces will pass through a
mesh or screen into a collector. They may then be automatically blended at the

required ratio with virgin material and fed directly back into the machine hop-
per.
Such machinery is extremely dangerous, as the rotor assembly is
extremely heavy and has considerable momentum. This means that severe
injury can be caused even if the rotor is turned by hand.
Re-granulation/Recovery
If the product does not fit the specification to be sold then, in
some establishments, it is referred to as scrap, which implies that it is of little
or no value. However, any thermoplastic material is expensive to purchase and
turn into product. Even if the material can be fully recovered there is a large
amount of money invested in the rejected product and extra energy and labor
must then be spent on material recovery.
Materials for re-granulation or recovery may be of several types or
categories:
Type 1 - Edge trim, ends and incorrect product. Edge trim and ends are pro-
duced as part of the process and are usually totally recovered by re-granula-
tion It is fed back to the production machine in a definite and prescribed ratio.
Incorrect product based on clean, non-degraded resin, but having an imper-
fection such as the wrong dimensions or an incorrect surface finish, is treated
similarly.
Type 2 - Lightly contaminated product generated through process changes
such as color or grade changes. This should be stored separately from Type 1
material and, as with all material that is to be recovered, protected from fur-
ther contamination. It should only be recovered if the granulator can be subse-
quently cleaned to handle Type 1 materials.
Type 3 - Difficult to handle output and/or contaminated product. This may
consist of lumps and irregular pieces produced during start up or shut down
which may be difficult to feed to the granulator. It may also contain purging,
material generated by machine leakage, material removed from heaters etc. As
this type of product is difficult to recover and/or dirty, it is often not recovered
in the factory but kept separate and disposed of to another industrial concern.
Type 4 - Spilled raw material. Every effort must be made to avoid spilling the
original resin. Although it is easy to collect, it is very difficult to clean or
recover, and presents a falling hazard for operators. Within the extrusion shop
spilled material is a tremendous safety hazard (danger of falls and/or fire).
Once spilled, material must be swept, or vacuumed, up immediately so that it
may be sold.
Safety
Everyone who uses the granulator must be trained in its use. Periodic inspec-
tions should be made for loose guards or parts. Safety instructions must be
available and must be closely followed. If the machine jams and does not clear
in, say, 10 seconds, do not push in more material but switch off. Then wait for
the machine to stop, pull out the plug and follow the cleaning instructions.
Avoid putting your hand or fingers near the blades as they are usually very
sharp and, as the rotor is heavy and easily turned, severe injury can be caused
even if the rotor is turned by hand. Use long-handled brushes and a vacuum
cleaner to clean the rotor and blade assembly. If you must put your hands
anywhere near the blades, then ensure that the rotor is clamped, so that it will
not move.
After cleaning, the blades must be carefully inspected so as to
138 ensure that there is nothing present that will contaminate a subsequent batch
of material. A trial run should be performed to ensure correct operation and a
clean product. Ideally the granulator should be in a separate room from other
equipment as it produces a great deal of noise and dust. A dust mask and
hearing protection should be worn whenever a granulator is used.
Material Changes
During the production process there should be little or no change in the plas-
tic material, as any change is usually undesirable. Some of the changes that
can occur are:
Water Contamination - This is caused by the material absorbing water or by
condensation.
Oxidation - This occurs when plastics are heated in contact with oxygen.
They will oxidize or combine with the oxygen. The first sign of this is a
change in color and then a change in properties.
Overheating - If overheated, even when no air present, plastics may
decompose or degrade. Often gases are produced which can be dangerous.
Dust Contamination - It is easy to generate static electricity on plastics,
which attracts dust, or dirt, very quickly.
As changes and contamination are more common with reclaimed
material than with virgin material, greater care is necessary when dealing with
reclaimed thermoplastic.
Consistent Addition
The exact amount of regrind that is suitable will have to be determined
experimentally. Once found, then the content must be held as precisely as
possible if consistent product is to be obtained. If the feed to the extruder is
not consistent, then inconsistent product will be obtained. The differences
may not be discernible to the naked eye, but they are large enough to cause
rejection of the product, either because of appearance or thickness variation.
So, one must ensure that the agreed ratio is adhered to during production.
No matter what ratio is used, the materials fed to the extruder
must be clean, dry and consistent. It must be emphasized that to obtain a
consistent output, a consistent feed must be used. This is because of the
feeding differences experienced with different feed forms.
Regrind Care
Great care should be taken to ensure that reclaimed material (regrind) is
clean, dry and of regular particle size. If the regrind is dirty, then die or
machine damage may occur and the appearance of the product will suffer. If
the material fed to the machine contains unacceptably high moisture levels,
the properties of the extrudate will be affected. In the case of a clear material,
the clarity may be affected and for all materials (both clear and opaque) the
quality of the surface finish may be reduced by streaking or surface imperfec-
tions.
If the feed is not of consistent particle size, then the material will
not feed in a uniform way and an inconsistent product will be obtained. The
differences between extrudate batches may not be discernible to the naked
eye, but they may be large enough to cause rejection of the product, because
the size of the extrudate is incorrect.
To get the best results from an additive, such as regrind, it must
be very well dispersed throughout the basic polymeric material. Melt mixing,
using a compounding extruder, is important to the polymer industry, as it
gives the good dispersion required. However, such compounding is expen-
sive, so simple, tumble-mixed blends of virgin and reclaim are frequently 139
used. This produces a lower level of dispersion, but will save on costs and
give operational flexibility.

Regrind Stabilization
Care should be taken to ensure that the original material contains sufficient
stabilizer, so that reclamation is possible without degradation, or a color
change, occurring on re-use. It is particularly important with unplasticized
polyvinyl chloride (UPVC), to ensure that adequate stabilizer is present in the
original material. For any thermoplastic material, it is very important to avoid a
long residence time in the extruder barrel, particularly at high melt tempera-
tures, as it will cause material degradation.
Product Identification
Recyclable products or components should be marked with a symbol or
abbreviated term. Legends suitable for the generic identification and marking
of plastics products are suggested by standards organizations such as the
International Standards Organization (see ISO 1043). In the simplest case, the
series of letters associated with a plastic material (See Table 1.) are stamped
onto a product between inverted (reversed angle) brackets (for example,
>ABS<).
ISO has also suggested how to identify fillers, flame-retardant,
plasticizers etc. The presence of a flame retardant may be indicated by a mold-
ed or printed legend which contains FR, as in >PA 66GF30-FR(52)<. This leg-
end shows that the product is made from a nylon 66 material which contains
30% glass fiber. The FR(52) indicates that the nylon contains red phosphorous
(code number 52) as a flame retardant; other flame retardants have their own
number.
MACHINE SETTING AND RUNNING

Process settings refer to details, with regard to the material, the die and the
machine settings used to produce an extrudate, which are recorded on the
process setting sheet. This is a sheet used for keeping a record of data regard-
ing each run. The importance of careful and accurate recording of process set-
tings cannot be over-emphasized. Not only is it useful to have a full and accu-
rate record for machine re-setting, but such records are useful for product lia-
bility reasons and for compliance with ISO 9000 requirements. With date
marking of extrudate now easily possible, the precise details of how a particu-
lar run was produced can be assembled and kept, easily and cheaply. A micro-
processor-based machine will record all relevant data, print it out if required,
and instantly reset the machine when that particular job is re-run. Such instant
re-setting saves a great deal of time and gives more accurate setting.
It must not be forgotten that the object of production is to produce
components/product, of the required quality and quantity, at a specified cost,
within a specified time, and when required. To accomplish this, it is essential
to keep accurate records of how a particular extrudate was produced. Also, it
must not be forgotten that, to be effective, a quality management system must
have excellent record keeping. Accurate documentation helps ensure that
specified procedures are being followed and that such procedures are yielding
the desired results. Records are the objective evidence to demonstrate that
components offered for acceptance meet the purchasers requirements and
that the suppliers inspection system complies with the requirements of the
ASTM, ISO and any other quality standards required.
140 The following is a general outline of what is recommended for
recording. This outline will, however, need to be amended to suit a particular
application.
Extrusion Data Record

Personnel Details
Date Shift
Senior operator Other operators
Machine setter Inspector
Material Details
Material used Supplier Trade name
Grade Lot no. Color
Max moisture content %
Alternative material details
Formulation & Blend Details
Virgin % Regrind % Masterbatch %
Other %
Mixing details
Preheat at C/F for hours.
Extruder Identification
Manufacturers name Model no. Factory ID
Screw type/details
Adapter type Factory ID Heater size/type
Screen pack/breaker plate
Air/vacuum required
Special requirements
Die Identification
Manufacturers name Model no. Factory ID
No. of zones Heater type & details
Air/vacuum required
Ancillary & Downstream Equipment
Details
Air/vacuum required
Safety Equipment
Details
Air/vacuum required
Instructions to Machine Operator
During the run watch out for
Inspect the extrudate every _____minutes and if it does not pass the specified tests
then take the following actions.
Specified tests
Corrective actions
Machine Settings
Temps. Set or Actual or Measured at Time
C/F Target 1 2 3 4 5 6
Drier
Machine hopper
Material
Hopper block
Cold water supply
Barrel - Rear Z1
Middle Z2
Middle Z3
Front Z4
Machine Settings 141
Temps. Set or Actual or Measured at Time
C/F Target 1 2 3 4 5 6

Adapter Z5
Die D1
Die D2
Die D3
Die D4
Die D5
Die D6
Melt M1
Melt M2
Water bath - WB 1
Water bath - WB 2
Water bath - WB 3
Others
Water Flow Rate gals/min or l/s
Oil cooler
Hopper block
Cooling C1
Cooling C2
Cooling C3
Cooling C4
Cooling C5
Pressures psi or N/m2
Air
Water
Melt - 1
Melt - 2
Back pressure
Air Flow Rate cu ft/min or l/s
Drier
Die
Cooling 1
Cooling 2
Cooling 3
Power amps
Main ext motor
Others
Times minutes
Time in drier
Cooling time
Take out time
Speeds m/s or ft/min
Roll/belt (R1)
Roll/belt (R2)
Roll/belt (R3)
Roll/belt (R4)
Roll/belt (R5)
Roll/belt (R6)
Extrudate speed
Speeds rpm
Screw speed
Roll/belt (R1)
Roll/belt (R2)
Roll/belt (R3)
Roll/belt (R4)
Roll/belt (R5)
Roll/belt (R6)
142 Distances mm or inches
Die gap
Die to haul off roll
Freeze line height
Length of water bath-1
Others
Weight kg or lbs
Total extrudate
Trim
Product
Critical Dimensions mm or inches
1
2
3
4
5
Visual appearance
Observations
143
SECTION 7:
section 7: defects and defect determination

DEFECTS AND DEFECT
DETERMINATION
DEFECT DETERMINATION
MINIMIZING DEFECTS
EXTRUSION DEFECTS AND CAUSES
PRODUCTION PROBLEMS AND FLOW
BEHAVIOR
DEFECT DETERMINATION
Defect determination is a procedure used to determine the origin of
a defect. Such a procedure should be logical and systematic if defects are to
be eliminated. This procedure is based upon one suggested by John Brown in
his book Injection Molding of Plastic Components published by McGraw Hill
1979. Defects should be clearly described and all the possible causes for their
occurrence should be examined. When the cause has been identified the nec-
essary steps should be taken to eliminate the defect and to prevent its recur-
rence. Those defects that cause the most rejects should be identified, using
Pareto analysis, and eliminated first.
Equipment Required
Before a defect determination exercise is performed the person concerned
must be equipped with the appropriate equipment. These include:
A pen, notebook and sample marker
Bags or containers to hold the samples
Weighing scales accurate to 0.01 g
A knife and small saw
A magnifying glass
A portable pyrometer
Gauges or jigs for sample measurement
A stopwatch
Samples of the product, that have been approved as being of the
correct quality
A light-box to check the color of the product under standardized conditions
Name the Defect

Many defects are given more than one name. Ensure that the terms used to
name a defect are unambiguous and are known to all concerned. The alterna-
tive names for a defect should be listed and components that exhibit that
defect should be available for inspection and comparison.
Describe the Defect

Describe all common defects in the simplest possible terms. A possible cause
may be revealed by this description. For example, voids in the extrudate from
the presence of moisture may be described as foaming or out-gassing.
144
Defect Percentage
The defects, or rejects, from an extrusion run may be named by such terms
as: voids in extrudate, contamination, degradation, granules/nibs in the out-
put, gassing, color distribution or poor surface finish on the output. The total
(100%) defects, or rejects, are sorted into their named fault categories. The
quantity, in each fault category, is then expressed as a percentage of the total
rejects (Pareto analysis) in a three column league table. The most frequently
seen defect is placed at the top of the table (1st column) followed by the
remaining defects in descending order of their frequency. The percentage of
each defect is entered in the second column with the cumulative percentage
total shown in the third column.
% of Total Cumulative %
1. Voids 35 35
2. Contamination 25 60
3. Degradation 15 75
4. Granules/nibs 10 85
5. Gassing 8 93
6. Poor color distribution 5 98
7. Poor surface finish 2 100
A Pareto diagram may then be drawn of cumulative percentage
(vertical axis) against the type of defect (horizontal axis). The major defect is
placed on the left-hand side and the least common on the right. Such a dia-
gram often shows that the bulk of the defects are of three or four types. This
type of analysis indicates where efforts should be concentrated to eliminate
the most defects in the shortest time.
Procedure
Make a complete record of the machine settings before making any change.
Adjust only one setting at a time, choosing the easiest one first. If this change
does not eliminate the defect, go back to the original settings after making
notes of what was done and taking marked samples of what was produced.
Allow sufficient time for the machine to respond to the changes and to come
to equilibrium with each change before samples are taken.
Defect Cause
Finding the cause of the defect may be a lengthy process since it requires
consideration of material, machine, die and process.
Observe the effect of regrind addition on component properties
and on the processing characteristics (compared to the virgin material). If the
defect is apparent with different lots of the same manufacturers resin or with
material from a different supplier, this indicates the material is not at fault.
If the defect disappears when the production is shifted to another
machine, the source of the problem is most likely the processing conditions
used and/or the consistency of production on the original machine.
If the defect disappears when a different person operates the
machine, then the fault may be due to the operator involved in the process.
Effect of the Defect

If the defect renders the component unusable or non-salable it must be recti-
fied. If it is only of minor significance, then it may be unnecessary to try to
eliminate it entirely. However, clearance to continue production with the minor
fault must be obtained in writing.
145
Defect Responsibility
Determine where the responsibility for the defect lies. This may only be of aca-
section 7: defects and defect determination

demic interest, but if the defect recurs, the operator as well as the material,
machine, die and process needs to be checked.
Avoidance Action
Take immediate, and appropriate action to avoid the defect. If this is not done,
then the reasons for continuing production with the defect should be entered
on the production record sheet.
Prevent Recurrence
Take steps to prevent a recurrence of the defect. Make full records of the con-
ditions used when the defect was present and of the conditions used when it
was eliminated. Note any repairs and alterations that were made to the die or
the machine and any variations in type, grade or quality of material. If rework
is used, note the proportion used and the quality. Keep labeled samples of
what is being produced both with and without the defect.
No defect-determination exercise is complete unless all of the
above points have been considered. Making defective products, even though
they can all be recovered, re-ground and the material used again, is uneco-
nomic and non-productive.
MINIMIZING DEFECTS
In many cases, the production of a product that contains defects can be mini-
mized if the operator makes some basic checks before, and/or during, produc-
tion. For example, he must check that the extruder appears to be functioning
correctly and that the machine is set correctly. The material fed to the machine
must be carefully checked.
Feedstock Checks
With regard to the feedstock, the operator must check that the:
Correct types of material are being used
Correct grade of materials are being used
Correct level of materials (such as masterbatch and regrind) are being used
Material is free of contamination
Material is dry and free from an excessive concentration of fines
Temperature-Related Settings
Temperature-related settings or parameters cause many problems. The opera-
tor must check that the:
Thermocouples are not loose in their mounting holes
Thermocouples are of the correct type
The feed throat is at the correct temperature
The hopper is at the correct temperature
The barrel and die are at the correct temperatures
The melt is at the correct temperatures (in order to be accurate the melt
temperature must be measured with an immersion thermocouple)
The specified volumes of water are circulating through the feed throat and
rolls so they are at the required temperatures
146
Speed Settings
Check that the rotational speed of the screw (in rpm) is being correctly mea-
sured and displayed, and that the draw down, or haul off, speed of the rolls (in
rpm) is being correctly measured and displayed.
Die and Ancillary Equipment Checks

With regard to the die, the operator must check that:
The die lips are clean and polished
The die is properly set
Any adjustable parts of the die function smoothly and correctly
The correct screen pack has been fitted
The ancillary equipment is properly set and that all the parts function
smoothly and correctly
All parts of the die and the ancillary equipment are at the correct tempera-
ture
Consult the Setting Sheet

The operator must also check that the machine is set as specified by the set-
ting sheet and/or, by the supplier of the material. The operator must also check
that the pressures, temperatures and speeds are achieved in production and
that accurate records are kept. Samples of product must be taken at approved
intervals and submitted to quality control.
EXTRUSION DEFECTS AND CAUSES

Process Problem Problem or Type of Defect
(Location or Cause)
Hopper Throat 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19
Bridged **
Cooling faulty * *
Barrel 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19
Feed zone temp too high *
Feed zone temp too low * *
Barrel temps too high * * * *
Barrel temps too low ** * * *
Temp profile wrong * * * * * * * *
Temps fluctuating * *
Cooling required *
Venting required * *
Worn ** * *
Process Problem Problem or Type of Defect
(Location or Cause)
Die 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19
Temps too high * * * *
Temps too low ** * * *
Temps fluctuating * *
Incorrect design * * ** * * * * * * *
Requires adjustment * * *
Requires cleaning ** * * * * *
Process Problem Problem or Type of Defect 147
(Location or Cause)
Screen Pack 12 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 1819
section 8: guides for the following materials

Blocked ** * * *
Wrong rating used * ** * * * *
Screw 12 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 1819
Worn ** * *
Cooling required * * * *
Incorrect design * * * * * * *
Insufficient mixing * * *
Requires cleaning ** * *
Drive System 12 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 1819
RPM varying * *
Drive belts slipping **
Gearbox oil level low *
Gearing incorrect *
Gearbox worn *
Plastic Material 12 3456 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 1819
Requires drying * * *
Polymer quality poor ** ** * ** * *
Wrong grade used * * ** * *
Extrusion Rate 12 3456 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 1819
Too high * * * ** *
Too low * * * *
Additives 12 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 1819
Colorant not premixed * *
Colorant incompatible * * * *
Reclaim contaminated * ** * *
Problem or Type of Defect

1. Low output 11. Color distribution poor
2. Erratic or intermittent output 12. Color variation
3. Surging output 13. Poor surface finish on the output
4. Voids in extrudate 14. Streaks in the output
5. Contamination 15. Excessive barrel pressure
6. Degradation 16. Temperature over-shoot
7. Varying viscosity 17. Material leakage
8. Granules/nibs in the output 18. High motor amperage
9. Gassing 19. Material adheres to screw
10. Uneven flow
PRODUCTION PROBLEMS AND FLOW

BEHAVIOR
Since most processes for plastics involve flow, one might expect that rheolog-
ical concepts would be understood and widely used. In practice, however,
quantitative application of rheology is still somewhat limited. This is because
of the complex nature of the flow behavior of polymer melts, the complicated
flow patterns involved in many shaping operations (for example, the filling of a
profile die), and the fact that melt cooling occurs while the melt is still flowing.
Nevertheless, an understanding of flow behavior can often help to overcome
processing problems. The use of computer programs, which combine rheo-
logical and thermal data, is very important in computer-aided design and engi-
neering.
148
Effect of Flow Channel Shape
For a flow channel of a fixed cross-sectional area, greater flow rates occur
when the channel is circular than when it is in the form of a slit. It can be
shown that the narrower the slit, even though the crosssectional area is the
same, the lower the flow rate (under a constant delivery pressure). This differ-
ence is relevant in the extrusion of complex shapes, where the extruded
crosssection is made up of components of different thickness and shape.
The extrudate cross-section may be in the form of a dumbbell with
two almost spherical parts being bridged by a slit. In this case, flow will tend
to be faster in the round sections and slower in the bridging slit, leading to
undue stretching, and possible tearing, of the central parts of the extrudate.
Even worse defects may occur when the extrudate cross-section is like a half
dumbbell, or key cross-section, with one circular section attached to a slit. In
this case the extrudate will tend to curl up as it leaves the die.
While such designs are best avoided, the problem may be solved
by reducing the parallel portion of the die in those regions where the flow is
slowest (in the above examples, in the slit zones). Alternatively, one may
throttle the flow in the regions where flow is fastest by the use of a pin or
mandrel, inserted in the flow channel at the entrance to the die parallel.
Unbalanced Flow in Tubular Extrusion

Tubing is made by extruding polymers through the annular gap between a cir-
cular die and a pin or mandrel. It is sometimes found that the inside wall of
the tube has a number of transverse ripples that arise from variations in radial
flow velocity through the die.
To understand this phenomenon, consider the following. In a sim-
ple rod die the flow rates is greatest in the center of the die and zero, or
almost zero, at the wall (with simple Newtonian liquids, such as water, the
velocity profile is parabolic in shape. The viscoelastic behavior of polymer
melts usually makes this profile somewhat flatter). If one extrudes over a very
thin pin (of a thickness approximating to that of a thin piece of wire) the
velocity profile will be little affected. The flow rate a short distance from the
thin pin will be much greater than the flow rate the same distance from the
die wall. As the diameter of the pin is increased the difference becomes less.
However, the flow rates will be higher nearer to the pin than to the die wall.
Since the melt is coming out faster on the inside of the tube this tends to
cause buckling and hence rippling on the inside of the tube. One way of
reducing this is to fit a restrictor bulge or ring around the pin to slow the flow
in this region.
Uneven Die Swell

As a general rule, die swell will increase with shear rate and decrease with the
length of the die parallel. If a complex section with varying cross-sections is
being extruded, then different shear rates will exist at the walls of the different
crosssections. The shear rates are the highest where the cross-section is
least. It may be possible to compensate for these differences when carrying
out die sizing (See Sizing of Die Components). However, if it is found that at
one point the swell is lower than elsewhere, then the die parallel at that cross-
section may be reduced to compensate. If this is done, then one should
machine the back end of the die parallel and ensure that all changes in cross-
section are gradual.
Die Swell and Parison Sag

In extrusion blow molding, it is common to extrude a parison vertically down-
ward. The wall thickness, and thus the tube diameters, will tend to increase, 149
due to die swell, while at the same time they will also tend to decrease as the
parison sags under its own weight. While the swell effect will be independent

of parison length, the sag will increase as the tube length increases. It is pos-
sible to compensate for this by using a tapered die and pin that can be made
to move axially, with respect to each other, to open the die gap during the
extrusion of the parison. The parison movement may be programmed either
as the result of trial and error experiments, or by use of theoretical data.
Melt Fracture and Sharkskin

It is often found that surface defects on an extrudate will show a regular pat-
tern on the surface. With large diameter extrudates, this is likely to be in the
form of roughness transverse to the direction of flow, called sharkskin. With
smaller diameter products, it is a helical form called melt fracture. If the prob-
lem appears to be melt fracture, then the following possibilities should be con-
sidered:
1. Reduce output rate (not usually commercially desirable)
2. Increase the melt temperature (which will increase cooling times)
3. Taper the die entry further
4. Taper the die parallel by up to 1
5. Use a polymer of lower molecular weight
If the problem is identified as sharkskin, then the following possi-
bilities should be considered:
1. Reduce output rate
2. Vary the die temperatures. Either raising or lowering of the die body tem-
perature may help, while extra heating of the die exit may be particularly
beneficial
Steady State Operation

Unlike injection molding, extrusion is a continuous operation that requires
keeping the materials used, and the operating conditions, constant over very
long periods. Changes to machine settings or controls should be made only
after due consideration. If changes in settings (such as speed or temperature)
are considered necessary, then they should be altered one at a time. After each
change, a reasonable time should be allowed for the system to equilibrate.
The operator must appreciate that the reaction time of the extruder
to changes differs significantly, depending upon what is being altered. For
example, a change in pressure will cause a rapid change in extrudate output
and power input. However, a change in a barrel temperature setting will take
longer to come to equilibrium, because of the thermal mass of the machine,
together with associated output and power input variations. Screw speed
changes will also cause a rapid change in extrudate output and power input. It
will, however, cause a much slower change in the melt and machine tempera-
tures.
150
SECTION 8:
GUIDES FOR THE FOLLOWING
MATERIALS
ABS (Acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene)
HIPS (High impact polystyrene)
PA 6 (Nylon 6)
PA 66 (Nylon 66)
LDPE (Low density polyethylene)
LLDPE (Linear low density polyethylene)
HDPE (High density polyethylene)
PP (Polypropylene)
PMMA (Polymethyl methacrylate)
PPVC (Plasticized polyvinyl chloride)
UPVC (Unplasticized polyvinyl chloride)
ABS
1. Common Name Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene
2. Abbreviation(s) ABS
3. Alternative Names
ABS plastics: styrene/copolymer blends; ABS copolymer; ABS terpolymer
4. Some Suppliers 5.Trade Names or Trade Marks
A Schulman Inc. Polyman ABS
Ashley Polymers Inc. Ashlene
BASF Terluran
Bayer Novodur
Chi Mei Corp Polylac
ComAlloy International Corp. Comalloy ABS
Daicel Polymers Cevian
Dow Carbide Magnum
DSM (Dutch State Mines) Ronfalin
Elf Atochem S.A. Arrhadur
EniChem Sinkral
Ferro Corp Starflam ABS (ABSFR)
General Electric Co. - see G.E. Plastics
G.E. Plastics Cycolac
G.E. Plastics (Fr.) Ugikral
Hoechst Daicel Polymers Cevian
Industrial Resistol Epolan
Lati Lastilac
LG Chemicals LG ABS
LNP Engineering Plastics Thermocomp (ABS-30%GF)
Monsanto Lustran
Monsanto Lustran Ultra ABS 151
Polikemi AB Polyblend (PC/ABS)
RhnePoulenc Chimie Alcoryl

RTP RTP 605 (ABS-30%GF)
Snia Sniasan
Thai Petrochemicals Porene
Thermofil Inc. Thermofil ABS
Toray Industries Inc. Toyolac
ABS Alloys - other Material(s) Not Known
Hoechst Daicel Polymers Novalloy
ABS/PA Alloys
DSM (Dutch State Mines) Stapron M
DSM (Dutch State Mines) Staloy N
ABS/PBT
Daicel Polymers Novalloy B
ABS/PC
Bayer Bayblend
Daicel Polymers Novalloy S
Enichem Koblend
G.E. Plastics Cycoloy
Lati Lastilac
DSM (Dutch State Mines) Stapron C
ABS/PSU
USS Chemicals Arylon T
ABS/PVC
DSM (Dutch State Mines) Ronfaloy V
6. Material Properties
ABS plastics were originally made by blending a lightly cross-
linked nitrile rubber (NBR) into an styrene-acrylonitrile (SAN) copolymer.
These materials are now commonly produced by polymerizing styrene and
acrylonitrile, in the presence of polybutadiene (BR), in the latex form. This
process results in a product consisting of BR grafted with styrene-acrylonitrile
(SAN) copolymer. The grafted BR phase (the rubbery phase) is then melt com-
pounded with rigid (SAN) material to give ABS. Also added at this stage are
additives such as stabilizers, lubricants and colorants. The plastic phase,
which is usually called the rigid phase, is SAN which comprises more than
70% of the total composition. The grafted polybutadiene phase, which has a
high rubber content, may also be used as an impact modifier for other plastics
such as polyvinyl chloride (PVC).
By varying the monomer ratios, the way in which they are com-
bined, the size (and the amount) of the rubber particles, the cross-link density
of the rubber particles, and the molecular weight of the SAN, it is possible to
produce a wide range of materials. These variations lead to materials that may
differ in their impact strength, ease of flow, color, etc. In general, as the mole-
cular weight of the SAN is increased, the strength and rigidity of the ABS
increases. As the rubber content increases the impact increases, but the
strength, hardness, heat resistance and rigidity of the ABS decrease. This fam-
ily of materials can be divided into injection molding grades and extrusion
grades. In turn, each of these two major divisions can be sub-divided into
medium, high and very high impact grades. There are also other grades such
as high heat, plating and flame retardant grades.
In general, ABS is a hard, tough material with good resistance to
impact, even at low temperatures. It has low water absorption and is a good
electrical insulator. The electrical properties are unaffected by changes in
humidity. It is usually available in opaque colors, although translucent material
152 and colors are available. The moldings can have a high gloss, are dimension-
ally stable and give good reproduction of the mold surface. The molded sur-
face is resistant to scuffing, but the material has poor weathering properties.
It has superior heat resistance and impact strength compared to TPS. It has a
higher flexural modulus than PP, which often permits lower wall thickness,
and, as it is an amorphous material, it is faster cycling. It is not as notch sen-
sitive as PC and PA.
The highest gloss levels are achieved with moderate melt tempera-
tures, high mold temperatures, fast filling speeds and moderate packing pres-
sure. For electroplating applications, it is necessary to produce injection mold-
ings with low levels of internal stress. For a given material, the levels of resid-
ual stress are governed by the molding conditions employed. In general, dur-
ing injection molding, the lowest levels of residual (internal) stress are pro-
duced by using high melt temperatures, high mold temperatures and slow
cooling rates. If relatively small gates are employed, the use of fast injection
speeds may result in low levels of internal stress. If large gates are employed,
the use of slow injection speeds is usually recommended. Melt and mold tem-
peratures should be as high as possible and the packing pressure moderate.
The use of such conditions will also minimize warping.
By blending ABS with other plastics, it is possible to extend the
range of use. For example, the use of PC or SMA improves the heat distortion
temperature, while the use of PVC improves flame retardancy. These alloys
have higher viscosities than standard ABS. Typically the ratio of ABS:PVC is
80:20. By blending ABS with chlorinated polyethylene (CPE), a type of ther-
moplastic elastomer (TPE) may be produced, which has improved tear and
abrasion resistance (compared to the unmodified material). The addition of
approximately 10% of a liquid polybutylene (polybutenes are viscous, non-
drying liquids) to an ABS, can double its impact strength at both room tem-
peratures and -40EC/-40EF. This type of blend can have melt viscosities and
heat deflection temperatures similar to the unmodified material. There may be
a modest decrease, however, in tensile and flexural properties.
If, during polymerization, part or all of the styrene is replaced by
-methylstyrene (AMS), a high heat grade, with increased heat resistance, is
produced. Alloys with styrene-maleic anhydride (SMA) also give high heat
grades that have a lower melt viscosity at a reasonable cost. Clear ABS grades
may be made by using methyl methacrylate (MMA) as a fourth monomer
and/or, by blending ABS with PMMA; this improves the transparency, as it
helps to match the refractive index of the other materials. When low levels of
polymerization emulsifier are used during manufacture, grades are produced
that offer up to approximately 80% light transmission and a haze level of
10%. Other properties are similar to those of medium impact, standard ABS
materials.
By the incorporation of CPE into SAN, ABS-type materials known
as ACS result. These have better flame retardancy, heat resistance, weather-
ability and resistance to dust deposition than ABS, but they have poorer pro-
cessing stability. Olefin modified SAN results from the incorporation of olefin
elastomers into SAN. They have properties similar to ABS, but have better
weathering properties.
Styrene plastics are not naturally flame resistant although their
flame resistance can be improved by the use of flame retardant additives,
such as a bromine compound and antimony trihydrate (ATH). Octabromo
diphenyl oxide (OBDPO) is often suggested for use in ABS, although high lev-
els may be required (for example, 15 parts per hundred of resin (phr) of
bromine may be needed). The bromine content of ABS compounds needs to
be approximately 50% higher than those based on HIPS. Compounds based
on 1,2-bis-(2,4,6-tribromo phenoxy) ethane (TBPE) are preferred where rea- 153
sonable light stability is required, although mixing/dispersion is often poor and
the FR compound has relatively poor thermal stability compared to OBDPO.

Because of the level of use, and the relatively stiff flow behavior of ABS, FR
additives that ease the flow are to be preferred. ABS/PVC blends are flame
retardant, but the PVC reduces the processing stability relative to ABS.
7. Flow Properties
ABS materials usually have high viscosities compared to PS. The Vicat soften-
ing point of ABS is approximately 103C/218F. However, this depends on type
of ABS: the higher the impact strength, the lower the Vicat softening point and
the stiffer the flow. In general, extrusion grades have much higher viscosities
than injection molding grades. Extrusion grades have melt flow index (MFI), or
melt flow rate values (MFR), measured at 200C/392F and 21.6 kg from 3 to
14 (if measured at 220C/428F and 10 kg the range is from 1 to 8). The most
viscous grades are for applications where toughness is necessary, such as
drainage pipes. For producing sheet for refrigerators, a grade with intermedi-
ate MFR is used. The following table shows how viscosity varies for a relative-
ly viscous grade. However, it should be noted that because of the great range
of options in the chemical structure of an ABS compound, the range of viscos-
ity values is wide. For example, over the same range of conditions, a heat
resistant grade may have viscosities from 8600 to 700 Ns/m2.
Shear Rate (s-1) Viscosity (Pa-s)
(420F/216C) (450F/232C) (480F/249C)
20 3450 2570 1880
40 2440 1810 1324
100 1540 1140 840
200 1080 810 590
400 770 570 420
8. Resistant to:
ABS is more resistant to organic chemicals (such as carbon tetrachloride)
than polystyrene (PS). The chemical resistance of ABS depends upon the
styrene-acrylonitrile (SAN) continuous phase. Increasing the level of SAN,
increases the level of chemical resistance.
ABS is resistant to staining and to water, alkalis (up to 66C/
150F), acids (not concentrated oxidizing acids), inorganic salt solutions (acid
salts, alkaline salts and neutral salt solutions), oils and fats. It is also resistant
to the majority of alcohols and hydrocarbons, although some may mar the
surface. Concentrated phosphoric and hydrochloric acid have little effect. Most
products have good environmental stress cracking (ESC) resistance. It is
resistant to most wet and dry gases, but not to wet sulfur dioxide.
9. Not Resistant to:
In general, this type of material has poor organic solvent resistance. They
exhibit, poor resistance to aromatic hydrocarbons (such as benzene, toluene
and xylene), esters, ethers, ketones, chlorinated hydrocarbons, methylene
chloride, ethylene chloride, trichloroethylene and pdichlorobenzene. In general,
ABS is acid resistant, but it is not resistant to 65% nitric acid, perchloric acid
and greater than 50% sulfuric acid. It is also not resistant to ammonium
hydroxide at elevated temperatures (at 66C/150F or higher). It is also lacks
resistance to amines and hot alcohols.
Because of the butadiene rubber content, HIPS and ABS are very
susceptible to light degradation. This commences at the surface and spreads
into inner layers, resulting in a rapid loss of properties, such as impact
strength. Surface protection is given by a hindered amine light stabilizer
(HALS) such as the comparatively low molecular weight HALS bis-(2,2,6,6,-
tetramethyl-4-piperidyl) sebacate. A UV absorber of the 2-hydroxyphenyl ben-
154 zotriazole class protects the deeper layers. Mixed stabilizer systems are often
much more efficient than a single stabilizer.
For most applications an antioxidant is required for ABS, as the
rubber component of the material is subject to oxidation during drying and
during melt processing. Antioxidants used include butylated hydroxytoluene
(BHT), octadecyl-3-(3,5-di-t-butyl-4-hydroxy-phenyl)-propionate, 2,2'-methyl-
ene-bis-(4-methyl-6-t-butyl-phenol), 2,2'methylene-bis-(4-ethyl-6-t-butyl-phe-
nol), 2,2'-methylene-bis(4-methyl-6-cyclohexyl-phenol) or 2,2'-methylene-
bis-(4-methyl-6-nonyl-phenol). These are sterically-hindered phenols which
act as chain breaking antioxidants. A preventative antioxidant (such as, dilau-
ryl thiodipropionate) may also be used at a total concentration of AO of up to
0.25%.
10. Material Detection or Identification
With a density of 1.07 g/cm3, the solid, non-filled material will sink in water
and float in saturated magnesium chloride. Shrinkage is of the order of 0.004
to 0.008 in/in or mm/mm, that is, 0.4%-0.8%. The addition of 20% glass fiber
will raise the density to approximately 1.20 g/cm3 but the shrinkage is reduced
to 0.2%-0.4%.
A wide color range is possible if the natural base color is ivory or
white, depending upon the type of polymerization process used, the ingredi-
ents used, etc. The ratio of A:B:S is generally in the range 20:30:50.
ABS begins to melt at approximately 175C/350F, and the melt vis-
cosity steadily drops as the temperature is increased. At approximately
290C/550F, it begins to decompose via depolymerization and oxidation reac-
tions. When this material is heated in a flame, it burns with a yellow sooty
flame and gives off an acrid alkaline odor that also smells of rubber. It burns
easily (ordinary grades) and continues to burn when the flame is removed.
Burning drops are formed. A common feature of all styrene plastics is their
resistance to aqueous media such as salt solutions, acids of medium concen-
tration and alkalis. Aliphatic hydrocarbons, like heptane and cyclohexane,
readily attack PS and TPS but do not affect SAN and ABS. Carbon tetrachlo-
ride attacks SAN and ABS only slowly, but quickly attacks PS and TPS. ABS
may therefore be distinguished from TPS by its better resistance to carbon
tetrachloride. TPS has better resistance to methyl alcohol.
11. Coloring
A range of techniques can be used to color ABS. These include dry coloring,
master batches and liquid coloring. Dry coloring has always been considered
to be the most difficult technique for ABS; however, this is not so. Dry color-
ing of ABS is a little trickier than with other common materials because the
material exhibits several disadvantages (from a coloring point of view). For
example; it absorbs moisture, has a variable base color, is opaque and
requires fairly high processing temperatures. Nonetheless, by matching the
make and grade of ABS with suitable colorants, and by using the correct
material drying and colorant mixing procedures (see HIPS or TPS), very
good, consistent results are obtained.
The color concentrates (master batches) used for ABS are of the
universal or of the ABS-based types. A typical let down ratio (concentration)
for the universal type is 1% to 2% whereas a ratio of between 3% to 7% is
used for the ABS-based masterbatch. Before using a universal masterbatch it
is important to ascertain its compatibility with ABS. Pastel shades can now be
readily achieved with ABS due to the availability of polymers with a lighter
(that is, whiter) base color.
Liquid colors are used for ABS at a concentration level of between
1% to 1.5%. Concentrations above these figures can sometimes lead to prob-
lems, including screw slippage and variable output.
12. Materials Handling 155
These materials are hygroscopic and will absorb 0.2% to 0.35% water in 24
hours at room temperature. This moisture content does not greatly affect the

mechanical properties, but if it is above 0.03% the surface finish of extrudates
is seriously affected. Therefore, if the material has absorbed more than 0.03%
moisture content, it should be dried before use (in a hot air oven for 2 to 4 hrs
at 80C to 85C/175F to 185F) or in a desiccant drier for 1 to 2 hrs at 80C/
175F. Strict control of material storage (that is, FI-FO) can help eliminate
extensive drying operations. Pre-warming the material may also improve
processability.
Dry PC/ABS blends at 100C/212F. Reground material will tend to
absorb moisture more quickly than virgin and therefore should always be
dried before use. Keep the regrind level constant but below 30%.
The thermal stability of ABS is not as good as PS. At high melt
temperatures, fumes can be a problem. Ensure that adequate fume extraction
or removal is available over the die or the vent on a vented barrel machine.
Gravity feed hoppers are adequate, but should be covered to reduce the mois-
ture uptake. Material should not remain on the top layer of the hopper for
more than an hour or so. If this is likely to be the case, use either vacuum
hoppers or purge the top airspace with a dry gas such as nitrogen. Heated
hoppers will also reduce the risk of moisture uptake.
13. Screw and Barrel Design
If single stage screws are used, the barrel should have an L/D ratio of at least
24:1 and a compression ratio of between 2.7 and 3:1. Two stage screws are
preferred and a vented barrel. Vacuum venting of the barrel is recommended.
In the following table typical values are given for a 30:1, two stage
screw. All dimensions given are in inches and the figures in brackets refer to
zone lengths. In this design, the pump ratio (that is, the ratio of the depth of
the second stage metering zone to the first stage metering zone) is 1.75. The
pump ratio measures approximately the relative conveying capacity of the sec-
ond stage compared to the first stage. If it is below about 1.5 then flooding of
the vent can occur, while if it is above 2 then surging of the output is possible.
Diameter (D in inches) 2.5 3.5 4.5
1st feed depth (6 D) 0.43 0.55 0.60
Compression (6 D)
1st metering depth (6 D) 0.16 0.20 0.23
Decompression (1 D)
Vent zone depth (4 D) 0.53 0.68 0.75
Compression (2 D)
2nd metering depth (5 D) 0.27 0.35 0.40
14. Barrel and Die Temperatures
When manufacturing pipes and profiles, the melt temperatures used are
between 230C to 245C/445F to 465F. For sheet manufacture, the range is
from 220C to 250C/430F to 475F. The table below shows typical tempera-
ture settings used to achieve these melt temperature. Note that in sheet manu-
facture, often the temperatures at the outside of the die are set higher than
those inside to encourage flow to the edges of the sheet.
Temperatures F C
Zone 1 400 205
Zone 2 425 220
Zone 3 440 230
Adapter and die 460 240
156 Please note that it is the melt temperature that is important. The
temperatures given in the table are only suggested, initial settings. Check all
temperatures regularly. Accurate temperature control is essential to prevent
overheating of the polymer within the die. This is particularly important when
processing colored compounds, as shade variation will occur as a result of
the overheating; particularly for flame retardant grades of ABS (FR-ABS).
Maximum barrel residence time is dependent upon temperature.
For example, at a temperature of 265C/509F the maximum residence time in
the barrel should not exceed 5 to 6 minutes. When the temperature is
280C/536F then the maximum residence time in the barrel should not exceed
2 to 3 minutes. Flame retardant grades can present a degradation problem in
the event of a stoppage. If any unforeseen delays occur, then reduce the barrel
temperatures to 120C/248F and before recommencing production, purge
with a standard grade of ABS. Variations in the barrel residence time may
cause color changes which may only develop on storage. Some ABS products
may appear satisfactory when produced, but may develop brown or yellow
streaks on storage. This is thought to be due to the cylinder residence time
being too long or to be due to over-heating.
15. Die Design and Construction
Since ABS materials show a tendency to degrade, low melt volume in the die
and smooth flow paths are required, as in PVC dies. For sheet production,
streamlined coat-hanger dies, operated at pressures between 1500 and 3500
psi, are recommended. All internal surfaces in contact with the melt should be
chrome plated. In general, dies with both choker bar and flex-lip adjustment
are the best. Heaters should be located in zones, so the sides of the die can
be set at a temperature different from that of the center. Die gap is set about
the same as the sheet thickness, as there is little draw down which minimizes
reversion. Even so, some orientation does occur in the machine direction. The
land length should be at least 10 times the sheet thickness and is usually
more for sheet below about 0.125 in. Deckels as a means of reducing sheet
width are not recommended, as ABS will degrade in the stagnant area behind
them. Deckels also disturb the designed flow pattern and lead to thick edges
on the sheet. These edges may prevent the center of the sheet from correctly
contacting the polishing rolls.
If there is sufficient flexibility in the die, then, for the production of
sheet, with a thickness less than the die gap, the edges should be set to give
thin sheet that can be trimmed and reused.
16. Downstream Operations
In pipe production, good results are obtained by using vacuum sizing equip-
ment. Pipes should have a temperature of no more than 75C/170F after leav-
ing the cooling bath. If the melt temperature used to produce the pipe is
240C/464F, then the cooling bath must be capable of removing 338 Joules
(J) of heat for each gram produced. In the temperature range quoted, the spe-
cific heat of an unmodified grade of ABS is approximately 2050 J/kgK.
For sheet production, the material is fed from the die horizontally
into the nip of a three-roll polishing stack. These rolls are chrome plated, and
should have a surface finish of 3 to 6 microns to achieve a good surface fin-
ish on the sheet. The diameter of the rolls must be large enough to remove
the heat from the sheet. Thus, larger rolls are required as the output rate
increases and as the thickness of the sheet increases. As an approximation,
the following formulae can be used to estimate roll diameter (inches) from
line speed (feet per minute).
For 0.1 in (100 mil) sheet, roll diameter = 2 x line speed
For 200 mil sheet, roll diameter = 32 x line speed
For 300 mil sheet, roll diameter = 5 x line speed
The roll stack can be a downstack (where the sheet travels down) 157
or an up stack. In downstack operations, for good high gloss finish, the sheet
surface temperature should be between 154C to 177C/310F to 350F as it

enters the second nip and between 99C to 121C/210F to 250F when it
leaves the bottom roll. Upstacks are often used for thick sheet and when
embossing, with the embossing roll in the middle. Temperatures for the rolls
are shown in the table in degrees Fahrenheit (F).
Roll Downstack Upstack (for Embossing)
Top roll 175 to 225 180 to 220
Middle roll 150 to 175 200 to 250
Bottom roll 175 to 225 150 to 170
Sheets below about 0.3" in thickness can be shear cut, while thick-
er sheets are best cut by saw. Stacked sheet is wrapped in PE film to reduce
moisture absorption and dirt contamination.
17. Extrusion Capacity
Output depends on the extruder, sheet thickness and cooling system. The
table below shows some typical figures for a sheet line.
Extruder Diameter Output lb/hr
(Sheet <0.05 in) (0.3 in sheet)
2.5 in 220 to 440 140 to 280
3.5 in 480 to 880 310 to 570
4.5 in 900 to 1600 580 to 1000
6 in 1800 to 3500 1200 to 2400
18. Starting Up
ABS presents no special problems. If the line has not been purged but con-
tains ABS, do not leave it at operating temperatures for more than about 20
minutes before starting to extrude, slowly. A low initial screw speed is espe-
cially important if static mixing devices are present. Check pressures, motor
current and extrudate temperature.
19. Shutting Down
Fire retardant (FR) grades should be purged first with a standard ABS grade. If
temperatures are dropped at once, then ABS can be left in the extruder and
die. However, if the equipment is to be left at temperature for any length of
time, purge with GPPS. Purging with GPPS is also recommended before
cleaning. Immerse purged resin into cold water to stop fuming. There are no
problems in changing from one grade to another. When changing to ABS from
another material, purge first with PS, PMMA, or PE.
20. Reprocessing
When ABS is reclaimed, it is suggested that no more than 30% regrind should
be blended with the virgin material. Care should also be taken when adding
regrind, as the Vicat softening point (VSP) and impact properties may be low-
ered, depending upon the percentage added. Heavy-duty grinders are required
to prepare ABS regrind. Take care not to introduce any incompatible material,
as this will result in delamination and brittleness in the extruded component.
Regrind must be dried.
If a flame-retardant (FR) grade is being reprocessed then it must
be confirmed that the FR additive can withstand the extra processing involved
without degradation and/or loss of flame retardancy.
21. Finishing
ABS can be welded by hot air, heated tool, friction and ultrasonic methods.
Methyl ethyl ketone and methylene chloride may be used to solvent weld this
type of material. Products may be decorated by printing, embossing, or metal-
lizing, after suitable surface treatments, deglazing for electroplating and static
158 removal for printing. ABS can be readily machined, that is, drilled, milled,
turned, and sawn on conventional metalworking machines. The types of cut-
ters used are similar to those used for non-ferrous alloys (for example, brass
and bronze). Because of its poor thermal conductivity, it is important to cool,
with air or liquid, during the machining operation in order to achieve the
desired surface finish and/or accuracy. Extrudates should be carefully handled
and/or wrapped as they scratch easily.
22. Other Comments
Transparent grades are usually supplied tinted, as in their natural state a slight
milkiness is apparent. Glass reinforced grades are available for extrusion.
23. Typical Products
ABS has useful properties from -40C to 100C/-40F to 212F. It has a high
notched impact strength (can reach 11.5 ft lbs per inch of notch), a heat dis-
tortion temperature that can be 100C/212F, good stiffness, excellent process-
ability, a high gloss appearance and moderate cost. The properties of ABS can
be tailored to emphasize a specific property (like heat resistance or impact
strength) to satisfy specific customer requirements. ABS also has good
dimensional stability and low creep.
ABS is widely used for pipe and pipe fittings, as these may be
readily joined, one to the other, and yet are chemically resistant. The excellent
surface finish and toughness of ABS are an advantage. It is used for profile
because its excellent surface finish and toughness are advantages in this
application. The major product is extruded sheet, which is thermoformed into
refrigerator housings, caravan roofs, small boats and other smaller less glam-
orous items. The appliance market uses ABS for power tools, vacuum clean-
ers, fans and kitchen appliances. A major growth area is in the business
machine and consumer electronics sector, where this material is used in com-
puter housings, word processors and copying machines. Laser-markable
grades of ABS are now available which are cheaper than polybutylene tere-
phthalate (PBT) and are more versatile. With PBT only dark colors on a light
background can be generated, while with ABS light marking on a dark back-
ground is possible. Components which give electromagnetic shielding (EMI),
may be made by the incorporation of conductive materials such as carbon
fiber, graphite fiber or aluminum flake into the base material.
PC/ABS blends are used where the heat resistance of ABS is not
good enough. Transparent grades of ABS offer direct competition to PC where
moderate impact properties and clarity are required. ABS/PA 6 blends are
used where the fatigue and chemical resistance of ABS is not good enough.
The impact resistance of the blend is approximately twice the sum of that for
ABS and PA combined. ABS contributes stiffness and good appearance. PA
contributes fatigue and chemical resistance.
24. Yield
The following assume a density of 1.05 g/cm3
Sheet of 0.1 in thickness has a surface area of 1.83 sq ft/lb weight
Sheet of 2 mm thickness has a surface area of 0.48 sgm/kg weight
Film of 0.002 in (200 gauge) thickness has a surface area 91.7 sq ft/lb
weight
Film of 50 microns thickness has a surface area of 19.0 sgm2/kg
Tube of 3/8 in internal diameter (ID) and a 1/16 in wall thickness has a
length of 25.6 ft/lb weight
Tube of 10 mm ID and 1.5 mm wall thickness has a length of 17.5 m/kg
Pipe of wall thickness 0.1 in and an ID of 4 in has a length of 1.50/lb weight
Pipe of wall thickness 2 mm and an ID of 100 mm has a length of 1.32
m/kg

159
HIPS
1. Common Name High-impact polystyrene

2. Abbreviation(s) HIPS: PS-HI: TPS: IPS
The abbreviation SB (standing for styrene modified by an elastomer based on
butadiene) is sometimes used but it is not recommended as it can lead to con-
fusion with other styrene/butadiene plastics such as styrene butadiene block
copolymers.
Toughened polystyrene (TPS): rubber modified polystyrene: rubber toughened
polystyrene: impact polystyrene (IPS).
4. Some Suppliers 5. Trade Names or Trade Marks
Atochem Lacqrene
Bamberger Polymers Bapolan HIPS
B.A.S.F. Polystyrol, Avantra
CdF. Chemie Gedex
Chevron Chemical Gulf HIPS
Dart Dart HIPS
Dongbu Petrochemicals Solarene
Dow Carbide Aim, Styron HIPS
Fina Chemicals Terblends (TIPS based on
Finaclear (SB) and Finaprene
(radial SBS)
Huls Vestyron
Huntsman Chemicals Huntsman PS
Idemitsu Petrochemical Polystar
Lati Lastirol
LG Chemical LG HIPS
Mobil Chemical Mobil HIPS
Monsanto Lustrex
EniChem Edistir
Neste Neste PS
Nova Chemicals Nova
Shell Carinex
Shuman Plastics Shuman HIPS
Spartech SC2
Sterling Sternite
Thermofil Thermofil HIPS
HIPS is traditionally made by polymerizing styrene in the presence of butadi-
ene rubber. A polybutadiene rubber (BR) is dissolved in styrene, and on poly-
merization of the styrene (caused by heat and catalysts), the rubber comes out
of solution to form fine rubber particles suspended in the plastic phase. These
rubber particles are also chemically grafted, or bonded, to the polystyrene
matrix. This grafting gives a material with much higher impact strength than
PS, but with lower tensile strength, stiffness, hardness and Vicat softening
point. The transparency and surface gloss of PS are also lost by the incorpo-
ration of the rubber. Originally styrene-butadiene rubber (SBR) was used for
making HIPS, but was replaced by BR, for technical reasons, in the late sixties
and early seventies.
Normally the resistance of HIPS to degradation by light is poor,
and the material has lower resistance to chemicals than general-purpose poly-
styrene (PS or GPPS). The impact strength increases as the rubber content is
increased, but the tensile strength, stiffness, hardness and Vicat softening
point fall. A very high impact grade may have a density of only 1.02 g/cm3,
160 although, in general, the densities of HIPS and PS are similar. High impact
grades may be made from high-cis polybutadiene and the material contains
approximately 9% rubber. Such high impact grades may also be made from
master batches, if required. Medium impact grades (ordinary grades) con-
tain 3% to 7% rubber, often based on low-cis polybutadiene, are used as sup-
plied unless master-batched for coloring purposes.
HIPS is not as good an electrical insulator as PS, but is cheap and
easily processed. HIPS exhibits a lower water absorption than acrylonitrile-
butadiene-styrene (ABS) (the 24 hr absorption of HIPS is approximately
0.05% to 0.08%, whereas for ABS it is about 0.2% to 0.35%). The properties
of these two materials overlap in some ways, although, in general, ABS is
harder, stronger and more chemically resistant. High gloss, high impact
grades of HIPS are now available. The gloss ratings are comparable to, and in
some cases better than, ABS. By the use of appropriate additives, the fire and
UV resistance of HIPS may be dramatically improved.
Styrene plastics are not naturally flame resistant, although it can
be improved by the use of flame retardant (FR) additives. For example, hous-
ings for electrical/electronic equipment, appliances and tools are often made
from flame retardant high impact polystyrene (FR-HIPS) and flame retardant
acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene (FR-ABS). Flame retardancy can be imparted
by bromine compounds (such as decabromo diphenyl oxide (DBDPO) in the
case of HIPS and octabromo diphenyl oxide (OBDPO) in the case of ABS) and
antimony trihydrate (ATH)). The bromine content of FR-ABS needs to be
approximately 50% higher than that of FR-HIPS.
Transparent grades of a type of rubber toughened polystyrene,
which is not generally considered as HIPS, may be made by blending poly-
styrene (PS) with styrene-butadiene-styrene (SBS) block copolymer and/or
with styrene-butadiene (SB) block copolymer. This gives a material that may
be referred to as transparent impact polystyrene (TIPS) or as, SBS toughened
polystyrene (SBS may also be added to high impact polystyrene so as to give
a type of super-high impact polystyrene). By combining the three materials, in
different ratios, transparency, cost and impact strength can be optimized.
Such blended materials may be referred to as terblends. Such terblends can
be extruded into flat sheet and also into blown film. The SBS gives elasticity
and toughness in the transparent extruded material.
7. Flow Properties
HIPS can be a very easy flowing material. It tends to flow more easily than
GPPS. For extrusion use, the ease of flow is assessed by measuring melt flow
rate or index (MFR or MFI) at 200C/392F and with a weight of 5 kg. The
HIPS extrusion grades have MFR values of between 2 and 10. For the produc-
tion of sheet, the MFR used is typically between 2 to 4, with the lower value
being used for sheet for thin-walled vacuum forming.
It is common to blend HIPS with PS to obtain the required balance
of toughness, stiffness and price. To do this, one should blend materials that
have equal MFR values, as this will give more consistent dispersion. The table
below shows viscosity values for a reasonably stiff extrusion grade.
(180C/355F) (200C/390F) (220C/425F)
20 4490 3260 2400
40 2830 2050 1510
100 1530 1110 820
200 970 700 520
400 610 440 330
8. Resistant to: 161
HIPS is resistant to aqueous solutions of salts, acids and alkalis, if strong oxi-
dizing agents are absent. HIPS is more resistant to aqueous chromic acid and

silicone oil than PS.
HIPS is not resistant to aromatic and chlorinated hydrocarbons, esters, ethers,
aldehydes, ketones and various chlorinated hydrocarbons (for example, meth-
ylene chloride, ethylene chloride and trichloroethylene).
Because of the type of rubber used (an unsaturated BR), HIPS and
ABS are very susceptible to light degradation. This commences at the surface
and spreads into inner layers, resulting in a rapid loss of properties such as
impact strength. A hindered amine light stabilizer (HALS) may provide surface
protection. These include the comparatively low molecular weight HALS, bis-
(2,2,6,6,-tetramethyl-4-piperidyl) sebacate. A UV absorber of the 2-hydrox-
yphenyl benzotriazole class protects the deeper layers. Mixed stabilizer sys-
tems are often much more efficient than a single stabilizer.
For most applications an antioxidant is required for HIPS, as the
rubber component of the material is liable to oxidation. These include octade-
cyl-3-(3,5-di-t-butyl-4-hydroxy-phenyl)-propionate, which is a hydroxyphenyl
propionate, and a sterically-hindered phenol which acts as a chain breaking
antioxidant. A preventative antioxidant, such as dilauryl thiodipropionate, may
also be used at a total concentration of the antioxidant, of up to 0.25%.
Although HIPS is resistant to foodstuffs and beverages, some
spices and essential oils can cause swelling and/or molding failure. This plas-
tic is not resistant to ground caraway, cedar-wood oil, ground cloves, ground
ginger, and has limited resistance to curry.
Clear moldings are not normally possible with this material, unlike PS, which
may be seen in a wide range of transparent colors. Its natural shade is off-
white, but the material is not often seen in that color, but is usually pigmented.
Shrinkage is of the order of 0.4% to 0.7%. The density is approximately 1.05
g/cm3, so the material will slowly sink in water. Because of the rubber content
(approximately 3% to 10%), the material is softer and easier to cut than gen-
eral purpose or unmodified PS. It also shows a lower heat distortion tempera-
ture (approximately 15C lower) than PS. HIPS can withstand being flexed
without cracking. However, a characteristic feature of HIPS is that, when it is
deformed or bent, it will exhibit a stress whitening effect at the point of defor-
mation. It burns easily, forming burning drops, gives off large amounts of
sooty smoke and smells of burning rubber as well as styrene.
A common feature of styrene plastics, such as ABS, BDS, PS, HIPS
and SAN is their resistance to aqueous media such as salt solutions, acids (of
medium concentration) and alkalis. Aliphatic hydrocarbons, such as heptane
and cyclohexane, readily attack PS and HIPS, but do not affect SAN and ABS.
Carbon tetrachloride (CCl4) attacks SAN and ABS only slowly, but quickly
attacks PS and HIPS. Resistance to CCl4 may be used to distinguish between
PS and SAN. In the case of polystyrene, when it is immersed in the CCl4 it
immediately becomes sticky, while SAN is relatively unaffected. Alter-natively,
if a few drops of CCl4 are put into a test tube containing either PS or SAN, with
PS the liquid becomes milky, whereas with SAN it remains colorless. The flexi-
bility of BDS separates it from PS and SAN. Styrene materials usually have a
low density, HIPS has a density of 1.05 g/cm3, and a comparatively low maxi-
mum use temperature of about 50C/122F.
11. Coloring
As the natural color of HIPS is a semi-opaque off-white, a wide color range is
possible. It is often seen as white sheet or as white thermoformed sheet. A
162 range of techniques including dry coloring, master batches and liquid coloring
can be used to color HIPS. Dry colors are widely used with HIPS. It is cus-
tomary to add a wetting agent (binder), like liquid paraffin, to stop separation.
Generally, 30 ml (approximately a tablespoon) of wetting agent is added per
25 kg of material and, the mixture tumble blended prior to colorant addition.
Colorants may be supplied in unit packs, or in bulk. The amount used
depends upon the strength of the dyestuff used or the required intensity of
the final color. As the color of the base polymer can vary from supplier to
supplier, it is preferable, when color matching, to use the actual material that
is to be processed. A change in base color can affect the amount, or propor-
tions, of pigments that are to be used. If there is the possibility of water
absorption occurring, then dry the material before adding the colorant.
However, this is not always possible. To assist dispersion of colorant in the
polymer melt, the barrel temperatures at the hopper zone may be set lower
than those at the die to allow mixing to take place within the feed section of
the screw.
The master batches used for HIPS are of the universal or, of
styrene-based types. A typical concentration is 1%, that is, 25 g per 25 kg bag
of polymer. Higher concentrations may be necessary, depending upon the
denseness of the color required in the finished product. Color matching can
be carried out using solid master batches. Liquid color is used as an alterna-
tive to solid master batches and is well suited when a long run of one color is
required.
12. Materials Handling
HIPS exhibits a lower water absorption than ABS, (the 24 hr absorption of
HIPS is approximately 0.05% to 0.08% whereas for ABS it is about 0.2% to
0.35%), and normally does not need to be dried before use. However, mois-
ture forming on the granules through condensation will affect surface finish. If
the granules are kept in a cold environment, opening the bags in the warm
atmosphere of the extrusion shop can cause condensation as a result of the
temperature difference. Therefore, during the colder months, and at times of
very high humidity, it is advisable to store the days requirements in the pro-
cessing plant or at a temperature similar to that of the processing plant.
Moisture pick-up can also be a problem when using a bulk-supply material
handling system and should be accounted for in the design of the handling
system. If it does prove necessary to dry the material, it should be dried in a
hot air oven for 3 hrs at 70C/158F (desiccant dry for 1 to 2 hrs at 70C).
Antistatic grades may need drying at 70C for 2 to 3 hrs. The polymer is sup-
plied in pellet form and, for extrusion, the pellets should not be externally
lubricated. Gravity feed hoppers are adequate.
Although the level of residual styrene monomer in styrene plastics
is comparatively low, the workplace should still be well ventilated and extruder
vents fitted with an exhaust system to avoid the risk of inhaling styrene.
HIPS can be extruded with single stage screws and un-vented barrels, but the
best results are obtained using vented extruders with a barrel L/D ratio of
about 30/1. If single stage screws are used they should have a compression
ratio around 3:1 and an L/D ratio of 24/1 or more and should, preferably, be
fitted with a mixing zone. This is especially important when using blends of
HIPS and GPPS or when blending in color. The dimensions of a range of
vented extruders are given below.
Depth Diameter
(2.5 in./63.5 mm) (3.5 in./89 mm) (4.5 in./114 mm)
1st feed depth (5D) 0.40 in./10.2 mm 0.48 in./12.2 mm 0.54 in./13.7 mm
Compression (5D)
1st metering (5D) 0.13 in./3.3 mm 0.16 in./4.1 mm 0.18 in./4.6 mm
Depth Diameter 163
(2.5 in./63.5 mm) (3.5 in./89 mm) (4.5 in./114 mm)
Decompression (1D)

Vent zone (4D) 0.54 in./13.7 mm 0.7 in./17.8 mm 0.80 in./20.3 mm
Compression (2D)
2 metering (5D)
nd
0.20 in./5.1 mm 0.24 in./6.1 mm 0.27 in./6.9 mm
Mixing zone (3D)
The target melt temperature range is 180 to 220C/360 to 430F. Temperature
settings may vary according to material, speed, and screw design. The follow-
ing values provide a starting point.
Zone on barrel Temperature
C F
1 160 320
2 180 355
3 190 375
4 195 380
5 190 375
Adapter and die 200 390
HIPS normally has good resistance to heat, although it will tend to
yellow if left to cook in the barrel.
Dies for profile and sheet are similar to those use for ABS. Coextrusion of
sheet containing HIPS has been employed. It is possible for the different ma-
terials to be joined before entering a standard die, provided their viscosities
are not very different from each other. If one melt has a much lower viscosity,
then it will tend to migrate to the outside of the flow channel to minimize the
work done in flow. In these cases, dies are designed with separate flow chan-
nels for each material. Usually they are provided with separate adjustments for
the thickness distribution in each layer.
Three-roll polishing stacks are used for sheet extrusion. They are temperature
controlled by circulating water or oil. The flow channels for the fluid should be
close to the roll surface and extend over the whole width of the sheet. If a melt
temperature of 240C/464F is used and the material is required to be cooled
to room temperature (say, 20C/68F), then the maximum amount of heat that
needs to be removed for each gram of material processed is 433 Joules (J).
Over the temperature range quoted, the specific heat is approximately 1970
J/kgK.
The rolls are either driven by a common drive or with individual DC
drives which are linked by thyristor based electronics for synchronization.
Changing the roll arrangement can control the degree of wrap-round. In verti-
cal stacks there is 360 of wrap-round. With an upstack, where the material
enters between the bottom two rolls, the top surface of the sheet can be high-
ly polished and it is possible to laminate on the underside of the sheet. The
reverse is the case in the downstack. If the rolls are set at 45 to the vertical,
wrap-round can be either 31.5 or 40.5. In another arrangement, the feed is
into the bottom two rolls that are at 45 to the vertical. The third roll is mount-
ed on the same horizontal plane as the middle roll. This gives a wrap-round of
225. Horizontally disposed rolls give the best view of the material as it enters
the first nip and the possibility of varying die-to-nip distance without the prob-
lem of sag.
The haul-off consists of two rubber-covered rolls driven by a
thyristor controlled DC motor. Before stacking, sheet can be edge trimmed
164 using smooth rotating circular blades for thicknesses up to 0.1in (2.5 mm)
and a saw for thicker products. Again, for transverse cutting the choice is
between guillotine and travelling saw. Extraction systems must be provided
when saws are used. A cyclone separator and filter is used to allow the swarf
to be reused. Note that sheet temperature will affect the choice and perfor-
mance of the cutting and sawing processes.
Lines can be equipped with automatic thickness monitoring
devices which transverse the width of the film on C-frames. Output from these
devices can be used to control line speed and to perform automatic die
adjustment.
Typical maximum outputs for sheet are shown in the table below.
Extruder Size Sheet Width Range Maximum Output
(in) (mm) (in) (mm) (lb/hr) (kg/hr)
2.5 64 12 to 40 305 to 1016 420 191
3.5 90 30 to 50 762 to 1270 1100 500
4.5 114 48 to 78 1219 to 1981 1900 864
6.0 150 70 to 108 1778 to 2743 3000 1364
8.0 200 95 to 150 2413 to 3810 3000 1364
Note: The output from a given sheet line is usually below the fig-
ures above because of cooling limitations for the sheet. The thinner the sheet,
the easier it is to cool and hence outputs should be higher.
18. Starting Up
HIPS presents no special problems, and the procedures given for ABS should
be used.
19. Shutting Down
There is no need to purge with another material. In fact, as HIPS is relatively
inert, it is often used as a purge for other materials. That is, this material has
relatively good heat stability although it will tend to yellow if left to cook in
the barrel. There is a risk of decomposition at temperatures above 260C/
500F. An extruder can be shut down with HIPS inside it, provided the temper-
atures are reduced to below 149C/300F as quickly as possible. For cleaning,
it can be advantageous to purge with GPPS.
20. Reprocessing
Large proportions of regrind can be used, however, it is good practice not to
use more than 20% in blends with virgin material.
21. Finishing
HIPS can be machined without difficulty, but keep the surfaces being cut well
cooled. It may be joined together by welding by ultrasonic welding techniques
and by solvents. The strength of the joint, with PS and PS, and of HIPS with
HIPS, is greater than that of PS with HIPS. Processes such as screen-printing
and dry offset, may be used to print on it. Components may be decorated by
hot foiling and painting (but care must be taken to select the correct type of
paint, as some solvent based types have a tendency to attack or stress crack
the part where the paint has been applied).
22. Other Comments
The use of a saturated rubber, for example, an EPDM rubber in place of
polybutadiene can result in significant improvements in the light and oxidation
resistance of HIPS. This material is stabilized with an antioxidant, a UV
absorber and a hindered amine light stabilizer (HALS). EPDM modified poly-
styrene has light resistance, that resembles that of ASA but, it is unfortunately,
more expensive than traditional HIPS. One could reduce material costs by
using a skin of the light resistant material and a core of HIPS.
This material is used where impact resistance is required and where chemical
resistance is not important. As a result of their lower price, the high gloss- 165
high impact grades of HIPS are now being used for products that were previ-
ously made from ABS.

Some profiled products are produced, but the major application is
for sheet for subsequent thermoforming. A wide variety of cups and small
containers for food are made this way, as the rapid production of thin-walled
containers is possible. By coextrusion, the product range can be extended.
Combinations include HIPS main layer with a PS gloss layer; HIPS main layer
with a PS antistatic layer; layers of different cores of HIPS; regrind HIPS as
center layer of a sandwich; multilayer construction for margarine tubs, etc.
24. Yield
Sheet of 0.1 ~ thickness has a surface area of 1.83 sq ft/Ib weight
Sheet of 2 mm thickness has a surface area of 0.48 sq m/kg weight
Film of 0.002 in (200 gauge) thickness has a surface area of 91.7 sq ft/Ib
weight
Film of 50 microns thickness has a surface area of 19.0 sq m/kg
Tube of 3/8 in ID and 1/16 ~ wall thickness has a length of 25.6 ft/lb weight
PA 6
1. Common Name(s) Nylon 6: polyamide 6
2. Abbreviation(s) PA 6: PA6: PA.6: PA,6: PA6: Ny6
A nylon copolymer may be identified by the use of an oblique stroke between
the numbers. For example, PA 66/6.10, indicates a form of nylon based on PA
66 and PA 6.10 (note the use of only one PA). Nylon blends may be identified
by the use of an oblique stroke between the abbreviations used for each of the
PA materials in the blend: PA 66/PA 6.10, indicates a nylon blend based on
two nylon polymers (PA 66 and PA 6.10).
It is also referred to as nylon six or as, poly-(-amino-caproamide) or as,
poly-(6-aminocaproic acid) or as, poly-(-aminocaproic acid) or as, poly-
caproamide or as, polycaprolactam or as, caprolactam PA 6 or as, poly-
(imino-1-oxohexamethylene).
A Schulman Inc. Schulamid Nylon 6
Adell PlasticsInc. Adell B
Albis Albis
Allied-Signal Plastics (ASP) Capron
Ashley Polymers Inc. Ashlene Nylon 6
BASF Ultramid B
Bayer Durethan B
BIP Plastics Beetle Nylon 6
BIP Chemicals Jonilon Nylon 6
ComAlloy Comtuf
Compounding Technology Inc. CTI Nylon 6
Custom Resins Nylene
DSM (Dutch State Mines) Akulon
DSM (Dutch State Mines) Stapron N (an ABS/PA 6 blend)
DuPont Zytel 6
Elf Atochem Orgamide
EMS-Grilon Grilon
EMS Grilon
EniChem Nivionplast B
166 4. Some Suppliers 5. Trade Names or Trade Marks
Ferro Star-C PA6
Franz Rauscher Heramid
Goodfellow Nylon 6
Japan Synthetic Rubber (JSR) Capron
Kanebo Kanebo Nylon
Lati Latamid 6
LNP Plastics Thermocomp
MA Hanna Nymax
Mitsubishi Engineering Plastics Novamid
Nyltech Sniamid
Nyltech Technyl (PA 6/66 copolymer)
Polikemi AB Polyamid
Polymer Corp Nylatron Nylon 6
Polymerland Isomid
Radicinovacips Radilon
Radicinovacips Radiflam
RhnePoulenc Technyl C
RTP RTP
Sniamid Nyltech
Teijin Teijin Nylon
Thermofil Inc. ESBRID
Ticona Celanese Nylon 6
Toray Industries Inc. Toray Nylon
Toray Industries Inc. Amilan Nylon 6
Toyobo Toyobo Nylon
Ube Industries Ube Nylon 6
Wellman Inc. Wellamid Nylon 6
Recycled (R) Materials
Honeywell Nypel (PAR)
BASF Ultramid RC (PA-R)
Nyltech Oromid (PA 6R)
An amide contains the polar amide (CONH) group. A polyamide (PA) contains
many (poly), amide (CONH) groups. As the PA material is based on linear
aliphatic materials, or monomers, it may be referred to as a linear aliphatic
polyamide. Now, commonly a polyamide is referred to as a nylon and the two
most widely used nylons are nylon 6 and nylon 66 (PA 6 & PA 66). Both are
linear aliphatic polyamides in which the polar amide groups result in strong
inter-chain attractions which, in turn, give the materials toughness, rigidity
and heat resistance. A high degree of crystallinity is possible, but is not
always attained. Processing conditions can significantly alter the degree of
crystallinity, and therefore the properties of nylons. Because of the many polar
amide (CONH) groups, PA 6 absorbs a large amount of water and this feature
must always be remembered when handling this material. The first nylon (PA)
moldings were produced in approximately 1941, but PA only became more
generally known as an injection molding material in the nineteen fifties. Most
PA is produced for fiber applications, even though the nylon family is still a
very widely used type of engineering thermoplastics material (ETP).
If a single number follows the material abbreviation for a PA,
preparation from either a w-amino acid or a lactam is indicated. PA 6 is pre-
pared from caprolactam by a ring-opening process. The material may be rep-
resented by the chemical formula -[-NH(CH2)5-CO]n-. This type of material may
be referred to as an AB polymer (it may be visualized as being made from a
monomer that contains one acid group and one amine group, which react to
give the amide group). It is a crystalline material that is tough, resilient and 167
creep resistant (to dynamic loads). It has similar physical, chemical and elec-
trical properties to nylon 66 (PA 66) and is classed and handled in the same

way, that is, it is treated as a moisture-sensitive material.
PA 6 has a lower melting point than PA 66 and a wider processing
temperature range (greater than, 25C/77F). It can give superior weld
strengths and a better surface finish than PA 66. It is slightly lighter in color,
has higher impact strength and slightly better low temperature properties than
PA 66. It has better solvent, grease and detergent resistance than PA 66, but
its resistance to dilute mineral acids is poorer. PA 6 and PA 66 are reasonably
good electrical insulators at low temperatures and under conditions of low
humidity.
After processing, PA 6 absorbs water (more than PA 66), which
causes swelling and an increase in toughness (the toughness may be dou-
bled). When designing PA moldings, account must be taken of this moisture
absorption, as it affects dimensional tolerances and physical properties. The
rate, and amount of water absorption depends on wall thickness, relative
humidity, and compound composition. Many properties are shown as func-
tions of moisture content.
A wide range of grades is available, as the material may be exten-
sively modified with particulate or fibrous fillers, plasticizers, and other plas-
tics or elastomers. Glass, in one of its many forms, is common filler for
polyamides. Glass is relatively cheap and its use can lead to significant
improvements in strength and stiffness. The impact resistance of PA may be
improved by the use of other plastics or elastomers. For example, the impact
resistance when dry may be improved by the use of approximately, 15% PE,
providing the two plastics materials are coupled together. High impact PA,
results from the successful incorporation of an appropriate elastomer such as
EPDM or SBR. To get low temperature impact strength (-40C/-40F), it is nec-
essary to use an elastomer which has a very low glass transition temperature
and which is partially compatible with the PA. It is possible to get flame-retar-
dant (FR) grades of PA, which are halogen and phosphorus free and are VO
rated at 0.25 mm (0.010 in). A well-dispersed silicone fluid can produce a
material that has low frictional losses. The use of nucleating agents can give
fast cooling grades, as such agents improve the rate of crystallization.
Although a pure aliphatic PA does not absorb short wavelength
light, commercial materials are degraded by light, as they contain impurity
groups and/or structural features that contribute towards degradation. Heat
stabilizers such as phenolic antioxidants, do help with light stabilization, but
for the best results, use a HALS-type stabilizer.
A preventative antioxidant, like a phosphite, may be used to retain
color during melt processing when used at a level of up to 0.4%. For long
term stabilization, use is made of antioxidants such as copper salts (in combi-
nation with a halogen compound and/or a phosphorous compound), aromatic
amines (a pphenylene diamine) or a sterically hindered phenol antioxidant.
Copper salts and amines can cause discoloration, so hindered phenols are
often preferred; one can use butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT), 1,3,5-tris-(5-t-
butyl-4-hydroxy-2-methylphenyl-butane, 1,3,5-tris-(3,5-di-t-butyl-4-hydroxy-
benzyl-mesitylene or, N,N'hexamethylene-bis-3-(3,5-di-t-butyl-4-hydroyphenyl-
propionamide. The level of use may reach 0.7%.
7. Ease of Flow
PA 6 is an easy flow material that is slightly stiffer than PA 66. It does not set
up so sharply. At 280C/536F) the viscosity ranges from 45 to 300 Pa-s,
depending on the grade. The flow of this material can vary if the melt is too
wet, too hot, or subjected to a shearing force that is too high. In all these
168 cases the mechanical properties of the molded component will be consider-
ably reduced when compared to a component which has been correctly
processed.
There is a range of grades available with differing viscosities. The
high viscosity grades are used for rod, tube, profiles and blown film. Medium
viscosity grades are used for cast film and thin walled profiles. Low viscosity
grades are used for cable sheathing and are often heat stabilized. Typical vis-
cosity values for different grades are as follows at a shear rate of 100 s-1 and a
temperature of 240C/465F.
High Viscosity Grade 10,000 Pa-s
Medium Viscosity Grade 1,500 Pa-s
Low Viscosity Grade 200 Pa-s
The table below shows how viscosity depends on temperature and
shear rate for a Bayer grade of nylon 6.
(230C/446F) (240C/464F) (250C/482F)
20 2870 2460 1800
40 2080 1770 1300
100 1350 1150 840
200 980 830 610
400 710 600 440
8. Resistant to:
Both nylon 6 and nylon 66 have superior abrasion resistance and toughness
compared to acetal. They are not as tough as polycarbonate (PC), but have
better stress crack and solvent resistance. These nylons are fairly good elec-
trical insulators at low temperatures and when the relative humidity is low.
Broadly speaking, PA 6 and PA 66 nylons exhibit similar chemical resistance
(PA 66 probably has better overall chemical resistance than PA 6). Nylons
resist fungal and bacterial attack. They are resistant to hydrolysis and to most
common organic solvents. The linear aliphatic polyamides (such as, PA 46,
PA 6, PA 66, PA 610, PA 11 and PA 12) are resistant to glycols, aromatic
hydrocarbons, aliphatic hydrocarbons, esters, alkyl halides and ketones. They
are unaffected by alkalis and many salt solutions. They have good resistance
to oils, greases, fuels, fats, and phosphate esters and to refrigerants. Alcohols
may cause some swelling and may dissolve some copolymers. Mixed solvents
(for example, chloroform and methanol) will attack nylons particularly at high
temperatures. At room temperatures, nylons have good resistance to alkalis
(in concentrations of up to 20%). In general, nylons have good resistance to
gases such as carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, and to hydrogen sulfide.
Both PA 6 and PA 66 have average resistance to radiation when non-rein-
forced. A light yellowing may occur on irradiation with light on uncolored
components. Some grades can be steam sterilized at 121C/250F for 30 min-
utes.
Formic acid, glacial acetic acid, concentrated sulfuric acid, dimethyl forma-
mide, phenol and m-cresol are solvents for all PA materials. In general, the
resistance of nylons to chlorinated hydrocarbons is only fair. The nylons show
poor resistance to mineral acids (dilute and concentrated) and nitric acid in
particular will attack them. Nylons may also show poor resistance to solutions
of oxidizing agents and to certain salt solutions, such as potassium thio-
cyanate, calcium chloride and zinc chloride. These salts will cause stress
cracking (salt cracking) in PA 6 and PA 66, though PA 11 and PA 12 are resis-
tant.
Salt cracking occurs in polyamides (PA) such as nylon 6 and nylon
66 as the metal ions destroy inter-molecular hydrogen bonding by forming 169
metal complexes with the amide groups. Cracking occurs because of the
stress induced by localized swelling and plasticization. Blending nylon 6 with

high carbon nylon (PA 12) and/or with a polyolefin, which contains carboxylic
groups, improves resistance to salt cracking. Immersion of a stressed (bent)
specimen in zinc chloride is used to assess salt cracking resistance. Lithium
chloride, calcium chloride and magnesium chloride do not induce cracking in
aqueous solutions, but alcohol/salt combinations will attack nylons (for exam-
ple, methanol and lithium chloride).
In general, nylons have poor resistance to chlorine (wet and dry)
and sulfur dioxide (wet and dry).
With a density of 1.12 g/cm3 (0.65 oz/in3) nylon (solid, non-filled material) will
sink in water and float in saturated, magnesium chloride. The natural color of
the material ranges from translucent white to translucent beige.
On pyrolysis, polyamides give alkaline vapors. When this type of
material is heated in a flame, a small blue flame (with a yellow edge) results
and white smoke is emitted. The flame is easily extinguished and there may be
a smell of burnt hair. PA 6 is a hard, tough material that may easily be cut with
a knife producing cuts with smooth edges. The shrinkage of unfilled PA 6 is
lower than that of PA 66 and is of the order of 0.01 to 0.015 in/in (or
mm/mm) or 1.0% to 1.5%, but is dependent upon processing and filler addi-
tion.
The easiest way of differentiating between different types of nylon
materials is by means of melting point determinations. PA 6 has a melting
point that is approximately 50C lower than PA 66. The approximate melting
points for the more common polyamides are as follows:
PA 12: 175C/347F PA 6: 220C/428F
PA 11: 185C/365F PA 66: 265C/509kF
PA 610: 223C/434F PA 46: 295C/563F
PA materials are widely used in blends or alloys with other materi-
als. To analyze for a PA material in such a blend, it may be decomposed by
acid hydrolysis (with concentrated hydrochloric acid). The acid on which the
PA is based is then collected and identified by analytical means, such as a
melting point determination. The approximate melting points for the more
common polyamide acids are as follows:
Aminocaproic acid hydrochloride (from PA 6) 123C/254F
Sebacic acid (from PA 610) 133C/272F
11-aminodecanoic acid (from PA 11) 145C/293F
12-aminolauric acid (from PA 12) 163C/326F
Adipic acid (from PA 66 and PA 46) 163C/326F
11. Coloring
As the natural color of the material ranges from a translucent white to translu-
cent beige, a wide color range is possible. Both translucent and opaque colors
are obtained. PA resins are sold in both compounded colors and as natural
material for coloring. They may be colored on the injection molding machine
by techniques such as dry coloring, masterbatching and liquid coloring.
In-house coloring can be difficult, as some pigments may intro-
duce problems such as leaching, changes in UV resistance (worsened by tita-
nium dioxide), etc. When dry coloring, the choice and type of pigment is
important. Inorganic metal oxides are preferred, but some organic blue and
green pigments are used. Before making any addition, check with the manu-
facturer of the material and/or the colorant supplier.
Dry colorant addition is carried out using the multi-axial tumble
blending method. The blending drum needs to be two thirds full before the
170 colorant is added and rotation commenced. The material and colorant should
be dried before being mixed and it is essential that both ingredients are not
exposed to the atmosphere for prolonged periods. Typically, tumble mix times
of 5 to 8 minutes are used. The speed of drum rotation depends upon the
type of equipment selected. However, the most important factor is to create
sufficient mixing/grinding action in the blender to breakdown agglomerates of
the pigment (which are present in most colorants) and to disperse the col-
orant uniformly throughout the blend. The presence of specks, or streaks,
and/or variations in shade on molding is a consequence of poor tumble blend-
ing.
Master-batches are regularly used, and are often preferred to dry
colorants, as their addition is relatively simple and clean. Typical additions of
master-batches are between 1% to 2%. Fully compounded material is often
preferred to other coloring methods, as color addition may affect the proper-
ties of the end product (particularly with components that are used in outside
applications). Compounded material is also used for the manufacture of indi-
vidual components of an assembly that need to be of an exact color and
shade.
Liquid colors are not very popular, as the volume of production
does not always warrant the costs involved in handling and accurately dis-
pensing the liquid colorant (into the hopper throat or nozzle, on the extruder).
Surface dyeing is possible, but to achieve color consistency and
reproducibility, it is essential to critically control the dye concentration relative
to the weight of nylon to be dyed (i.e. molding weight). Typical dye concentra-
tions of between 0.002% to 0.02% are used (the actual percentage depends
upon the shade and depth of color required).
As supplied by the manufacturer, the material is usually suitable for process-
ing. If containers are left open, rapid water absorption will occur. If the mois-
ture content is >0.2%, flow and component properties are affected and the
component will often show signs of foaming. PA should be dried in a well-
ventilated, hot air oven for 16 hrs at 80C/176F. If the material is very wet
(exposed to air for more than 8 hours) vacuum, or desiccant drying is neces-
sary (12 hrs at 105C/221F).
Both PA 6 and PA 66 will absorb large amounts of water, approxi-
mately 10% of water at saturation. However, PA 6 absorbs more water than
PA 66, under the same conditions (2.5% as compared to 1.5%). Both materi-
als must, therefore, be carefully stored in a clean dry space. A first-in, first-
out (Fi-Fo) storage system must be enforced and the moisture-proof contain-
ers should only be opened when required, after they have reached workshop
temperature. Keep hoppers and storage containers closed at all times.
It is preferable to use hopper dryers to eliminate any problem of
moisture absorption, however, one should always ensure that the temperature
of the dryer does not exceed the stated values, otherwise discoloration of the
material may result due to overheating and/or oxidation.
For nylons, barrels with an L/D ratio of at least 20/1 and bimetallic liners are
used. Screws are designed with the traditional three zones (feed, compression
and metering) with a square pitch. The sizes below are for use with a relative-
ly high molecular weight film resin. For a 24-D screw, the feed zone is 10 D,
the compression zone is 6 D and the metering zone is 8 D.
Diameter 2.5" 3.5" 4.5"

Feed channel depth 0.42" 0.51" 0.56"
Metering zone depth 0.11" 0.13" 0.14"
Compression ratio 3.8" 3.9" 4.0"
Experience suggests that good performance can be achieved with a 171
screw design in which there is a continuous decrease in channel depth from
under the feed hopper to the screw tip.

Glass reinforced PA grades cause high wear, but this can be mini-
mized by using ion implantation on screws and barrels or, by using screws
with Stellite flights.
Temperatures
(F) (C)
Zone 1 410 - 445 210 - 230
Zone 2 445 - 480 230 - 250
Zone 3 465 - 500 240 - 260
Adapter 480 - 520 250 - 270
Die 465 - 500 240 - 260
Please note that it is the melt temperature that is important. The
temperatures given in the table are only suggested, initial settings. Check all
temperatures regularly. Accurate temperature control is essential to prevent
overheating of the polymer within the die and to maintain a uniform polymer
viscosity. Too long a barrel residence time will be shown by a change in color
of the material (it darkens - particularly with light colors). If unavoidable
delays occur, reduce the temperatures to 200C/392F.
Because of the low viscosity of the molten nylon, and the high temperatures
used, it is important to ensure that there is an even temperature distribution in
the die. Heating elements and thermocouples should be positioned with care.
When using fire retardant (FR) reinforced grades of PA 6 (which can emit cor-
rosive gases, if overheated) consideration should be given to using steels,
commonly known as stainless steels, containing 13% or 16% chromium.
Cable Sheathing: It is best to use a coating die design in which the low vis-
cosity melt for cable sheathing emerges as a concentric ring from the torpedo
and separate from the wire to be coated. This reduces the risk of the low vis-
cosity nylon 6 (PA 6) melt, at high pressures (say 2000 psi), being forced
along the cable producing variations in the insulated wire to be coated.
Wire Coating: Because of the reasonably tight tolerance in the conductor
diameter, coating can take place under pressure inside the die. The radial
clearance of the conductor should be about 0.0015 in. The die orifice diameter
should be chosen to give a draw down of 10% to 20% on the thickness of the
wire covering.
Blown Film: Though bottom-fed designs have been used, the preferred type
is the spiral mandrel design. The die exit gap should be between 0.02 in and
0.03 in (0.5 mm - 0.8 mm) in width and the land length between 1.2 in and
2 in (30 - 50 mm).
Flat Film: Coat-hanger designs are employed with widths up to 80 in (2 m).
Die gap widths and land lengths are similar to those used in the blown film
dies described above. To achieve the necessary temperature control across the
width of the die, it is best to have a large number of narrow band or cartridge
heaters that are separately controlled. One heater every 2 in (50 mm) of die
width is ideal.
Monofilament: The monofilament die is a flat plate, in which are drilled a
series of holes that form the filaments. The filaments are extruded downward
into a water bath. A gear pump extruder is frequently fitted at the discharge
end of the extruder to ensure that a uniform melt flow is obtained. If there is
non-uniform flow, fiber breakage or size variations will easily occur with the
low viscosity nylon melt.
Tubing: Small bore tubing (where the diameter is less than 0.25 in\ (0.6 mm))
172 can be produced on a crosshead die similar in design to that used for cable
sheathing. Air is injected along the central axis of the torpedo to prevent the
tube from collapsing as it leaves the die. For larger tubes, an in-line spider
type die is employed. The cross-section of the flow channel in the die is
reduced after the spider supports (though the taper angle should not exceed
25). The ratio of channel cross-section at the spider, to that at the land,
should be at least 3:1. For tubing with a wall thickness less than 0.12 in (3
mm), the land length should be about 20 times the wall thickness. For greater
wall thickness, the land length should be about 25 times the wall thickness. In
contrast to the larger dies used to manufacture PVC pipes, the diameter of the
torpedo in these dies is often constant throughout their length.
Tubing may be drawn down after the die, typically by an area ratio
of 2:1. However, it is possible for small diameter thin-walled tubing, where the
wall thickness is only 0.025 in (0.6 mm), for the die gap to be up to 4 times
the wall thickness. Above 0.05 in (1.25 mm), the ratio should not exceed 1.25.
The flat film or chill roll process is commonly used to produce film, as water
quenching cannot be used due to its effect on nylons. To achieve good thick-
ness tolerance, the distance between die and chill roll should be no more than
0.5 in (12 mm). The amount of crystallization in the nylon film depends on the
rate of cooling. The faster the cooling, the lower the level of crystallinity. By
setting the chill roll temperature between 80C to 90C/175F to 195F, low lev-
els of crystallinity are achieved. This amorphous film is highly transparent, but
has a tendency to blocking. It has excellent deep draw properties and is used
for the production of vacuum-formed packs. Increasing the roll temperature to
150C/300F gives a cloudier, more crystalline, film with a reduced tendency to
block. It is tougher and used for the manufacture of heat sealed pouches.
If the roll temperatures are 80C/76F and the melt temperature is
250C/482F, then the maximum amount of heat that needs to be removed per
gram of output is 520 J. Over the temperature range quoted the specific heat
is approximately 3060 J/kgK.
At the roll temperatures suggested, there is a tendency for the melt
to stick to the roll. This is cured by using release agents or by having rolls
with the correct degree of surface roughness. Rolls are coated with chromi-
um, ground, and then treated electrolytically to give a surface with a maxi-
mum roughness of 0.0005 in (14 microns).
In the blown film process, the melt is best drawn vertically
upwards from the die and cooled by prechilled air directed parallel to the
molten extrudate. Iris diaphragms above the cooling ring help to stabilize the
bubble. Because of its stiffness, nylon 6 (PA 6) film can crease as it is col-
lapsed from the round to the lay-flat state. To avoid edge creases, it is neces-
sary to make the angle between the collapsing frames as narrow as possible.
This will tend to give center drag creases, as PA 6 has a tendency to stick to
the collapsing frame surface. To reduce this tendency, use either closely
spaced freely rotating rollers or a low friction surface. Perforated aluminum
sheet with a matted surface is successful, especially if cooled from the back.
For cable sheathing, vacuum is applied to the rear of the die where
the cable enters. This will draw the coating onto the cable as it leaves the die.
Both coated cables and covered wires are water cooled after extrusion, with
water temperatures that are about 10C/50F.
To retain its circular shape, nylon 6 tubing must be supported; that
is, sized during solidification. For small bore tubing (less than 0.25 in (6.2
mm) in diameter) simple brass sizing plates may be used. They are positioned
1 in to 2 in (25mm to 50 mm) from the die exit and form the end of the cool-
ing water bath. Vacuum sizing dies are used for tubing between 0.25 in and
0.625 in (6.2 mm and 15.5 mm) diameter (sometimes for larger diameters as 173
well). The vacuum sizing unit is usually separated from the die by a small air
gap. For tubing over 0.5 in (12 mm) in diameter, pressure sizing is used. The

sizing die length is typically 4 times the tube diameter. The water-cooled sizing
die is bolted to the main die, but thermally insulated from it by a gasket.
Because of its stiffness, large diameter nylon tubing cannot be rolled and must
be cut into lengths. Therefore, a floating bung is used to maintain air pressure
for sizing. This prevents a loss of production through distortion, occurring
when tubes are cut to length and upstream pressure falls.
Nylon 6 (PA6) extrudates tend to build up large electrostatic
charges during production. Passing the extrudate through a discharge station
can dissipate these charges. This can consist of:
A high voltage discharge of about 600 volts AC
Radioactively ionized air generated by a polonium 210 isotope
A point discharge using fine brass wire brushes
17. Extruder Capacity
The figures below refer to maximum capabilities.
Extruder Output
(in) (mm) (lb/hr) (kg/hr)
1.00 25 22 10
2.00 50 110 45
3.00 75 600 270
4.00 100 900 410
6.00 150 1900 900
18. Starting Up
Care must be exercised to prevent any gases given off during heating, from
becoming trapped, due to un-melted polymer. At the same time, the resin
should not be allowed to melt in the section of the extruder next to the hopper.
Start heating from the die and do not raise the feed zone temperature above
200C/390F, until you are ready to start screw rotation. Also ensure that there
is cooling water flowing through the feed throat. Start at low speed and then
raise the feed zone temperature to operating settings. Increase screw speed
gradually, while keeping an eye on pressure readings. The purge material must
be completely removed from the system before extrusion of product. Signs of
water in the resin include bubbles in the extrudate, unusually low pressure
readings and unstable extrudate.
19. Shutting Down
PA 6 is easily purged with a more viscous polymer. If in doubt, purge with
HDPE or PP. Since nylon sticks to the machine surfaces, it is better to purge
before cleaning. The residual polymer may be burnt off in an oven at 400C/
750F. Salt bath cleaning is not recommended due to the danger of explosions.
PA 6 can be extruded immediately after running PA 66. When
going from PA6 to PA66, the temperatures should be increased before the PA
66 is introduced.
20. Reprocessing
When this material is reclaimed, up to 20% may be blended into the virgin
material without a serious change in the flow or mechanical properties. The
reclaimed material must be dried. In general, the amount of regrind used in a
product is related to the end-service requirements of the component. Pro-
ducts that will be subjected to high levels of stress in service, are generally
produced using a minimum amount of regrind, while other, less critical prod-
ucts are often produced using higher levels. The use of regrind may cause
intermittent feeding problems due to bridging in the hopper. If possible,
reclaiming should take place immediately after production, as the extrudate
174 will not have absorbed water and is dry. Dry PA 6 is more brittle than nylon
that has absorbed water and is, therefore, easier to reclaim.
21. Finishing
Nylon 6 films may be laminated to polyethylene film, aluminum foil or to
paper. A dry laminating process is used, in which an adhesive is roll coated to
the film, and dried in a heated chamber to remove solvent. The film is then
laminated in the nip between two rolls, where heat and pressure ensure a firm
bond. A lower cost process is extrusion coating of nylon films with polyethyl-
ene. In this case the nylon 6 film is sometimes primed by an electric dis-
charge treatment. Nylon 6 components have a relatively high coefficient of
friction when extruded, and films may block. This can be reduced by coating
the film with a fine maize flour powder. If components of high heat stability
are required, they can be annealed in a non-oxidizing oil for 20 minutes at
150C/302F.
PA 6 can be readily machined by processes such as turning,
drilling, or milling (using cutting feeds of 0.05 to 0.40 mm/rev (0.002 to 0.016
in/rev)). PA 6 can be decorated by plating, painting, vacuum metallization and
surface dyeing, hot foil stamping, silk-screen printing and laser printing. Prior
treatment is not necessary for printing on PA 6, and standard inks may be
used in the letter-press and flexographic processes. Welding can be carried
out using heat impulse, ultrasonic or high frequency methods. PA 6 surfaces
can also be bonded together using a two-component epoxy or cyanoacrylate
adhesive. To ensure that a more effective bond is achieved, the surfaces
should be roughened prior to applying the adhesive. The toughness of extrud-
ed products increases as the level of moisture in the nylon increases.
22. Other Comments
When extruded, PA 6 is dry and picks up water as it is stored in the atmos-
phere. The dry state as extruded can develop large electrostatic charges, and
care should be taken to avoid discharge through operators or fire hazard from
sparks.
Because of its excellent wear resistance, its good mechanical strength, impact
resistance, rigidity and lightness in weight, PA 6 is widely used as a light engi-
neering material. Its uses are similar to those of PA 66, so that these materi-
als compete against each other in the marketplace. Nylons are not as tough as
PC, but have better stress cracking and solvent resistance. Glass reinforced
impact-modified grades of PA 6 are available. These are good electrical insula-
tors that can withstand reasonably high temperatures without distortion. PA 6
is also used to make a range of blends or alloys. For example, ABS/PA 6
blends are used where the fatigue and chemical resistance of ABS is not good
enough for the proposed application. Impact resistance of the blend is
approximately twice the sum of that for ABS and PA combined. ABS con-
tributes stiffness and good appearance. PA contributes fatigue and chemical
resistance.
PA 6 films are used because of their toughness, good gas barrier
properties, and ability to withstand fairly high temperatures. The material is
often coextruded with polyethylene with an adhesive layer, such as an
ionomer, between them. This is required, as nylons do not bond to poly-
olefins. Small- bore nylon tubing is also used in applications where its good
mechanical properties are needed. These properties also make it useful for
profiled runners and protective edges.
24. Yield
Since the density of nylon 6 varies with the amount of crystallinity (which
depends on production conditions) the yield figures are given as a range
assuming a density range from 1.112 to 1.115 g/cm3 .
Sheet of 0.1 in thickness has a surface area of 1.68 to 1.72 sq.ft/lb weight 175
Sheet of 2 mm thickness has a surface area of 0.435 to 0.446 sq m/kg
weight

Film of 0.002 in (200 gauge) thickness has a surface area of 83.8 to 86.0 sq
ft/lb weight
Film of 50 microns thickness has a surface area of 17.4 to 17.8 sq m/kg
Tube of 3/8 in ID and 1/16 in wall thickness has a length of 23.4 to 24.0 ft/lb
weight
Tube of 10 mm ID and 1.5 mm wall thickness has a length of 16.0 to 16.5
m/kg
PA 66
1. Common Name(s) Nylon 66: polyamide 66: polyamide 6.6
2. Abbreviation(s) PA 66: PA66: PA 6.6: PA 6/6: PA,66: PA66: Ny66
A nylon copolymer may be identified by the use of an oblique stroke between
the numbers. For example, PA 66/6.10, indicates a nylon copolymer based on
PA 66 and PA 6.10 (note the use of only one PA). Nylon blends may be identi-
fied by the use of an oblique stroke between the abbreviations used for each
of the PA materials in the blend; PA 66/PA 6.10, indicates a nylon blend based
on two nylon polymers, PA 66 and PA 6.10 (note the use of two PA abbrevia-
tions).
Also known as nylon six-six, PA 66 nylon, PA 66 nylon, 66 nylon, poly-(hexa-
methylene adipamide), polyhexamethyleneadipamide, polyhexamethylene adi-
pamide, or as poly-[imino-(1,6-dioxohexamethylene)-iminohexamethylene].
Adell Plastics Inc. Adell A
Albis Albis
Honeywell CAPRON
Asahi Chemical Leona
Ashley Polymers Inc. Ashlene Nylon 66
BASF Ultramid A
Bayer Durethan A
BIP Plastics Beetle Nylon 66
BIP Chemicals Jonilon Nylon 66
ComAlloy Hiloy, Voloy
Compounding Technology Inc. CTI Nylon 66
Comtec Polymers Hylon
DSM (Dutch State Mines) Akulon
DuPont Minlon, Zytel 66
EMS-Grilon Grilon T
EniChem Nivionplast A
Ferro Staramide 66
Franz Rauscher Heramid
Goodfellow Nylon 6/6
Lati Latamid 66
LNP Plastics Thermocomp
Mitsubishi Kasei Novamid
Nyltech Sniamid
Nyltech Technyl (PA 6/66 copolymer)
Polikemi AB Polyamid
Polymer Corp Nylatron Nylon 66
Polymerland AVP
Polyplastics Polypla Nylon
Radicinovacips Radilon
RhnePoulenc Technyl A
RTP Co RTP
Showa-Denko Tecnil
Solutia Vydyne
Thermofil Inc. Thermofil Nylon 66
Ticona Celanese
Toray Industries Inc. Toray Nylon
Tubize (RhnePoulenc Chimie) Fabelnyl
Ube Industries Ube Nylon 66
Wellman Inc. Wellamid Nylon 66
Recycled (R) materials
Honeywell Nypel (PAR)
BASF Ultramid RC (PA-R)
Nyltech Oromid (PA 66R)
The two most widely used nylons are nylon 6 and nylon 66 (PA 6 & PA 66):
see PA 6. Both are linear aliphatic polyamides (PA), in which the polar amide
groups form strong inter-chain attractions that give the materials toughness,
rigidity, and heat resistance. A high degree of crystallinity is possible. It is not
always attained, however, because processing conditions can significantly
alter the degree of crystallinity (and therefore the properties) of nylons. As a
result of the many polar amide (CONH) groups, PA 66 absorbs a large amount
of water. This feature must always be remembered when handling this materi-
al.
A polyamide (PA) may be prepared by reacting a diamine with a
dibasic acid. The homopolymer, 66 nylon, comes from the reaction of hexam-
ethylene diamine and adipic acid. The polyamide (PA) is identified by the
number of carbon atoms in both the diamine and in the acid. Of the two num-
bers involved, the first comes from the diamine and the second from the acid,
to give PA 66. This type of nylon may be referred to as an * AABB polymer
(made from two monomers one of which contains two acid groups and one of
which contains two amine groups). It is made from nylon 66 salt, which is
prepared by the reaction of hexamethylene diamine and adipic acid. The use
of the salt produces high molecular weight polymers, because it gives the
exact, equal ratios of the two monomers. The polymer is represented as -[-
NH-(CH2)6-NHCO-(CH2)4-CO-]n-. By increasing the number of monomers (dur-
ing polymerization) copolymers may also be prepared. Any combination of
copolymers and homopolymers may be blended, filled and plasticized, to pro-
duce a wide range of grades with a broad range of properties.
PA 66 is a semi-crystalline thermoplastic material that has one of
the highest melting points of the commercial polyamides. It has very high
strength and stiffness, and retains its stiffness with increasing temperature.
After processing, it absorbs water (but not as much as PA 6), which causes
swelling and an increase in toughness (the toughness may be doubled). When
designing PA 66 components, account must be taken of this moisture absorp-
tion as it affects the polymers dimensional tolerances and physical properties.
For every 1% water absorbed, the size increases by approximately 0.003 in/in.
The rate, and amount of water absorption depends on storage time, wall
thickness, relative humidity, and compound composition. Many properties are
shown as functions of moisture content. At 50% RH and 23C/73F the mois-
ture content is 2.5%.
A wide range of grades is available, as the material may be exten- 177
sively modified with particulate or fibrous fillers, plasticizers, other plastic
materials and elastomers. Glass, in one of its many forms, is a popular filler

for PA 66, as it is relatively cheap and its use can lead to significant improve-
ments in strength and stiffness. The impact resistance of PA 66 may be
improved by the use of other plastics or elastomers. For example, the impact
resistance when dry may be improved by the use of, approximately, 15% PE,
providing the two plastics materials are coupled together. High impact PA 66
results from the successful incorporation of an appropriate elastomer such as
EPDM or SBR. To get low temperature impact strength (at -40C/-40F), it is
necessary to use an elastomer that has a very low glass transition temperature
and which is partially compatible with the PA. It is also possible to get flame-
retardant (FR) grades of PA which are halogen and phosphorus free, and are
VO rated at 0.25 mm (0.010 in). A well-dispersed silicone fluid can result in a
material with low frictional losses. The use of nucleating agents can give fast
cycling grades, as such agents improve the rate of crystallization. PA 66 com-
ponents are tough even in thin sections. Both PA 6 and PA 66, have better
abrasion resistance and toughness than acetal. Super-tough PA 66 has good
resistance to crack initiation and propagation and is stress concentration
resistant.
7. Ease of Flow
In general, PA 66 is a low viscosity material and flows very easily. The viscosi-
ty is very dependent on shear rate and on temperature. The temperature of the
melt must, therefore, be controlled very precisely, as altering the melt temper-
ature by approximately 20C/50F alters the viscosity by a factor of two. Nylon
66 is available in a range of viscosities. At 275C/525F the viscosity at 100 s-1
may range from 90 to 4000 Pa-s. The choice of grade depends on application,
as can be seen in the following table:
Grade Typical Application(s)
Very high viscosity Large diameter rod
High viscosity Rod, tube, strip, profile and tubular film
Medium viscosity Cast film & thin strip
Low viscosity Wire covering, cable covering and monofilament
(Note: This grade is equivalent to a general purpose molding grade)
The variation in viscosity for a medium to high viscosity
grade (Zytel 42) is tabulated below.
Shear rate (s-1) Viscosity (Pa-s)
(250C/500F) (250C/525F) (250C/550F)
20 5130 3930 3030
40 3430 2640 2040
100 2030 1570 1210
200 1370 1060 810
400 920 710 550
8. Resistant to:
PA 66 is resistant to most solvents. It is insoluble in esters, ketones, aromatic
hydrocarbons, chlorinated hydrocarbons, alkalis, dilute acid solutions and
most organic acids. Some organic solvents, like chlorinated hydrocarbons,
cause swelling. It has excellent resistance to oils, fuels, greases and fats.
PA 66 is not resistant to strong acids or oxidizing agents. Formic acid and
phenol are solvents. It is reversibly swollen by water, which worsens the elec-
trical properties. Outdoor exposure can cause color fading and embrittlement,
unless the material is stabilized. Although a pure aliphatic PA does not absorb
light of short wavelengths, commercial materials are degraded by light, as
178 they contain impurities and/or structural features that contribute to degrada-
tion. Heat stabilizers (such as a phenolic antioxidant) do help with light stabi-
lization, but for the best results, use a HALS-type stabilizer.
A preventative antioxidant (for instance, a phosphite) may be used
to retain color during melt processing, if used at a level of up to 0.4%. For
long term stabilization, use is made of antioxidants, such as copper salts (in
combination with a halogen compound and/or a phosphorous compound),
aromatic amines (a p-phenylene diamine), or a sterically hindered phenol
antioxidant. Copper salts and amines can cause discoloration, so hindered
phenols are often preferred; one can use butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT),
1,3,5-tris-(5-t-butyl-4-hydroxy-2-methylphenyl-butane, 1,3,5-tris-(3,5-di-t-
butyl-4-hydroxybenzyl-mesitylene, or N,N' hexamethylene-bis-3-(3,5-di-t-
butyl-4-hydroxyphenyl-propionamide. The level of use may reach 0.7%.
Salt solutions (such as calcium bromide, zinc chloride, and potas-
sium thiocyanate) will cause stress cracking of PA 6 and PA 66. PA 11 and PA
12 are more resistant, although these materials cannot withstand such high
temperatures. Lithium chloride, calcium chloride, and magnesium chloride do
not induce cracking in aqueous solutions, but alcohol/salt combinations, like
methanol and lithium chloride, will attack nylons. Blending PA 66 with a high
carbon nylon (PA 12) and/or a polyolefin, which contains carboxylic groups,
will improve its resistance to salt cracking. Mixed solvents (for example, chlo-
roform and methanol) will also attack nylons, particularly at high tempera-
tures.
With a density of 1.15 g/cm3/0.67 oz.in-3, PA 66 (solid, non-filled material) will
sink in water and float in saturated magnesium chloride. The natural color of
the material ranges from translucent white to a translucent light brown.
When this nylon 66 is heated in a flame, it melts, darkens, boils
and then burns with a small blue flame (yellow edge). White smoke is emitted
and the flame is easily extinguished, emitting a celery-type odor. It is a hard,
tough, opaque material that can be cut easily with a knife, producing cuts with
smooth edges.
The easiest way of classifying nylons is by melting point (MP)
determinations. PA 66 has a high sharp MP of 256C/490F (PA 6 220C/
428F). PA 66 is more resistant to chloroform, benzyl alcohol and trichloroeth-
ylene than PA 6. PA 6 will dissolve in 4N hydrochloric acid and boiling N, N-
dimethylformamide, while PA 66 will not.
11. Coloring
As the natural color of the material ranges from translucent white to translu-
cent light brown, a wide color range is possible. Both transparent and opaque
colors are available. The darker the base color, the more difficult it is to obtain
the correct color match. PA 66 is sold in both compounded colors and as nat-
ural material, for coloring on the extruder by techniques such as dry coloring,
masterbatching, and liquid coloring.
Fully compounded material is preferred by many, as color addition
may affect properties. When dry coloring, the choice and type of pigment is
important. Inorganic metal oxides are preferred; however, some organic blue
and green pigments are used. Before making a colorant addition, one should
check with the manufacturer of the material and/or the colorant supplier.
Dry colorant addition is carried out using the multi-axial tumble
blend method. The drum needs to be two thirds full before the colorant is
added and rotation commenced. It may also be necessary to purge the
blender with an inert gas first and then fill it with freshly-opened material. The
material and colorant should be pre-dried before being mixed and it is essen-
tial that both ingredients are not exposed to the atmosphere for prolonged
periods. After blending, the dry-blend should be used immediately, or stored 179
in a moisture-proof container. Typically, mixing times of 5 to 8 minutes are
used. The speed of drum rotation depends upon the type of equipment select-

ed. The most important factor is the creation of sufficient mixing/grinding
action in the blender. This is necessary to break down agglomerates of the
pigment (which are present in most colorants), and to disperse the colorant
uniformly throughout the blend. The presence of specks, streaks, and/or, vari-
ation in shade on the products are a consequence of poor tumble blending.
Master-batches are regularly used. and are often preferred to dry colorants, as
their addition is relatively simple and clean. Typical levels of addition of master
batches are between 1% to 2%.
Compounded material is also used where components require
exactness of color matching and/or, they are to be used in outdoor applica-
tions (particularly with the color black). Liquid colors are not as popular as dry
coloring and masterbatching, because the volume of production does not
always warrant the costs involved in handling and accurately dispensing the
liquid colorant into the hopper throat.
When processing colored PA 66, the major difference, compared to
PA 6, is the need to reduce the temperature of the feed zone and hopper throat
on the barrel assembly. This should be reduced to the lowest possible setting,
to minimize the risk of screw slip. Screw slip may occur due to the combina-
tion of the higher melt temperature, used to process PA 66, and the type of
carrier incorporated in the masterbatch or liquid colorant.
Surface dyeing of PA 66 is possible. However, to achieve color
consistency and reproducibility, it is essential to critically control the dye con-
centration relative to the weight of nylon to be dyed. Typical dye concentra-
tions of between 0.002% to 0.02% are used (the actual percentage depends
upon the shade and depth of color required).
As supplied, nylon 66 is suitable for processing. If, however, containers are
left open, rapid water absorption will occur. The material should be dried in a
well ventilated, hot air oven for 4 to 5 hrs at 85C/185F (be careful not to
cause oxidation), or in a desiccant drier for 1 to 2 hrs at 105C/221F. If the
moisture content is greater than 0.2%, the flow properties of the melt are
affected. If the material is very wet (for example, it has been exposed to air for
more than 8 hrs), vacuum or desiccant drying is necessary (12 hrs at 105C/
221F). Ensure that a Fi-Fo storage system is adopted and reseal containers
immediately after use. Keep hoppers covered and do not overfill. Dry rein-
forced grades for 16 hrs at 75C/167F.
Mechanical handling and material transfer systems can be used if
properly designed and operated. A good design employs a rotating coarse
screw inside a flexible tube. The discharge end and motor is fitted over the
extruder hopper and the feed end into a tilted raw material container. If the
material is supplied in flexible bags, then the system can prevent air coming
into contact with the nylon. If vacuum loader conveyors are used, then the
pump must be switched off except when material is being transferred in
batches. Failure to do this will cause air to pass over the resin and allow it to
absorb moisture. A closed loop system, in which the air for conveying the
nylon granules is recirculated, is an improvement.
Because of the high melting point of nylon 66, extruder barrels should be at
least 20 diameters in length, or preferably 24 D, and they should have a
bimetallic structure to reduce wear. Because of the high temperatures and
sharp melting point of nylon 66, good temperature control is essential. It is
also advisable to fit a pressure transducer at the end of the barrel to monitor
melt pressure.
180 Traditional screw designs are based on a very short compression
section of one turn or less. In recent years, this design has gone out of favor,
as it is not very efficient. The table below shows designs for both short com-
pression (SC) screws and those with a longer compression section (a stan-
dard (Std) or general purpose, design). Compression ratios are between 3.3
and 3.9. The screw designs given for nylon 6 are also suitable for nylon 66.
Barrier screws have also been successful. The figures in brackets refer to
zone lengths
Screw Diameter (in.) 1.5 2.5 3.5
Screw Type SC Std SC Std SC Std
Channel Depth (in.)
Feed zone 0.31 0.30 0.42 0.38 0.58 0.4
(15D) (10D) (15D) (8D) (15D) (8D)
Compression (1D) (6D) (1D) (8D) (1D) (8D)
Metering 0.08 0.09 0.12 0.11 0.16 0.12
(8D) (8D) (8D) (8D) (8D) (8D)
F C
Zone 1 Temperature 510 - 550 265 - 290
Adapter 535 - 555 280 - 290
Die 520 - 555 270 290
The barrel residence time depends on the temperature. At a temperature of
280C/536F, the maximum residence time in the barrel should not exceed 5
minutes. When the temperature is 320C/608F, however, the maximum resi-
dence time in the barrel should not exceed 3 minutes. Melt temperatures
above 300C/572F, and long residence times (more than 15 minutes), should
be avoided, as degradation will cause the material to discolor and become
brittle. Material must be purged if overheated.
Ideally, the barrel should be divided into at least 4 zones to
improve the accuracy of temperature control. It is common to have a lower
temperature at the hopper-end of the machine and a higher temperature at the
die-end. The temperatures of the zones in between alter fairly uniformly. This
is a normal or uphill temperature profile. However, with some materials, for
example, a high melting point nylon such as PA 66, the extruder may be start-
ed with an uphill profile and then be switched to a downhill profile once extru-
sion is safely underway. To do this, the line is started with a conventional tem-
perature profile and with a relatively low feed zone setting. Once pressures
have been checked and the line is operational, the feed (zone 1) is set hotter
than the metering zone, whose temperature can be reduced (the metering
zone is the last zone on the barrel). This setting can minimize degradation and
help in maintaining viscosity.
The principles of die design for nylon 66 are very similar to those for nylon 6
and the section on PA 6 should be consulted. Because of the higher tempera-
tures used for PA 66, temperature control is more critical. In some instances,
it is desirable to fit internal heating elements in the die (such as in the torpedo
or mandrel). Pressure monitoring in the adapter is recommended. Chrome
plating of the inside of the flow passages in the die is desirable. The following
specification is suggested: Chrome - 8 RMS micro-inches, Rockwell hardness
C-60 to 65, and thickness 0.002 in - 0.003 in.
For blown film, avoid the use of side fed dies. Use a screen pack
consisting of a 120 mesh screen sandwiched by two 80 mesh screens.
16. Downstream Operations 181
Most downstream operations are similar to those for nylon 6. The heat
removal requirements are greater because of the higher temperatures used to

process this material. For instance, if the rolls are set at 80C/76F and the
melt temperature is 280C/536F, then the maximum amount of heat that
needs to be removed per gram of output is 612 J. Over the temperature range
quoted, the specific heat is approximately 3075 J/kgK.
Because of its abrupt transition from melt to solid and large
amount of shrinkage, nylon 66 rod is difficult to produce at larger diameters,
without voids. Attaching a forming die after the main die can reduce voids.
The forming die is cooled and holds the rod under pressure as it cools.
Further cooling occurs after the die. Slow cooling is necessary in thick rod
production. With rapid cooling, the outer layers of the rod will form a hard
skin and as the material in the center shrinks, voids will be produced. Slow
cooling provides a more even temperature distribution in the cooling process.
For extrusion of monofilament, a gear pump is inserted between
the main extruder and the die. A fine filter pack (one based on sand or sin-
tered aluminum) is also used. The holes in the die plate are 2 to 12 times the
diameter of the un-drawn filament, and the molten extrudate is thus cooled
under tension. Cooling water is maintained at a temperature of about
40C/100F. In-line drawing and annealing takes place using a series of rollers
and electrically heated chambers. The monofilament may be wound onto bob-
bins.
17. Extruder Plasticizing Capacity
The figures below refer to maximum capacities. In most cases, the limiting
factor in an extrusion process is not the extruder, but another part of the
process, such as cooling or take-off capacity.
Extruder Output
(in) (mm) (lb/hr) (kg/hr)
1.00 25.0 20 9
2.00 50.0 100 40
3.00 75.0 500 220
4.00 100.0 800 370
6.00 150.0 1700 800
18. Starting Up
Start up procedures for nylon 66 are similar to those used for nylon 6.
Because of the higher temperatures involved, however, even more care must
be taken to avoid trapped gases, premature granule melting and blocking of
the feed section of the screw. The symptoms of bridging in the feed are surg-
ing, loss of output and a reduction in the motor current. Sometimes, the
bridge can be removed by raising the feed zone temperature to 315C/600F
(or higher) and hand feeding pieces of nylon rod. If this fails, then the extrud-
er must be purged and cleaned.
19. Shutting Down
If the extruder temperatures are no more than 290C/555F, then the screw can
be stopped for up to 10 minutes and restarted. To shut down the machine for
longer periods, reduce the screw speed to approximately 10 rpm and then
lower the temperature settings to 270C/515F. When the extruder has cooled
to this temperature, purge with PP or HDPE.
An alternative is to purge initially with polyethylene, of melt flow
rate 1.0, until the majority of the nylon has been removed. This should be
done without changing temperature settings. Remove the die and the adapter
and clean them using soft scrapers based on brass or copper. Remove the last
traces of polymer by burning it off in an oven at approximately 800F- 900F. It
is preferable that heating takes place under vacuum or in an inert atmosphere,
182 to reduce the risk of oxidation of the metal surfaces. After the plastic material
has been burned away, a sandblast can be used to remove residual carbon.
Note: Dies that have been chrome plated should not be subjected to this high
temperature treatment, nor should they be sandblasted.
Polymer can be removed from the screw and barrel by means of
an acrylic purge compound. This material will not melt, as its molecular
weight is in the millions. It should not be confused with grades of acrylic resin
used for extrusion or injection molding. These grades are not suitable for
purging. The acrylic purge compound is hand fed into the extruder that is run
at a fairly high speed. When all of the polymer has been used, run the extrud-
er until dry, remove the screw and clean the screw and barrel by wiping off
the purge material.
20. Reprocessing
Reclaim PA immediately after production if possible. A desirable method is to
granulate off-spec extrudate within 15 seconds and feed it back immediately.
When first produced, PA components are dry, as they have not had the chance
to absorb water. The dry material is more brittle than material which has
absorbed water and is, therefore, easier to reclaim. Remove fines from the
reground material by sizing, using a 16-20 mesh sieve or screen. Material that
falls through the sieve should be discarded. Do not re-use overheated (more
than 300C/572F) material.
If PA material is not immediately regranulated, and re-used at the
machine, it is recommended that it be kept clean and dry and then pre-dried
before use. Careful drying of regrind is essential. The amount of regrind used
is related to the component end service requirements. In general, when this
material is reclaimed, up to 25% may be blended into the virgin material.
However, the level of regrind possible varies very much from application to
application. The use of regrind tends to lower the melt viscosity and hence it
is used only sparingly in applications where a high viscosity grade of nylon 66
is required.
21. Finishing
Machining should be done at high speeds with sharp tools and low feed rates
and should use efficient cooling. PA 66 may be solvent welded with aqueous
phenol (12%) or a solution of PA 66 in ethanol and calcium chloride. If
dimensions are very critical, then annealing, and/or moisture conditioning,
may be necessary. Anneal by heating in a non-oxidizing oil for 20 minutes at
170C/ 338F. PA 66 may be conditioned to equilibrium water content by
immersion in water (maximum temperature 60C/140F). To get uniform water
distribution, wrap the part in PE film and store. Painting is also possible, as is
chrome plating, after etching first with 40% formic acid. Heat foil at 160C to
190C/320F to 374F. Nylon parts may be dyed (for example, use ICIs
Nylomine) at 90C/194F for 15 minutes. Epoxides and cyanoacrylates are
good adhesives.
22. Other Comments
The use of molybdenum disulfide and graphite, dispersed in the original mate-
rial, improves the wear of PA 66. Glass filled (GF) grades are available for
extrusion. Glass filled rods will be stiffer and less affected by changes in tem-
perature than their unfilled counterparts. The affects of the addition of glass
fiber to nylon 66 are shown in the following table. Note, however, that the
glass filled grades increase the wear rate of an extruder very considerably.
Properties of Nylon 66 + Glass Fiber Conditioned to 50% RH
% Glass Fiber 0 15 33 50
Yield Stress (Mpa) 60 85 115 155
Elongation at break (%) >100 6 5 6
Flexural modulus (Gpa) 1.15 3.2 5.5 9.6
The heat distortion temperature (HDT) also rises as the amount of 183
glass fiber increases. The shrinkage of unfilled PA 66 is of the order of 0.010
to 0.020 in/in or mm/mm (1% to 2%), but the addition of glass fiber (GF) will

reduce the shrinkage to 0.2% to 1%. However, differences in shrinkage
between the transverse and longitudinal directions (that is, along and across
the flow) can be as much as five times. Glass bead filed grades, and mineral
filled grades, give more isotropic products.
PA 6 and PA 66 are the most widely used of the so-called engineering plastics.
Like PA 6, PA 66 is best known in the plastics industry as a light engineering
material which is mainly processed by injection molding. Often the material is
selected because of the low level of friction encountered, without lubrication,
together with good oil and grease resistance. PA 66, like PA 6, is often used
where the components require impact resistance and impact strength. They
are also widely used as glass reinforced materials. These find use in the auto-
motive industry, as fuel resistant parts that must operate in the aggressive
environment in and around the engine. Alloys of PA are now being used for
computer housings and for automotive panels. These panels may be required
to withstand elevated paint bake oven temperatures and then subsequent low
temperatures in use.
Nylon 66 is extruded into rod, strip, profiles, film and monofila-
ments. Its high melting temperature and inertness make it suitable for roast in
a bag applications. Special heat stabilized grades are available for this applica-
tion. Its high temperature stability also makes it suitable for hot fill and steril-
ization packaging applications.
With PA 66, shrinkage and after-shrinkage decrease the component
size, but moisture absorption increases component size. So, after production,
the component may increase in size due to water absorption, which may
negate the effect of shrinkage. Nucleating agents help reduce after-shrinkage.
24. Yield
Film of 0.002 in (200 gauge) thickness has a surface area of 84.5 sq ft/lb
weight
Film of 50 microns thickness 50 microns has a surface area of 17.5 sq m/kg
Tube of 3/8 in I.D. and 1/16 in wall thickness has a length of 23.6 ft/lb
weight
LDPE
1. Common Name Low density polyethylene
2. Abbreviation(s) LDPE: PE-LD
Polyethylene - low density (PELE): polythene: low density polythene:
poly(methylene): high pressure polyethylene: branched polyethylene.
Borealis Chemicals Neste LDPE
Borealis Chemicals Statoil LDPE
BP Chemicals/Amoco Novex LD
Carmel Olefins Ipithene
Chevron Chevron PE
Dow-Carbide Dowlex, DFDA
DSM Stamylan LD
Eastman Chemical Co. Tenite PE
Elanac Lupolen, Carlona
EquiStar Chemical Co Petrothene
Exxon Mobil Escorene, LCA
Huntsman Rexene PE
Polimeri Europa Unipol
Shuman Plastics Shuman PE
Slovnaft Bralen
Ube Industries Ube PE
Westlake Westlake EF
Polyethylene (PE) plastics are plastic materials that are based on polymers
made mainly with the olefin commonly called ethylene. This usually means no
less than 85% ethylene and no less than 95% total olefins. Although a PE
homopolymer may be represented as -(CH2-CH2)n-, the simplicity of the for-
mula does not convey the tremendous number of variations (or grades) of PE
that are available. Such materials may differ in, for example, molecular weight,
molecular weight distribution, short chain branching (SCB), long chain
branching (LCB) and the presence of catalyst residues. Polymerization using
two or more olefin monomers produces copolymers (olefin copolymers).
Because of developments in catalyst technology, copolymers are undergoing a
period of very rapid growth. Many commercial PE materials are copolymers
that contain a small amount of an alpha olefin, which permits control over
SCB and therefore product density. This is important, as the mechanical prop-
erties of PE materials are very dependent upon density.
When ethylene is heated at high pressures (up to 3000 bar/43,500
psi) and at temperatures of 100C to 300C/212F to 572F, in the presence of
a free radical initiator, the plastic material originally known as polythene or
polyethylene (PE) is produced. It was the first PE ever produced, and is now
better known as low-density polyethylene (LDPE or PELD). LDPE is a semi-
crystalline thermoplastic material whose natural color, in thick sections, is a
milky white. It has a soft, wax-like feel. Because chain branching (both long
and short chain branching are present) interrupts crystallization of the poly-
mer chains, the crystallinity level is low. This means that if the extrudate is
kept thin and cooled quickly, then film can appear transparent. The material
generally has a relatively low density (typically 0.92 g/cm3), but by varying the
polymerization conditions, it is possible to produce commercial materials with
densities over the range 0.915 to 0.94 g/cm3.
LDPE is a low-cost material with excellent chemical resistance. It
is tough, even at low temperatures, has excellent electrical insulation proper-
ties, and is capable of being processed by a wide range of techniques.
However, LDPE only has moderate tensile strength, low stiffness, low maxi-
mum use temperature, and suffers from creep. Its resistance to light and fire
is poor. LDPE has high water vapor and gas (particularly carbon dioxide) per-
meability. Permeability to organic vapors is lowest for alcohols and increases
in the order: acids to aldehydes and ketones, esters, ethers, hydrocarbons and
halogenated hydrocarbons (permeability decreases with density). LDPE is also
susceptible to environmental stress cracking (ESC).
By copolymerization of ethylene with a higher alpha olefin (HAO),
it is possible to produce a range of very low-density materials. Very low-den-
sity polyethylene (VLDPE or PEVLD) may also be known as ultra low-density
polyethylene (ULDPE or PEULD). Sometimes VLDPE is distinguished from
ULDPE on the grounds of density. VLDPE may be considered to be a polyeth-
ylene (PE) which has a density of 0.915 to 0.90 g/cm3 and ULDPE is a PE
which has a density below 0.9 g/cm3 (say 0.88 g/cm3). Such very low-density 185
HAO grades, which are hardly crystalline, are rubber-like materials that can be
used as an alternative to thermoplastic elastomers and for materials modifica-

tion (for example, improving the impact strength of PP).
7. Ease of Flow
Both long chain branching (LCB) and short chain branching (SCB) are present
in LDPE and, because LCB produces compact molecules, the material flows
relatively easily. The ease of flow is rated by what is known as the melt flow
index (MFI) or rate (MFR). Both terms refer to the same test. The lower the
number, the stiffer the flow since the molecular weight is, generally, higher. At
200C/392F a plastic material with an MFR of 20 will have approximately twice
the spiral flow length of a plastic with an MFR of 2. Low MFR materials exhibit
better environmental stress cracking resistance (ESC), solvent resistance, and
higher impact strength. Polymers of different density, but with the same melt
flow index, do not necessarily have the same molecular weight.
LDPE is more pseudoplastic (shear thinning) than LLDPE because
it has a broader molecular weight distribution. If LDPE of a given melt flow
rate (index) is compared with LLDPE material of the same melt flow index, it
will be found that the LLDPE material has a higher melt viscosity at processing
shear rates.
For blown film production, the MFR ranges from 0.2 to 3.0. The
low MFR grades are used for heavy-duty sacks, while the high MFR grades are
used for packaging applications where good gloss is required. For extrusion
coating less viscous grades, with MFR in the range 4 to 12, are employed. In
cable coating, the MFR is generally about 0.2.
The following table shows viscosity values for a MFR 2 film grade
resin over a range of shear rates and temperatures.
Shear Rate (s-1) Viscosity (Ns/m2)
(171C/340F) (190C/375F) (210C/410F)
20 2480 1910 1460
40 2190 1330 1040
100 1030 810 640
200 660 540 440
400 430 350 290
8. Resistant to:
LDPE is resistant to most solvents at room temperature; however, aromatic
and chlorinated hydrocarbons will cause swelling. It is relatively unaffected by
polar solvents, (alcohols, phenols, esters and ketones); vegetable oils, water,
alkalis, most concentrated acids (at room temperature), and ozone (in absence
of UV). It has very low water absorption, even after long immersion times
(<0.2%. after one year at 20C/68F). The addition of carbon black, used to
improve weathering, will increase the water absorption. Absorption of other
liquids, such as acetone and benzene, will be greater for LDPE than for HDPE.
The best chemical resistance is found with HDPE and cross-linked PE.
Broadly speaking, PE materials exhibit similar chemical resistance
in the long term, although, in the short term, LDPE will be attacked more
quickly than the higher density materials. Overall, HDPE or LLDPE has the best
chemical resistance. HDPE resists aromatic and chlorinated hydrocarbons
more than LDPE. In general, PE materials resist fungal and bacterial attack.
They are resistant to hydrolysis and attack by most common organic solvents
at room temperature. They are insoluble in organic solvents at temperatures
below 50C/122F. At higher temperatures, they are soluble in hydrocarbons
and halogenated hydrocarbons. They can be dissolved in hot solvents, such as
toluene, xylene, amyl acetate, trichloroethylene, petroleum ether, paraffin, tur-
pentine and lubricating oils. Although there is no solvent for PE at room tem-
186 perature, they swell in chlorinated hydrocarbons, aliphatic hydrocarbons, aro-
matic hydrocarbons, some esters and oils.
Polyolefin materials are resistant to acids and to alkalies, but are
not to oxidizing acids, such as nitric acid, chlorosulfonic acid, chromic acid,
and fuming sulfuric acid. They resist acid, basic and neutral salts. The materi-
als have good resistance to gases such as carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide,
hydrogen sulphide and sulfur dioxide (wet and dry), but have poor resistance
to chlorine (wet and dry). The water vapor permeability of all types of PE is
low. PE materials are permeable to gases and vapors, but LLDPE and HDPE
are less permeable to gases and vapors than LDPE. Permeability for organic
vapors is least for alcohols and then increases from acids to aldehydes and
ketones, to esters, ethers, hydrocarbons and halogenated hydrocarbons (per-
meability decreases with density). Some high molecular weight grades of
HDPE and LLDPE are accepted as being suitable for containers for oil and
petroleum based products. They are used for fuel tanks. In some cases the
formed containers are chemically modified, by fluorination or sulfonation,
which makes them almost impermeable to fuels.
9. Not resistant to:
Polyethylenes are not resistant to fuming nitric acid or fuming sulfuric acid.
Halogens and chlorinating agents such as chlorosulfonic acid and phosgene
slowly attack them. LDPE is sensitive to environmental stress cracking (ESC),
which occurs when a material is subject to strain, or an internal stress, in the
presence of polar liquids or the vapors of such liquids. Such ESC is also asso-
ciated with detergents or silicone fluids, although there are many other envi-
ronmental stress-cracking agents, such as chloroform, xylene and paraffin.
The ESC effect is minimized by reducing the residual stresses in the molding,
careful component design, and by using the lowest MFR (the highest molecu-
lar weight) grade. At any particular density level, LLDPE has better ESC resis-
tance than LDPE and the higher molecular weight grades have the best resis-
tance.
In many cases the resistance of PO materials to light is satisfacto-
ry, but, if it is not, the cheapest way of improving the light resistance is by the
addition of carbon black. Ultraviolet (UV) absorbers and screening agents are
also used to give protection. Unless so protected, appearance will initially suf-
fer, and then the material will seriously degrade. The most commonly used
non-black light stabilizers are those based on ultraviolet absorbers, such as 2-
hydroxy-4-alkoxybenzophenones and 2-(2'hydroxyphenyl) benzotriazoles),
nickel (11) chelates, and polymeric hindered amine light stabilizers (HALS).
Mixed stabilizer systems are often much more efficient than a single stabilizer.
As PO materials have comparatively limited resistance to oxygen at
elevated temperatures, antioxidants are also used for their protection. Unless
they are protected, the electrical properties will suffer. LDPE has limited resis-
tance to oxygen at elevated temperatures, but not as susceptible to oxidation
at high temperatures (for example, those experienced during melt processing)
as polypropylene (PP). The antioxidants used are similar to those used for PP,
but the level of use is lower (~0.05 to 0.1%) because of compatibility prob-
lems. 1,3,5-tris-(5-t-butyl-4-hydroxy-2-methylphenyl-butane or bis- (2-
hydroxy-5-methyl-3-(1-methylcyclohexyl)-phenyl)-methane are used for prod-
uct protection, whereas for protection during processing, and for non-toxic
applications 2,6 di-t-butyl-4-methylphenol (BHT) is used. Metal deactivators
such as N,Ndibenzaloxalyldihydrazide or, N,N'-bis-(3-(3',5di-t-butyl-4'-
hydroxy-phenyl)-propionyl)-hydrazine are also used.
With a density of approximately 0.92 g/cm3 LDPE (solid, non-filled material)
will float in both water and in saturated magnesium chloride. There is no sol-
vent for the polymer at room temperature, but at higher temperatures (approx- 187
imately 55C/131F), LDPE is soluble in hydrocarbons and chlorinated hydro-
carbons, such as xylene and trichloroethylene. Below approximately 60C/

140F, PE is insoluble in all organic solvents, but it does swell in aliphatic, aro-
matic and chlorinated hydrocarbons. The lower the density the more it swells.
The natural color of the material is a milky white and so a wide
color range is possible. When this material is heated in a flame it ignites easily
and burns with a yellow-tipped, blue flame, giving off only a little smoke. It
forms burning drops and, when the flame is extinguished, gives a smell like
candle wax.
The easiest way of differentiating between the different PO materi-
als is by density and melting point. LDPE has a melting point of 110C to
125C (230F to 257F), LLDPE is 115C to 128C (239F to 262F), HDPE is
130C to 135C (266F to 275F) and PP is 165C to 175C (329F to 347F).
When LDPE is heated in the absence of a flame the material will soften and
melt to give a clear liquid as the crystal structures are destroyed. The melt is
stable, in the absence of air, up to approximately 300C/572F when it decom-
poses to give low molecular weight hydrocarbons. Cross-linked PE will not
melt but will become rubbery at approximately 115C/239F. LDPE can be cut
or scratched easily with a knife. The shrinkage of LDPE is of the order of 0.02
to 0.05 in/in (2% to 5%) when the density is 0.910 to 0.925 g/cm3. It is in the
range of 0.015 to O.04 in/in (1.5% to 4%) when the density is 0.926 to 0.94
g/cm3.
11. Coloring
As the natural color of the material is off-white, a wide color range is possible.
This does not include transparent colors in thick sections. It is sold in both
compounded colors and as natural material for coloring on the processing
machine, by techniques such as dry coloring, masterbatching and liquid color-
ing. When coloring LDPE, organic dyes should not be used, due to the prob-
lem of color leeching or bleeding (often called blush). For most coloring pur-
poses organic and inorganic pigments are preferred. When dry coloring LDPE,
colorant levels of up to 1% are generally used. Wetting agents are used with
dry colorants, primarily for cleanliness in the processing shop, rather than for
aiding the dispersion of the colorant. Universal type master batches are often
used with LDPE at concentration levels of 1%. However, to obtain a more uni-
form color on a molded component, the addition level may need to be
increased to 3% to 5%. When color uniformity is particularly important, LDPE-
based master batches are often preferred. If opacity of color is required, then
inorganic pigments are generally used.
There are no limitations to using liquid colorants with LDPE, how-
ever, levels have to be kept to a minimum (< 3%), otherwise screw slip may
occur.
When coloring LDPE, its softness and very easy flow characteris-
tics must be remembered. To improve the dispersion of the pigments within
the melt, it is necessary to create an adequate mixing/grinding action within
the barrel of the machine. In order to achieve this, it is often necessary to
reduce the machine temperatures to the lowest values that will still enable
components of the required quality to be produced.
LDPE will absorb less than 0.02% water in 24 hrs at room temperature. This
means that drying is not normally necessary. If drying is necessary, the resin
should be dried in a hot air oven for 3 hrs at 65C/149F, or in a desiccant
dryer for 1 1.5 hrs at 80C/176F.
LDPE is normally sold in the form of pellets. This is the easiest
form of the feedstock for use in extrusion. The simplest hopper design is nor-
188 mally satisfactory. Sometimes LDPE may be obtained as a powder, or regran-
ulated scrap may be added to the feedstock at fairly high concentrations. In
these cases, it may be necessary to use a crammer-feeder on the hopper.
LDPE is extruded using a standard screw. A typical design is shown below.
Total Length
24 D
Length of Feed Section 6D
Length of Compression Section 10 D
Length of Metering Section 8D
Channel Depth in Feed Section 0.1 - 0.15 D
Compression Ratio 3:1 to 4:1
Flight Width 0.1 D
Flight Pitch P = D (1 D) that is, helix angle 17.7E
Screws designed to the above specification are shown in the following table:
the length of each zone is shown in brackets, (i.e. 6 D).
Screw Diameter 2.5" (62 mm) 3.5" (87 mm) 4.5" (112 mm)
Feed Zone Depth (6 D) 0.35" (8.89 mm) 0.50" (12.7 mm) 0.56" (14.2 mm)
Compression (10 D)
Metering Zone Depth (8 D) 0.09" (2.29 mm) 0.13" (3.30 mm) 0.15" (3.81 mm)
It is quite common for polyethylene screws to have a mixing head
or section after the metering section. This zone is 2 to 3 D in length and con-
sists of a number of studs arranged in a pattern around the root of the screw.
As the melt passes through the mixing head, it is chopped and sheared by the
rotating studs. This considerably increases the mixing and, hence, the unifor-
mity of the melt (Note: The motor power required will be increased on adding
a mixing head).
Barrier screws are frequently used with LDPE, as they produce a
more even melt temperature. For higher outputs with a given barrel diameter,
the barrel is fitted with a grooved feed section. The grooves run parallel to the
axis of the extruder and force the solid pellets along the screw. The output
from grooved barrel designs depends on the temperature of the grooved zone.
For maximum output, the zone is cooled to prevent melting in the grooves.
When a grooved feed is employed, then a mixing zone, usually fitted before
the metering zone, is also required. Grooved extruders produce higher out-
puts, but the motor power requirements are higher than those for a compara-
bly sized conventional design. Barrel wear can also be a problem with the
grooved feed system.
It must be remembered that the barrel and die temperature interact with the
screw design, screw speed and material rheology to determine the melt tem-
perature. Target melt temperatures, together with guides for the barrel and die
temperatures, are shown, for three applications, in the table below.
Blown Film Cable Coating Extrusion Coating
Melt Temperature (C) 170 - 190 190 - 200 320 - 330
(F) 335 - 375 375 - 395 610 - 630
Zone Temperatures (C/F)
Zone 1 170/340 175/350 240/460
Zone 2 180/355 190/375 320/610
Zone 3 185/365 195/385 330/625
Die 185/365 195/385 325/620
For blown film production, the spiral mandrel design has largely replaced the
side fed die type. This die has at least four ports and more usually about eight. 189
A typical gap width at the die exit is 0.04 in (1 mm).
Damage to the die lips will cause die lines on the product. These

are especially noticeable in thin blown film extrudates. Soft metal scrapers, of
copper or possibly brass, must, therefore, be used to remove any blockage of
the die lips. A specially made scraper, which fits inside the die lips, is useful to
ensure they are clean at start up.
LDPE is not a very damaging or easily damaged material. Provided
dies are correctly designed, and do not leak, they should run for lengthy peri-
ods without the need for stripping and cleaning. Molten LDPE should be
removed when the die is hot.
16. Downstream Equipment
As LDPE is a semi-crystalline material, a large amount of heat must be re-
moved after the extrudate has been formed in the die. If it is assumed that the
extrudate must be cooled to 30C/86F from a melt temperature of 210C/
410F, then the maximum amount of heat that needs to be removed for each
gram of extrudate is 572 Joules (J). Over the above temperature range the
specific heat is approximately 3180 J/kgk.
In blown film production, the molten extrudate is cooled by air,
directed nearly parallel to it, from a cooling ring. The cooling ring should give
an even air flow and should be kept clear of obstructions and grease. Higher
outputs are obtainable with a dual-lip cooling ring. In this design, an iris dia-
phragm is positioned about 2 ft (approximately 600 mm) above the die and
adjusted so that there is a small gap between it and the film. It will also stabi-
lize the bubble and increase output potential. The largest increase in output is
obtained by using internal bubble cooling (IBC), as well as the conventional
ring. Collapsing can be done on a wooden slatted surface. The angle between
the collapsing surfaces should be small. Gusset boards are positioned at the
edges to gusset film where this is required. These should be relatively short to
avoid too much creasing. If it is to be printed, the film is corona discharge
treated. Reeling is usually by surface winding. Film can be slit or reeled as
layflat. There has been some work to develop in-line bag making and printing
facilities, especially for carrier bag manufacture. Though this saves warehous-
ing and labor costs, a high degree of reliability in all components of the pro-
cess is necessary to avoid expensive hold ups.
Typical maximum outputs from extruders are shown in the tables below. In the
table, two output figures are given: the first are for a smooth barrel and con-
ventional screw and the second figures are for a cooled groove feed section
and a screw with a mixing zone.
Extruder Size Output lb/hr (kg/hr)
(in) (mm) Standard Barrel Grooved Barrel
1.5 38 100 (45.5) 180 (81.8)
2.5 64 370 (168.2) 550 (250.0)
3.5 89 680 (309.1) 920 (418.2)
4.5 114 1140 (518.2) 1340 (609.1)
18. Starting Up
Sufficient start up time must be allowed for the extruder/die to heat and melt
all of the residual polyethylene in the flow channels. This usually takes about
an hour. During this time, the feed throat must be water-cooled. It is advisable
to limit the temperature setting on the feed zone of the extruder to 120C/
230F to prevent the melt from sticking to, and blocking, the feed zone of the
extruder screw. When starting, raise the temperature of the feed zone to its
running value and start at slow extrusion speed.
190 In blown film extrusion, the air should be circulated through the
cooling ring during the heating up period. It is beneficial to clean the die sur-
face with a soft scraper and then to smear it with a silicon grease, to prevent
melt sticking to the die surface during start up.
19. Shutting Down
LDPE is a relatively stable material and there is usually no need to purge the
equipment. However, it will degrade when exposed to air, and this process is
accelerated at high temperatures. Therefore, any shut down procedure should
aim to eliminate air from the material and to reduce the time that the polyeth-
ylene is at a high temperature. This can be done by reducing the screw speed
to a very low value (to keep the material moving without generating too much
waste), while lowering the temperature settings to ~150C/300F. Continue
extruding in this way for a short while, then switch off completely and reduce
temperatures as fast as possible. Leave the LDPE in the extruder. If you are
shutting down for cleaning purposes, temperatures cannot be reduced since
the material needs to be molten when the die is taken apart and the screw
removed from the barrel. In this case, all traces of polymer are removed from
the metal surfaces before reassembly.
20. Reprocessing
Up to 25% reclaimed LDPE may be blended with virgin material. If the materi-
al has been reclaimed from film, its bulk density tends to be rather high, and
there can be problems with feed in conventional hoppers if high quantities of
regrind are used. In this case, crammer feeding screws can be fitted to the
hopper.
21. Finishing
LDPE may not be joined to itself using solvents, since there are no solvents
for the material at room temperature. Because of its inert non-stick surface,
it cannot be very successfully bonded using adhesives. There has been limited
success with contact or hot melt adhesives. If the surface is made polar by
flame or electrical discharge, the treated material may be bonded to metals
using epoxides or nitrile-phenolic adhesives. Such treatments also improve
printability. LDPE is commonly welded using techniques such as hot plate or
hot shoe.
Machining of LDPE is difficult because of its soft, resilient nature.
Do not apply too much pressure when machining, as the material will distort.
22. Other Comments
A common characteristic of all polyolefins is their excellent chemical resis-
tance. However, radiation sterilization can cause chain scission and cross-link-
ing, but in PE the effect of one seems to balance the other. Thus, most types
of PE (LDPE and LLDPE) are resistant to moderate doses of radiation, and so
may be used in gamma radiation sterilized medical devices. Antioxidants,
and/or light stabilizers, may improve the resistance to radiation, but changing
the antioxidant (for example, to a phenolic antioxidant), on irradiation can
cause color changes in the polymer.
LDPE may be cross-linked using high energy radiation or by the
incorporation of peroxides. Carbon black reinforces such materials and also
improves light resistance. Internal antistatic agents used for polyolefins (poly-
ethylene and polypropylene), include glycol alkyl esters and betaine-type
materials.
Because of its ease of extrusion and its low cost, LDPE has become estab-
lished as a general purpose extrusion material. Most of these applications, like
film and pipe, do not utilize the excellent electrical insulation properties or the
water resistance of the material. Close tolerances are difficult to extrude
because of the materials softness, high shrinkage and wide shrinkage range.
Tolerances are also difficult to hold in service because of the high coefficient 191
of thermal expansion and the tendency of this semi-crystalline thermoplastic
to creep. Shrinkage is of the order of 0.02 to 0.05 mm/mm (or in/in) (2% to

5%) when the density is 0.910 to 0.925 g/cm3. It is of the order of 0.015 to
0.04 mm/mm (in/in) or 1.5% to 4% when the density is 0.926 to 0.94 g/cm3.
The softness of this plastic may allow attack by insects or animals. It is used
for insulation in preference to PVC, when its better low loss characteristics are
required for long distance cabling and for high frequency transmission.
Its major application is in film for packaging, where its low cost,
flexibility, toughness, heat sealability, and water resistance make it an ideal
material. It can be used in bag or pouch form, in composite materials as a
coating on board, paper or aluminum foil, or as a laminate or coextrudate with
nylon, polypropylene and cellulose films. Though used for shrink-wrap, this
application has been superseded by stretch wrapping for economic reasons.
24. Yield
Film of 0.002 in (200 gauge) thickness has a surface area of 105 sq ft/lb
weight
Tube of 3/8 in ID and 1/16 in wall thickness has a length of 29.2 ft/lb weight
LLDPE
1. Common Name Linear low-density polyethylene
2. Abbreviation(s) LLDPE; PE-LLD
3. Alternative Names Linear low: linear low density polythene
Borealis Chemicals Neste LLDPE
Dow Carbide Dow LLDPE, Dowlex, Elite, DFD
DSM Stamylex PE
DuPont Sclair
Elf Atochem Lacqtene HX
Elf Atochem Lacqtene LX
EniChem Flexirene
Exxon Mobil Escorene, Unipol,
Exxon Mobil Exceed (MLLDPE)
Huntsman Rexell
Nova Novapol, Sclair
Phillips Chemical Marlex LLDPE
Equistar Chemicals Petrothene
Sabic Ladene
LLDPE was developed in the 1950s, but it is only comparatively recently that
it has come into prominence. This material is a copolymer made by polymeriz-
ing ethylene with a small percentage of a higher olefin, such as octene or
butene. Butene-type materials can be made by any of the present available
processes and are less expensive, however, octene-type materials have slightly
better mechanical properties. When LLDPE materials were first introduced,
their lower price drove their use. The standard butene-based product was, in
effect, being used as filler for low-density polyethylene (see LDPE). This is no
longer the case, since, with suitable catalysts such as the metallocenes, only
low pressures and temperatures are required for LLDPE manufacture. Poly-
192 merization efficiency is also high and it is possible to produce a material that
has a particular molecular weight and a narrow molecular weight distribution.
The co-monomer introduces short chain branches (SCB) into the
molecular structure (more than high-density polyethylene - see HDPE). So, it
is possible to produce a material, which in some respects is similar to LDPE,
but which can be produced without the need for high polymerization pres-
sures. The short chain branches interfere with chain packing, so the crys-
tallinity is not as high as for the linear HDPE. LLDPE therefore, has a lower
density than HDPE. The term linear, in this case, means that there is an
absence of long chain branching (LCB). Commercial materials have densities
in the range 0.89 to 0.955 g/cm3 and have a narrower molecular weight distri-
bution than LDPE. They contain a smaller amount of low molecular weight
material and more medium molecular weight molecules. The average length of
the molecular chain is relatively long. For a given molecular weight, therefore,
LLDPE will have better mechanical properties at low temperatures (for exam-
ple, -40C/-40F) and high temperatures, better environmental stress cracking
resistance (ESC), and higher melt viscosity than LDPE. LLDPE can be
stronger and tougher than LDPE. The shrinkage of LLDPE is of the order of
0.015 to 0.030 in/in (1.5% to 3.0%) and it is possible to obtain lower shrink-
age values than those for LDPE and HDPE. LLDPE also exhibits a much lower
differential shrinkage than LDPE and so, warping is considerably reduced.
Increasing the co-monomer content increases the flexibility, the
impact strength, the tear strength, the ESC resistance, the ease of sealing and
the ease of printing. However, the stiffness, yield, creep strength, hardness,
Vicat softening point, and the melting point decrease proportionally.
Decreasing the density, or the crystallinity, also increases the flexibility, the
impact strength, tear strength, the ESC resistance, and the ease of sealing and
printing. Similarly, the stiffness, yield and creep strength, the hardness, Vicat
softening point and the melting point decrease proportionally.
Higher alpha olefin grades (HAO) of PE, are co- or terpolymers
that contain up to 10% of octene, 4-tetramethylpentene-1 or, propylene. It is
possible to produce very low-density polyethylene (VLDPE) materials that
contain both long chain branching and short chain branching.
7. Ease of Flow
LLDPE is an easy flow material with good heat stability, that is less pseudo-
plastic than LDPE. When a LDPE plastic of a certain melt flow rate (index), is
compared with an LLDPE plastic of the same melt flow index, the LLDPE poly-
mer will have higher viscosities at processing shear rates. MFR values can
reach 100 with LLDPE, while with LDPE they can reach 250. (Polymers of dif-
ferent density, but with the same melt flow index, do not have the same mole-
cular weight). To replace a LDPE grade, with an MFR of 7 to 10, one must use
a LLDPE of MFR of 20 to 50.
Most LLDPE is used for blown film. The grades used have melt
flow rates of between 0.5 and 2.0. Viscosity values for a typical film grade
(MFR 1.0) are shown below.
(190C/374F) (220C/428F) (250C/482F)
20 3460 2520 1820
40 2510 1910 1450
100 1630 1330 1080
200 1050 870 730
400 670 570 490
Another aspect of the flow of LLDPE, which differs from that of
LDPE, is in melt extensional flow. This type of flow occurs when a molten
sample is stretched in tension and thins as it This sort of flow occurs after 193
melt has left the die and is being formed into a film in the blown film process.
It is easier to stretch LLDPE than LDPE (i.e., it is softer). Also the LLDPE will

stretch considerably more than LDPE before breaking. The difference in exten-
sional flow means LLDPE film bubbles tend to be less stable than those
formed from LDPE. However, it is possible to draw LLDPE down to thinner
films than LDPE.
Melt fracture usually appears in plastic melts at high output rates.
The effect shows itself as a roughening of the extrudate surface. It generally
occurs when the shear stress in the molten polymer exceeds a critical value
(Note: The shear stress is related to the pressure gradient over the die land).
In the case of LLDPE, the critical shear stress is about 14 MPa (2000 psi).
Thus, because of its high viscosity at processing rates, melt fracture tends to
occur in the extrusion of LLDPE. It can be reduced by modifying the die
dimensions (see Die Design) or by modifying the surface of the die. A differ-
ent metal can be used for the die land surface (alpha brass has been found
successful) or the steel surface can be modified by coating it with a fluorocar-
bon material. These materials (polymer processing aids) are deposited on the
die metal surfaces by incorporating them in the LLDPE plastic as an additive
external lubricant. The processing aid is best blended into all the LLDPE at a
level that maintains the correct die surface to eliminate melt fracture. Alter-
natively, it can be used from time to time at higher concentrations producing a
coating that gradually wears away from the metal surface. At this time another
batch of concentrated additive must be used to re-coat the surface.
8. Resistant to:
PE is associated with environmental stress cracking (ESC) which occurs when
a material is subject to strain, or an internal stress, in the presence of polar
liquids or the vapors of such liquids. Such ESC is also associated with deter-
gents or silicone fluids, although there are many other ESC agents, such as
chloroform, xylene and paraffin. LLDPE has better ESC resistance than LDPE.
Higher molecular weight grades have the best ESC.
The resistance to a surface-active agent may be used to assess
residual stresses in PE components. A component is immersed in a 2% aque-
ous solution of sodium lauryl sulphate at 40C/104F for 40 hr. A component
with a low residual stress level will withstand this treatment without cracking,
crazing or distortion.
The water vapor permeability of this type of PE, as with all types of
PE, is low. PE is permeable to gases and vapors, but LLDPE and HDPE are
less permeable to gases and vapors than LDPE. Permeability for organic
vapors is least for alcohols and then increases in the order: acids, aldehydes
and ketones, esters, ethers, hydrocarbons and halogenated hydrocarbons.
(permeability decreases with density). Some grades of LLDPE are suitable for
containers for oil and petrol and have been used for fuel tanks. In some cases,
the formed containers do not have to be chemically modified to make them
almost impermeable to fuels.
LLDPE is both radiation and ethylene oxide (EtO) resistant and can
withstand multiple EtO cycles.
The light, or UV, resistance of LLDPE is relatively poor and is similar to that of
LDPE. The cheapest way of improving this is by the addition of carbon black.
Addition of 2% black can improve the weathering resistance by twelve times.
If black is to be avoided then, a polymeric hindered amine light stabilizer
(HALS) is more efficient than a simple HALS stabilizer. Blooming may be
observed with the lower molecular weight HALS stabilizer.
LLDPE has limited resistance to oxygen at elevated temperatures.
194 Antioxidants are used for protection. Unless so protected, the electrical prop-
erties will suffer. The antioxidants used with LLDPE are similar to those used
with other polyolefins.
With a density of 0.90 to 0.94 g/cm3, the material (solid, non-filled material)
will float in both water and a saturated magnesium chloride solution. There is
no solvent for the polymer at room temperature, but at higher temperatures
(approximately 55C/131F), LLDPE is soluble in hydrocarbons and chlorinat-
ed hydrocarbons, such as xylene and trichloroethylene. Below 60C/140F PE
is insoluble in all organic solvents, but it does swell in aliphatic, aromatic and
chlorinated hydrocarbons. The lower the density the more it swells.
The natural color of the material is a translucent white. When this
material is heated in a flame it ignites easily, burns with a yellow-tipped blue
flame, and gives off little smoke It forms burning drops and when the flame is
extinguished, gives off a smell like candle wax. It can be distinguished from
other polyolefins by density and melting point. LDPE has a melting point of
110C to 125C (230F to 257F), LLDPE is 115C to 128C (239F to 262F),
HDPE is 130C to 135C (266F to 275F) and PP is 165C to 175C (329F to
347F).
When heated in the absence of a flame, the material will soften and
melt to give a clear liquid as the crystal structures are destroyed. It is stable in
the absence of air up to approximately 300C/572F, when it decomposes to
give low molecular weight hydrocarbons. It can be cut easily with a knife and
easily scratched with a knife or fingernail.
11. Coloring
As the natural color of the material is off-white, a wide color range is possible.
This does not include transparent colors in thick sections. It is sold in both
compounded colors and as natural material, for coloring on the machine by
techniques such as solid master batches, liquid color and dry color.
Pigment selection is important as some types of pigments
increase the sensitivity to stress cracking and/or warpage. When coloring
LLDPE, organic dyes should not be used, due to problems of color leeching
or bleeding. For most coloring purposes organic and inorganic pigments are
preferred with colorant levels of up to and including 1%.
When dry coloring, adhesion promoters such as paraffin can be
used. Adhesion promoters (that is, wetting agents) are used with dry col-
orants primarily for cleanliness in the processing shop rather than to aid the
dispersion of the colorant. It is important to control the mixing time precisely,
as too short a mixing time gives poor dispersion and inadequate adhesion.
Too long a mixing time may cause pigment compaction. When using carbon
black as a dry colorant, care should be taken to prevent it from absorbing any
moisture during storage, otherwise the colored polymer will need to be dried
before processing.
Universal or LDPE based master batches are often used with
LLDPE, at concentration levels of 1%. However, to obtain a more uniform
color on the molded component, the addition level may need to be increased
to 3% to 5%. When color uniformity and optimum end-use performance are
particularly important, LLDPE based master batches are often preferred. If
opacity of color is required, then inorganic pigments tend to be used. There
are no real limitations to using liquid colorants with LLDPE, however, colorant
addition levels should be kept to a minimum to reduce the tendency for screw
slip.
LLDPEs higher melt viscosity, compared to LDPE, often promotes
better colorant dispersion, particularly if the machine temperatures are
reduced to the lowest value that will still enable quality product to be pro-
duced. Such low temperatures improve the dispersion by developing a mix- 195
ing/grinding action within the barrel of the machine.

LLDPE will absorb less than 0.02% water in 24 hrs at room temperature. This
means that drying is not normally necessary. If drying is required, it can be
dried in a hot air oven for 3 hrs at 65C/149F or in a desiccant dryer for 1 -
1.5 hrs at 85C/185F.
When used in pellet form, there is no problem with feeding, but
difficulties can be experienced when using LLDPE in powder form. In this
case, use a vibrating hopper or a secondary feed screw for the hopper
If LLDPE is run on equipment designed for LDPE, then at the same screw
speed LLDPE will need considerably more motor power. This is because the
viscosity of LLDPE is higher at the shear rates found in the extruder. The extra
energy input results in higher melt temperatures and a greater dependence of
melt temperature on screw speed. To provide better temperature control, a
number of screw designs, differing from the LDPE screw, have been tested
and found successful.
The basic general purpose design (described in the section on
LDPE) is modified for LLDPE by deepening both the feed and the metering
sections. The power requirements and the melt temperature increase are also
reduced by increasing the clearance between the tips of the screw flights and
the barrel, in the metering zone.
Improved designs incorporate a Maddock-type shearing section in
the metering zone and a deepening of the metering zone towards the end of
the screw. A 2.5 in (64 mm) screw based on this design would have the fol-
lowing characteristics.
Depth Length
Feed Zone 0.35"/8.89 mm 7D
Compression Zone variable 6D
1st Metering Zone 0.23"/5.84 mm 6D
Shear Zone 2/3 D
Final Metering Zone 0.35"/8.89 mm 8D
Such a screw when run at 150 rpm would produce an output of about 220
lb/hr (100 kg/h). Union Carbide has developed decreasing pitch screws for use
with LLDPE and has designs for screw diameters from 3/4 in to 8 in (19 mm
to 200 mm). Compression is achieved by reducing the pitch of the screw
rather than the channel depth. The design is claimed to give good output with
low torque and lower than normal wear. An 18:1 screw of 2.5in (64 mm)
diameter has a rated output of 395 lb/h at 100 rpm. In contrast, screws with
increasing pitch have also been used successfully. These designs also
increase the gap between screw flights and the barrel wall and reduce the
flight widths below the customary 0.1 D.
Grooved barrel feed sections can be used with LLDPE. They offer
increased output without a great increase in melt temperature, but at the
expense of higher motor torque requirements and greater barrel wear. Both
beneficial and adverse effects are increased by water cooling of the grooved
feed section. If grooved barrels are used, the screw design needs modifica-
tion. The compression ratio is reduced to less than 2:1 and the metering chan-
nel depth increased to match the greater conveying characteristics of the feed
section.
For blown film applications, barrel and die temperatures are usually in the
range 180C to 225C (350F to 430F). The target melt temperatures are in the
range 190C to 240C (340F to 465F). Lower temperatures lead to high pres-
196 sures, high motor torque, and sharkskin. Higher temperatures lead to bubble
instability. For cast film extrusion, melt temperatures are usually from 260C
to 280C (500F to 540F). The table below shows typical zone temperature
settings used to achieve a desired melt temperatures for two different MFR
materials.
Typical MFR Value 1.0 0.5
(F/C) (F/C)
Melt Temperature 410 (210) 440 (225)
Zone 1 Temperature 365 (185) 375 (190)
Die Temperature 410 (210) 470 (240)
For optimum production of blown film, spiral mandrel die designs are used.
Such spiral dies should be designed to generate a relatively low back-pressure
(< 3000 psi/200 bar). The melt rheology of LLDPE allows good gauge distrib-
ution, even at these low pressures. Such low pressures will cause fewer prob-
lems to the extruder. To reduce melt fracture, the die gap is set wider than
with LDPE. For instance, the final inch of the die land might consist of 0.6in
(15.2 mm) length at a 0.08in (2.03 mm) gap increasing to a gap of 0.1in (2.54
mm) over the final 0.25in (6.35 mm).
The effectiveness of the gap width in eliminating melt fracture,
depends on the material, the output rate and the melt temperature. The fol-
lowing table, prepared with data from Exxon, illustrates the point. Output is
per unit distance around the die circumference.
Minimum Die Land Gap for MFI/MFR of 1.0 LLDPE
Output Rate Melt Temperature
(200C/392F) (220C/428F) (250C/482F)
1.0 kg/h/cm 2.64 mm 2.18 mm 1.74 mm
5.6 lb/h/inch 0.104 in 0.086 in 0.060 in
2.0 kg/h/cm 3.86 mm 3.13 mm 2.50 mm
11.2 lb/h/inch 0.152 in 0.122 in 0.099 in
4.0 kg/h/cm 5.40 mm 4.32 mm 3.40 mm
22.4 lb/h/inch 0.213 in 0.170 in 0.134 in
As LLDPE is a semi-crystalline material a large amount of heat must be
removed after the extrudate has been formed in the die. For example, if it is
assumed that the extrudate must be cooled to 30C/86F from a melt tempera-
ture of 210C/410F, then the maximum amount of heat that needs to be
removed for each gram of extrudate is 577 Joules (J). Over the above temper-
ature range, the specific heat is approximately 3206 J/kgk.
Because of its low extensional viscosity in the molten state, LLDPE
blown film is less stable as a bubble and, if conventional cooling rings are
used, outputs will be lower than LDPE. This has led to the introduction of dual
lip cooling rings. With these designs, outputs similar to those for LDPE can
be obtained.
The properties of solid LLDPE lead to rapid wear of cutting and
slitting equipment, so specially hardened, tungsten carbide coated, blades are
used.
Typical figures for film extrusion, both with and without polymer processing
aid (PPA) are shown in the following table.
Extruder Size Without PPA With PPA 197
(in) (mm) lb/h (kg/h) lb/h (kg/h)
1.50 38 138 (63) 150 (68)

2.00 50 280 (127) 330 (150)
2.50 64 480 (218) 550 (250)
3.50 90 770 (350) 950 (432)
Cooling ring design affects the output capacity of the die. Some typical figures
for differing cooling systems are as follows.
Cooling System Output per Lb/Inch Die Circumference
Single Lip Venturi 5 to 7
Dual Lip Venturi 9 to 13
Dual Lip plus Internal Cooling 14 to 18
18. Starting Up
There are no special problems with this material. If LDPE has been used to
purge the extruder, the temperatures can be set to approximately 205C/400F
while the extruder warms up during the start up process. Then start purging,
at slow screw speed, with LLDPE. At the same time, increase the temperatures
to operating conditions. When operating conditions are reached, slowly
increase the screw speed to the desired value.
19. Shutting Down
There is some evidence that LLDPE is slightly more susceptible to oxidative
degradation than LDPE. On shut down, the material should be purged with
LDPE and then the extruder and die temperatures lowered, while the extruder
is running at a slow speed. Once temperatures are below 180C/356F, the
extruder motor can be switched off and the power to the heater bands cut.
20. Reprocessing
When LLDPE is reclaimed, up to 25% may be blended into the virgin material.
It should be remembered that regranulated polyethylene can be light and fluffy
by nature and, because of this, has a tendency to bridge in the hopper. This
will cause feeding problems, such as giving an inconsistent rate of material
feed into the barrel assembly. Often, extra virgin material is added to regrind
to add weight (bulk) to the regrind/virgin mix to overcome the bridging prob-
lems. When regrind material is added to virgin, it is not as critical, as with
LDPE, that the regrind should be of the same density and/or MFR as the virgin
polymer.
21. Finishing
The surface of this relatively inert material may be made more receptive to
inks or to adhesives by pre-treatment using a corona discharge or ozone. This
material may not be joined to itself using solvents, as there is no solvent at
room temperature. Because of its inert, non-stick surface it also cannot be
very successfully bonded with adhesives. There has been limited success,
however, with contact or hot melt adhesives. If the surface is made polar
using a flame or an electrical discharge, then this material may be bonded to
metals, using epoxides or nitrile phenolic adhesives. Such treatments also
improve printability.
It is commonly welded using techniques such as hot plate or hot
shoe. When welding LLDPE, it is usual to cover the plates, or shoe, with PTFE
to prevent the melted material from sticking to the hot surfaces. Machining of
this plastic can be carried out using conventional machining methods and cut-
ting tools. High cutting speeds and low feed rates are necessary to produce
accurately machined surfaces. Plenty of cutting fluid should be used to cool
the cutting surface and prevent heat build-up when machining. Surface grind-
ing of LLDPE is extremely difficult and can only be done using specially devel-
oped processes.
198 22. Other Comments
LLDPE may be cross-linked using high-energy radiation or by the incorpora-
tion of peroxides. Carbon black reinforces such materials and will improve
their light resistance at a comparatively low cost. Internal antistatic agents
used for polyolefins (polyethylene and polypropylene) include glycol alkyl
esters and betaine-type materials.
Film is the major market for this material. Because of its rigidity, higher tensile
strength, higher elongation at break and high puncture resistance compared
to LDPE, thinner films can be made (i.e., a product may be down-gauged).
The higher crystallization temperature, compared to LDPE, means a faster set-
up time in the heat sealing operations involved in bag and pouch manufacture.
This is especially important in form fill and seal operations. For a given MFR
and density, LLDPE has a higher Vicat softening point (10C to 15C or 50F to
59F) than LDPE and also has good low temperature properties. The addition
of very low density PE (VLDPE) will give the material increased elasticity and
improve the low temperature impact strength.
Blends of LLDPE with other polyethylenes are widely used in film
products. Blending LLDPE in a high molecular weight (low melt flow rate)
LDPE will make greater draw down possible in the extrusion process. Without
the addition of LLDPE there is difficulty in producing thin films of low MFR
LDPE because the film melt ruptures in the bubble. These low MFR resins are
required to give high impact, tough film products. Blends incorporating a
small amount of LDPE in LLDPE have especially high hot tack strengths and
thus. enable increased output in hot fill packaging operations. The compatibili-
ty of LLDPE and HDPE is also very good and such blends are, often used for
blow molded containers.
Metallocene polymers (for example, a polyolefin plastomer (POP)
terpolymer) may be used for LLDPE modification. It is claimed that their use
results in superior dart impact strength (up 40%), higher tensile strength,
25C lower heat-seal initiation temperatures, and up to 50% lower haze (better
clarity). Ease of compounding and handling also result, as such a material is
are available in pellet form.
Because of its rheological characteristics, LLDPE is not used to
produce shrink film.
24. Yield
For the following values, the density of the LLDPE is assumed to be 0.92
g/cm3
Sheet of 0.1 in thickness has a surface area of 2.09 sq ft/Ib. weight
Sheet of 2 mm thickness has a surface area of 0.54 sq m/kg. weight
weight
Tube of 3/8 in 1D and 1/16 in wall thickness has a length of 29.2 ft/lb
weight
HDPE
1. Common Name High density polyethylene (HDPE)
2. Abbreviation(s) HDPE: PE-HD: UHMW-HDPE
Polyethylene - high density (PEHD): High density polythene: high density
poly- (methylene): low pressure polyethylene: linear high density polyethylene:
ultra high molecular weight, high density polyethylene (UHMW-HDPE): Type 3 199
PE.

Aspell Lacqtene HDPE
Borealis Chemicals Statoil HDPE
BP Amoco Rigidex
Chemopetrol Liten
Chevron Chemical Co. HD
Dow Carbide Dow MDPE
DSM (Dutch State Mines) Stamylan HD
DSM (Dutch State Mines) Stamylan HDR
DSM (Dutch State Mines) Stamylan MD (MDPE)
Elenac Lupolen HD
Elf Atochem Lacqtene HD
EniChem Eraclene
Equistar Chemicals Petrothene, Alathon
Exxon Mobil Paxon, Mobil HDPE
Fina Oil & Chemical Co Finathene PE-HD
Huls Vestolen A
Monmouth Plastic Inc. Empee PE
Monmouth Plastic Inc. Empee PE (MDPE)
Nova Novapol, Sclair
Phillips PE-m (HDPE)
Polimeri Europa Unipol
Solvay Chemical Fortiflex
Ticona Hostalen
Under conditions of comparatively low temperature and pressure, ethylene can
be polymerized to give a thermoplastic material, a polyolefin called high densi-
ty polyethylene (HDPE), which is substantially free from branching. This is
achieved by using the stereospecific Ziegler-Natta (ZN) type catalysts. These
catalysts direct the incoming monomer to make the polymer chain grow in a
very ordered way. Because of its regularity, and lack of chain branching, this
material has a higher level of crystallinity than LDPE or LLDPE. This increase
of crystallinity produces a material that has a higher density, rigidity, tensile
strength, hardness, heat distortion temperature, chemical resistance, viscosity
and resistance to permeability. Although the impact strength is lower than that
of LDPE, HDPE has good, low temperature impact strength. As with all poly-
olefins, the weathering (UV) resistance is poor, but can be improved by the
addition of carbon black and other additives.
Compared to PP homopolymer, HDPE has better resistance to low
temperature impact and oxidation. HDPE has a lower stiffness, is more sus-
ceptible to environmental stress cracking (ESC) and has a high shrinkage. PP
has a higher Vicat softening point, better resistance to flexing, a higher hard-
ness, a higher tensile strength, higher elongation and will also cycle faster. The
gloss on moldings can be similar. HDPE has good dynamic fatigue resistance
(when injection molded there is some living hinge effect), but is not as good
as PP.
The water vapor permeability of this type of PE, as with all types of
PE, is low. LLDPE and HDPE are less permeable to gases and vapors than
LDPE. Some grades of HDPE are accepted as suitable for containers for oil
and petrol and they have been used for fuel tanks. In some cases, the formed
containers are chemically modified by fluorination or sulfonation, to make
them almost impermeable to fuels.
200 HDPE will resist deformation by boiling water. The properties of
HDPE are significantly controlled by its MFR, density and molecular weight
distribution. Injection molding grades of HDPE are manufactured having a
narrow molecular weight distribution, compared to grades used for extrusion
and blow molding.
HDPE, with a density of 0.940 to 0.965 g/cm3, is sometimes
known as a Type 3 PE. The grades that have a density below 0.96 are pro-
duced using a second olefin monomer, such as butene-1 or hexene-1, at low
levels (<1%). The use of the second monomer reduces the density by intro-
ducing short, side chain branching. Such materials may be known as MDPE.
HDPE/MDPE is widely used in the blow molding industry. Approximately 55%
of all plastics used in blow molding are HDPE/MDPE materials. This type of
material is less notch sensitive than HDPE, has better ESC resistance, better
shock resistance and drop resistance, and is not so hard or rigid as HDPE.
HDPE is a semi-crystalline thermoplastic, so shrinkage after pro-
cessing is high (i.e., 0.015 to 0.04 mm/mm (in/in) or mm/mm or 1.5% to
4%). Shrinkage may increase to 5% for thick section moldings. Because of
the wide shrinkage range for HDPE, it is difficult to accurately predict the cor-
rect shrinkage value to attain the desired dimensions for a particular part. The
shrinkage value is dependent upon the degree of orientation and crystallinity
in the finished component. Because of the wide possible variation, samples
must be manufactured using typical processing conditions to determine the
shrinkage values used for sizing. However, the degree of after-shrinkage that
occurs with HDPE must also be taken into consideration. This means that the
samples should be conditioned for several days before being measured.
7. Flow Characteristics
This material is an easy flowing material with melt flow rate, or index, (MFR
or MFI) values ranging from 0.1 to 28. However, because the impact resis-
tance of HDPE can be low for low molecular weight grades, high molecular
weight materials are preferred. For example, the molecular weight of a high
molecular weight (HMW) blow molding grade, as measured by solution vis-
cosity, may be 150,000. That of an injection molding grade, or a grade for
small blow moldings, may be 75,000.
Using the MFR method of assessment (with a 2.16 kg weight at
190C), high molecular weight (HMW) HDPE extrusion blow molding grade
will have a low value (<0.3). Even medium molecular weight grades (MMW)
are often below 0.6. Such low values pose difficulties of grade separation. To
more readily distinguished between grades, the MFR test, for HMW resins, is
carried out with a larger weight, often with 21.6 kg weight at a temperature of
190C/374F. The MFR (1900C/21.6 kg) may range from 2 to 10, depending
on the grade.
The impact strength falls off with increasing MFR (flow is becom-
ing easier) and the HDPE become more notch sensitive.
Viscosity values for a typical pipe grade are as follows:
Hostalen GM5010 MFR (5) = 0.43. Power Law Index = 0.462
Shear rate (s-1) Viscosity (Pa-s)
(180C/356F) (200C/392F) (220C/428F)
20 4187 3643 3169
40 2884 2509 2183
100 1761 1532 1334
200 1213 1055 918
400 836 727 633
8. Resistant to:
HDPE has no known solvent at room temperature, but is soluble in hydrocar-
bons and aromatic hydrocarbons at temperatures above 60C/140F. Hydro- 201
carbons, white spirits and carbon tetrachloride will cause swelling at room
temperature as this plastic is permeable to them. In this respect HDPE is

superior to PP. It resists aromatic and chlorinated hydrocarbons better than
LDPE. Theoretically, it is more resistant to oxidation than LDPE, but in practice
they are similar. This could be due to catalyst residues in the HDPE.
PE is associated with environmental stress cracking (ESC), which occurs
when a material is subject to strain, or an internal stress, in the presence of
polar liquids or the vapors of such liquids. Environmental stress cracking
(ESC) is also associated with detergents or silicone fluids, although there are
many other environmental stress-cracking agents, such as chloroform, xylene,
and paraffin. It is possible to minimize ESC problems by reducing residual
stresses in components, careful component design, and by using the lowest
MFR grade, at any particular density level. The resistance to a surface-active
agent may be used to assess residual stresses in PE components. This can be
done by immersion in a 2% aqueous solution of sodium lauryl sulphate at
40C/104F for 40 hrs. A component with a low residual stress level will with-
stand this treatment.
If light, or UV resistance is unsatisfactory, then the cheapest way
of improving this is by the incorporation of carbon black. Carbon black filled
HDPE compounds are now being used for applications where very long term
weatherability is required. Although HDPE is not as susceptible to oxidation at
high temperatures (experienced during melt processing) as polypropylene
(PP), HDPE has relatively limited resistance to oxygen at elevated tempera-
tures. Antioxidants are used for protection. Unless HDPE is protected by
antioxidants, the electrical properties will suffer. The antioxidants used are
similar to those used for PP, but the level of use is lower (~0.05% to 0.15%)
because of compatibility problems.
A metal deactivator, or copper inhibitor, may be added to this poly-
olefin to reduce the harmful effects of copper. Copper is not the only metal
that will catalyze degradation, but it is very common metal to come into con-
tact with a PO (for example, high density polyethylene is used to insulate cop-
per wire). Examples of such metal deactivators include N,N'-dibenzaloxalyldi-
hydrazide or N,N'-bis-(3-(3',5'-di-t-butyl-4'-hydroxy-phenyl)-propionyl)-
hydrazine at up to 0.5%. If the HDPE is in a cellular form, or in contact with
petrolatum, then heat stability may be reduced.
With a density of 0.94 to 0.965 g/cm3 HDPE, solid, non-filled material will float
in both water and in a saturated magnesium chloride solution. There is no
room temperature solvent, but at higher temperatures (approximately 55C/
131F) HDPE is soluble in hydrocarbons and chlorinated hydrocarbons (e.g.,
xylene and trichloroethylene). Below approximately 60C/140F, HDPE is insol-
uble in all organic solvents, but it does swell in aliphatic, aromatic and chlori-
nated hydrocarbons. The lower the density the more it swells.
The natural color of the material is a milky white, so a wide color
range is possible. Transparent components are not achievable in thick sec-
tions. When this material is heated in a flame, it ignites easily, burns with a
yellow-tipped blue flame, and gives off only a little smoke. It forms burning
drops and when the flame is extinguished, gives off a smell like candle wax.
HDPE is often rated as HB by the UL 94 test and has an oxygen index value of
approximately 17. The melting point is 130C to 135C/266F to 275F (PP is
approximately 165C to 175C/329F to 347F). Cross-linked HDPE will not
melt, but will become rubbery at approximately 115C/239F.
When heated in the absence of a flame the material will soften and
202 melt, at approximately 135C/275F, to give a clear liquid, as the crystal struc-
tures are destroyed, HDPE is stable in the absence of air up to approximately
300C/572F when it decomposes to give low molecular weight hydrocarbons.
It can be cut relatively easily with a knife and can be scratched with a knife or
fingernail.
11. Coloring
As the natural color of the material is off-white, a wide range of colors, not
including transparent colors, is possible. It is sold in both compounded colors
and as natural material for coloring on processing equipment, by techniques
such as masterbatching, dry coloring and liquid coloring. When dry coloring
one should not use adhesion promoters such as paraffin. The mixing time
should be controlled precisely, as too short a mixing time gives poor disper-
sion and inadequate adhesion. Too long a mixing time may cause pigment
compaction. One should not exceed approximately 0.4% pigment concentra-
tion. Higher color concentrations are achieved with colored compounds.
Pigment selection is important, as some types of pigments
increase the sensitivity to stress cracking and/or warpage. In general, inorgan-
ic pigments cause less warpage than organic pigments. For example, ultra-
marines, manganese violet and carbazole violet are better in this respect than
quinacridone violet, indanthrone blue and phthalocyanines. It is best to con-
sult coloring specialists for advice on the type of pigments that can be used
for HDPE. When using carbon black as a dry colorant, care should be taken to
prevent it from absorbing moisture during storage, otherwise, the colored
polymer will need to be dried before processing.
HDPE will absorb less than 0.01% water in 24 hours at room temperature.
This means that drying is not normally necessary. If it is, the polymer should
be dried in a hot air oven for 3 hrs at 65C/149F or in a desiccant dryer for 1
to 2 hrs at 80C/176F.
HDPE is available in both granular (pellet) and powder form. The
powder form is cheaper, but can give problems with materials handling and
feeding. The granular form is much easier to handle as it will flow under its
own weight. There can, however, be problems if the plastics material is blend-
ed with masterbatch, as masterbatch separation can occur in the machine
hopper.
Because of its high viscosity at extrusion processing temperatures, there can
be a problem, at high screw speeds, with shear heating raising melt tempera-
tures to unacceptably high values. Screws should be designed and/or operat-
ed with this problem in mind. A relatively deep metering zone channel should
be used and moderate screw speeds employed. With conventional screw
designs, there should be a relatively short compression zone with a compres-
sion ratio of 3:1. For pipe extrusion, screw lengths are designed to be in the
range 25 to 30 D, while for film the range is from 18 to 24 D.
Improved output is obtained with a decompression screw, where
the metering zone channel is deepened in the final 8 D. Zone depths are given
in the following table.
Screw Diameter Feed Zone (12D) 1st Metering (3D) 2nd Metering (8D)
(in) (mm) (in) (mm) (in) (mm) (in) (mm)
2.5 63 0.367 9.3 0.143 3.6 0.236 6.0
3.5 89 0.450 11.4 0.186 4.7 0.294 7.5
4.5 114 0.517 13.1 0.220 5.6 0.337 8.6
6.0 152 0.616 15.6 0.268 6.8 0.417 10.6
Barrier type screw designs are commonly used with HDPE.
Typically a 4.5 in (114 mm) barrier screw will have a 24:1 L/D ratio and be
operated at up to 100 rpm. If grooved feed inserts are used in the barrel, they 203
should be cooled and the grooves should be fine: for a 2.5 in (62 mm) extrud-
er, 8 grooves should be used, each with a depth 0.10 in (0.25 mm) and width

0.3 in (0.4 mm). The grooved insert should extend 3.5 D beyond the feed
throat opening and a longer screw, incorporating shear and mixing sections,
should be used.
Since melt temperature depends on factors such as screw design, screw
speed, barrel temperatures, and die settings, the following table should only
be considered as a guide for a 5 MFR material.
Zone on Barrel Sheet Film Pipe
(0.6 in/15.2 mm) (0.17 in/4.3 mm)(0.53 ib/13.5 mm) (0.43 in/10.9 mm)
Zone 1 (C/F) 185/370 190/375 190/375 190/375
Zone 2 (C/F) 195/380 230/445 200/390 205/400
Zone 3 (C/F) 210/400 250/480 220/430 215/420
Die (C/F) 210/400 250/480 220/430 215/420
Although HDPE has a wide processing temperature range and good

thermal stability, accurate temperature control is necessary, particularly when
using melt temperatures greater than 240C/464F, to produce product of a
consistent color. Poor temperature control can often lead to degradation of the
pigment, which results in color changes during the production run.
Pipe Dies. For smaller pipes, spider type dies are generally used. For large
pipes, a spiral mandrel design is used, or the conventional mandrel is held in
place by a breaker plate-type support. The land length should be 14 to 25
times the pipe diameter. The greater the output velocity the greater the neces-
sary land length.
Blown Film Dies. These dies are of the spider type with a smear restriction
downstream of the spider supports or they may be the spiral mandrel type.
Typically, the die gap is between 0.03 in and 0.055 in (0.75 mm and 1.4 mm)
and the die diameter between 3 in and 8 in (75 mm and 400 mm).
Sheet Dies. The types of dies used for high impact polystyrene (HIPS) are
generally satisfactory. Sheet thickness of up to 0.5 in (12.5 mm) are possible.
The die should have an adjustable land after the manifold and choker bar sec-
tions. Land lengths of 2.5 in (62 mm) have proved satisfactory.
If the HDPE has a melt temperature of 240C/464F, and the melt is cooled to
20C/68F, then the maximum amount of heat that needs to be removed for
each gram of output is 800 Joules (J). Over the temperature range quoted, the
specific heat of HDPE is approximately 3640 J/kgK. What must be borne in
mind, when processing HDPE, is the large amount of heat that needs to be
removed per gram of output. The above figure of 800 J/g, means that approxi-
mately twice the amount of cooling capacity is needed to remove the heat
from HDPE, as compared to that required for PS.
Both pressure and vacuum sizing are used for pipe production. For
pressure sizing, there is a slight expansion after the die (i.e., the die gap OD
equals the pipe ID). For vacuum sizing the expansion is greater, with a 25%
increase in diameter common.
In order to achieve reasonable impact values with blown film, a rel-
atively large blow up ratio (between 3 and 6) is employed. The bubble has a
long neck (between 6 and 9 times the die diameter) and a characteristic wine-
glass shape. To achieve greater stability with this shape of bubble, an internal
stabilizer can be used, together with an outer iris diaphragm. In these cases,
the bubble often contracts to a diameter less than that of the die opening,
before eventually expanding to the final film diameter.
204 Sheet is extruded onto a polishing roll stack consisting of 3 to 5
polished, chrome plated, rolls of at least 8 in/200 mm diameter. The gap
between polishing rolls is often about half of the die gap, or slightly more for
the higher melt index resins. Roll temperatures are typically as follows:
The temperatures refer to the circulating fluid set points. Surface
temperatures will be less until the extrudate is being cooled.
Top Roll = 210F/99C
Middle Roll = 230F/110C
Bottom Roll = 225F/105C
Fourth Roll = 190F/88C
Fifth Roll = 150F/66C
Line capacity depends on the extruder, the die and the cooling section. The
table below shows some typical figures in lb/hr and kg/hr.
Extruder Size Blown Film Thin Sheet Thick Sheet
(in) (mm) (<0.04 in/1.00 mm) (0.25 in/6.2 mm)
1.5 38 110/50
2.5 62 370/168 330/150 215/98
3.5 88 680/309 640/291 415/189
4.5 114 1150/523 750/341
6.0 150 2250/1023 1500/682
18. Starting Up
There are no special problems with HDPE. In general, follow the procedures
laid down for LDPE. Take care not to melt the polymer in the feed section
before extrusion starts, by keeping temperatures low until just before the
screw is started.
19. Shutting Down
There are no special problems in shutting down with HDPE, although for die
and extruder cleaning it is helpful to purge with LDPE. To prevent oxidation,
leave polymer in the extrusion equipment and reduce temperatures as fast as
possible, when it is intended to start again without cleaning the equipment in
the intervening period.
20. Reprocessing
material. One of the main problems when using regrind material is the inabili-
ty to maintain a consistent rate of material feed into the barrel assembly.
Regranulated polyethylene is light and fluffy by nature, and because of this, it
has a tendency to bridge in the hopper, creating feeding problems. The use of
a regrind/virgin blend or a mechanical feeder helps to overcome the bridging
problem.
21. Finishing
This material may not be joined to itself using solvents, as it has no solvent at
room temperature. Because of its inert non-stick surface, it also cannot be
very successfully bonded using adhesives. Limited success has been achieved
with contact or hot melt adhesives. If the surface is made polar by using a
flame or an electrical discharge, this material may be bonded to metals using
epoxides or nitrile-phenolic adhesives. Such treatments also improve print-
ability. For some components, flaming is popular; to ensure satisfactory adhe-
sion. The surface tension, after treatment, should be >44 mN/m. This is
achieved by using an oxidizing flame at temperatures of >1000C with short
contact times (a few hundredths of a second). Corona discharge treatment
may be used before printing on HDPE.
Because of the excellent resistance of HDPE to solvents, the use of
solvent based adhesives is limited. It is commonly welded using techniques
such as hot plate or hot shoe. When welding HDPE, it is usual to coat or cover 205
the hot plates with PTFE to prevent the material from sticking to the surfaces
of the hot plate. Printing, surface coating, hot foiling or vacuum metallizing

can be used to decorate components.
Machining of this plastic material can be difficult because of its soft
resilient nature. Do not apply too much pressure when machining, as the
material will distort. HDPE can, however, be readily machined with cutting
tools used for metals. Use high cutting speeds and low feed rates. The edges
of the cutting tools must be sharp in order to achieve a good surface finish.
Use plenty of cutting fluid to cool the cutting surface and prevent heat build up
when machining. Because of its low surface hardness, it is extremely difficult
to achieve a high gloss finish (comparable to a molded finish) on the
machined surface.
22. Other Comments
The effect of increasing molecular weight (MFR), density, and molecular
weight distribution (MWD) on the material properties are shown below.
Property MFR Density MWD
Pseudoplasticity Increases
Tensile strength at yield Increases
Tensile strength at break Decreases Increases
Elongation at break Decreases Decreases
Impact strength Decreases Slight decrease Decreases
Modulus Increases
Transparency Decreases
Long term load-bearing Increases
ESC resistance Decreases Decreases
Softening temperature Increases
Melt strength Decreases Increases
Melt elasticity Decreases Increases
Melt fracture tendency Decreases Decreases
Gloss Decreases
HDPE may be cross-linked using high-energy radiation or by the
incorporation of peroxides. Carbon black reinforces such materials and also
improves light resistance.
Internal antistatic agents used for polyolefins (polyethylene and
polypropylene) include glycol alkyl esters and betaine-type materials.
This material is strong and stiff, even at low temperatures. Although it has a
higher density than PP, the cost difference is often low enough to allow HDPE
to compete with PP for various applications. A major use for HDPE is in blow
molding applications. Large containers or drums (e.g., 180 liters/45 gallons
capacity) toys, and car components (fuel tanks and spoilers) are typical appli-
cations. HDPE is used in these applications because of its high impact
strength and of its ability to retain its properties at low temperatures (e.g., -
180C). To obtain the required properties in the finished product (strength and
creep resistance), it is often necessary to use high molecular weight resin
(HMW HDPE or HDPE HMW).
For blow molding, most commercial HDPE resins have molecular
weights in the range of 50,000 to 250,000. HMW material will be higher than
this, say 250,000 to 1 million. Ultra high molecular weight materials (known
as UHMW HDPE or HDPE-UHMW) will have molecular weights greater than 1
million. This material has tremendous properties, but processing is very diffi-
cult.
206 Because of the stiffness of this material, it is widely used as carrier
(tote) bags or counter bags. In such applications, it is possible to make the
product in very thin gauges because of the strength of this plastic. It is still
very strong even though it is thin. The water resistance of this material is a
big advantage in such applications. It is used in packaging applications in the
form of thin, paper-like film, for example, for the wrapping cheese. Pipe, espe-
cially as gas and cold water supply pipe, is another major application for this
plastic. This is because of the rigidity of this material and its comparatively
low cost. Sheet for thermoforming is also made, but in comparatively small
quantities. A disadvantage of HDPE in thermoforming is that its high specific
heat leads to long heating and cooling cycles.
Plastic materials can be made biodegradable by the use of addi-
tives or by making special polymers. By copolymerization of ethylene with
carbon monoxide, it is possible to produce a material that is biodegradable.
As the carbon monoxide level increase so does the brittleness. This material
can be made more biodegradable than paper board.
24. Yield
Sheet of 0.1 in thickness has a surface area of 2.00 - 2.03 sq ft/Ib weight
Sheet of 2 mm thickness has a surface area of 0.52 - 0.53 sq m/kg weight
Film of 0.002 in (200 gauge) thickness has a surface area of 100 - 101 sq
ft/lb weight
Film of 50 microns thickness has a surface area of 20.8 - 21.1 sq m/kg
Tube of 3/8 in ID and 1/16 in wall thickness has a length of 27.9 - 28.3 ft/lb
weight
Tube of 10 mm ID and 1.5 mm wall thickness has a length of 19.2 - 19.4
m/kg
Pipe of thickness 0.1 in and 4 in ID has a length of 1.64 - 1.66 ft/lb
Pipe of thickness 2 mm and 100 mm ID has a length of 1.44 - 1.46 m/kg
Paper-like film: 1 lb of resin will produce 400 - 405 sq ft of film at a thick-
ness of 0.0005 in (50 gauge). 1 kg of resin will yield 104 to 105 m2 of 10
micron film
PP
1. Common Name Polypropylene
2. Abbreviation(s)
PP or sometimes PPR. A homopolymer may be identified as PP-H and/or as,
PP-HO. A copolymer may be identified as PP-CO (such abbreviations are also
seen without the hyphens). If PP is used without qualification, then the ini-
tials may stand for either a homopolymer (PP-H) or for a copolymer (PPCO).
Copolymer is usually an ethylene-propy-lene block copolymer. PPRACO indi-
cates a random (RA) copolymer (CO). The use of m, as in mPP or PP-m, indi-
cates a material prepared using a metal locene catalyst. miPP is sometimes
used for isotactic PP prepared with a metallocene catalyst and msPP is some-
times used for the syndiotactic polymer. PPAL indicates a polypropylene (PP)
alloy (AL) while PPCOM may be used for a PP compound (COM). PPGF
means polypropylene filled with glass fiber (GF) while PPRC means recycled
(reclaimed) PP.
Polypro: polypropene: poly(propylene): polymethylethylene. The homopolymer
(PPH) may also be simply referred to as homopolymer or as homo-PP. The
block copolymers, based on propylene and ethylene (PPCO), may be referred
to as impact copolymer PP, propylene copolymer (PPCO), polyallomer, or as
heterophasic copolymer PP (PP HECO). The random copolymers, based on
propylene and ethylene (PPCO), may be referred to as random copolymer 207
PP (PP RACO or PPr).
Propylene Homopolymers (PPH) and/or Copolymers (PPCO)

Amoco Chemicals Amoco PP
Bamberger Polymers Bapolene PP
Borealis Chemicals Statoil PP
Carmel Olefins Capilene
Chemopetrol Mosten
ComAlloy Comalloy PP (PPCOM)
Discas Reprean
Dow Carbide Calibre, UCPP
DSM (Dutch State Mines) Stamycom PPRC
DSM (Dutch State Mines) Stamytec (PPCOM)
DSM Xantar
DSM Stamylan P
Eastman Chemical Co. Tenite
El Paso Rexene
Elf Atochem Appryl
EniChem Sinvet
Epsilon Epsilon E
Exxon Mobil Achieve (mPP)
Federal Plastics FPC PP
Ferro Gapex (PPGF)
Ferro Ferrolene (PPCOM)
Fina Fina
Huls Vestolen P
Huntsman Rexene
Lati Latilon
Lati Latene
MA Hanna Maxxam
LNP Statcon, Therm
Mitsui Plastics Polypro
Monmouth Plastics Empee PP
Montell-Targor Pro-fax, Metocene, Adflex
Montell-Targor Valtec
Montell-Targor Hivalloy (a PPAL)
PCD Daplen
Phillips Sumika Marlex
Polifil Polifil HM
Polikemi AB Polyfill (PPCOM)
RTP RTP
Shell Chemicals Shell PP
Slovnaft Tatren
Solvay Chemicals Eltex P
Solvay Polymers Fortilene
Sumitomo Plastics America Noblen PP
Thermofil Thermofil PP (PPCOM)
Ticona Hostacom (PP-COM)
Ticona Hostalen PP (mPP)
Ube Industries Ube PP
Washington Penn Plastics Washpen PP
High molecular weight PP may be produced from the monomer propylene by
the use of Ziegler-Natta (ZN) catalysts. PP is a semi-crystalline, thermoplastic
208 material with relatively high shrinkage (0.018 in/in (or mm/mm) or 1.8%). It
can reach 2.5% in thick sections, but PP has a more uniform shrinkage than
HDPE. Commercial PP is mainly isotactic (approximately 90% to 95% isotac-
tic) and has a number average molecular weight of approximately 40,000 to
60,000. Being isotactic, the long chain homopolymer formed (PP-H), has ster-
ically ordered side groups (all the methyl groups lie on one side of the chain).
PP-H like PE, is a linear, hydrocarbon plastic, but is stiffer, harder and has a
higher melting point. 100% isotactic PP has a melting point greater than
170C/338F and a specific gravity (SG) of approximately 0.91. Until recently,
there were three major types of PP; PP homopolymers (PPH), impact copoly-
mers, and random copolymers. Now the range of PP resins has been extend-
ed by the introduction of grades produced using a metallocene (m) catalyst,
which may be identified as PPm or mPP.
PP-H is produced from propylene and is rigid, highly crystalline,
plastic with high temperature resistance and good contact clarity (mPP grades
can have a contact clarity comparable to that of polystyrene). In general, PP
has high strength and stiffness, but a comparatively low notched-impact
strength. It becomes very brittle at slightly below room temperatures and, for
this reason, copolymers with ethylene (PPCO) are often preferred. Typical
applications for PPH are for fibers, thermoformed dairy pots, oriented and
non-oriented films, and thin-walled injection moldings. It is also used in appli-
cations that utilize its high heat distortion temperature (HDT). Examples
include electrical housings, hair dryers, and deep fat fryers.
An ethylene-propylene block copolymer (i.e., based on propylene
and ethylene) may be referred to as an impact copolymer, a heterophasic
copolymer, a polyallomer, a propylene copolymer, or as an allomer. It may
also be abbreviated as PP, PP-CO, or PP-B (block copolymer). Block copoly-
mers, which can contain a higher ethylene content than a random copolymer,
are often used in place of PPH in injection molding, since the molding of thick
sections (without voids) is easier. These copolymers have a lower heat distor-
tion temperature (HDT), less clarity, less gloss, and less rigidity, but greater
impact strength (even at low temperatures), and fatigue resistance than PP-H.
Their flow is stiffer and they demonstrate higher mold shrinkage than PPH. As
the proportion of ethylene increases the material becomes softer and tougher.
Commercial materials often have 5% to 15% of ethylene blocks and thus
avoiding the problem of a loss of impact strength below room temperatures
(the ductile to brittle transition can be as low as -40EC/-40EF). Typical applica-
tions are for sheet, profiles, crates, housewares, automotive battery cases and
bumpers.
Flexible materials, with excellent clarity, may be produced by ran-
dom copolymerization of propylene with ethylene. The ductile to brittle transi-
tion temperature is approximately 10C/50F. Typical applications for such soft
grades of PP are for packaging films and for containers, where clarity is very
important. Blow molding, injection molding, and thermoforming are used to
produce these containers. Some random copolymers (may be known as PP
RACO) are being promoted for blow molding applications, as they are clear
materials with a high gloss and a Vicat softening temperature (VST) of
approximately, 128C/263F (about 200C lower than PP-H). Such materials
compete with other soft thermoplastic materials, such as PPVC and EVA.
Grades of mPP are now available with a modulus of elasticity 60% greater
than a PP-RACO, but with the same transparency.
PP (that is, PP-H and PP-CO) can have a Rockwell hardness (R
scale) of approximately 90, a density of 0.9 g/cm3, a Vicat softening point of
about 150C/302F and a heat distortion temperature of approximately 100C/
212F (random copolymers have lower values than this). Parts made from PP
can withstand boiling water and steam sterilization and do not suffer from
environmental stress cracking (ESC) problems. The maximum service temper- 209
ature is above 100C (110C/230F). The electrical insulation properties of PP
are good and a high gloss, scratch-resistant, surface is possible.

PP is extensively modified by the addition of glass fibers (GF),
mineral fillers, thermoplastic rubbers or a combination of these. For example,
talc filling improves the rigidity, hardness, creep resistance, dimensional sta-
bility and the HDT of PP. However, it worsens surface appearance and elonga-
tion at break. Calcium carbonate filling improves the surface hardness, elonga-
tion at break, and the notched impact strength, at lower cost, compared to
talc. However, a lower modulus, tensile strength and HDT, compared to talc,
result. Glass fiber (GF) filling improves the rigidity, stiffness, hardness, creep
resistance, dimensional stability and the HDT of PP but worsens the surface
appearance and elongation at break. There is a greater improvement in proper-
ties, if the fillers/fibers are coupled to the PP. Rubber modification, to produce
an elastomer modified grade, improves the low temperature impact strength
and the elongation at break (of both PP-H and PP-CO). There is some reduc-
tion in stiffness and an increase in the cost. The use of rubber helps to offset
the effect of filler addition. New polymerization technology now allows the pro-
duction of, directly polymerized, soft grades that compete with elastomer
modified PP. The flexural modulus of a directly polymerized, super-tough
material can be as much as 80 MPa.
PP producers continue to develop and to create new markets. This
is because of the incredible versatility of the material and the sophisticated
nature of the polymerization catalyst systems now employed. For instance,
two incompatible polymers may joined, forming what is called a graft copoly-
mer. To do this, one monomer is polymerized in the presence of a formed
polymer and some of the new polymer formed, chemically grafts, or joins,
onto the existing polymer to covalently bond them together. Thus, one can
produce a thermoplastic material, based on a polyolefin (PO), onto which is
bonded, or grafted, an amorphous material. Such a material may be referred
to as high value alloys (like Hivalloy from Montell). These alloys will compete
with materials such as nylon, acetal and polyphenylene oxide (modified). By
using different co-monomers it is possible to produce grades that have good
weatherability, or good dimensional stability and impact strength or another
that has good dimensional stability at high temperatures. A major advantage
of these copolymers is their low densities, which range from 0.93 to 0.96
g/cm3, regardless of the grafted comonomer.
Most of the chemical companies that produce polyolefins, are
investing in new technology, especially metallocene-based catalysts, to obtain
a wider range of products (high product flexibility), at comparatively low prod-
uct costs, from their production facilities. Because of such developments and
investments, homopolymers and copolymers based on olefins will increasingly
dominate the plastics industry. Metallocene catalyzed polypropylene (mPP) is
predominantly based on propylene and produced using a metallocene con-
strained geometry catalyst. The PP produced can be a homopolymer or a
copolymer and the process can produce both isotactic polypropylene (iPP or
miPP) and syndiotactic polypropylene (sPP or msPP). In general, the miPP is
claimed to have properties that are superior to other types of iPP, such as
improved toughness, better clarity, and lower heat seal temperatures. It can be
used in place of post-reactor peroxide-cracked polypropylene and medical
grade PP (mPP has lower extractables). Extra stiff grades with good clarity
and impact strength are now also available. At present, mPP costs more than
conventional PP, but it can be processed on similar equipment.
7. Flow Properties
PP extrusion resins can have melt flow rates (MFR) (230C/21.6 N or 2.16 kg)
between 0.4 and 8. The low MFR values refer to materials with high impact
210 strength, while the high values refer to those with easy flow characteristics.
Low MFR material is used for pipe and sheet while the high MFR materials are
for film. Increasing the molecular weight of PP (decreasing the MFR) reduces
the tensile strength and stiffness, but increases the impact strength, as the
high molecular weight material is more difficult to crystallize. The melt is
more temperature and shear sensitive than PE, and the higher viscosity
grades have fewer cavitation problems in thick sections. PP-CO is tougher
than PP-H of the same nominal MFR. Such materials offer advantages for low
temperature applications.
In the table below viscosity values are given for a grade with an
MFR in the middle of the above range.
Viscosity (Pa-s)
Shear Rate (s-1) (204C/400F) (232C /450F) (260C /500F)
20 2560 2110 1740
40 1570 1290 1060
100 820 680 560
200 500 410 340
400 310 250 210
8. Resistant to:
The chemical resistance of PP is very similar to HDPE. PP is resistant to a
wide range of common solvents and organic liquids. It has outstanding resis-
tance to hot water and chemicals. It can only be dissolved by aromatic hydro-
carbons, such as xylene, at elevated temperatures. It is relatively unaffected
by aqueous solutions, including strong acids and alkalis. Because of swelling
problems at room temperature, it is not recommended for use with aromatic
hydrocarbons (e.g., benzene) and chlorinated hydrocarbons (e.g., carbon
tetrachloride, chlorobenzene, chloroform, and trichloroethylene). PP is also
swollen by esters (e.g., DBP and DOP), ethers (e.g., diethyl ether), asphalt,
camphor oil and various aqueous oxidizing agents (e.g., dilute nitric acid and
potassium permanganate).
PP may eventually yellow and lose some elongation at break as a
result of radiation, although containers and PP bags may be sterilized by
gamma radiation. Specifically designed formulations, involving additive pack-
ages, are available for PP and such a stabilized material can be exposed to 5
Mrad of gamma radiation and still maintain useful physical properties for up
to four years. The additive package may contain a hindered amine light stabi-
lizer (HALS) and antioxidants. PP items may be steam sterilized as the materi-
al can withstand temperatures of the order of 125C/257F. Because of the
inert nature of this material, ethylene oxide (EtO) sterilization is also possible.
In general, PP is not resistant to outdoor exposure unless protected by carbon
black or UV stabilizer. It is less resistant to UV than HDPE. The most com-
monly used non-black, light stabilizers are those based on ultraviolet
absorbers (e.g., 2-hydroxy-4-alkoxybenzophenones and 2-(2'hydroxyphenyl)
benzotriazoles, nickel (11) chelates, 3,5-di-tert-butyl-4-hydroxy-benzoates,
and hindered amine light stabilizers (HALS). Mixed stabilizer systems are
often much more efficient than a single stabilizer. The introduction of poly-
siloxane-based hindered amine light stabilizers has dramatically improved UV
stability.
Because of the presence of tertiary carbon atoms, PP is suscepti-
ble to oxidation at the high temperatures experienced during melt processing.
Combinations of antioxidants are widely used, as it is found that such combi-
nations are much more efficient than a single material. A widely used combi-
nation, used as a processing stabilizer package (because both materials are
acceptable for food packaging) is butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT) and dilauryl 211
thiodipropionate (DLTDP). A higher molecular weight, sterically hindered phe-
nol may also be used as a long term heat stabilizer. The use level ranges

between 0.05% to 0.25%.
PP is dissolved by aromatic and chlorinated hydrocarbons at ele-
vated temperatures (85C/185F). Strong oxidizing agents, such as oleum and
fuming nitric acid (especially when warm) degrade it. It is less resistant to
thermal oxidation than HDPE. High temperatures and contact with copper, or
cuprous alloys, will cause rapid decomposition. However, grades are available
that contain thermal stabilizers to effectively reduce this degradation problem.
PP materials will burn easily, but various flame-retardants are
available. Ammonium polyphosphate is a popular non-halogenated flame
retardant for PP that is used in masterbatch form and is stable at tempera-
tures up to 260C/500F. Because of the relatively high processing tempera-
tures required for PP, the use of aluminum trihydrate (ATH) as a flame-retar-
dant is limited, as it decomposes at ~200C/392F. Compounds based on mag-
nesium hydroxide, which decomposes at higher temperatures, may be used.
With a density of 0.9 g/cm3 the material (solid, non-filled material) will float in
both water and in saturated magnesium chloride solution. The homopolymer,
which is 90% to 95% isotactic, consists of an approximately 50:50 mixture of
amorphous material (SG 0.85) and crystalline material (SG 0.94). This gives
an average SG of 0.9 for the unfilled material. The addition of 30% glass fiber
can raise the density to approximately 1.1 g/cm3, but decrease the shrinkage
to about 0.7%. The unfilled material will float in isophorene, but sink in an
80:20 mixture, by volume, of alcohol and water.
The natural color of the material is translucent to clear. When the
percentage of haze is greater than 30%, a material is considered to be translu-
cent rather than transparent (haze is the amount of light scattered in a forward
direction by surface irregularities and/or, inhomogeneities). When haze is mea-
sured on a 1 mm injection molded sheet, the value for a nucleated PP RACO
may be 15%, for PP HECO 75%, and for a nucleated PPH 18%. Sodium 2,2'-
methylene-bis-4-t-butyl phenyl phosphate is an organo-phosphorous salt that
may be used as a nucleating agent for PP.
PP components usually feel hard and have a pleasant, dry, handle
or feel. It may feel slightly waxy. Molded surfaces cannot be readily scratched
or scuffed and are virtually unbreakable unless cut. New types of PPH are very
stiff (modulus of 2400 MPa) and yet still have haze values of only 22%.
When PP (PPH or block PPCO) is heated in a flame then, it softens
to give a melt at ~165C/329F and burns readily with a faintly luminous yellow
tipped blue flame. There is very little residue, and flaring and burning drips are
produced together with a candle-like smell. When heated in the absence of a
flame the material will melt at ~170C/338F and decomposition will com-
mence at about 300C/572F with the evolution of low molecular weight hydro-
carbons. These can be ignited by a flame or radiant heat source and once
started the material will continue to burn even if the ignition source is
removed. Burning is accompanied by the formation of flaming molten
droplets. In general, PP can be distinguished from other polyolefins by its
hardness, density and high melting point. LDPE has a melting point range of
110C to 125C, LLDPE 115C to 128C, HDPE is 130C to 135C and PP is
160C to 165C.
The melting point of mPPH (147C to 158C/297F to 316F) is
lower than conventional PPH (160C to 165C/320F to 329F). This is thought
to be due to the occasional reversal of the propylene molecules when they add
to the growing polymer chain. A reversal of the head-to-tail addition reduces
212 crystallinity, melting point and heat of fusion. The density of mPP-H is similar
to conventional grades.
11. Coloring
PP is a semi-crystalline thermoplastic, but as the amount of the amorphous
phase is not too dissimilar to the crystalline phase, PP is less opaque than
HDPE. Often the natural color of the material is translucent to clear and this
means that a wide color range is possible. By the use of nucleating agents
(such as those based on dimethylbenzylidene sorbitol isomers) grades with
improved clarity, and which cool faster, are possible. Such a material is avail-
able as pellets, in masterbatch form and works best at a melt temperature of
between 220C and 240C.
Best coloring results are achieved by the use of fully compounded
material, as dry colors and master batches can give rise to streaking, due to
dispersion problems. When using various coloring systems, it is often recom-
mended to try to match the particle size or granular shape of the polymer to
that of the coloring system. Use powder color concentrates or dry colors with
powder PP, and master batches with similar particle size to the plastic gran-
ules, when using granular feedstocks. This is not always the case with dry
colorants, as the use of powdered PP with a dry colorant requires a very long
mixing time (that is, up to 1 hr) to adequately disperse the dry colorant within
the mix. Certain types of blue and green pigments, like a phthalocyanine type,
can increase the degree of crystallinity in PP and increase the stiffness. How-
ever, it also reduces the impact strength and can cause distortion.
When PP is used for outdoor applications, it requires some form
of UV stabilization. A well dispersed carbon black, at 2.5% concentration, is
particularly good for both functions; coloring and weather protection. In gen-
eral, opaque colors can also offer some protection to PP from the effects of
weathering; however, they are not as resistant as black. Nickel-based UV sta-
bilizers should not be used with pigments that contain traces of sulfur, as dis-
coloration can occur. The most common group of pigments that react in this
way are cadmium-based yellow, orange and red types. Use of the hindered
amine-type light stabilizers (HALS) prevents such discoloration problems
from occurring.
Various types of master batches (MB) are used with PP. These
include PE-based, PP-based and the universal type. Levels greater than 3% of
the PE-based type can lead to poor weld line strengths and delamination, due
to poor dispersion, or inhomogeneity, of the PE in the PP. Typical concentra-
tion levels of 1% to 2% are recommended. Universal MB levels of 1% to 2%
are also recommended, otherwise problems similar to the PE-based type
occur. When using a high MFR grade of PP, a specially formulated PP MB
may be required to ensure that the correct density of color is obtained. Such a
MB is usually produced from a base PP polymer having the same MFR as the
material being processed.
PP resins are available in both powder and granular forms, which are usually
stabilized to protect them against decomposition during processing. They will
absorb ~0.02% water in 24 hrs at room temperature. This means that drying
is not normally necessary. However, if the material has absorbed a small
amount of moisture as a result of long storage, it is advisable to dry it in a hot
air oven for 2 to 3 hrs at 80C/176F or in a desiccant dryer for 1 to 1.5 hrs at
90C/194F.
The use of gravity feed hoppers is suitable for granules. For pow-
der feed, hopper agitation or crammer feeders are helpful to prevent block-
ages.
13. Screw and Barrel Design 213
The screw and barrel assembly should be between 20 and 33 diameters in
length. The extruder should have an L/D ratio of 27:1 and a constant pitch of 1

D. The feed zone should be 8 D, the compression zone 10 D, and the metering
zone 6 D. A mixing head of 3 D should be used. A compression ratio of about
3:1 should be sufficient and is obtained as shown below.
Typical Screw Dimensions
Screw diameter 2.5"/64 mm 3.5"/90 mm 4.5"/115 mm
Feed Zone Depth (8D) 0.41"/10.4 mm 0.52"/13.2 0.58"/14.7 mm
Compression Zone (10D)
Metering Zone Depth (6D) 0.14"/3.56 mm 0.17"/4.32 mm 0.19"/4.83 mm
Mixing Head (3D)
For higher output, extruders with a grooved and cooled barrel
insert in the feed section are used. These extruders can give 80% more
throughput than a traditional machine. The barrel has an L/D ratio of about
30:1. Grooves, 0.16 in/4 mm deep, are spaced, at about every 1.25 in/31.8
mm, around the inside of the feed section of the barrel. It is important that the
grooved section is kept cool. Decompression screws similar to those used in
HDPE production have also been successfully employed.
For pipe and blown film extrusion, melt temperatures in the range 200C to
230C/390F to 445F are required, while for cast film the temperature is usual-
ly in the range of 240C to 260C/465F to 500F. The table below gives a guide
to set temperatures (F/C) required to provide the above process tempera-
tures.
Zone General Extrusion Cast Film
Zone 1 Temperature 390/200 410/210
Adapter and Die 490/255 490/255
PP is more susceptible to oxidation than PE, as PP contains many
tertiary carbon atoms. This means that at a temperature of 260C/500F the
maximum residence time in the barrel should not exceed 5 to 6 minutes. At a
temperature of 270C/527F the maximum residence time in the barrel should
not exceed 2 to 3 minutes. One should not exceed a melt temperature of
275C/527F, if possible, since oxidation will cause the viscosity of PP to
change rapidly. In general, as the melt temperature increases, the stiffness and
impact strength of both PPH and PPCO will decrease. High melt temperatures
and long residence times produce increases in flow rates and reduced tough-
ness, caused by material breakdown.
The melting point of mPPH (147C to 158C/297F to 316F) is
lower than conventional PPH (160C to 165C/320F to 329F) and this means
lower melt temperatures are possible. This should be good for blow molding
and thermoforming where the higher melt strength, resulting from low melt
temperatures, is an advantage. The energy required for heating and cooling in
processes such as extrusion and injection molding should also be reduced.
Whether the speed of processing is significantly reduced is debatable, due to
the fact that the rate of crystallization for mPP is comparatively slow. For
extrusion, one should use a reversed temperature profile ((230C/446F) at the
feed and 215C/420F in the metering zone) and a barrier screw. Because of
the narrow MWD of mPP-H, extruder torque will be comparatively high, but as
PP has a comparatively low viscosity, the torque is usually well within the
extruder capabilities
214 15. Die Design and Construction
In pipe dies, spiral mandrel designs are increasingly being used, especially for
large diameter pipes. Otherwise, dies based on the spider arm principle are
employed. The land length should be 15 to 25 times the pipe wall thickness.
Long lands are needed for high-speed production. If pressure sizing is uti-
lized, the die diameter is about equal to the pipe diameter. When vacuum siz-
ing is used the pipe is drawn down and the die diameter is up to 25% larger
than the pipe diameter, with an even greater reduction in wall thickness.
Cast film and sheet dies are of the coathanger type, preferably with
pushpull adjustment of the die lips. Entry angles to the land should be about
10 or less and the land length about 1in/25 mm. For film up to 0.01 in/0.25
mm, die gap widths of 0.02 in/0.5 mm are suitable. Tubular film dies can also
be used to produce PP film.
If a melt temperature of 240C/464F is used, and if it is assumed that the
extrudate must be cooled to 20C/68F, then the maximum amount of heat that
needs to be removed for each gram of output is 645 Joules (J). Over the tem-
perature range quoted, the specific heat is approximately 2930 J/kgK.
In the production of cast film, the PP melt is cooled on polished
steel or chromium plated rolls through which a coolant is circulated. Low roll
temperatures, produce film of greater clarity and toughness, due to the lower
level of crystallinity in the product. Higher temperatures, however, will reduce
blocking and increase film stiffness. Chill roll temperatures are usually in the
range 10 to 30C/50 to 90F. The air knife, used to press the film against the
chill roll, must be carefully set to prevent air bubbles occurring between the
film and the chill roll. Too strong an air-flow will cause corrugation of the film.
The air should be filtered to prevent dust from reaching the molten film. The
film is wound on reels, at low tensions, as some post-extrusion crystallization
and consequent shrinkage may occur, over a period of two weeks at room
temperature. Film is not usually used during this time, which allows slip addi-
tives time to migrate to the film surface.
For high clarity blown film, PP is extruded downward and water at
10C/50F is used to cool the film by means of a weir. If air is used, a very
hazy (crystalline) film results. In the production of weaving tapes, the film is
slit with razor blades and then oriented by passing between two sets of rolls
called Godet rolls. The second set of rolls has a surface speed between 5.5
and 8.5 times that of the first set, which produces the orientation. An air oven
or hot plate, at 120C to 180C/250F to 355F, is placed between the two sets
of rolls to enable orientation without breakage. PP film and sheet may also be
biaxially oriented using a tenter frame to give orientation perpendicular to the
machine direction.
As with most materials, the maximum extrusion capacity is not used in pro-
duction. Some output is held in reserve. In the following table the maximum
extruder output, using grooved barrels, is shown together with typical maxi-
mums for several processes.
Typical Maximum Outputs in lb/hr (kg/hr)
Extruder Capability Sheet Sheet Pipe
(in) (mm) (lb/hr) (kg/hr) (0.3 in/7.6 mm) (<0.04 in/1 mm)
1.5 38 160 72* 80 (36)
2.5 64 400 182* 190 (86) 300 (136) * 200 (91)
3.5 90 700 318* 370 (168) 570 (259) * 700 (318) *
4.5 115 960 436* 660 (300) 960 (436) * 960 (436) *
6.0 150 1700 773* 1400 (636) * 1700 (773) * 1250 (568)
8.0 2000 (909) *
*using a grooved barrel
Compared to conventional PP, mPP has a narrower molecular 215
weight distribution (Mw/Mn = ~2). To get such a narrow MWD, a conventional
PP must be modified (post-reactor modified), because its Mw/Mn, as poly-

merized, is in the range 3 to 6. A narrow MWD results in reduced shear sensi-
tivity of the polymer melt and a higher achievable extrusion rate, since the
extrusion process is less susceptible to surging. The molten polymer also has
reduced melt elasticity and elongational viscosity, which is seen in reduced die
swell and improved melt draw down. Thus, in film and fiber applications, the
melt can be drawn down relatively easily into thinner sections. As mPP is free
of low molecular weight, volatile, polymer components, spinning smoke is vir-
tually eliminated in such processes. It should be noted that by catalyst modifi-
cation, the MWD and the composition may be tailored (broadened) to meet
product needs, if required.
18. Starting Up
PP presents no special problems, though it is less thermally stable than the
polyethylenes and is extruded at higher temperatures. Extruders and dies
should not, therefore, be left heated at operating temperatures for long periods
before starting to run, if there is PP in the system.
19. Shutting Down
At the processing temperatures used in extrusion, PP is relatively stable and it
is not necessary to purge with other materials. For die cleaning, the PP can be
burned off, provided exhaust fans remove the gases produced. Do not use
copper tools (such as copper cleaning pads) when PP is to be processed, as
traces of copper accelerate the degradation of PP.
20. Reprocessing
When this material is reclaimed, up to 15% can be blended into the virgin
material. If the material has been recycled too many times then it will degrade.
This is shown by a decrease in MFR, an increase in brittleness, excessive odor
from the products, and signs of decomposition, such as burning or streaking.
mPP is more chemically stable than conventional PP. This results in less
chemical breakdown during processing, so that MFR (molecular weight)
remains more constant. For this reason mPP can be recycled more often, or
used at higher feedstock levels, than conventional PP.
21. Finishing
PP may not be joined to itself by solvents, as there is no known solvent at
room temperature. Although it can be heat welded, its high melting point
makes this a difficult operation. Sometimes PP is coextruded with LDPE,
which acts as a heat sealable layer. For printing, ink adhesion is improved by
flame or corona discharge treatments. Recently, primers have been developed
for preparing surfaces for printing. These are also useful if the PP is to be vac-
uum metallized.
PP can be readily machined with cutting tools used for metals. Use
sharp tools, high cutting speeds and low feed rates. The edges of the cutting
tools must be sharp in order to achieve a good surface finish. Use plenty of
cutting fluid to cool the cutting surface, to prevent heat build up when machin-
ing. Typical operations that can be readily performed are milling, drilling, tap-
ping, turning, sawing and planing. PP cannot be readily surface ground and
polished. Specialized techniques are necessary to produce machined surfaces
to a very high accuracy and quality.
22. Other Comments
Internal antistatic agents used for polyolefins (polyethylene and polypropylene)
include glycol alkyl esters and betaine-type materials.
With its combination of light weight, toughness, high temperature resistance,
rigidity, and excellent resistance to chemical attack, PP is suitable for a wide
216 range of components. However, despite this materials high stiffness, it is sub-
ject to creep and should not be used in applications where it will be continu-
ously loaded under high stress. By taking advantage of the integral hinge
effect, very long hinges can be continuously produced. PP-HO produces
hinges that are slightly superior to PPCO. Easy flow, but not filled, grades are
used for this application.
Because it is chemically inert, it possesses high rigidity, and its
resistance to reasonably high temperatures, PP is used in pipe manufacture
for applications such as under-floor heating, high-pressure pipe, chemical
transport, and ball-point pen refills. PP fire retardant grades are used for
domestic water pipes and fittings.
Because of its good water barrier properties, PP film is used for
packaging bread and other goods which must be kept dry, such as potato
chips and cigarettes. When biaxially oriented, these films have good tough-
ness and are clear. There is a large market for PP tapes that can be used for
carpet backing or converted into twine.
Glass reinforced PP is now being extruded into profiles and sheet.
It has higher rigidity and better thermal stability than un-reinforced grades.
Extruder wear is much higher with these grades. Foamed or expanded PP is
increasingly being used for many applications due to its lightness, low cost
and good structural properties.
The density of mPP is similar to conventional PP (0.9 g/cm3). It is
used in place of post-reactor, peroxide-cracked polypropylene (CR PP) and for
medical grades of PP, as the mPP has lower extractables. The mPP costs
more than conventional PP, but can be processed on similar equipment.
Other metallocene polyolefins (mPO) may be used for PP modifi-
cation in place of EPDM and/or EPR rubbers. It is claimed, that use of a poly-
olefin elastomer (POE) or a polyolefin plastomer (POP) as a modifier, results
in a superior stiffness/toughness balance, high clarity, ease of compounding,
and ease of handling (because they are available in pellet form). When the
POE and POP are based on an ethylene-butene copolymer, the mPO modified
PP has higher flow, and, reduced shrinkage and warpage. The resultant
shrinkage may be similar to, or lower than, that of ABS, and the coefficient of
thermal expansion (CLTE) may be as low as 2.4 x 105 in/in. A mPP modifier
may also be used in conjunction with nucleated, random PP, to produce a
clear material with good low temperature toughness.
24. Yield
The figures below assume a density of 0.91 g/cm3. The actual densities vary
somewhat according to the level of crystallinity
weight
Tube of 3/8 in ID and 1/16 in wail thickness has a length of 29.6 ft/lb weight
Pipe of 0.1 in wall thickness and 4 in IinD has a length of 1.733 ft/Ib weight
Pipe of 2 mm wall thickness and 100 mm ID has a length of 1.52 m/kg
PMMA
1. Common Name Polymethyl methacrylate
2. Abbreviation(s) PMMA
Acrylic: poly[1-(methoxycarbonyl)-1-methylethylene]: polymethylmethacrylate.
4. Some Suppliers 5. Trade Names or Trade Marks 217
Agomer Degalan G
Atohaas Altuglas

BASF Lucryl G
Chi Mei Corp Acryrex
Cyro Industries Acrylite Cyrolite
Elf Atochem Plexiglas
Glasflex Glasflex
Goodfellow PMMA
ICI Acrylics Perspex, Lucite
Swedlow Acrive
Acrylic plastics are based on polymers made with acrylic acid, or a structural
derivative of acrylic acid. That is, the polymers are based on acrylic monomers
that may be represented as CH2=CXCOOY:
where: X = Y = H: It is acrylic acid
X = H and Y = CH3: It is methyl acrylate
X = CH3 and Y = CH3: It is methyl methacrylate
X = H and Y = CN: It is acrylonitrile
X = H and Y = C2H5: It is ethyl acrylate
Such monomers readily polymerize so that a wide range of homo-
polymers and copolymers is possible. Many of these materials are noted for
their optical properties. The best known member of this group is polymethyl
methacrylate (PMMA).
When methyl methacrylate (MMA) is polymerized an optically clear
plastics material, PMMA is obtained. It is a water white (or crystal clear),
amorphous plastic with a glass transition temperature (Tg) of ~100C/212F. At
room temperature it is a hard and rigid material that maintains its clarity, even
in thick sections, even after long exposures to outside atmospheres (i.e., it has
excellent UV resistance). Only surface scratching, caused by airborne dust or
by cleaning, limits the clarity during outdoor exposure. The clarity can be
approximately 92% and so this material is widely used as a glass replacement.
It is significantly lighter than glass, easier to shape and easier to machine.
PMMA is considered to be one of the hardest thermoplastics. The hardness of
PMMA is about the same as that of aluminum. To retain the clarity of this
material, when processed, it is important to maintain the surface finish to a
very high standard. A high standard of storage and/or drying, or a vented bar-
rel is therefore required.
Acrylic components are rigid, as the material is hard and stiff.
Components are dimensionally stable, odorless, resistant to many common
chemicals, and easy to decorate. The material has low moisture absorption,
high gloss, excellent UV resistance, low smoke emission when burned, and
good arc and track resistance. However, the material has poor solvent resis-
tance, burns easily and fiercely, is brittle, is notch sensitive, has poor fatigue
resistance and a low continuous use temperature (approximately 50C/120F).
It is possible to obtain grades that are softer and tougher than the
standard grades. These are referred to as high impact PMMA (PMMAHI) or as
toughened PMMA (PMMAT). Such an impact resistant PMMA polymer is
made by the incorporation of a rubbery material into a PMMA polymer. There-
fore, it is a two-phase material. The rubber phase is based on a styrene-modi-
fied acrylic ester (e.g., polybutyl acrylate), whose refractive index is the same
as PMMA. This impact resistant molding compound can be blended with stan-
dard PMMA if required. It should be noted that the notched impact strength is
only about twice that of a standard grade (at 0.04 kJ/m). It has better environ-
mental stress cracking (ESC) resistance than the standard grades, but lower
218 tensile strength, stiffness, and hardness. Such materials are almost as trans-
parent and UV resistant as the basic grades, but demonstrate more haze. The
better craze resistance is useful when products come into contact with aque-
ous detergents or soap solutions. The heat distortion temperatures (HDT) of
such materials are slightly lower than basic grades. For example, the HDT, at
0.45 Mpa, for high impact PMMA is 90C/194F and at 1.8 MPa it is 75C/
E16F, while for a standard material the HDT, at 0.45 Mpa, is 103C/218F and
at 1.8 MPa 95C/203F. The Vicat softening point (VSP) of the impact modified
material is slightly lower than that of the basic grades, by approximately
5C/41F.
7. Flow Properties
PMMA is a comparatively stiff flow material. Its flow is stiffer than PS or ABS.
PMMAHI is easier flowing than standard PMMA.
At low melt temperatures and shear rates, PMMA viscosities are
higher than those of most extrudable plastics. The viscosity is relatively sensi-
tive to shear rate and melt temperature. Higher viscosity grades are used for
sheet extrusion and lower viscosity grades for pipe and profile. The viscosity
of one of the latter grades is shown below.
(204C/400F) (221C/430F) (238C/460F)
20 15100 12100 9720
40 8330 6680 5350
100 3790 3040 2440
200 2090 1670 1340
400 1150 920 740
8. Resistant to:
PMMA is resistant to dilute acids and alkalis; concentrated alkalis and concen-
trated hydrochloric acid; aqueous solutions of salts and oxidizing agents,
amines, fats, oils and aliphatic hydrocarbons (like white spirit and paraffin),
dilute alcohols and detergents. It is also resistant to high molecular weight
esters, i.e. to those with more than 10 carbon atoms in the molecule. It shows
good resistance to gases such as carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, dry chlo-
rine and to dry sulfur dioxide.
PMMA is transparent to UV light and thus, is more resistant to UV
attack than most other thermoplastic materials. A UV absorber (for instance 2-
(2'-hydroxy-5'-methyl-phenyl)benzotriazole) may, however, be added to PMMA
in order to filter out such light and protect another material located behind the
PMMA. Products that demand very good long term UV stability are stabilized
with UV absorbers such as 2,4-dihydroxy benzophenone, phenyl salicylate,
methyl salicylate or, resorcinol monobenzoate or stilbene
9. Not resistant to:
PMMA is not resistant to concentrated, oxidizing acids (such as nitric and sul-
furic) and alcoholic alkalis, which cause decomposition. The resistance to
most organic solvents is poor. For example, PMMA is soluble in most aromatic
hydrocarbons, chlorinated hydrocarbons (such as toluene and chloroform),
low molecular weight esters (like ethyl acetate), phenols and ketones. Although
it is not attacked by alcohol alone, alcohol in association with carbon tetrachlo-
ride and ether will cause swelling. PMMA is plasticized by ester-type materials
such as tritolyl phosphate and dibutyl phthalate and is swollen by phenols.
Ethyl acetate can be used to detect strain. It has poor resistance to gases such
as hydrogen sulphide, wet chlorine and to wet sulfur dioxide.
With a density of 1.18 g/cm3, PMMA (solid, non-filled material) will sink in
water and float in a saturated magnesium chloride solution. The material is an
amorphous, thermoplastic material whose natural color is a very clear, water- 219
white, so a very wide range of both clear and transparent colors is possible. It
has a refractive index of approximately 1.49, the Abbe number is 58, and it

can transmit about 92% of visible light. The shrinkage of PMMA materials is
approximately 0.2% to 1.0%.
When this material is heated in a flame, it will ignite easily and
continue to burn very readily and fiercely, with an almost smoke-free flame.
There is little residue after burning, and the material does not smolder on
flame extinction. The flame is blue, tipped with yellow, and a sweet fruity odor
is emitted. PMMA will continue to burn, with crackling noises, after the source
of ignition is removed. Frothing may occur when the flame is extinguished.
When heated in the absence of a flame, it will soften at approximately
100C/212F and decompose at temperatures above 300C/572F to give
vapors, which are mainly the monomer methyl methacrylate (MMA). Vacuum
distillation occurs at temperatures above 500C/932F and has been used to
reclaim this material.
PMMA cannot be cut easily with a knife, but is relatively easy to
scratch. This material will dissolve in solvents such as toluene and chloro-
form, but will not dissolve in aliphatic hydrocarbons (paraffin and white spir-
its). It will swell in alcohols and phenols and is plasticized by some ester-type
plasticizers, such as tritolyl phosphate and dibutyl phthalate.
11. Coloring
Since the natural color of the material is clear, a wide range colors is possible.
This includes both transparent and opaque colors. It is sold in both com-
pounded colors and as natural material for coloring on the machine, by tech-
niques such as dry coloring, masterbatching, and liquid coloring.
PMMA may be available as granules or spherical beads. The latter
type is considered more suitable for dry coloring due to the similarity in parti-
cle size of polymer and dry colorant. However, the granules provide a more
grinding out (mixing) action, both in the tumble mixer and in the feed zone
of the extruder. Tumble blending is used to carry out the addition of dry col-
orant. The procedure for addition is important to ensuring the optimum dis-
persion. To obtain a uniform dispersion of colorant in the mix, the drum
should be filled with half of the polymer charge, then the dry colorant should
be added, followed by the rest of the polymer. The total charge should only
occupy half, to two thirds, of the drums capacity. The speed of rotation of the
drum is important to the even distribution of the colorant throughout the poly-
mer. Long mixing times can reduce the particle size of some colorants, giving
adverse effects with respect to its performance in the final product (e.g.,
translucency). A typical mixing time is 10 minutes. When dry coloring granular
material, the use of a binder or wetting agent is recommended and the color-
ing procedure is similar to GPPS. Typical colorant concentrations range from
0.2%-1.0%.
Master batches are widely used for opaque or dense colors and
where color matching is required. Universal type master batches are suitable
for many coloring requirements, however, they are not used for tinted shades.
The mixing time for masterbatch incorporation, and level of usage, is similar
to that required for ABS. Liquid coloring is suitable for both opaque colors and
tints, although the liquid carriers have to be tailored accordingly.
To maintain the clarity of this material, it is important to maintain the surface
finish of the products to a very high standard. For best results, the resin
should be dry before extrusion. High water absorption can occur on prolonged
contact with a damp atmosphere, so strict control must be exercised over
storage conditions. A very strict Fi-Fo policy is required to assure that materi-
220 al is not in store for more than 6 months. If left exposed to the atmosphere,
PMMA will take up between 0.15% and 0.7% moisture. The material should
remain in a pre-drier, at a temperature of 85C/15F for a period of 4 hours.
Higher temperatures can be used when drying in an air circulation oven, but
agitation of the granules is required to prevent caking, or fusing, of the gran-
ules.
If the drier is in line, its capacity can be calculated from the bulk
density of the material and the output rate. Volume = 4 x output rate (lb/h)
/bulk density (lb/cu ft).
Feed can consist of pelletized material, or a mixture of pellets and
polymer grains (not pre-extruded) with up to 50% of grains. Gravity feed hop-
pers are usually adequate, but they should be covered.
Barrels should be vented and have an L/D ratio of between 27 and 33. The
barrel should be lined with a wear resistant material such as Xaloy. To ensure
trouble free operation, the highest possible vacuum should be maintained in
the vent zone of the screw using a vacuum pump with a relatively high capaci-
ty. Suggested screw configurations are shown below.
Extruder Diameter 3.5 in/90 mm 4.5 in/115 mm
Feed zone depth (4 D) 0.56 in/14.2 mm 0.62 in/15.8 mm
Compression (8 D)
1st metering depth (5 D) 0.18 in/4.57 mm 0.20 in/5.08 mm
Decompression (2 D)
Vent zone depth (4 D) 0.68 in/17.27 mm 0.75 in/19.05 mm
Compression (4 D)
2nd metering depth (3 D) 0.31 in/7.87 mm 0.34 in/8.64 mm
The extruder temperature settings depend on the product. The table below
shows values for three different types of extrudate (Note: If rod is being man-
ufactured, it is often extruded very slowly, at very low melt temperatures, to
avoid voids in the rod).
Typical Extrusion Temperatures for PMMA Products
(Temperatures are in F with centigrade equivalents in brackets.)
Zone Sheet Tube Slit Tube
Zone 1 375 (190) 375 (190) 375 (190)
Zone 2 430 (220) 400 (205) 400 (205)
Zone 3 410 (210) 410 (210) 390 (200)
Zone 4 430 (220) 410 (210) 390 (200)
Adapter 445 (230) 390 (200) 390 (200)
Die 445 (230) 390 (200) 390 (200)
Sheet dies are of the coathanger type. Ideally, the detailed coathanger shape
should be designed from considerations of the melt rheology of the grade of
material to be used and for a particular output rate and melt temperature. This
will give the best quality of output in terms of even flow, and freedom from
striations, as well as temperature uniformity, which should be to better than
10F. Dies are fitted with a choker bar and adjustable lips. The die gap/sheet
thickness ratio should be kept between 1.2 and 2.0 with die land lengths as
follows:
Sheet Thickness Land Length
<:0.1 in/2.54 mm 2.5 in/64 mm
0.1 to 0.2 in/2.54 to 5.08 mm 3.5 in/82 mm
0.2 to 0.4 in/5.08 to 10.16 mm 4.5 in/115 mm
Dies can be up to 12 ft/3.66 m wide. They should be made from 221
tool steel and hard chrome plated. The finish of the die lips is critical, as any
damage will leave marks on the sheet. The die should be split into separately

controlled heating zones, spaced at no more than 1 ft/0.3 m intervals across
the width of the die and heated by means of cartridge heaters rather than by
surface plates. Additionally, there should be separate controls for each side of
the die.
Acrylic tubing is formed using dies based on the spider arm
design. To reduce the risk of web lines, formed when the melt fails to knit
together completely after the spiders, there must be adequate compression
after the spider and land lengths should be at least 20 times the wall thick-
ness. Lowering output will reduce this defect. Tube dies are also used to pro-
duce profile for acrylic fluorescent light fittings by slitting the tube with a
knife. Profile dies are also used with PMMA.
Acrylic melt shows a tendency to stick to the die, especially at high
temperatures and throughput rates. This sticking is reduced by chrome plating
the flow surfaces or by using steels with a high chrome content.
Sheet is normally cooled on a three-roll stack, with highly polished chrome
surfaced rolls kept at a uniform temperature across their width. For a bottom
fed stack, roll temperatures are typically:
Bottom Roll = 175F/80C
Middle Roll = 200F/93C
Top Roll = 220F/104C
If a melt temperature of 230C/446F is used, and it is assumed
that this melt must be cooled to that of the bottom roll (80C/175F), then the
maximum amount of heat that needs to be removed for each gram of output is
313 Joules (J). Over the temperature range stated, the specific heat is approxi-
mately 1900 J/kgK.
The sheet is pulled from the stack by rubber coated nip rolls. To
prevent too much orientation in the sheet, the tension between the polishing
rolls and nip rolls should be low. The melt pool, before the nip in the polishing
roll, must not be too large and the roll speed must not fall too low. Sheet,
cooled without use of polishing rolls, will have an inferior surface finish and
will draw in sideways as it is pulled from the clips. When cutting sheet to size,
its temperature must be controlled to allow for any subsequent shrinkage.
Sheet is usually protected by covering it with LDPE film. The residual heat in
the sheet causes the film to stick slightly to the surface of the sheet. The poly-
ethylene film can remain on the sheet while it is thermoformed and stay as a
protective layer until final end use.
Lighting fittings are made by post die forming of a tubular extru-
date, which is slit at its topmost point by a blade fitted the die face. The soft
extrudate is then shaped by passing it through a series of internal and external
metal forming plates. These plates are 0.25 in/6.35 mm thick and made of
steel or brass. Air is blown on the surfaces of the extrudate from a series of
holes in a pipe bent to the shape of the product.
In tube production both pressure and vacuum sizing methods are
employed.
The highest outputs are achieved when producing sheet material. Typical fig-
ures are shown in the table below.
222 Typical Outputs for PMMA Sheet Extrusion
Extruder Diameter Maximum Sheet Width Maximum Output
(in) (mm) (in) (mm) (lb/hr) (kg/hr)
3.5 90 60 1500 550 250
4.5 115 78 2000 900 409
6.0 150 100 2500 1200 545
8.0 200 140 3555 1900 864
18. Starting Up
It is important to prevent premature melting of any residual PMMA on the
feed section of the screw. This can be prevented during warm up if the screw
is fitted with water cooling in the feed section. Ensure there is water cooling
on the feed throat and keep the Zone 1 temperature at 200F/93C until extru-
sion starts. The temperature should then be raised to the operating setting. It
is important to start at low screw speed as the PMMA melt is very viscous.
Check the pressure readings as the screw speed is gradually raised. In sheet
production, once the sheet is feeding through the polishing rolls, the thick-
ness distribution can be evened out. If there are thin areas they will appear as
dull lakes, where they fail to contact the polishing roll. Thick areas often give a
chevron pattern. Dies are adjusted using the push-pull bolts and by changing
zone temperatures. Results from the latter adjustment can take up to 30 min-
utes to be effective and temperature settings should be changed slowly.
19. Shutting Down
It is best to purge PMMA out with PP or HDPE when shutting down. If the
extruder is to be stopped for a short while, drop the temperature of the feed
zone during the pause in production. Because of the excellent clarity of this
material, the smallest trace of contamination is immediately visible.
20. Reprocessing
material (all regrind must be dried). However, for the best quality clear sheet,
regrind should not be used. As the proportion of regrind increases, feeding
from a gravity hopper will become more uncertain. When regranulating
acrylic, strict housekeeping is essential to prevent any contact with other
polymers that may cause contamination. Also when using regrind, the mixing
of different batches or grades should not take place, as the optical properties
of the resultant products may become greatly reduced.
21. Finishing
PMMA may be joined to itself using solvents such as chloroform or by using
solutions of PMMA in methylene chloride. One can also use solutions of
PMMA in MMA. These cements are set by the addition of a catalyst or harden-
er. If cements are applied from metal tubes or containers, then it must be
remembered that the material of construction will affect setting. Copper and
brass inhibit setting, whereas lead speeds it up. When cementing PMMA, be
careful that a build up of vapors does not occur. These are inflammable, toxic
and can cause stress cracking of components. PMMA is commonly welded
using techniques such as ultrasonic welding, hot plate and friction.
Machining of this plastic can give satisfactory results, but one
should take great care not to cause scratching. A high polish may be put on
cut edges by buffing and polishing. Small surface blemishes or scratches can
be removed by manually polishing with Bluebell metal polish and a soft
cloth. Silk screen printing, vacuum metallization, and hot stamping can be
used to decorate components.
22. Other Comments
When thermoforming PMMA sheet, zoned heating on both sides of the sheet
is preferred, with higher temperatures on the outer zones. Aluminum is the
optimum mold material: it must have a very smooth, and blemish free sur-
face. It is relatively easy to scratch this material, but such scratches can be 223
easily polished out. Because of the ease of scratching, one should be very
careful when handling the material and keep it covered as long as possible

during any handling or machining operation. Only clean the products with liq-
uid cleaners. Even fine dust will cause scratching if rubbed in.
PMMA can become electrostatically charged during processing and
readily attracts dust as a result. To remove the dust, one may wipe the compo-
nents with a soft cloth. However, this may only aggravate the problem and
result in more dust accumulating on the surfaces. To obtain dust-free compo-
nents an antistatic treatment of the surfaces is required.
PMMA possesses excellent light fastness and resistance to weathering. It is
also hard, rigid, transparent, and can have a very good gloss. It is also not
subject to microbiological attack. These properties dictate the applications of
this class of material. The ease of decoration of this type of material should
not be forgotten as such decoration can lead to an enhanced appearance of
PMMA components.
It is widely used in the building industry as a roofing material in
place of glass. Present day, optical production methods can give clear or tint-
ed sheet that is of high enough quality to replace cast PMMA or glass. It is not
as scratch resistant as glass, but offers the advantage of being able to be cut
or sawn. It also is used to make bath and shower trays by sheet forming tech-
niques. In both these applications the light weight of this plastics material is a
tremendous advantage as it makes installation easier. The high coefficient of
thermal expansion of PMMA and its ease of burning should, however, be
noted. PMMA is now available in double-walled, extruded profiles whose ther-
mal conductivity is very low. When used as a glazing material this reduces
heat losses and cuts down on condensation. Its weatherability makes it useful
for outdoor light fittings.
24. Yield
Pipe of 0.1 in thickness and 4 in ID has a length of 1.34 ft/lb weight
Pipe of 2 mm thickness and 100 mm ID has a length of 1.17 m/kg
PPVC
1. Common Name Plasticized PVC or Plasticised PVC
2. Abbreviation(s) PPVC; PVC-P
Plasticized polyvinyl chloride: plasticised polyvinyl chloride: soft PVC: flexible
PVC. PVC may also be referred to as poly-(vinyl chloride) or as poly(mono-
chloroethylene). PPVC is based on a vinyl plastic material. The term vinyl plas-
tics is often taken to mean vinyl chloride plastics. These are plastic materials
that are based on homopolymers of vinyl chloride orcopolymers of vinyl chlo-
ride with other monomers, the vinyl chloride being in the greatest abundance
by mass.
Alpha Gary Alpha
A Schulman Polyvin
BASF Vinoflex
Colorite Plastics Unichem
Condea Vista Condea Vista
Elf Atochem Nakan
Elf Atochem Lacovyl
El Paso PVC El Paso
EVC Sicron
Evode Plastics Ltd. Gary PVC
Formosa Plastics Formolon
Hydro Polymers Peviikon (PVCE)
Hydro Polymers Norvinyl (PVCS)
Huls Trosiplast 3
Huls Vestolit
Hydro Polymers Hi-Vin
Keysor-Century Keysor
LVM Marvylflo PVC
LVM Marvylex TPE-PVC
Novatec Novablend
OxyVinyls Geon
Piltec Chemicals Temprene TPE (PVC/NBR)
Rimtec Rintec/Kohinor
Solvay Benvic
Synergistics Synergistics
Teknor Apex Teknor Apex/Ultra
Wacker Chemicals Vinnolit
PPVC plastics may be purchased as compound (which means that
it has been melt compounded), it may be blended in a high speed mixer and
then fed to the extruder, or it may be blended, compounded and extruded in-
house. For this reason the material may be known by the resin or plastic sup-
pliers name or it may be known by the name of a compound. In general, pro-
cessing of PVC compounds gives the best properties, but the processing of
dry blends can offer cost advantages.
Vinyl chloride, also known as vinyl chloride monomer (VCM), may
be represented as CH2=CHCl. When VCM is polymerized, without another
monomer present, a homopolymer is produced, which is commonly known as
polyvinyl chloride (PVC). As VCM is a carcinogen, the level of monomer left in
the plastic material must be kept very low (e.g., <1 part per million (<1 ppm)
of monomer in the polymer). Vinyl chloride homopolymers are the most wide-
ly used type of PVC plastics used at the present time. They are made by emul-
sion (PVC-E), suspension (PVC-S) and mass or bulk (PVC-M) polymerization
processes. Plasticized PVC (PPVC) is usually based on PVC-S or PVC-M.
PVC-E is widely used to make PVC pastes (also known as plastisols), and for
unplasticized PVC (UPVC). It is used as UPVC since the PVC particles contain
a large amount of well-dispersed surfactants that aid in processing.
The discovery that polyvinyl chloride (PVC) polymer can be con-
verted to an elastomeric type material, by the addition of low molecular
weight, liquid plasticizers was made in the 1920s, when attempts were made
to dissolve the polymer. Polymeric plasticizers (that is, plasticizers which are
themselves polymers) were used approximately 10 years later. The use of
elastomers or rubbers, as property modifiers, was introduced shortly after-
wards. At that time the preferred elastomers were copolymers of acrylonitrile
and 1,3 butadiene, known as nitrile elastomers (NBR). Such materials are still
sometimes used at levels of up to approximately 33 parts per hundred (phr).
Plasticizers are added to PVC compounds to produce flexibility and
softness although, originally they were added to ease processing. As there are
many different plasticizers which may be used in different amounts or combi- 225
nations, a wide range of plasticized compounds is possible. Such compounds
will differ not only in flexibility and softness, but also in other properties such

as tensile strength, resilience and ease of flow. The plasticizers most common-
ly employed are high boiling point esters of C8-10 alcohols, such as phthalates,
phosphates and sebacates. Examples of common plasticizers include dioctyl
phthalate (DOP or 2-ethylhexyl phthalate), di-iso-octyl phthalates (DIOP) and
dialphanyl phthalate (DAP). The term plasticized means that there is plasticiz-
er present in the material, but there may be other additives mixed in with the
PVC resin as well.
Additives are essential to PVC technology, since without them PVC
cannot be processed. In addition, some additives enhance the properties of
the base PVC and permit its use in a wide range of applications. Examples of
additives commonly used include heat stabilizers, lubricants, processing aids,
fillers and anti-static agents. The use of such additives enables PPVC to be
processed by methods similar to other thermoplastic materials. When the
ingredients of the PVC formulation are blended together (for example, by high
speed mixing), the porosity of the PVC particles must be high enough to per-
mit rapid absorption of the plasticizer during blending to produce a dry, free-
flowing blend. This blend is then melt compounded. In order to realize the
optimum properties of this material, it is necessary to put in just enough work
and heat, in this processing step, for the blended material to be fully gelled or
fused, but not so much that it is degraded. Decomposition can be easily
caused by over-heating or by excessive shear. Once decomposition starts, it
can spread very rapidly, because one of the products of decomposition,
hydrochloric acid (HCl), will catalyze further degradation. Since HCl is an acid,
it also readily attacks metals, such as steel, and causes pitting and corrosion.
Its effects on human beings are very harmful. Control over PVC mixing and
compounding stages is very important, since the level of mixing affects mater-
ial flow and end-use properties.
Despite its heat stability problem, PPVC is widely used because an
extremely broad range of cheap, tough, flexible and easy to process com-
pounds may be produced. The material is incredibly versatile. Elongation at
break and impact strength increase with increasing plasticizer addition.
However, the inherent flame retardancy of PVC is often reduced and properties
may change over time if plasticizer is lost from the compound (the plasticizer
lost from PPVC may cause environmental stress cracking (ESC) of other
amorphous polymers). The chemical resistance is good, and, when correctly
formulated, transparent components are readily obtained. This requires that
appropriate stabilizers be used, including tin stabilizers and calcium/zinc com-
plexes.
PVC may be made softer by internal plasticization, which means
that a second monomer is introduced during manufacture. Such copolymers
are softer, easier flowing and more readily fabricated than homopolymers, but
they are usually more expensive.
7. Flow Properties
The ease of flow of a PVC polymer depends on the molecular weight of the
resin, which is characterized for PVC by the K value. The higher the K number,
the higher the molecular weight and the more stiff the flow. For a particular K
value the ease of flow may be dramatically altered by the use of additives such
as lubricants or plasticizer. Since PPVC contains plasticizer, which increases
flow, they have relatively high K values (for example, DIN K values between,
approximately, 65 and 70). While plasticizer reduces the compound viscosity,
the addition of fillers will cause it to increase.
226 A K value of about 70 corresponds to a viscosity number (DIN
53726) of 124 (Note: The inherent viscosity (ASTM), often given for PVC, is
approximately 1/100 of the viscosity number). For cable coating, hose, and
flexible profiles (where the product is to be subjected to a wide range of tem-
peratures or particularly good mechanical properties are required) resins with
K values up to 91 (viscosity number 234) are used. The table below shows
the viscosities for a fairly stiff compound designed for cable coating.
Viscosities of a PPVC Cable Compound
(350F/177C) (375F/190C) (400F/204C)
20 2340 1690 1190
40 1450 1050 740
100 770 560 390
200 480 340 240
400 300 210 150
8. Resistant To:
PPVC compounds have good UV resistance and reasonable chemical resis-
tance, but not as good as UPVC. They are resistant to water and salt solu-
tions. Dilute acids and alkalis have little effect at room temperature, but at ele-
vated temperatures some hydrolysis and extraction of the plasticizer may
occur. Concentrated acids and alkalis slowly hydrolyze plasticizers when cold
and more rapidly when heated. Most organic liquids will extract the plasticiz-
ers and cause the compound to harden. Some organic liquids (e.g., aromatic
and chlorinated hydrocarbons, aliphatic and aromatic nitro compounds,
ketones, aliphatic and cyclic ethers) will also cause softening. The effect of
stabilizers, lubricants and pigments on the chemical resistance of PVC com-
pounds is less marked than the effect of plasticizers and copolymers. The type
and amount of plasticizer or copolymer will affect the chemical resistance. To
improve chemical resistance one should replace a monomeric plasticizer, such
as dioctyl phthalate (DOP), with a polymeric type such as polypropylene adi-
pate (PPA) or polypropylene sebacate (PPS). PPA is useful for oil and fuel
contact and PPS resist soaps and detergents. PPVC is less permeable than
PE; however, the permeability increases with plasticizer content.
Chemical resistance and weatherability may be good, but they are
made worse by the addition of impact modifiers. Weathering resistance is
improved by the use of UV stabilizers and/or carbon black. Homopolymers of
PVC are more resistant to chemical attack than copolymers.
9. Not Resistant To:
PPVC is not resistant to acids, alkalis and oxidizing agents. These include
concentrated oxidizing acids such as sulfuric, nitric and chromic acids, which
cause decomposition. The rate of decomposition may be accelerated in the
presence metals like zinc and iron. Bromine and fluorine attack it even at
room temperature.
PPVC is more readily attacked by solvents, such as tetrahydrofu-
ran, cyclohexanone, methyl ethyl ketone (MEK), dimethylformamide, than is
UPVC. It is unsuitable for use in contact with aromatic hydrocarbons, chlori-
nated hydrocarbons, ketones, esters, cyclic ethers, nitro-compounds, acetic
anhydride, aniline and acetone. These solvents penetrate the PVC and cause
marked swelling. Bacteria may attack some plasticizers. To minimize this
attack bactericides and/or plasticizers based on linear esters (those based on
straight chain alcohols) are used. Plasticizers will be lost by exposure to high
temperatures, water, and solvents, but a correct choice of the plasticizer used
will help to minimize this loss.
Although pure PVC does not absorb light above a wavelength of
approximately 220 nm, commercial materials are degraded by UV light. They
contain impurity groups or structural features that contribute towards degra- 227
dation. Heat stabilizers (such as phosphites) do help with light stabilization,
but for the best results one should use a UV absorber. A simple, low molecu-

lar weight HALS stabilizer may have little or no effect on light stability.
PPVC has poor heat resistance and is more flammable than UPVC.
PVC is an amorphous thermoplastic material that does not exhibit a sharp
melting point. It has a glass transition temperature of 82C; however, addition
of plasticizer will lower this value. With a density of approximately 1.4 g/cm3,
PVC (solid, non-filled, non-plasticized material) will sink in both water and in a
saturated solution of magnesium chloride. The addition of plasticizer will lower
the density (they have a density of about 1 g/cm3), while the addition of inor-
ganic fillers will raise the density (fillers generally have a density greater than
2.5 g/cm3). The density of commercial compounds may range from about 1.15
to 1.35 g/cm3. These compounds will float in a saturated magnesium chloride
solution and sink in water. The presence of inorganic fillers can be shown by
burning off the organic portion of the compound, which is mainly the PVC and
the plasticizer. Stabilizers, particularly the metal compounds, are also partially
responsible for an increase in the density. Shrinkage is of the order of 1.0% to
2.0%. Shrinkage variations are due primarily to differences in the hardness
value (plasticizer level) of the compound.
The natural color of the unfilled material is clear when it is stabi-
lized with an appropriate stabilizer, such as a barium cadmium or a tin stabiliz-
er. If the material is stabilized with lead stabilizers and/or filled, the natural
color is usually off-white. In either case a wide color range is possible.
The behavior of PVC, when it is heated in a flame, depends on the
compound composition, especially the amount and type of plasticizer. Most
plasticizers burn easily and their presence often increases the flammability of a
compound. However, some plasticizers are naturally flame resistant (the phos-
phates, trixylyl phosphate or TXP) and compounds based on them will not
burn easily. Because of their high price, phosphates are only used where flame
resistance is essential, since they are toxic and give high cold flex tempera-
tures. In general, therefore, plasticized PVC compounds will burn, producing a
yellow sooty flame, often with a green tip, which leaves a black residue. If a
piece of a PVC compound is heated on a copper wire, the flame will often be
colored green.
When heated in the absence of a flame, low molecular weight plas-
ticizers will be distilled off and can be analyzed if required. A better way to
analyze for the plasticizer is to solvent extract a known quantity of the PPVC
material. The solvent from the extraction is evaporated and then liquid plasti-
cizer is collected and analyzed. A useful test, for characterization of the plasti-
cizer type, is the boiling point.
PPVC compounds can be cut very easily and can be scratched eas-
ily with a knife or fingernail. This material will dissolve in solvents such as
tetrahydrofuran, cyclohexanone, methyl ethyl ketone (MEK), dimethylfor-
mamide. Aromatic and chlorinated hydrocarbons, nitrocarbons, acetic anhy-
dride, aniline and acetone also readily swell PPVC. This material will not dis-
solve in solvents such as aliphatic hydrocarbons, but such solvents can leach
out plasticizers.
11. Coloring
As the natural color of the PVC is clear, a wide color range is possible, both
transparent and opaque. It is sold in both compounded colors and as natural
material for in process coloring by techniques such as dry coloring, master-
batching, and liquid coloring. With PVC-P, only pigments are used because of
color bleeding or leaching problems with dyestuffs. Certain types of pigments,
such as metal powders or oxides, fall into this category.
228 It is much more difficult to color match opaque PPVC compounds
than clear ones due to color variations in the base materials. Depending upon
the nature of the PPVC compound, granular or powder form, a binder may be
required to adhere the colorant to the polymer during the mixing stage. A typi-
cal binder is DOP (dioctyl phthalate), which is added to the mix at a concen-
tration level of 0.1%. Many PVC compounds may use a plasticizer system
other than DOP, but the inclusion of such a small amount of DOP will not sig-
nificantly alter the end properties of a component. Typical dry colorant load-
ings of 0.05% to 2.5% are used. The actual percentage depends upon
whether a transparent or opaque color is required.
PVC-based master batches are used to produce good color com-
patibility, but their usage is relatively limited. Universal master batches are
sometimes used, but due to their partial compatibility with the PVC com-
pounds, not all of them are suitable. The manufacturers advice should be
sought before use. Masterbatch additions, for both PVC-based and universal
types, are between 1% to 5%, which produces typical pigment loadings of
0.5% to 2% in the final product (depending upon the denseness of color
required). Liquid colors can also be used, but their addition must be con-
trolled to prevent changes in the properties of the compound (as a result of
the liquid carrier).
PVC will absorb less than 0.02% water in 24 hrs at room temperature. This
means that drying is not normally necessary. If it is, the material should be
dried in a hot air oven for 2 hrs at 65C/149F or in a desiccant dryer for 1 to
1.5 hrs at 70C/158F. When drying PVC-P compounds, strict temperature and
time control must be observed to avoid too great a loss of plasticizer (espe-
cially when heating highly plasticized compounds or those containing a highly
volatile type of plasticizer). Such losses affect the processing characteristics
and the properties of the PVC compound. Prolonged heating can affect the
thermal stability of the compound during processing. Do not pre-dry other
materials with PVC-P, as plasticizer evaporating from the compound may con-
taminate them. When a desiccant dryer is used for PVC-P compounds, it is
essential that a plasticizer trap be fitted within the dryer to collect vaporized
plasticizer and prevent it from contaminating the desiccant bed.
To produce a PPVC dry blend, the PVC polymer and other ingredi-
ents (with the exception of the plasticizer and lubricant) are fed into a high
speed mixer and blended at high speed until a temperature of between 90C to
95C/194F to 203F is reached. The plasticizer is then added to the mixture
and when 110C to 125C/230F to 257F is reached, lubricant may be added.
The resultant mix is then dumped into a cooler/blender. The large cooler/
blender (usually a water jacketed ribbon type blender) cools the mix, improves
the batch-to-batch consistency, and also reduces the electrostatic charges on
the dry blend. The dry blend may then be used as is or pelletized using an
extruder. Pelletizing improves dispersion, but adds to the cost and reduces
the thermal stability of the material.
To improve the batch-to-batch consistency of a dry blend, the
additives (e.g., stabilizers and lubricants) may be incorporated in pre-weighed
sachets. These are known as one shot or one pack sachets. Their use
enables the processor to easily obtain the correct percentage of additive and
eliminates the hazards associated with the handling/weighing of the individual
ingredients.
Since the inhalation of vinyl chloride monomer (VCM), over pro-
longed periods, is linked with carcinogenic effects, the level of VCM in the
atmosphere is controlled. Although PVC compounds can release traces of
VCM into the atmosphere, these levels in normal plant conditions are much
below those considered dangerous to health. However, care must be taken in
the use of vessels that hold bulk quantities of PVC, especially powder blends, 229
as these have a higher surface area to volume ratio than pellets. The contents
of tankers and containers should be sampled without personnel entering the

container using a long handled scoop. If it is necessary to enter a container, it
should be first purged with air. VCM levels should be monitored and breathing
apparatus used if these levels are too high. PVC powder blends also can pro-
duce a fine dust, and dust masks should be used where there is likelihood of
dust being present in the air. As much as possible, powder blends should be
contained and not allowed to blow into the plant atmosphere. Some of the
additives used in PVC compounds (lead stabilizers, flame retardants, color-
ants, etc.) may also be toxic. Smoking, drinking and eating should not occur
where blends containing toxic ingredients are present. It is safe to assume
that all unmixed PVC compounds are toxic.
If pelletized cubes are used, then gravity feed hoppers are satisfac-
tory. A correctly designed hopper is essential when processing dry blends.
The angle of the hopper walls should be between 45 to 60 as angles of <45
can cause bridging problems. If bridging does occur, the use of an agitator
can overcome such a problem or one may need to use a crammer design of
hopper. The base of the hopper should be cooled to prevent blockage.
The components of the barrel assembly that are in direct contact with hot PVC
must be able to resist the corrosive hydrochloric acid (HCl). In addition, the
barrel assembly should be designed to avoid sharp corners and abrupt
changes in cross-section and direction, to prevent the material from becoming
trapped in low flow areas (dead spots) where it can degrade. Barrels should
have a length to diameter ratio of at least 24:1 and should be lined with a
material such as Xaloy to reduce wear and resist corrosion. Grooved feed
zones are not recommended. Screws need to be flame hardened on their
flights or coated with a wear resistant material. Chrome plating also helps to
extend the life of the screw. Screws possessing a deep nitrided surface offer
good resistance to HCl attack.
Clearance between screw and barrel of 0.005 in to 0.008 in (0.12
mm to 0.2 mm) is recommended. Older designs have a continuous compres-
sion from feed to delivery with a compression ratio of about 3. These screws
were generally water-cooled, as the lower temperature of the screw improved
the mixing action. However, screw cooling also dramatically reduces output.
Therefore, more recent designs use a three-zone screw with a long com-
pression section. Mixing rings, consisting of a ring of studs set into the root
of the screw, are used to break up the flow pattern and improve mixing.
Usually, two or three of these rings are incorporated into the length of the
screw.
Screw dimensions depend on the type of feedstock. Screws for
powdered feeds need a greater compression ratio than those used for cube
(pelletized) feeds. Typical screw dimensions are shown in the following table.
Screw Diameter 2.5"/63.5 mm 3.5"/88.9 mm 4.5"/114.3 mm
Feedstock Cubes/Powder Cubes/Powder Cubes/Powder
Feed Zone Depth (4 D) 0.35/0.36 0.43/0.44 0.50/0.52
Compression (17 D)
Metering Depth (4 D) 0.14/0.09 0.17/0.11 0.2/ 0.13
Since PPVC compounds cover a wide range of compositions, there is no sin-
gle set of temperature settings. The actual temperatures used are selected for
a given compound and process. However, no matter what the composition,
temperatures greater than 205C/400F will significantly increase the rate of
material degradation. High temperatures may also cause premature plasticiza-
230 tion in the feed if dry blends are used. The following temperatures are only
given as a starting point.
Zone Temperatures F C
Zone 1 (feed) 265 130
Zone 2 340 170
Zone 3 355 180
Adapter 365 185
Die 365 185
At the correct melt temperature, PPVC purgings are smooth and
glossy. If they have a bumpy or lumpy appearance, then the material is non-
homogeneous (that is, not sufficiently thermally plasticized), indicating that
the set temperatures are too low. If the purgings have a bubbly/frothy appear-
ance, and give off an excessive amount of smoke, the material is too hot.
Breaker plates and screens are used between extruder and die. For cube feed,
one 20 and two 40 mesh screens are suitable (US standard sieve sizes). For
powder feedstock, the meshes are 20/40/100/100/40/20, put together to form
a screen pack.
For producing blown film, bottom fed dies are used. They need to
be designed for easy assembly/disassembly, so that the required frequent
cleaning can be carried out as speedily as possible. In cable coating and
sheathing operations, for small wires where dimensional variation is small, a
pressure die is used. Here melt and conductor meet in the die. The die exit
gap OD is the same size as the diameter of the insulated product. The length
of the land is usually also about the same value. Dies can be supplied with
fixed or adjustable centering. It is useful to be able to adjust the distance
between the tip where melt and conductor meet and the die exit. Tubular dies
are used for larger cables. Here melt and conductor meet outside the die, with
the melt being drawn down onto the die by the application of a vacuum where
the conductor feeds into the die. Again, tip adjustment relative to the outer
ring is beneficial. The melt is drawn down onto the cable. For even drawing,
the ratio of the cross sectional area of the die exit gap, to the cross sectional
area of the PVC sheath, must be the same as the die exit gap diameter to the
final cable diameter. Typical ratios are 1.13.
Hose and profile dies are designed on similar principles to those
for rigid PVC. Chrome plating of the dies will reduce wear from corrosion by
the acid decomposition products of PVC.
If a melt temperature of 200C is used, and the output must be cooled to
20C, and the specific heat in this range is 1564 J/kgK, the maximum amount
of heat that needs to be removed for each gram of output is 282 Joules (J).
When producing PPVC film, problems can occur at low gauge
because of the softness of the product. In particular, the film is prone to cen-
ter creasing at the nips and to blocking. To prevent this, collapsing frames
should be designed to give minimum friction on the film and the film should
be as cold as possible before collapsing. It is possible to produce oriented
shrink film in line, by use of a temperature controlled roll stretching unit.
In cable coating, it is necessary to coordinate the whole line
including unwind, extruder, cooling, haul-off and winder. A non-rotating pay-
off (unwind) is used whenever possible, as this enables the ends of cables to
be brought out of the pay-off for joining. The cable is drawn over the end of
its spool and this process imparts a twist to it. Solid wire unwinds can run up
to 5000 ft/min (1525 m/min). For higher speeds, a wire drawing and anneal-
ing machine is placed in line with the coating operation. Larger cables, and
those to be sheathed, are unwound from rotating drums, using an accumula- 231
tor if necessary, to allow time for joining.
A water filled trough is used for cooling. PVC can be cooled more

rapidly than polyethylene, because it does not crystallize and hence has less
tendency to shrink away from the conductor. For sheathing, the troughs are
between 50 ft and 150 ft (15.15 m and 45.45 m) long, depending on output
rate. An approximate formula for trough length is: Trough Length (ft) = 0.75 X
output (lb/h) X PVC radial thickness/sheath diameter.
For fine wire telephone cables, with line speeds up to 7000 ft/min
(2135 m/min), troughs are about 120 ft (36.6 m) long. They are up to 700 ft
(213.5 m) long when producing cables for building applications. Smaller
cables are pulled through the plant using capstans, while caterpillars are
employed for larger diameters (reel winding is not used to pull the cable
through the plant). The internal diameters of reels are at least 20 times the
cable diameter.
In hose production, coilers are used to wind up the hose. These
are equipped with a traversing mechanism that ensured the hose coils are
positioned correctly on the reel. Automatic strapping of the hose when reeled
can also be done on the coilers. There is the possibility of manufacturing
braided hose in-line with a primary hose production extruder. The under hose
may be preheated before a spiral winding unit applies the reinforcement by
rotating the spools of fiber around the hose. Following braiding, a second coat
of PPVC is applied by in-line coating.
Extrusion capacity depends on the compound composition and application.
Though it is possible to extrude 600 lb/hr (271.2 kg/hr) from a 2.5 in (63.5
mm) extruder, in braided cable production, output figures of 180 lb/h (81.4
kg/h) are common from the same sized extruder. In the table below, figures
are given as a guide for a cable coating operation with the maximum output
using the most suitable compound and operating conditions.
Extruder Size Cable Coating Output Maximum Extruder Output
(in) (mm) (lb/hr) (kg/hr) (lb/hr) (kg/hr)
1.25 32 40 18
2.5 64 280 127 600 273
3.5 90 780 354 1300 591
4.5 115 1200 545 2000 909
6.0 150 2030 923 3500 1591
8.0 200 3700 1682
18. Starting Up
When warming the extruder, the initial temperatures should be set to about
162C/350F for the greater part of the warm up period. Ensure that cooling
water is present on the hopper throat. Then raise the temperatures to operat-
ing conditions and start the extruder slowly. Increase the screw speed to oper-
ating conditions as the temperature rises, ensuring that pressures and/or
motor current do not exceed predefined limits. One should ensure that all
purge material has been removed from the extruder and die before producing
extrudate for sale.
19. Shutting Down
Since the thermal stability of PPVC is poor, the shut-down procedure is very
important. Safe barrel residence time (to avoid degradation) depends upon
temperature At a temperature of 200C/392F the maximum residence time in
the barrel should not exceed 5 minutes. When the temperature is 205C/401F
then the maximum residence time in the barrel decreases to approximately 3
minutes.
232 One should ensure that all traces of the PPVC have been removed
from the barrel by purging thoroughly with another thermoplastic material,
which is more thermally stable and does not react with PPVC (like PMMA, PP,
LDPE, HDPE or GPPS). In this way, the PPVC will be replaced with an inert
resin such as HDPE before stopping the extruder for a shut-down. When
cleaning dies or screws which may be coated with PVC, acrid acidic fumes
may be given off. These will cause rusting of unprotected steels and should
not be inhaled.
If there is a temporary hold up (less than a few minutes), then
purging is not usually necessary. However, a check must be made for signs of
degradation when restarting. When shutting down for relatively short periods,
switch off the barrel heaters and purge the barrel clean.
Never mix polyacetal (POM) and PPVC together in the same bar-
rel! The resultant vigorous chemical reaction can cause considerable damage
to the machine or serious injury to personnel. If PPVC is to follow POM (or
visa versa), first, thoroughly purge the barrel clean with one of the inert resins
mentioned above.
20. Reprocessing
When PPVC is reclaimed, up to 15% may be blended into the virgin material.
However, if there are any signs of degradation in the reclaimed material, do
not use it. The end use of the product dictates the level of regrind that can be
used. What must be borne in mind, is that each time PPVC is reprocessed its
resistance to thermal degradation decreases and its flow may be considerably
reduced. Problems may, therefore, occur not only because of an excess per-
centage of regrind being incorporated; they may also occur as a result of
using regrind which has been degraded as a consequence of being repro-
cessed too many times.
21. Finishing
Techniques such as high frequency or radio frequency welding, or heated tool
and solvent welding can be used to weld PPVC. The effectiveness of the join-
ing method is dependent upon the amount of plasticizer and the formulation
of the compound. Depending upon its hardness, PPVC can often be machined
using conventional machining techniques. One should, however, keep the sur-
faces being cut well cooled. PPVC is a material that readily accepts specially
designed printing inks. Embossing can be used and is often done in-line.
22. Other Comments
When correctly formulated, transparent products are possible. This requires
the use of appropriate stabilizers and avoiding the use of fillers or opaque col-
orants. If impact modifiers are used, the refractive index of the impact modifi-
er and the PVC must be matched. This match may only be possible over a
limited temperature range. Where transparency and low toxicity is required
organo-tin stabilizers, that are salts of alkyl tin oxides and carboxylic acids
called organo-tin carboxylates (e.g., dioctyl tin dilaurate) are used. Organo-tin
compounds that have at least one sulfur-to-tin chemical bond are also called
organo-tin mercaptides (e.g., dioctyl tin octylthioglycolate). Such organo-tin
mercaptides are very efficient heat stabilizers for polyvinyl chloride (PVC)
which can yield brilliantly clear compounds.
When PPVC components are produced, it is probable that they will
be covered with a thin (invisible) film of lubricant that will contain relatively
high levels of stabilizer. If the stabilizer used is heavy metal based (e.g. lead),
care should be taken when the product is handled. When handling PVC parts,
always wear gloves to avoid transferring the heavy metal onto your skin or
into your mouth.
One of the major uses of PPVC is for wire and cable insulation and sheathing.
It is used in preference to polyethylene (PE), because of its resistance to envi- 233
ronmental stress cracking, its self extinguishing characteristics and its versa-
tility. By changes in formulation, such as the type and amount of plasticizer, it

is possible to control or alter properties such as flexibility and temperature
resistance. However, its inferior voltage breakdown resistance and dielectric
behavior at high frequencies preclude it from use at high voltages or frequen-
cies. For sheathing, compounds are made softer than those used for insula-
tion. For example, the Shore hardness of a sheathing grade may be 76, where-
as the value for insulation is 86.
It is possible to produce high clarity compounds used in applica-
tions for film, hose and flexible profiles. Flexible compounds are available that
are formulated to provide high clarity for energy efficient PVC strip curtains
used in retail display cabinets or in factory entrances. Use of such curtains
provides substantial energy savings, improved temperature control and better
hygiene. In film form, the softness and self-adhesive properties of PPVC make
it ideal for cling film and stretch wrap.
PPVC is the predominant plastic used in the medical industry
because of its cost to performance ratio, transparency, range of hardness,
weldability, and ease of sterilization. PVC and its associated plasticizers (such
as DEHP) have approximately 40 years of safe and effective use in hospitals
and clinics.
PVC is widely used in disposable packaging. A common way of
disposing of waste is to burn it in incinerators, however, PVC has for many
years been under suspicion as being potentially harmful to health, and to the
environment, as being a precursor in the formation of dioxins and furans.
Incineration studies do not support this view; therefore, some believe that
incineration is a safe and viable disposal option. Operating conditions during
burning, rather than the material being burned, appear to have a more signifi-
cant effect on toxic gas emissions. If incinerators are operated at temperatures
below 750C/1400F high dioxin levels may result. However, most waste plas-
tics, including PVC, can be recycled and the trend towards recycling such
materials is growing.
24. Yield
Because PPVC is compounded from a wide range of materials, there is a wide
range of relative densities (e.g., from about 1.2 to 1.6). Plasticizer reduces
density, but fillers increase the density. Since transparent compounds have no
fillers they have the lowest densities and hence greatest yields.
For sheet, figures are given for a range of relative densities from
1.25 to 1.55.
Sheet of 0.1 in thickness has a surface area of 1.24 to 1.54 sq ft/lb
Sheet of 2 mm thickness has a surface area of 0.32 to 0.40 sq m/kg
For film, the relative density is assumed to be 1.29
Cling film of 0.0005 in (50 gauge) thickness has a surface area of 300 sq
ft/Ib
Cling film of 12.5 microns thickness has a surface area of 62 sq m/kg
For hose compounds a density of 1.22 g/cm is assumed
Tube of 3/8 in ID and 1/16 in wall thickness has a length of 22 ft/lb
234
UPVC
1. Common Name Unplasticized PVC or Unplasticised PVC
2. Abbreviation(s) UPVC: RPVC: PVC-U: uPVC
Unplasticized polyvinyl chloride or unplasticized PVC: rigid PVC (RPVC): hard
PVC. PVC may also be referred to as poly(vinyl chloride) or as poly(mono-
chloroethylene). Type I rigid PVC is a term sometimes used to describe UPVC.
Type II rigid PVC is a term sometimes used to describe a grade of PVC that
has improved impact strength, but reduced corrosion resistance relative to
Type I rigid PVC. Type III rigid PVC is a term sometimes used to describe a
grade of PVC that has much higher impact strength than Type I rigid PVC.
UPVC is based on a vinyl plastic material. The term vinyl plastics
is often taken to mean vinyl chloride (VC) plastics and refers to materials that
are based on homopolymers of VC or, copolymers of VC with other mono-
mers, the VC being in the greatest amount by mass.
Alpha-Gary Alpha/Dural
BASF Vinidur
BASF Vinoflex
Colorite Plastics Unichem UPVC
CONDEA-Vista Vista
Elf Atochem Lacovyl
DSM (Dutch State Mines) Ronfaloy V (ABS/PVC)
EVC Ravinil
Georgia-Gulf Tuf-Stif
Goodfellow UPVC
Goodyear Pliovic
Hydro Polymers Hyvin
Huls Trosiplast 1
Huls Vestolit
Keysor-Century Keysor UPVC
Novatec Novablend
OxyVinyls Oxyblend/Oxyclear, Geon
Solvay Benvic EV (PVC-GF)
Synergistics Synergistics
Wacker Chemicals Vinnolit
Westlake Westlake
UPVC plastics may be purchased as compound (which means that
it has been melt compounded), it may be blended in a high speed mixer and
then fed to the extruder, or it may be blended, compounded and extruded in-
house. For this reason, the material may be known by the resin or plastic sup-
pliers name or it may be known by the name of a compound. In general, pro-
cessing of UPVC compounds gives the best properties, but the processing of
dry blends can offer cost advantages.
PVC homopolymer is an amorphous thermoplastic material with a syndiotac-
tic structure, that is, the chlorine atoms alternate on either side of the main
polymer chain. Because of the strong inter-chain attractions which these chlo-
rine atoms generate, the material is harder and stiffer than polyethylene (PE),
although it is not significantly crystalline. Because of weak bonds along the
chain, PVC will start to decompose or degrade at approximately 74C/165F.
This problem of poor heat stability is much worse for UPVC than for plasti-
cized PVC (see PPVC).
As the thermal stability of PVC is poor, it is required that the poly-
mer be protected against thermal degradation by using a heat stabilizer. Such
heat stabilizers are often based on metal compounds of lead, calcium/zinc 235
mixtures, or tin complexes. Epoxidized soy bean oil (ESBO or ESO), at low
concentrations, is used as a component of some stabilizer systems. It is

important to ensure that the compound contains sufficient stabilizer so that
reprocessing is practical. A heat stabilizer is an example of one of the many
additives that are essential in PVC technology. Without additives the plastic
cannot be successfully processed. Some additives enhance the properties of
the base PVC and permit its use in a very wide range of applications. Apart
from colorants, other examples of additives used include:
Plasticizers: Plasticizers are added to PVC compounds to confer flexibility and
softness. However, they are not used with UPVC as the addition of small
amounts of plasticizer can reduce the impact strength of the product and larg-
er amounts reduce its rigidity.
Lubricants: Both internal and external lubricants are used. Calcium stearate is
an example of an internal lubricant while synthetic waxes and fatty acid esters
are external lubricants. Lubricant packages are formulated specifically to suit a
particular application/machine combination. The level of use is often kept low
(<1 phr or one part per hundred of resin) in order to reduce plate out prob-
lems and a loss of impact strength.
Processing Aids: Also known as PA, they are used to reduce the gelation time,
the extruder power requirements, and to improve the surface finish of extru-
dates. Processing aids are often based on an acrylic polymer. Polyhydroxy-
butyrate (PHB) can be used as a PA for UPVC, because, at a 1% addition level,
it reduces the gelation time, power requirements, and improves the surface
finish of UPVC compounds.
Fillers: To extend the scope of PVC and/or to make it cheaper, particulate
fillers (such as china clay, calcium carbonate and whiting) are often used in
PVC compounds.
Anti-Static (AS) Agents: Sulfur-containing AS agent is used as an internal AS
agents for PVC as such a material does not interfere with heat stabilizers (e.g.,
use alkylpolyglycol ether sulphate). Some nitrogen-containing AS agents not
recommended for PVC are N,N-bis-(2-hydroxy-ethyl)-alkyl amine or N-(3-do-
decyl-2-hydroxy-propyl)-ethanolamine. Phosphoric acid derivatives are used
for all materials and especially for PVC as they can function as plasticizers.
N,N-bis-(2-hydroxy-ethyl)-N-(3'-dodecyloxy-2'-hydroxy-propyl)-methyl ammo-
nium sulphate is an external AS agent sometimes used with UPVC.
Impact Modifier: An impact modifier is an additive that improves the impact
strength, particularly at low temperatures. These include methacrylate-butadi-
ene-styrene polymer (MBS), acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene polymer (ABS),
elastomers, and rubbers. When correctly formulated, transparent products are
still possible. This means using appropriate stabilizers, and matching the
refractive index of the impact modifier and the PVC. Contamination must be
avoided during blending or mixing.
Frequently, the PVC resin and additives are blended in a high-speed
mixer before being melt compounded. The problems associated with additive
use (dispersion, contamination, toxicity, etc.), are difficult in some UPVC
applications, as the products are often used as containers for food or drinks
(UPVC has good vapor barrier properties).
To obtain the best properties with this material, it is necessary to
put in sufficient work and heat to fully gel, or fuse, the blend, but not so much
that it is degraded during melt processing. This means that it is important to
process the material at the correct melt temperature, avoid excessive shear,
and minimize the residence time in the barrel. One or all of these will cause
resin decomposition or degradation, signaled by a change in color. Once
decomposition starts, it can spread very rapidly, as one of the products of
236 decomposition, hydrochloric acid (HCl), catalyzes further degradation. This
acid readily attacks metals (such as steel), causing pitting and corrosion, pro-
motes rust as it strips protective layers away from mild steel and also attacks
human tissue.
Despite these problems, UPVC is widely used, as it is a relatively
cheap, stiff material. It has good chemical resistance (oil, acid & alkali resis-
tance), reasonable UV resistance, is flame retardant (oxygen index of 45), and
is stiff and strong. PVC compounds exhibit low shrinkage (0.2% to 0.6%) and
have a low coefficient of thermal expansion.
PVC is now being blended, or alloyed, with other plastics or rub-
bers to develop new materials with different properties at comparatively low
cost. One such blend is of PVC and ABS, which gives a flame retardant, ABS-
type material. When PVC is blended with an appropriate grade of nitrile rubber
(NBR), it is possible to produce a type of thermoplastic elastomer (TPE). Ionic
crosslinking of TPE materials is also possible. Polymeric additives are avail-
able that will improve the heat distortion temperature (HDT) of UPVC. HDT
may be improved by 30C, by a 20% addition level of one additive. In this
way, this relatively inexpensive material can compete with the more expensive
engineering thermoplastics. Because of the improvements that blending
brings, it is probable that PVC alloys/blends will increase in importance in the
plastics industry.
7. Flow Properties
UPVC is a relatively stiff flow material with a limited temperature processing
range. The ease of flow depends on the molecular weight, which is character-
ized for PVC by the K value. The higher the K number, the greater is the
molecular weight and the more difficult the flow. For a particular K value,
the ease of flow may be dramatically altered by the use of additives such as
lubricants. In general, relatively low K value resins are used for injection
molding as lower molecular weight materials can be processed much more
easily. Slightly higher values are used for extrusion. A DIN K value of 55 to 62
corresponds to ISO viscosity numbers of approximately 74 and 95. The inher-
ent viscosity (ASTM) is approximately 1/100 of the viscosity number. When
the K value is 50 to 60, then the number average molecular weight is approxi-
mately 36,000 to 55,000.
Typical K values for pipe and profile extrusion, are between 66 and
68 (viscosity numbers 110 to 116 according to ISO - R174). For clear sheet
and profiles, a less viscous grade, with a K number of around 62 is used.
The table below shows how the viscosity of a UPVC resin varies
with temperature and shear rate.
Viscosities of a UPVC Compound (Solvay UPVC PIR945)
(177C/350F) (190C/375F) (204C/400F)
20 12800 9800 7360
40 7600 5830 4390
100 3830 2940 2210
200 2280 1750 1320
400 1360 1040 780
Because of its high melt viscosity and elasticity, UPVC has a ten-
dency to generate a lot of shear heat during extrusion. In single screw extru-
sion, this has traditionally meant extrusion at low speed to prevent overheat-
ing of this thermally sensitive material. Low speed extrusion is still used for
some profile production where the stability of the low temperature melt is
beneficial. Changes in screw design and operating conditions, however, have
lead to high speed extrusion of UPVC, even on single screws. In this opera-
tion, although the melt temperature is higher, the residence time in the extrud- 237
er and die is less. The reduced residence time, to some extent, counteracts the
adverse effect (on degradation) of the higher temperatures. The material is,

nevertheless, softer and more prone to deformation when leaving the die than
in low speed extrusion. Because of its difficult flow properties and because of
the use of powder feeds, most UPVC extrusion now is done using twin screw
extruders, as such machines can have high outputs without excessive shear
heating.
8. Resistant to:
UPVC is resistant to water, salt solutions, oxidizing agents (for
example, hydrogen peroxide), reducing agents, hypochlorite solutions, aliphat-
ic hydrocarbons, detergents, fatty acids (at room temperatures), non-oxidizing
acids and concentrated alkalis. It also resists most oils (animal, vegetable and
mineral), fats, alcohols and petrol. The plastic is not attacked by strong acids
(e.g., any concentration of hydrochloric acid at temperatures up to 60C/140F,
up to 90%, sulfuric acid at temperatures up to 60C/140F, and cold, 50%
nitric acid). Chemical and weathering resistance is good to excellent, but is
generally made worse by the addition of impact modifiers. Homo-polymers of
PVC are more resistant to chemical attack than copolymers. Although the
chemical resistance is good, it is possible to join UPVC by solvent welding.
UPVC compounds are not generally recommended for continuous
use above 60C/140F. However, some modifiers can now raise the heat distor-
tion temperature (HDT) by approximately 30C, so that some compounds have
a quoted value of 90C/194F.
9. Not Resistant To:
UPVC is not resistant to hot, concentrated, oxidizing acids (sulfuric, nitric and
chromic acids) that cause decomposition. The rate of decomposition may be
accelerated in the presence of metals such as zinc and iron. Long exposure to
hot, fatty acids can cause softening. Bromine and fluorine attack it even at
room temperature. It is unsuitable for use in contact with organic acids (such
as acetic acid and formic acid at elevated temperatures), glacial acetic acid,
aromatic hydrocarbons, chlorinated hydrocarbons, ketones, nitro-compounds,
esters and cyclic ethers which can penetrate the PVC and cause marked
swelling. Methylene chloride can be used to detect an under-gelled compound.
The material may be subject to environmental stress cracking (ESC) if a com-
ponent is subject to stress when in contact with acids, alkalis and aliphatic
alcohols. Common examples of ESC agents include 2-propanol and sodium
hydroxide.
UPVC may have high impact strength, but can be very notch sensi-
tive. UPVC is sensitive to comparatively small changes in temperature. It can
become brittle at approximately 5C/40F, unless it is impact modified and has
a low continuous use temperature (~50C/120F). Although pure PVC does not
absorb light at wavelengths above ~220 nm, commercial materials contain
impurity groups or structural features which contribute to degradation by
light. Heat stabilizers (for instance phosphites) do help with light stabilization,
but for the best results, use a UV absorber (a simple, low molecular weight
HALS stabilizer may have little or no effect on light stability). When PVC is
degraded by light, a chalk-like dust may be produced, which may be harmful if
ingested. This is particularly true if the PVC contains a heavy metal stabilizer
such as one based on lead.
Where transparency and low toxicity is required organo-tin stabiliz-
ers, that are salts of alkyl tin oxides and carboxylic acids called organo-tin car-
boxylates (e.g., dioctyl tin dilaurate) are used. Organo-tin compounds that
have at least one sulfur-to-tin chemical bond are also called organo-tin mer-
captides (e.g., dioctyl tin octylthioglycolate). Such organo-tin mercaptides are
238 very efficient heat stabilizers for polyvinyl chloride (PVC) which can yield bril-
liantly clear compounds
PVC is an amorphous thermoplastic material, which is produced in the form
of fine powder. It does not exhibit a sharp melting point, but a glass transition
(Tg) at about 82C and degrades easily when heated. It does not soften below
its Tg. With a density of approximately 1.4 g/cm3, the material (solid, non-
filled material) will sink in both water and in a saturated solution of magne-
sium chloride. The density of commercial compounds may range from 1.34 to
1.45 g/cm3, as the compounded material may contain up to 5% additives. If
filled, then this level will be exceeded. The natural color of the material is clear
when it is unfilled and stabilized with appropriate stabilizers (e.g., a tin stabi-
lizer). If the material is stabilized with lead stabilizers and /or filled the natural
color is usually off-white. In either case this means that a wide color range is
possible. UPVC is a hard stiff material. Many compounds have a hardness, on
the Shore D scale, of about 80 and a Vicat softening point (50 N load) of 65C
to 90C/149F to 194F.
When this material is heated in a flame, it softens slightly and
chars. It is self-extinguishing, but if heated strongly, a dirty yellow flame, with
green tinged edges, is seen accompanied by heavy smoke and an acrid smell.
When heated in the absence of a flame, this material will first release HCl and
then various hydrocarbons. If a piece of this material is heated on a copper
wire, the flame will be colored green. It can be cut easily with a knife and can
be scratched relatively easily with a knife, but is harder than PPVC. UPVC has
a low softening point (82C), well below that of boiling water.
UPVC material will dissolve in solvents such as tetrahydrofuran
(THF), cyclohexanone, methyl ethyl ketone (MEK) and dimethylformamide.
Solvent mixtures based on acetone or benzene also dissolve it. UPVC will not
dissolve in aliphatic hydrocarbons, but will swell in solvents such as aromatic
and chlorinated hydrocarbons, nitro compounds, acetic anhydride, aniline,
and acetone.
11. Coloring
As the natural color of the material can be clear, a wide color range is possi-
ble. This includes both transparent and opaque colors. UPVC is sold in both
compounded colors and as natural material for coloring on the machine, by
techniques such as dry coloring, masterbatching and liquid coloring. When
coloring UPVC, both dyestuffs and pigments can be used. However, certain
types of pigments can catalyze decomposition. Metal powders or oxides fall
into this category. The color matching of opaque UPVC compounds can
sometimes be difficult, due to color variation in the base material, which may
occur as a result of changes in the additives used. Depending upon the form
of the UPVC compound (granular or powder form), a binder may be required
to make the colorant adhere to the polymer during the mixing stage. A typical
binder would be DOP (dioctyl phthalate), which is added to the mix at a con-
centration level of 0.1%. Typical dry colorant loadings of 0.05% to 2.5% are
used. The actual percentage is dependent upon whether a transparent or
opaque color is required.
The most commonly used type of masterbatch is PVC based. Only
a few universal master batches are suitable and, therefore, advice should be
sought from the manufacturers before use. Masterbatch additions of 2% to
4% are used for typical pigment loadings of 1% to 2% in the final product,
depending upon the denseness of color required. Liquid colors can also be
used, however, the addition level must be controlled so as not to create
changes in the properties of the product compound as a result of the addition
of liquid carrier.
12. Materials Handling 239
UPVC is used in the form of granules or as a dry blend. Granules (pellets) pre-
sent no special handling problems. To produce a UPVC dry blend, the PVC

polymer is added together with other ingredients into a high-speed mixer. This
mixture is blended at high speed until a temperature of between 110C to
125C is reached, when the lubricant and/or impact modifier is added. The
resultant mix is dumped into a cooler/blender that is used to cool the mix, to
improve the batch-to-batch consistency of the blends, and to reduce the elec-
trostatic charges on the dry blend. The dry blend may then be used directly or
pelletized by an extruder. Pelletizing improves dispersion, but adds to the cost
and reduces the thermal stability of the material.
Many users prepare their own dry blends as this reduces cost and
the compound design can be kept in house. For large tonnage producers, the
weighing and mixing is done under automatic control. Sometimes the main
mixing is done as described above and mixing of dry color additives is done in
ribbon blenders as a separate operation. To improve the batch-to-batch con-
sistency of a dry blend, the additives used, (stabilizers, lubricants, processing
aids, impact modifiers and fillers) can be incorporated in pre-weighed sachets
(one shot or one pack sachets). This eliminates the hazards associated with
the handling and weighing out of the individual ingredients such as heavy
metal stabilizers.
Because of the dust problem associated with UPVC dry blends,
additives are now being supplied in a granular, flake or spaghetti form.
Although the dispersion characteristics of these forms are not as good as
when the additive is a powder form, they are preferred by processors because
of safety considerations. PVC powders are prone to dispersal in the atmos-
phere, so they should be kept in closed containers at all times. They are best
transported about the factory using automated material transfer systems. It is
recommended that the level of exposure not exceed 10 mg/m3 for total PVC
dust in air and 5 mg/m3 for respirable PVC dust in air. When using powder
feed, there is a tendency to blocking in the hopper that will cause a feed fail-
ure. This can be overcome by using a forced feed screw in the hopper or by
vibrating the hopper to prevent the formation of rat holes.
If extrusion is performed at low speed, moisture and volatiles will
out-gas backwards during extrusion, so there is usually no need to pre-dry the
material (UPVC absorbs less than 0.02% water in 24 hrs at room tempera-
tures). However, at the high extrusion rates used commercially, it is recom-
mended that the material be dried in a hot air oven at a temperature of
105C/220F for 1.5 hrs or at 65C/150F for 3 hrs (application of a vacuum
during drying will help). If using a desiccant dryer, then the material should be
dried at 80C/176F for 1 to 1.5 hrs. Alternatively, use a vented extruder.
The largest tonnage of UPVC is extruded on counter-rotating twin screw
extruders, although co-rotating designs are also used. Both cylindrical and
conical twin screws have been used successfully. The advantage of twin screw
extrusion is the ability to get high outputs without excessive shear in the melt
and thus lower melt temperatures than are possible with high speed single
screw extrusion. Details of the twin screw design is outside the scope of this
handbook.
The tables below show typical screw designs used for single screw
extrusion, at low speeds and low melt temperatures and at higher speeds and
temperatures. The high-speed screws are designed as two stage screws. The
first stage compresses and melts the compound, which is then decompressed
before the second stage. A vent may be positioned at the decompressed stage
to remove volatiles. Care must be taken with the two stage designs, not to
240 allow material to fill the decompression section (as the result of too great a
die resistance). The figures in brackets indicate the length of each zone.
Low Speed Extrusion - Single Screw
Diameter 2.5"/63.5 mm 3.5"/88.9 mm 4.5"/114.3 mm
Feed Zone Depth (4 D) 0.43"/10.9 mm 0.65"/16.5 mm 0.68"/17.3 mm
Compression Zone (16 D) (16 D) (16 D)
Metering Zone (4 D) 0.009"/0.23 mm 0.27"/6.85 mm 0.28"/7.11 mm
High Speed Extrusion - Single Screw
Diameter 2.5"/63.5 mm 3.5"/88.9 mm
1st Feed Zone Depth (3 D) 0.38"/9.6 mm 0.53"/13.5 mm
Compression Zone (7 D) (6 D)
1st Metering Zone Depth (4 D) 0.13"/3.3 mm 0.17"/4.3 mm
Decompression (2 D) to Depth of 0.39"/9.9 mm 0.68"/17.3 mm
Compression 2nd Stage (5 D) (4 D)
Final Metering Section (3 D) 0.185"/4.7 mm 0.31"/7.9 mm
Single stage screws are also used for UPVC at high speeds. They
should have a compression ratio of about 2.5:1 and are often fitted with 2 - 4
sets of pin mixing studs, which are a ring of studs that stand up from the
screw root to a height of about half the channel depth. The screw flight can be
broken to accommodate the ring of pins. Barrier screws have been used suc-
cessfully for UPVC compounds. Other designs include screws incorporating
an additional flight inside the normal channel. Such designs may put the extra
flight in the first stage for powder feeds, but in the second stage for pellet
feed.
All high-speed screws should be temperature controlled by having
a hollow section through which a fluid can be circulated. Heated oil, at a tem-
perature at 90C to 160C/190F to 320F, is the best cooling medium, but
water or air-cooling is possible.
The table below shows a typical temperature profile for the extrusion of UPVC,
in degrees Fahrenheit. Figures in brackets are the centigrade equivalents.
Screw Type Low Speed Single High Speed Single Twin
Temperatures (Vented)
[F(C)]
Zone 1 300 (150) 350 (180) 330 (165)
Zone 2 320 (160) 350 (180) 340 (170)
Zone 3 340 (170) 370 (190) 350 (177)
Zone 4 370 (190) 363 (184)
Zone 5 350 (180) 360 (182)
Adapter 365 (185) 390 (200) 375 (190)
Die 365 (185) 390 (200) 380 (193)
Melt 355 to 370F 380 to 400F 383 (195)
(180 to 190C) (190 to 205C)
The correct melt temperature of UPVC can be readily identified by
the appearance of barrel purgings. If the purgings have an lumpy appearance,
the material is non-homogeneous (not sufficiently plasticized), indicating that
the set temperatures are too low. If the purgings have a frothy appearance
and give off an excess amount of smoke, then the material is too hot.
Typically, at a temperature of 200C/392F, the maximum residence time in the
barrel should not exceed 5 minutes. When the temperature is 210C/419F,
then the maximum residence time in the barrel should not exceed 3 minutes.
When designing dies for UPVC compounds, the high viscosity of the melt and
the poor thermal stability of PVC must always be considered. In some ways,
these two issues lead to opposite solutions. The high viscosity means that 241
flow channels should be generous in size to prevent high pressures. To avoid
degradation, caused by long residence times, the die volume should be small.

If the flow channels are made too small, then the large amount of pressure
generated is transferred into heat. This heat will appear as a local temperature
rise in the regions where the material is being sheared the most. These local
temperature increases can be very high and may lead to severe material
degradation. One must ensure that there is a continuous flow of material at all
points in the flow path, with no stagnation at sharp corners or at chips and
scratches in any metal surface. Regions of compression and decompression
should be avoided and the flow path kept very streamlined. UPVC dies are
usually chrome plated.
In sheet dies, a choker bar is not used, as this provides a space
where material can hold up and degrade.
In pipe dies, there has to be compression after the spider to
encourage the melt to weld together. Typically, the torpedo diameter ratio at
the spider, compared to the land, is about 2:1. The overall volume compres-
sion ratio is in the range 7:1 to 10:1, so the channel height also decreases.
The length of the die land must be about 20 times the die exit gap width. For
thin walled pipes, the ratio can be somewhat less, but should be more for
thick walled pipes. UPVC pipe dies come with a range of interchangeable rings
and pins. This means that one die body can produce a range of pipes, though
not as wide a range as with a die for polyolefins. The table below shows a typ-
ical range of UPVC pipe dies.
Die Pipe Diameter Wall Thickness Maximum Output Rate
(in) (in) (lb/hr)
A 0.2 - 0.6 0.04 - 0.07 100
B 0.5 - 2.0 0.04 - 0.15 200
C 1.3 - 3.0 0.07 - 0.28 500
D 2.0 - 6.0 0.07 - 0.40 900
E 3.0 - 9.0 0.07 - 0.55 1300
F 4.5 - 15.0 0.08 - 0.90 1700
G 6.5 - 18.0 0.10 - 1.1 2200
H 15.0 - 27.0 0.15 - 1.2 2200
Profile dies are designed to achieve streamlined flow. In designing
components for manufacture, if possible, wall thickness should all be about
the same and sharp internal or external corners avoided. Hollow cored sec-
tions with internal struts replace large section, if they are necessary. Designs
where a strut meets a flat surface can cause problems. Dies are made from
hardened chrome nickel steels and need to be highly polished.
When a melt temperature of 200C is used, and the output must be cooled to
20C, the specific heat over this temperature range is approximately 1820
J/kgK. This means that the maximum amount of heat that needs to be
removed for each gram of output is 328 Joules (J).
Calibration (sizing) dies are needed to ensure satisfactory dimen-
sional tolerances. Vacuum calibration is essential when producing window
frame profile. To illustrate, with a production rate of 200 lb/hr (91 kg/h) and a
line speed of 6 ft/minute (1.8 m/min), a set of four vacuum sizing units is
used, each unit being about 2 ft (0.6 m) long. At double the production rate,
extra sizing and cooling units must be added (for example, another 5 ft or 6 ft
(1.5 m to 1.8 m) of unit length).
In both profile and pipe lines, lengths are sawn or cut automatically
using computer controlled saws. The saw blades are tungsten carbide tipped
242 and the tooth form is specially designed for PVC. The shaft speed is such as
to give the saw blade a cutting speed of about 160 ft/s (48.6 m/s).
Automatic monitoring of pipe thickness is becoming more com-
mon. VDU displays are linked to the monitoring equipment and display
machine settings, operating temperatures, pressures, and pipe thickness pro-
file. The measurements can also be used for automatic line and die adjust-
ment.
The figures below refer to typical maximum extruder output when using high
viscosity UPVC resins.
Extruder Size Low Speed Screw High Screw Speed
(in) (mm) (Ib/hr) (kg/hr) (rpm) (lb/hr) (kg/hr) (rpm)
2.5 64 70-90 30-40 15-25 250-350 110-160 40-70
3.5 90 80-150 40-70 10-20 420-550 190-250 40-60
4.5 115 120-180 50-80 5-15 600-750 270-340 20-30
Output from twin screw extruders is shown in the next table (Note:
The extruder output figures refer to pipe production).
Diameter of Screws Maximum Output Pipe Diameter
(in) (mm) (lb/hr) (kg/hr) (in) (mm)
2.9 73 400 180 0.63-6.3 16-160
3.6 91 880 400 1.25-10.0 32-254
4.9 125 1540 700 4.30-25.0 109-635
5.2 132 2200 1000 4.30-25.0 109-635
18. Starting Up
Before starting up, one should ensure that the extruder is not contaminated
with acetal (POM) or a plastic material which contains a halogen flame retar-
dant. If there is any doubt, purge the extruder. When changing to a food
grade, purge the extruder thoroughly of any non-food grade material.
19. Shutting Down
Since the thermal stability of UPVC is poor, the extruder shut down procedure
is very important. One must ensure that all traces of the UPVC have been
removed from the barrel, by purging thoroughly with another thermoplastic
material that is more thermally stable and does not react with UPVC. Reduce
the temperature of the extruder, and then purge the barrel clean with a com-
patible material such as PMMA or ABS. If these are not available, use PP or
HDPE. After completing a production run, the metal surfaces of the die should
be washed scrupulously with a mild alkaline solution such as sodium nitrate.
After drying, the metal surfaces should be sprayed with oil or silicone based
spray.
Never mix polyacetal (POM) and UPVC together in the same bar-
rel, as the resultant vigorous chemical reaction can either cause considerable
damage to the machine or serious injury to personnel. If UPVC is to follow
POM (or visa versa), thoroughly purge the barrel clean with one of the materi-
als stated above first.
When PVC components are produced, it is probable that they will
be covered with a thin (invisible) film of lubricant. This lubricant film will
probably contain relatively high levels of stabilizer. If the stabilizer used is
heavy metal based, like lead, then care should be taken when the product is
handled. Take care when handling PVC product and always wear gloves, to
avoid transferring the heavy metal onto your skin or into your mouth.
20. Reprocessing
material. The end use of the molded component dictates the level of regrind
that can be used. What must be borne in mind is that each time UPVC is
reprocessed its resistance to thermal degradation is considerably reduced. 243
Instances have occurred where components fail in service due to the abuse of
regrind. Problems such as these occur, not only because of the percentage of

regrind being incorporated, but also as a result of using regrind which has
been degraded as a consequence of being reprocessed too many times.
21. Finishing
UPVC can be machined without difficulty, but the surfaces being cut should be
kept well cooled. When drilling or sawing UPVC, lubricants should not be
used. It may be welded by various methods such as ultrasonic, heated tool,
hot gas, friction, and solvent techniques. UPVC can be decorated using vari-
ous methods such as painting, hot foiling, vacuum metallizing, EMI shielding,
and silk screening. Because PVC is a polar material, it can be printed or deco-
rated without the need for flaming or corona discharge. Inks are available for
printing onto PVC, which, because of its polar nature, readily accepts the ink.
Hot plate welding is widely used in the window frame industry.
Surfaces to be joined are brought into contact with a PTFE fabric-covered hot
plate at a temperature of 210C to 230C/410F to 450F. The surfaces are held
against the hot plate for 30 - 35 seconds, after which they are pulled away
from the plate (which is removed) and immediately pushed together. After
being held together, for up to a minute while the weld cools, the welded com-
ponent is trimmed to remove weld flash. About 0.1 in (0.004 mm) is lost off
the extrudate during hot plate welding. Solvent welding is another widely used
method. The initial set up is quick, but joints need 24 hrs to develop their full
strength. Joints require finishing after welding to give a polished surface. The
process of grinding and polishing can be very time consuming.
22. Other Comments
Vinyl chloride (VC) polymers may be made by emulsion (giving PVC-E), sus-
pension (PVC-S) and bulk, also known as mass, polymerization (PVC-M).
UPVC is usually based on PVC-S or, PVC-M. As VC is toxic, the level of
monomer remaining in the plastic must be kept very low (< 1 part per million
(1 ppm)).
Post-chlorinated PVC (PVC-C or CPVC) is more difficult to process
than UPVC, but is more chemical and temperature resistant. It may be referred
to as PVCHT, because of its high temperature resistance (~100C/ 212F). It is
used for hot water piping and for chemical equipment.
One should remember that to get consistent results from the UPVC extru-
sions, of the products mentioned below, it is essential to accurately control the
heat/shear history of this material during processing.
The major application is in pipes for waste for drainage, etc. Usage
of UPVC profiles for window frames, has increased considerably because of
the materials good weatherability, good color range, stiffness, toughness, and
relatively low cost. Other profile shapes include runners, venetian (and other)
blinds, cladding, framing, fencing, room partitioning and electrical conduit. It
is widely used in chemical plants because of its good chemical resistance,
rigidity, and non-flammability.
As it is an amorphous material, it will soften at comparatively low
temperatures (Do not use above 60C/140F). The temperature resistance may
be raised by the use of additives. Some of these modified materials are
claimed to be able to rival ABS for particular applications.
Rainwater down pipes and guttering are also extruded from UPVC
and CPVC compounds because of their rigidity, UV resistance, and excellent
chemical resistance.
In film and foil, UPVC is used in the thickness range from 80 to
160 gauge as a twist wrapping film, while thicker gauges are produced as
244 materials to be thermoformed into packaging for cookies, cakes, etc. Such
products, like many other items of packaging, are sometimes disposed of by
burning in incinerators. PVC incineration has been under suspicion as being
potentially harmful to health and the environment in the formation of dioxins
and furans. Incineration studies do not support this view (see PPVC). UPVC is
also under pressure because of concerns about by-products when the materi-
al burns. However, UPVC resists ignition, needs a long exposure to an ignition
source to cause ignition, has a low rate of heat release, and produces less
smoke than many other thermoplastic materials when burned.
24. Yield
Sheet of 2 mm thickness has a surface area of 0.36 sq.m/kg weight
weight
Pipe of 4 in ID and 1/10 in wall thickness has a length of 1.13 ft/Ib weight
Pipe of 100 mm ID and 2 mm wall thickness has a length of 989 mm/kg
245
SECTION 9
section 9: useful information

USEFUL INFORMATION
SI UNITS ADVICE ON USE
UNIT CONVERSION
TEMPERATURE CONVERSION TABLE
THERMOCOUPLE SELECTION
APPLICATIONS OF RHEOLOGICAL DATA FOR
EXTRUSION
MATERIAL PROPERTY GUIDELINES
GLOSSARY OF EXTRUSION TERMS
BOOK LIST
SI UNITS ADVICE ON USE

Systme International d=Unit
SI is an abbreviation used for Systme International d=Unit. SI units were
derived from the MKS system and are sometimes known as MKSA metric. The
units issued by this organization are an international coherent system now
widely used for scientific and technical work. The seven basic units are the
meter (length), kilogram (mass), second (time), ampere (electric current),
Kelvin (temperature), mole (amount of substance) and the candela (luminous
intensity). There are supplementary units for plane angle (radian) and solid
angle (steradian) and some SI derived units that have special symbols. These
units include the Newton and the Pascal. Certain other non SI units are per-
mitted such as cm and C.
Suggestions
Singular and plural forms of SI unit abbreviations or symbols are the same.
That is, do not put the letter s after the unit abbreviation, or symbol, if specify-
ing more than one of a particular unit. SI symbols are always written in roman
type - not in italics.
A period (full stop) is not used with the unit abbreviations or sym-
bols, except at the end of the sentence.
A space is left between the number and the unit abbreviation or
symbol, except when the temperature is specified in degrees Celsius (centi-
grade).
When the temperature is specified in degrees Celsius (centigrade),
the word Celsius begins with a capital C (upper case). The unit abbreviation or
symbol is also written with a capital C prefixed with a small zero written level
with the top of the C. Unit abbreviations or symbols, are written in lower case
letters except when the unit abbreviation or symbol, is derived from a proper
name. The full name of the unit abbreviation, or symbol, is written in lower
case letters even when it is derived from a proper name. So, the units named
after Pascal would be written as Pascal and abbreviated to Pa. One Pascal
246 would be abbreviated to 1 Pa and 14 Pascals would be abbreviated to 14 Pa
and not to 14 Pas. Adding an s forms plurals of unit names: except for hen-
ries, hertz, lux and siemens.
Compound units formed by multiplication are written in a number
of ways. For example, Newton meters may be written as Nm or as, N.m or as,
N m.
Compound units formed by division are written in a number of
ways. For example, Newtons per square meter may be written as N/m2 or as,
Nm-2. The suggestion N/m2, is preferred.
Compound prefixes are not used. That is, one million meters
would be written as 1 Mm and not 1 kkm.
Common fractions are not used. That is, one half of a kilogram
would be written as 0.5 kg and not 1/2 kg.
Prefixes are not used in the denominator of a compound unit
except for kilograms - as the kilogram is the base unit of the SI system. That
is, one million Newtons per square meter would be written as 1 MN/m2 and
not as 1 N/mm2. (One Newton per square millimeter is the same as one mil-
lion Newtons per square meter.)
It is suggested for simplicity, when calculations are being per-
formed, that all prefixes be changed so that powers of ten (decimal multiples)
are used.
It is suggested, when decimal multiples are used, that the prefix
used should be 10 raised to a power that is a multiple of 3.
It is suggested for ease of understanding, when density is dis-
cussed, that the units are Mg/m3 rather than kg/m3. This gives values that
have the same numerical values as the well-established g/cm3 values or SG
values.
To avoid misunderstandings avoid the use of word billion as it can
have more than one meaning: use a prefix such as G for giga. Note the prefix-
es E,P,T,G and M are all capitalized.
To avoid misunderstandings avoid the use of a comma to separate
groups of digits as a comma may be used as a decimal marker in some coun-
tries.
UNIT CONVERSION
To make recognition easier, the figures have been divided by spaces where
appropriate. For example, spaces have been used as a thousand marker to the
left of the decimal point. To the right of the decimal point, a space divides the
digits into groups of three. In some cases a back slash, or /, has been used in
place of the word per. The use of an asterisk * indicates an exact number.
Knowing Multiply by To Get
(Atmospheres - means standard atmospheres unless otherwise stated.)
Atmospheres 1.013 250 bars
Atmospheres 75.999 989 centimeters of mercury
Atmospheres 29.921 256 Inches of mercury (at 0C)
Atmospheres 1.033 228 kilograms square centimeters
Atmospheres 101.325 0 kilonewtons/sq meter
Atmospheres 101 325.0 pascals
Atmospheres 14.695 949 pounds per square inch
Avdp = avoirdupois.
Bar 0.986 923 atmospheres
Bar 100 000.0 * newtons per square meter
Knowing Multiply by To Get 247
Bar 1 000 000.0 dynes per square centimeter
Bar 750.061 576 millimeters of mercury

Bar 14.503 774 pounds per square inch
Btu = British thermal units.
Btu 251.995 764 calories (gram calories)
Btu 1 055.055 863 joules (Newton meters)
Btu 0.251 996 kilocalorie
Btu 0.000 293 kilowatt hours
Btu/hour 0.069 998 gram-calories/second
Btu/hour 0.293 071 watts
Calories - large 1 000.0 * calories
CaloriesIT 0.003 968 321 British thermal units
CaloriesIT 0.000 001 163 kilowatt-hours
CaloriesIT 4.186 80 joules (Newton meters)
Centimeters 0.1 * decimeters
Centimeters 0.032 808 feet
Centimeters 0.393 701 inches
Centimeters 0.010 * meters
Centimeters 10 000.0 microns
Centimeters 10.0 millimeters
Centimeters/second 1.968 504 feet/minute
Centimeters squared - see square centimeters.
Centipoises 1.0 * dyne second/sq centimeter
Centipoises 0.010 * grams/centimeter second
Centipoises 0.010 poises
Centipoises 1.0 * meganewtons second/sq meter
Centipoises 0.001 0 pascal-seconds
Cubic centimeters 0.000 035 315 cubic feet
Cubic centimeters 0.061 023 744 cubic inches
Cubic centimeters 0.000 001 cubic meter
Cubic decimeters 1.0 liters
Cubic feet 28316.84659 cubic centimeters
Cubic feet 1728.0 cubic inches
Cubic feet 0.028 316 847 cubic meters
Cubic feet/minute 1.0 cumins
Cubic feet/minute 0.471 947 liters/second
Cubic feet/second 1.0 cusecs
Cubic inches 16.387 064 cubic centimeters
Cubic inches 0.000 578 704 cubic feet
Cubic inches 0.000 016 387 cubic meters
Cubic inches 16 387.064 00 cubic millimeters
Cubic meters 1 000 000.0 cubic centimeters
Cubic meters 61 023.744 09 cubic inches
Cubic meters 35.314 666 cubic feet
Cubic meters 10.0 hectoliters
Cubic meters 1000.0 * liters
Cubic yards 0.764 555 cubic meters
Cumins 1.0 cubic feet/minute
Cusecs 1.0 cubic feet/second
Cycles per second 1 hertz
Deciliters 0.000 1 cubic meters
Deciliters 0.1 liters
Decimeters 10 centimeters
Decimeters 3.937 008 inches
248 Knowing Multiply by To Get
Decimeters 0.1 meters
Dekaliters 10.0 * liters
Dekameters 10.0 * meters
Denier (international) 1.111 x 10-7 kilograms per meter
Dynes 0.000 000 1 joules/centimeter
Dynes 0.000 001 02 kilograms-force
Dynes 0.000 01 * Newtons (joules/meter)
Ergs 0.000 000 1 * joules (Newton meters)
Feet 12.0 * inches
Feet 0.304 80 * meters
Feet per minute 0.508 0 centimeters per second
Feet per minute 0.304 80 * meters per minute
Feet per second 30.480 centimeters per second
Foot pounds 12.00 * inch pounds
Foot pounds 0.138255 kilogram (force) meters
Foot pounds 1.355 818 Newton meters (joules)
Gauge 0.254 microns
Grams 0.001 0 kilograms
Grams 0.035 274 ounces (avdp)
Grams 0.002 205 pounds (avdp)
Hectoliters 0.10 cubic meters
Hectoliters 1 000.0 deciliters
Hectometers 100.0 meters
Horsepower (550 ft lbf/s) 745.700 watts
Horsepower (electric) 746.0 * watts
Horsepower (metric) 75.0 * kilogram meters/second
Inch pounds 0.083 333 foot pounds
Inch pounds 0.112 985 Joules (Newton meters)
Inch pounds 0.011 521 kilogram (force) meters
Inches 0.025 40 * meters
Inches 25.40 millimeters
Inches 1 000.0 * mils
Inches per minute 0.423 333 millimeters per second
Joules (Newton meters) 0.00094781 Btu
Joules (Newton meters) 0.238 846 calories IT
Joules (Newton meters) 1.0 x 107 ergs
Joules (Newton meters) 0.737 562 foot pounds
Joules (Newton meters) 8.850 746 inch pounds
Joules (Newton meters) 10.197 162 kilogram (force) centimeters
Joules (Newton meters) 0.101 907 kilogram (force) meters
Joules (Newton meters) 1.0 * Newton meters
Joules (Newton meters) 1.0 watt-second
Kilobar 100.0 megapascals/meter squared
Kilocalories 1 000.0 calories (gram calories)
Kilocalories 4.186 80 kilojoules
Kilogram calorie = kilocalories
Kilogram (force) meters 7.233 014 foot pounds
Kilogram (force) meters 86.796 217 inch pounds
Kilogram (force) meters 9.806 650 joules (Newton meters)
Kilograms 1000.0 grams
Kilograms 2.204 62 pounds
Kilograms 0.001 0 tonnes (metric)
Kilograms 0.000 984 207 tons (long)
Kilograms/cubic meter 0.062 428 pounds per cubic foot
Knowing Multiply by To Get 249
Kilograms/liter 1.0 megagrams per cubic meter
Kilojoules 1 000.0 joules (Newton meters)

Kilometers 100 000.0 centimeters
Kilometers 3 280.839 895 feet
Kilometers 1 000.0 meters
Kilometers 0.621 371 miles
Kilometers per hour 0.911 344 feet per second
Kilometers per hour 0.621 371 miles per hour
Kiloponds (kp or kps) 1.0 kilograms (kgf)
Kilopounds (kips) 1 000.0 pounds
Kilowatt hours 3 412.141 600 British thermal units
Kilowatt hours 859 845.227 9 calories
Kilowatt hours 3 600 000.0 joules
Liters 1.0 cubic decimeters
Liters 61.022 744 cubic inches
Liters 0.035 315 cubic feet
Liters 2.113 376 pints (US liquid)
Megabars 100.0 giganewtons/square meter
Megapascals (MPa) 10.0 x 106 bar
Megapascals 1.0
meganewtons/square meter
Megapascals 145.038 736 pounds per square inch
Meters 100.0 centimeters
Meters 10.0 decimeters
Meters 3.280 840 feet
Meters 0.001 kilometers
Meters 1 000.0 millimeters
Meters per second 196.850 394 feet per minute
Meters per second 2.236 94 miles per hour
Meters per minute 3.280 840 feet per minute
Meters per minute 0.037 28 miles per hour
Metric tonnes 1 000.0 kilograms
Metric tonnes 2 204.622 60 pounds
Microinch 0.000 001 inches
Microns 3.937 gauge
Microns 10 000.0 * Angstroms
Microns 1.0 x 106 meters
Miles 5 280.0 * feet
Miles 1.609 344 kilometers
Miles 1 760.0 * yards
Millibar 100.0 newtons per square meter
Millimeters 0.10 centimeters
Millimeters 0.003 281 feet
Millimeters 0.039 370 inches
Millimeters 1 000.0 microns
Millimeters 39.370 079 mils
Mils 0.002 54 centimeters
Mils 0.001 inches
Mils 0.025 4 millimeters
Newton centimeters 0.010 Newton meters
Newton meters - see Joules
Newtons/square meter 0.000 009 869 atmospheres
Newtons/square meter 1.0 * Pascals
250 Knowing Multiply by To Get
Newtons/square meter 10.0 * dynes/sq centimeter
Newtons/square meter 0.000 145 038 pounds per square inch
Ounces (avdp) 28.349 523 grams
Ounces (avdp) 0.028 350 kilograms
Ounces (avdp) 0.062 50 pounds (avdp)
Ounces per cubic inch 1.733 grams per cubic centimeter
Pascals 1.0 Newtons per square meter
Pascal-seconds 1.0 Newtons seconds/sq meter
Pascal-seconds 10.0 poise
Pints (UK) 0.568 261 liters
Pints (UK) 1.200 950 pints (US liquid)
Pints (US dry) 0.550 610 liters
Pints (US liquid) 0.473 2 liters
Poise 1.0 * dyne second/sq centimeter
Poise 1.0 * gram/centimeter second
Poise 0.10 pascal-seconds
Pounds (avdp) 453.592375 grams
Pounds (avdp) 0.453 592 375 kilograms
Pounds (avdp) 16.0 * ounces (avdp)
Pounds per cubic foot 0.016 019 gram per cubic centimeter
Pounds per square inch 0.068 046 atmospheres
Pounds per square inch 0.070 306 979 kilograms/sq centimeter
Pounds per square inch 0.006 894 76 megapascals
Pounds per square inch 6 894.757 361 newtons per square meter
Quarts (US dry) 1.101 122 liters
Quarts (US liquid) 946.352 946 cubic centimeters
Specific gravity 62.427 960 pounds per cubic foot
Specific gravity 0.578 038 ounces per cubic inch
Square centimeters 0.001 076 square feet
Square centimeters 0.155000 square inches
Square feet 929.030 400 square centimeters
Square feet 0.092 903 square meters
Square inches 6.451 60 square centimeters
Square meters 10 000.0 square centimeters
Square meters 100.0 square decimeters
Square meters 10.763 910 square feet
Square yards 0.836 127 square meters
Tons (long) 1.016 047 metric tonnes
Tons (long) 2 240.0 * pounds (avdp)
Tons (long) 1.120 tons (short)
Tons (US) 0.907 185 metric tonnes
Tons (US) 2 000.0 * pounds (avdp)
Tons (US) 0.892 857 tons (long)
Watt-hours 3.412 142 British thermal units
Watt-hours 859.845 gram-calories
Watts 3.412 142 British thermal units/hour
Watts 1.0 * joules per second
Yards 3.0 * feet
Yards 91.440 0 centimeters

251
TEMPERATURE CONVERSION TABLE
Starting Value is the temperature to be converted. Its value in degrees centi-

grade (C) is found to the left and in degrees Fahrenheit (F) to the right.
C Starting F C Starting F C Starting F
Value Value Value
-18 0 32 149 300 572 316 600 1112
-12 10 50 154 310 590 321 610 1130
-7 20 68 160 320 608 327 620 1148
-1 30 86 166 330 626 332 630 1168
4 40 104 171 340 644 338 640 1184
10 50 122 177 350 662 343 650 1202
16 60 140 182 360 680 349 660 1220
21 70 158 188 370 698 354 670 1238
27 80 176 193 380 716 360 680 1256
32 90 194 199 390 734 366 690 1274
38 100 212 204 400 752 371 700 1292
43 110 230 210 410 770 377 710 1310
49 120 248 216 420 788 382 720 1328
54 130 266 221 430 806 388 730 1346
60 140 284 227 440 824 393 740 1364
66 150 302 232 450 842 399 750 1382
71 160 320 238 460 860 404 760 1400
77 170 338 243 470 878 410 770 1418
82 180 356 249 480 896 416 780 1436
88 190 374 254 490 914 421 790 1454
93 200 392 260 500 932
99 210 410 266 510 950
104 220 428 271 520 968
110 230 446 277 530 986
116 240 464 282 540 1004
121 250 482 288 550 1022
127 260 500 293 560 1040
132 270 518 299 570 1058
138 280 536 304 580 1076
143 290 554 310 590 1094
THERMOCOUPLE SELECTION
Cold Junction Compensation
Thermocouples are the most widely used temperature sensors in plastics
extrusion. This is because of their reliability, small size, low cost, and ease of
interfacing with process monitoring and control instrumentation. A thermo-
couple consists of two dissimilar metal wires joined together to form a mea-
suring junction. As a result of the different thermo-electric properties of the
two metals, a small emf, which depends on temperature, is produced. The
magnitude of this emf can be used to measure temperature.
Various metals can be used, the choice of which will determine the
size of the emf and the temperature range over which the thermocouple can
be used. Standard types of thermocouples have been specified and identified
by a letter by organizations such as ANSI. An example is the the J type,
which is formed by iron and constantan (copper/nickel alloy) wires.
252
The thermocouple wires are connected to an instrument that mea-
sures the emf produced. This instrument measures the difference in the emf
produced by the measuring junction from that of a second junction kept at a
constant reference temperature. This reference, or cold junction compensa-
tion, was in the past set at 0C (32F) using an ice water bath. It is now simu-
lated electrically.
Extension/Compensating Cable
Thermocouple wires are generally kept small in order to obtain a rapid
response. This, together with their characteristically high resistivities, results
in high electrical resistance. That can be a problem when the measuring sys-
tem is located far from the sening thermocouple. To overcome this problem,
special cable is used to convey the signal from the the thermocouple to the
measuring device. The correct cable, for use with a specific thermocouple, is
identified by a color code on the wire insulation.
Types of Thermocouples and Color Codes of Their

Extension Wires
ANSI + wire - wire Temp. Extension Comments
Type Range Insulation
Color (ANSI)
E Nickel- Copper 32 to147F + Magenta High sensitivity

chromium -nickel
(Chromel) (Constantan) 0 to 80C - Orange High resistance
J Iron Copper 70 to130F + White Used in reducing

-nickel
(Constantan) 20 to 70C - Orange Atmospheres
K Nickel Nickel 32 to 200F + Yellow Wide range

-chromium -aluminum
(Chromel) (Alumel) 0 to 110C - Orange Widespread use
T Copper Copper- -300 to 57F + Blue Low temps.

nickel -185 to 30C - Orange Moist areas
Sl. Oxidizing/
Reducing areas
S Platinum- Platinum 32 to 290F + Black High temps.

10%
Rhodium 0 to 160C - Orange
EMF (millivolts) Values for a Limited Temperature

Range
Thermocouple Type
Temp. C E J K T S
100 6.317 5.268 4.095 4.277 0.645
120 7.683 6.359 4.919 5.227 0.795
140 9.078 7.457 5.733 6.204 0.950
160 10.501 8.560 6.539 7.207 1.109
180 11.949 9.667 7.338 8.235 1.273
Thermocouple Type 253
Temp. C E J K T S
200 13.419 10.777 8.137 9.286 1.440

220 14.909 11.887 8.938 10.360 1.611
240 16.417 12.998 9.745 11.456 1.785
260 17.942 14.108 10.560 12.572 1.962
280 19.418 15.217 11.381 13.707 2.141
300 21.033 16.325 12.207 14.860 2.323
Insulation Materials for Thermocouples

Insulation Temperature Comments
Material Range
PVC -15 to 220F General purpose, for non-aggressive
-10 to 105C environments. Waterproof.
Very flexible.
PTFE -105 to 525F Mechanically strong and flexible.
-75 to 275C Good chemical resistance (oils,
acids, etc.)
Glass fiber -75 to 710F Allows ingress of fluids. Reasonably
(varnished) -60 to 375C flexible, but not mechanically strong.
Good temperature range.
High temp. -75 to 1300F Allows ingress of fluids.
glass fiber -60 to 700C Only moderately flexible and rather
weak.
Ceramic fiber 30 to 1800F Resists high temperatures, but will
0 to 1000C not protect against fluids or mechan-
ical disturbance.
Glass fiber -75 to 710F Allows ingress of fluids. Mechani-
(varnished) cally strong.
Stainless steel -60 to 375C
over-braid
Mineral insulated -100 to 2000C Water, oil, and gas tight. Moderately
Metal sheathed -70 to 1100C flexible. Strong. Resists oxidizing
atmospheres. Metal sheath is stain
less steel. Insulation is magnesium
oxide.
Conductor Size Equivalents for American Wire Gauge

(Brown and Sharpe)
Gauge In MM Gauge In MM
0 0.3449 8.25 13 0.0720 1.83
1 0.2893 7.35 14 0.0641 1.63
2 0.2576 6.54 15 0.0571 1.45
3 0.2294 5.83 16 0.0508 1.29
4 0.2043 5.19 17 0.0453 1.15
5 0.1819 4.62 18 0.0403 1.02
6 0.1620 4.11 19 0.0359 0.912
7 0.1443 3.67 20 0.0320 0.813
8 0.1285 3.26 21 0.02485 0.724
9 0.1144 2.91 22 0.0253 0.643
10 0.1019 2.59 23 0.0226 0.574
11 0.0907 2.30 24 0.0201 0.511
12 0.0808 2.05 25 0.0179 0.455
254 Gauge In MM Gauge In MM
26 0.0159 0.404 39 0.0035 0.089
27 0.0142 0.361 40 0.0031 0.079
28 0.0126 0.230 41 0.0028 0.071
29 0.0113 0.287 42 0.0025 0.064
30 0.0100 0.254 43 0.0022 0.056
31 0.0089 0.226 44 0.0020 0.051
32 0.0080 0.203 45 0.00176 0.046
33 0.0071 0.180 46 0.00157 0.040
34 0.0063 0.160 47 0.00140 0.036
35 0.0056 0.142 48 0.00124 0.031
36 0.0050 0.127
37 0.0045 0.114
38 0.0040 0.102
APPLICATIONS OF RHEOLOGICAL DATA FOR

EXTRUSION
Pressure Drop in a Die
In order to force a polymer melt through an extrusion die, pressure must be
applied. In extrusion dies this pressure is usually applied by a screw extruder
that pumps material to the die. Pressure is built up by the restricting effect of
the die.
Simple Die Characteristics

In the case of a simple die where the cross-section of the channel, whatever
its shape, is constant from its inlet to exit, it is found that:
1.The pressure is greatest at the die entry.
2.The pressure is virtually zero at the die exit (and for most purposes may be
equated with zero).
3.The pressure drops linearly from the inlet to the exit.
4.If the inlet pressure is denoted by P and the length of the die is L, then
P/L is constant along the whole length of the tube.
Calculation of Pressure Drop in a Capillary Die
The pressure drop in a die (for which the die cross-section is constant and
which is fed from a reservoir of material at the die head) is related to the out-
put rate, the die dimensions, and the melt viscosity. For a simple rod die, the
pressure drop is calculated by the following procedure:
1.Determine the apparent wall shear rate from the formula w,a = 4Q/R3.
2.Read off the wall shear stress (w) corresponding to this shear rate value
from a polymer flow curve appropriate to the extrusion conditions.
(Figure 35.)
3.Calculate the pressure drop (i.e., the pressure developed at the back of the
die parallel) from the shear stress by the formula P = 2Lw/R where L is the
length and R the radius of the die parallel portion of the die.
Calculation of Pressure Drop in a Slit
For a slit die the shear rate is given by w = 6Q/wH2 where w is the width of
the slit and H its thickness (or depth). The flow curve, even though it may
have been prepared from capillary data, may then be used to read off the cor-
responding shear stress. In turn the pressure drop is obtained from the
expression P = 2Lw/H.
LLDPE 255
106

105
Shear Stress (Pa)
104
103
100 101 102 103 104
Shear Rate (1/s)
Figure 35. Polymer Flow Curves Used for the Determination of w
Calculation of Pressure Drop in a Tapered Capillary Die

In the case of a tapered die, the radius at the inlet is called R1 and at the outlet
R2. As with the capillary die, the shear rate is first determined applying the
capillary formula using the inlet radius. The shear stress at that shear rate is
determined from the flow curve. The pressure drop is then given by:
P = [2 1/ 3tan] [R1/R2)3-1].
Sizing of Die Components

During rheology testing, die swell measurements can be made relatively easily.
A common use of such measurements is to size die components.
Need for Sizing
The cross-section of an extrudate will not always be the same as the outlet
cross-section of the die from which it has been extruded. There are three rea-
sons for this:
1. Shrinkage of the extrudate on cooling.
2. Extrudate or die swell.
3. Draw down (stretching of the extrudate on emergence from the die).
The magnitude of the shrinkage is usually quite small and since die swell
measurements are usually based on cold extrudates this factor is usually built
into any die swell assessment. Whereas die swell increases the cross section,
drawing down reduces it.
Correction Factors
The relationship between the cross-section dimension of an extrudate E and
the cross-sectional dimension of a die D, is E = sdD.
In this equation, s is the die swell ratio at the wall shear rate occurring
during extrusion. d is the draw down factor defined by (Ld - Lu ). Ld is the
length of material produced in a unit of time in the process in which draw
down has taken place. Lu is the length of material naturally extruded in unit
time without any drawing down having occurred. (The square root term arises
since it is the cross-sectional area rather than a single dimension e.g. diameter
that decreases inversely with the extent of draw-down.)
256 Sizing Pipes
A further complication arises in pipe manufacture, where it is common prac-
tice to inflate the tube to the inner diameter of a sizing die. In this case, if the
outer diameter of the extrusion die annulus is do and that of the inner diame-
ter of the sizing die annulus is ds, then the thickness of the pipe T will be
related to the annular gap of the die, A, by the relationship:
T = s(Ld /Lu) (ds/do)A.
Estimation of Pressure Drops in Extrusion Dies

The relationships between pressure drop (P), output rate (the flow rate Q),
and viscosity for various flow cross-sections may all be arranged to take the
form P= x R x Q. Where R is called the die resistance.
Die Resistance
Die resistance is a measure of the resistance of a flow channel to the passage
of the fluid. For regular channels of simple shape it is easily calculated from
their dimensions. Regular extrudate sections include rod (cylinder), sheet
(rectangle), and pipe (annulus). The formulae for calculating the die resistance
in each case are as follows:
1.Rod or Cylindrical Channel
Length = L; Radius = r; Diameter = d.
Die resistance = R = 8 (L)/r4 = 128 (L)/d4
2.Rectangular Channel
Length = L; Width = w; Thickness = t.
a.) Where width is more than 10 times thickness
Die resistance = R = 12(L)/wt3
b.) Where width is less than 10 times thickness
Die resistance = R = 12(L)(S)/wt3
S = Shape factor and is given in Figure 36.
3.Pipe or Annular Channel.
Length = L; inner diameter = dI, outer diameter = do,
Gap thickness = t = 1/2(do-di), Average diameter = d = 1/2(do + di),
Die resistance = R = 12(L)/d t3
Figure 36. Shape Factors for Rectangular Dies

Calculating Die Resistance (Example Pipe Die Land) 257
Consider a land of length 50mm, with an internal diameter of 100mm,
and external diameter of 104mm. The average diameter is 102mm and the gap

thickness is 2mm. Using the formula given above:
Die resistance = R = [12 (50)]/[(102.2)3] = 0.234 mm-3
Flow Rate
When calculating pressure losses, flow rates must be expressed as volume
flow per unit time. If mass flow rate, for a melt of density D at the processing
temperature, is known as M(kg/h) then the volume flow rate (Q) in mm3/s is
Q = 278,000 (M / D).
Values of the melt density (D), for a plastic melt can be determined
using a melt flow rate tester. If a melt flow rate tester that can do a Method B
test is available the melt density may be measured directly as described in the
section on Melt Flow Rate Testing.
Method for Plastic Melts
Sicne most molten plastics are non-Newtonian there are two complications in
calculating pressure losses. First, the viscosity of molten plastic is not con-
stant and second, the flow pattern in a channel is different from that of a sim-
ple Newtonian fluid. (The viscosity of a simple, or Newtonian fluid is a con-
stant, which depends only upon the temperature.) These problems are over-
come by using apparent viscosity and representative values.
Apparent Viscosity
If the shear stress at a particular shear rate is known for a plastic melt then
the ratio shear stress/shear rate is called the apparent viscosity. The apparent
viscosity decreases as shear rate increases. To calculate pressure losses etc. it
is necessary to have a graph of apparent viscosity against shear rate for the
molten material at a particular temperature. These flow curves can be obtained
from material suppliers, measured in the laboratory (See Figures 8a and 8b
and the Section on Rheology Equipment and Testing), or it may be calculated
approximately from the MFR of the plastics material. Figure 37 shows a flow
curve that will be used as an example here.
LLDPE
4
10
T = 190C
T = 230C
T = 285C
Apparent Viscosity (Pa-s)
3
10
2
10
101
0
10 101 10
2
10
3
104
Shear Rate (1/s)
Figure 37. Polymer Flow Curves Shown as Viscosity vs. Shear Rate
258 Representative Values
For a given overall output rate, the flow pattern of a molten polymer in a chan-
nel will differ from that of a simple Newtonian fluid. Figure 38 shows flow
patterns through a tube for a Newtonian and for a non-Newtonian fluid (poly-
mer material). Both materials have zero flow velocity at the walls of the tube
and maximum flow velocity at its center. For the same output rate (and hence
the same average flow velocity) the plastic melt has a lower maximum veloci-
ty and more of a plug like flow. That is, the flow velocity is nearly constant
across the middle of the tube and decreases rapidly near the walls. As a
result, the shear rate, which controls the localized rate at which layers flow
over one another, is greater near the walls for a plastic material than for a
Newtonian fluid. Near the walls of the flow channel there can be a large differ-
ence in shear rates as shown in Figure 39.
There is a fairly complex way of relating Newtonian and non-Newtonian
shear rates at the wall called the Rabinowitsch correction. However, it is sim-
pler to consider the situation where the two lines in Figure 38 intersect. Here
the Newtonian and non-Newtonian shear rates are equal. The value of shear
rate at this point is called the representative value. By using this value it is
possible to calculate pressure drops using a method similar to that applicable
to Newtonian fluids (see W. Michaeli in his book Extrusion Dies).
Flow Velocity
Newtonian Fluid Polymer Melt
Figure 38. Flow Through a Die for a Newtonian Fluid and Polymer Melt
Representative Shear Rate

It has been found that the position of the representative shear rate in a flow
channel is nearly constant for plastic melts. For a tube, it is at 83% of the dis-
tance from center to walls. (Figure 39). The formulae for calculating the rep-
resentative shear rate are as follows:
For a rod die: * = 3.3Q/(r3)
For a rectangular channel: *= 4.6 Q/(w t2)
For an annulus: * = 1.46 Q/(d t2)
Representative Viscosity
Once the representative shear rate is determined, the flow curve for the plastic
melt is used to find the apparent viscosity of the melt at this shear rate. This
apparent viscosity is called the representative viscosity (R) and if substituted
in the equation: P = R R Q, where = die resistance and Q = flow rate, it may
be used to calculate pressure drops.
Pressure Drop Calculation Using Representative Viscosity 259
Suppose the pipe die whose die resistance was calculated above, extrudes
plastic melt at 180 kg/h, the melt has a density of 800 kg/m3, and its flow

properties are as shown in Figure 38.
Flow rate: Q = 278,000 x 180/800 = 62,550 mm3/s.
Representative shear rate: * = (1.46 x 62550)/(102 x 22) = 224 sec-1
From the flow curve, the representative viscosity (@ 230 C in Figure 38) is
940 Pa-s (Ns/m2)
Pressure drop: P = R R Q = 940 x 0.234 x 62550 = 13760000 Pa (or N/m2)
= 13.76 MN/m2 (or 2005 psi)
160
Newtonian Flud
Plastic Melt
120
Shear Rate (1/s)
83%
80
40
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
% Distance from Central Axis
Figure 39. Shear Rates in a Die for a Newtonian Fluid and Polymer Melt
Flow Resistance of Complete Dies

Most dies can be considered as a number of connecting sections. The die
resistance depends mostly on the smallest dimension of the channel cross-
section (for example, the thickness of a slot die) or on the gap thickness of a
pipe die. Hence flow resistance is usually greatest across the die land. First
calculate the die resistance and pressure drop of this section of the die. Only if
this is satisfactory is it necessary to calculate pressure drops for the other die
sections. Total pressure drop is the sum of the pressure drops for each sec-
tion.
260
MATERIAL PROPERTY GUIDELINES
Property ASTM ABS Nylon 6 Nylon 66 PMMA
Method
Specific Gravity D792 1.02-1.06 1.13 1.13-1.15 1.17-1.20
(g/ml)
Tensile Str. (psi) D638 3500-7800 7250 11,500 8000-11000
% Elongation D638 30-90 200 60-300 2-7
Tensile Modulus D638 1.4-3.6 2.18 3.8-4.7 3.5-4.5
(10 psi)
5
Impact Str.(ft-lb/in) D256 2.6-11.4 1.8 1.0-2.0 0.3-0.4

1/8" notched Izod
Hardness D785 R75-105 M86 R120 M80-100
(Rockwell M or R,
Shore A or D)
Tg (C) D3418 100-110 - 50 105
Tm (C) D2117 - 220 265 -
Heat Deflection
T (C) D648
66 psi 77-115 >160 105 74-113
264 psi 77-105 55-75 244 72-102
Thermal C177 4.5-8 5.8 5.8 4.0-6.0
Conductivity
(10-4cal/sec cmC)
Specific Heat @ - 0.3-0.4 0.10 0.11 .035
23C
(cal/gC)
Thermal Expan. D696 9.5-13 4.5 8.0 5-9
Coeff.
(10-5 in/inC)
Dielectric D150
Constant
60 Hz 2.4-5 - 3.5-4.5
1 kHz 2.4-4.5 - 5.2 3.0-3.5
1 MHz 2.4-3.8 7.0 4.1 2.1-3.2
Dissipation D150
Factor
60 Hz 0.003-0.008 0.04 0.05-0.06
1 kHz 0.004-0.007 0.04 0.04-0.06
1 MHz 0.007-0.015 0.03 0.05 0.02-0.03
Electrical
Resistivity D257 1-5 x 1016 - 1013 1015
(ohm-cm)
Water Absorption D570 0.20-0.45 1.3-1.9 1.1-1.5 0.02-0.04
(%/24hr-1/8"
thick bar)
Property ASTM LDPE LLDPE HDPE PP

Method
Specific Gravity D792 0.900-0.925 0.918-0.935 0.941-0.955
0.90-0.94
(g/ml)
Tensile Str. (psi) D638 600-2300 1900-4000 3100-5500 4500-6000
% Elongation D638 90-800 100-950 30-1300 100-600
Tensile Modulus D638 0.14-0.38 0.38-0.75 0.6-1.8 1.65-2.25
(105psi)
Impact Str.(ft-lb/in) D256 No break 1.0-9.0 0.5-20 0.4-1.2
Property ASTM LDPE LLDPE HDPE PP 261
Method
1/8" notched Izod

Hardness D785 R10 - D60-70 R80-102
(Rockwell M or R, D41-46 -
Shore A or D)
Tg (C) D3418 -126 -126 -126 -20
Tm (C) D2117 106-112 125 135 168-175
Heat Deflection
T (C) D648
66 psi 38-49 6-66 60-88 107-121
264 psi 32-41 - 43-54 49-60
Thermal C177 8.0 - 11.0-12.4 2.8
Conductivity
(10-4cal/sec cmC)
Specific Heat @ - 0.55 - 0.55 -
23C
(cal/gC)
Thermal Expan. D696 10-20 8.9-11 11-13 8.0-10
Coeff.
(10-5 in/inC)
Dielectric D150
Constant
60 Hz 2.25-2.35 2.3 2.30-2.35 2.2-2.8
1 kHz 2.25-2.35 - 2.30-2.35
1 MHz 2.25-2.35 - 2.30-2.35
Dissipation D150
Factor
60 Hz 0.0005 0.0005 0.0005-
1 kHz 0.0005 0.0005 0.001
1 MHz 0.0005 0.0005 0.0005
Electrical
Resistivity D257 1016 1016 1016 1016
(ohm-cm)
Water Absorption D570 0.015 0.01 0.01 0.01-0.03
(%/24hr-1/8"
thick bar)
Property ASTM PC TPU

Method
Specific Gravity D792 1.2 1.11-1.28
(g/ml)
Tensile Str. (psi) D638 8000-9500 1500-11000
% Elongation D638 100-130 110-1000
Tensile Modulus D638 3.0-3.5 0.33-1.5
5
(10 psi)
Impact Str.(ft-lb/in) D256 12-18 -
1/8" notched Izod
Hardness D785 M73-93 A50-95
(Rockwell M or R, R115-125 D46-80
Shore A or D)
Tg (C) D3418 150 -51
Tm (C) D2117 - Varies
Heat Deflection
T (C) D648
66 psi 132-143 Varies
262 Property ASTM PC TPU
Method
264 psi 130-140 Varies
Thermal C177 4.6 -
Conductivity
-4
(10 cal/sec cmC)
Specific Heat @ - 0.3 -
23C
(cal/gC)
Thermal Expan. D696 6.8 -
Coeff.
(10-5 in/inC)
Dielectric D150
Constant
60 Hz 2.97-3.17 -
1 kHz 3.02
1 MHz 2.92-2.93
Dissipation D150
Factor
60 Hz 0.0009 -
1 kHz 0.0021
1 MHz 0.0100
Electrical
Resistivity D257 2 x 1016
(ohm-cm)
Water Absorption D570 0.015-0.18 0.3
(%/24hr-1/8" thick bar)
GLOSSARY OF TERMS USED IN EXTRUSION

TECHNOLOGY
Accelerator: A chemical added to speed up a reaction; sometimes associated
with cross-linking.
Accumulator: A device used to store hydraulic fluid under pressure or a part
of the processing equipment (for example, in blow molding) where melt is
stored.
Activator: A chemical added to activate or start a reaction; usually associated
with cross-linking where an activator is used with an accelerator.
Adapter: Also spelled adapter. Connects the extruder to the die and directs the
melt into the die. Used to attach the dies to the machine. May also change the
direction of melt flow. May have angled crosshead, and offset adapters.
Adaptive Control: A control system that automatically changes settings in
response to changes in machine performance, so as to produce products of
the specified quality. A machine is said to have adaptive control if it adapts
itself to meet a change.
Adiabatic Extrusion: After the extruder has been warmed up no external heat
is supplied to the machine. The heat necessary to plasticize the polymer
therefore comes from conversion of the mechanical energy used to rotate the
screw.
Air Gap: The vertical distance between the die lips and the nip (for example, in
extrusion lamination).
Air Shot: If the contents of an extruder are shot, or expelled, into the air, then
this is referred to as an air shot or, as an air purge.
Airflow Switch: A switch fitted on the exit side of the cooling circuit of an 263
electric motor which prevents motor overheating if the air flow fails; useful
where powder is processed.

Amorphous: Usually refers to a plastic material that has no regular molecular
structure (is not crystalline). These materials are usually transparent (for
example, PS or PC).
Anglehead Adapter or Adapter: During anglehead extrusion, the adapter
swings the melt through 45 or 600.
Annealing: Heating of a product to condition it and/or to relieve stresses.
Anti-aging: Chemicals added to hinder degradation, for example, by oxidation.
Anti-block Agent: An additive used to stop blocking, or sticking, of two sur-
faces. Usually associated with film. May be dispersed in the resin before extru-
sion or dusted on after extrusion.
Antioxidant: A chemical added to hinder the chemical reaction known as oxi-
dation (oxygen attack). Usually associated with materials such as PE, or PP
that readily degrade in this way.
Antiozonant: A chemical added to hinder ozone attack. Usually associated with
materials such as natural rubber which readily degrade in this way.
Antistatic Agent: Additives added to reduce static problems. May be a dis-
persed ionic compound that blooms to a surface (e. g. of a film) and forms a
conductive layer.
Apparent Density: This is the weight in air of a unit volume of material.
Apparent Viscosity: Defined as the ratio of the shear stress to the shear rate
obtained for a non-Newtonian fluid, such as a plastics melt, assuming that it
behaves like a Newtonian material.
Appearance Surface: The surface that is seen in use and, therefore, has to be
of a specified standard.
Applesauce: A rough, wavy appearance of the extrudate; also referred to as
orange peel, shark skin or flow patterns.
ASTM: American Society for Testing and Materials.
Autoflex Die: Sheet die in which the lip opening is controlled by the expansion
of thermal bolts that respond to thickness sensors.
Automatic Screen Changer: Unit which automatically removes one screen
pack from the melt stream path and replace it with another when the mea-
sured pressure, reaches a pre-set value.
Axial Grooved Bushing: A bushing that contains a number of grooves (for
example, six) which run parallel to the screw. This grooved bushing, fitted in
the feed section of an extruder, improves the feeding characteristics of the
system. The bushing is usually 3 to 4 D (where D is the diameter of the screw)
in length and the axial grooves taper out as the material progresses along the
bushing. Temperature control of the bushing is important and it is held at of
70 C by intensive circulation of water. To decrease heat generation, a zero
compression screw may be used.
Barrel: The extrusion cylinder that contains the screw and the plastic material.
Generally referred to as the extruder barrel.
Barrier Layer: A distinct layer of material in an extrudate that stops, or hin-
ders, the passage of a liquid or gas. The barrier layer may be a plastic material
or a metal.
Barrier Screw: A two-start screw that is designed to continually separate the
melt from the un-melted plastic material. It subjects the un-melted material to
high shear forces. The two melt streams that result are combined and passed
through a mixing head to ensure that the melt is of uniform temperature.
Beta-ray Gauge: Also known as a -ray gauge. A thickness measuring device
in which ray absorption is measured. It is directly proportional to product
thickness, for a given formulation.
264 Bi-axial Orientation: A process for the improvement of tube or sheet proper-
ties by stretching the material in two directions at right angles: along and
across the extrusion direction.
Bi-axial: Usually refers to directional orientation along two different axes (for
example, biaxial orientation).
Bleeding: Migration of a colorant into from one material into another.
Blocking: The tendency of sheets or films to stick together under light pres-
sure making separation difficult. Reduced by using non-gloss surfaces or by
the use of anti-block agents.
Blooming: Term used when a colorant or other material migrates to the sur-
face of a product and forms a dusty layer. Dyes are more susceptible to this
than pigments.
Blow Molding: A process used to produce hollow enclosed components, such
as bottles, by expanding an extrudate (a parison), by air pressure, inside a
mould.
Blow Up Ratio: The ratio of the diameter of the bubble to the die diameter in
blown film extrusion.
Blowing Agent: An additive that expands a plastic melt by generating a gas. It
is often a solid chemical which decomposes at extrusion temperature (for
example, an azo compound).
Blown Film Extrusion: A process for making plastic film (also known as tubu-
lar film or, lay-flat film) by extruding a tube and using air pressure to blow it
up to several times its extruded diameter.
BOPP: Bi-axially orientated polypropylene.
BPF: British Plastics Federation.
Breaker Plate: A disc, or plate containing a number of holes oriented in the
extrusion direction through which a plastic material flows. It is usually used to
support screens and is placed between the end of the extruder barrel and the
die holder.
Bridged Screw: A screw that will not transport material because an arch, or
bridge, of material has formed in the hopper.
BSI: British Standards Institution.
Bulk Density: The weight per unit volume of a material including voids that
are inherent as tested.
Burn Mark: A region of burned or degraded material.
Bushing: A removable cylindrical lining used to limit the size of the opening,
resist abrasion, or act as a guide.
Buss CoKneader: A family of reciprocating-type mixing extruders originally
made by the Swiss firm of Buss AG. A single-screw continuous compounder
in which each turn of the screw is accompanied by a back-and forth move-
ment of the special screw. Kneading pins, or teeth, protrude from the barrel
into three gaps, or slots, running along the length of the screw. To smooth out
the pulsating output from such a machine, the mixed material may be dis-
charged into a separate discharge extruder that forms the polymer into
strands which are cut into pellets. It is widely used in the polyvinyl chloride
(PVC) industry as both the screw and barrel are available with liquid heating
(which gives accurate temperature control).
CAD/CAM: Computer Aided Design and Computer Aided Manufacturing.
Calender: A machine used to produce film or sheet at very high speeds and
high quality by passing hot resin through a series of rolls.
Calenderette: A term sometimes used to denote a series of rolls which are
used as the haul off in sheet extrusion or a series of rolls used to produce
sheet.
Capacitive Sensor: A sensor that uses the extrudate as a dielectric in a circuit
to indicate thickness or the proximity of something to the extrudate.
Capstan: Large drum device used to pull extrudates, such as wire or cable, by 265
wrapping the extrudate around the rotating drum.
Cartridge Heater: An electric resistance heater in the form of a circular rod

that may be inserted into a die block.
Cascade Control: The output of one controller is used to control, or feed,
another.
Cascade Extrusion: A type of twin screw machine where two extruders are
connected so that the melt output from the first feeds the second.
Devolatilization may be done between the two extruders.
Cast Film: A film made by depositing a layer of plastic, either molten, in solu-
tion, or in dispersion, onto a surface where it is solidified and then removed.
Casting: A flat film process whereby a film is extruded into water or, against a
water-cooled roll.
Cellular: The density of the resin is reduced by expansion with a gas or vapor.
Chalking: Surface degradation of the plastic that exposes the pigment. May be
confused with blooming.
Check Valve: The valve usually used in foam extrusion to control back-flow of
the blowing agent in the gas injection method of foam extrusion.
Chill Roll Casting: A plastic film is extruded from a slit die directly onto a roll,
which is cold compared to the melt temperature.
Chill Roll: The cold roll against which a plastic film is cast after being extrud-
ed from a slit die. The chill roll temperature may be relatively high, for exam-
ple, 175F or 80C, but much it is lower than the melt temperature.
Choke Bar: The portion of sheet die that is used to selectively restrict the poly-
mer flow to even out variations in sheet thickness. It forces the material out to
the die extremities.
Choke Plate: A single hole unit that is inserted between the end of the extrud-
er barrel and the die holder to produce a controlled pressure drop in the melt.
Clam Shelling: An extrusion defect caused by die body deflection at the center
of the die, which causes more material to be present at the center of a flat
sheet die.
Cling Film: A name given to a film which can either cling, or stick, to itself or
to other objects, which is widely used in packaging. Thin, soft films based on
soft PVC or EVA show this property.
Closed Loop: Control terminology used when the control system checks to
see if its commands have been obeyed and then enforces them if they have
not.
Closed Loop, Dimension Control System: A system that feeds back informa-
tion on the product dimensions and then adjusts parameters, such as line
speed, to correct for dimension shifts.
Coating: Coating is the process of applying a molten polymer to a moving
substrate.
Coextrusion Capping: The extrusion process used to produce a plastic prod-
uct which is topped or capped with another plastic.
Coextrusion: An extrusion process where two, or more, melt streams are
combined in the die to make an extrudate of two, or more, layers of plastic.
One of these layers is often a barrier layer.
Cold Flow: Refers to the flow of material at less than the optimum melt tem-
perature.
Colorant: A material added to impart color that is usually a dye or a pigment.
Compound: The result produced by the melt mixing of a plastic resin, addi-
tives and/or fillers.
Compounder: An extrusion machine used specifically for melt mixing.
Compounding Extruder: An extrusion machine used specifically for melt mix-
ing.
266 Compounding: The process of melt mixing used to produce a compound.
Compression Ratio: The ratio of the volume of one screw flight, at the feed
end of a machine, to that of one flight at the discharge end. The channel depth
often changes along the length of a screw used in plastics processing. It is
deepest under the hopper and shallowest at the screw tip. Thus the screw has
a compression ratio which is there to compensate for the effective reduction
in volume that occurs on melting the plastics granules. The compression ratio
is related to channel depth so if the depth is 0.373" under the hopper and
0.125" at the tip, then the compression ratio is said to be 3:1. Typically gener-
al purpose screws have a compression ratio of approximately 2.0/2.5:1 and a
length to diameter ratio (L/D) of about 20:1.
Compression Zone: A compression zone is present on many extruder screws
(at the discharge end) where its presence results in melt pressure generation.
It is a parallel portion of the screw, with a shallow depth, which produces a
stable melt in terms of melt temperature, melt uniformity and melt output. In
blow molding, it is that part of a mould which is also called a dam: the dam
forces material back into the pinch area, on mould closing, and thus leads to
localized thickening in this weak area.
Computer Control: A mode of machine operation where the extruder and line
are under the control of a process computer that sets the parameters for the
operation.
Conical Transition Section: Also called a conical tapered section. It is a tran-
sition section of a screw in which the root of the screw increases uniformly in
diameter so that the section is of conical shape.
Constant Depth Screw: Also known as a parallel screw, it is a screw in which
the channel depth is constant along its length. Such a design is sometimes
used in blow molding machines as such a design minimizes heat generation.
Continuous Compounding Machine: A machine that is designed, or operated,
to give a continuous output of well-dispersed material. A compounding
extruder is the most common type of continuous compounding machine.
However, for example, for very heavily filled materials, other systems may be
preferred. Such a machine is often a modular compounding machine.
Continuous Kneading and Extrusion Machine: A modular compounding
machine comprised of dosing, kneading, conveying and discharge sections.
The dosing and kneading sections are housed in a steel block that contains
eight inter-connecting chambers each containing a pair of kneading tools. The
polymer plus additives are fed in at one end and additional materials may be
added to the chambers as the mix progresses through the system. The dwell
time can be controlled in each chamber by means of adjustable baffles. To
obtain a continuous output, the mixed material is discharged through a (10 D)
twin screw extruder.
Control Loop: The signal circuit that provides feedback information for closed
loop process control.
Control System: The instruments, and power controlling units, which are
used to maintain the machine temperatures, pressure, rate, and other extru-
sion parameters at set values.
Controllers: The individual, or dedicated, instruments used to control temper-
ature, speed, and pressure in the extrusion operation.
Cooling Fixtures: Devices, with air or water cooling, for holding and setting
the extruded shape.
Co-ordination: This means that a group of controllers are connected together
so that they may all be changed, at the same time, from a single point. It is
often applied to drive systems. For example, the speeds of the feeder, the
extruder and the haul-off may all be ramped up or down simultaneously.
Copolymer: A polymer, or resin, made by polymerizing two or more
monomers together (For example, EVA.). The second monomer is added to 267
improve properties such as adhesion, impact, HDT, etc.
Core Pin: The center unit, of a tubing die, used to form the inner wall of the

extrusion: also known as a torpedo.
Corona Discharge: An electrical treatment applied to the surface of plastic
products to enhance printing or adhesion.
CPU: Central Processing Unit: part of a computer (see microprocessor).
Cracking: Can mean the production of simple chemicals from complex ones
by heating or the appearance of fine cracks, or crazes, in a product.
Crammer Feeder: A hopper mounted unit that forces plastic material into the
feed throat of the extruder.
Crazing: Apparent fine cracks at or under the surface of a plastic: See
Cracking.
Creep: The time-dependent part of strain, or deformation, resulting from an
applied stress, or force.
Cross Laminate: A laminate in which some of the layers of material are orient-
ed at right angles to other layers. Used to make strong film for packaging.
Cross-flow: Flow in an extrusion die at right angles to the primary flow direc-
tion.
Cross-head Adapter: In cross-head extrusion, the adapter turns the melt
direction through 900.
Cross-head Extrusion: An extrusion process wherein the extrudate comes out
of the machine at right angles to the barrel axis. Used in wire covering
processes and in some tubing lines.
Cross-linking or Cross Linking: A chemical reaction where plastic molecules
are linked or tied together to form molecules with increased the molecular
weight and viscosity. Many gels result from the cross-linking in plastics.
Cryogenic Internal Bubble Cooling: An internal bubble cooling system that
can improve the output by approximately 50% (over conventional internal
bubble cooling (IBC). The chilled air (approximately 10C), which is used to
cool the internal surface of the film during IBC production, is replaced by
much colder nitrogen gas (at B150 C). Before the cold nitrogen is used, the
entire system is purged (with warmer nitrogen) to remove any moisture-laden
air which will cause condensation on the film.
Crystalline: Refers to plastics that contain ordered molecules, resulting in
crystalline areas or zones of crystallinity. Such materials are also referred to as
semi-crystalline thermoplastic materials since their structure is not complete-
ly ordered.
Crystallinity: The amount (usually expressed as a percentage) of a polymer
which is ordered or consists of crystalline zones or areas.
Cuff Heater: Another term for heater band.
Cut Off Units: Devices such as saws, shears, flying knives, and other devices
for cutting extrudates to predetermined lengths.
Cylinder: Another word for barrel.
D: See Derivative. Also may be the symbol for diameter, as in L/D.
Dancer Roll: A roll used on a sheet extrusion line to control the sheet (line)
tension that compensates for line speed variations.
DC: Direct current.
DC Drive: Direct current drive. It is the standard, electric motor, drive system
for feeders, extruders and pullers since they give good speed consistency.
Dead Band: That part of a temperature controller range in which the control is
not affecting the temperature. The power is off and the temperature is allowed
to drift.
Dead Fold: The ability of a film or foil to be creased without heat and to retain
that crease as shown by metal foils.
268 Deckle Rods: Metal inserts that are used to close off the ends of a flat film die
to allow the extrusion of narrower product.
Decompression: The action of reducing melt pressure.
Decompression Zone: A zone or region in a vented barrel where the melt is
decompressed to allow the release of volatile matter (gas). It is used, for
example, to dry material.
Degradants: Substances added to promote the breakdown of a product. For
example, starch may be added to film so that it degrades when discarded.
Degradation: A breaking down (or reduction) of the chemical structure, physi-
cal properties, or appearance of a plastic.
Delamination: The separation of a product into layers.
Denier: A unit of weight used for textiles (an abbreviation is den). Used to
measure the fineness or coarseness of fibers. The weight, in grams, of 9,000
meters of the fiber or yarn. To convert to kg/m multiply by 1.111 x 107. To
convert to tex multiply by 0.111.
Density: Mass per unit volume. Apparent density is the weight in air of a unit
volume of material. Bulk density is the weight per unit volume of a material
including voids which are inherent as tested.
Depolymerization: The breakdown of the polymer into its monomers. The
opposite of polymerization.
Depth: Screw terminology meaning the perpendicular distance from the top of
the screw thread to the root.
Derivative: Referred to as D; this term is added to a controller in order to
prevent overshooting.
Desiccant Drier: A type of hot air drier in which the moisture is removed from
the air by means of a desiccant such as silica gel.
Desiccation: The removal of moisture.
Devolatilizing Extruder: An extruder designed, or operated, to remove
volatiles or moisture from a polymer when it is in melt form.
Die Air Vent: A passage in a pipe or profile die used to permit the passage of
air into the interior of the hollow extrusion.
Die Cart: A trolley that supports the die and holds it at the correct height for
machine connection.
Die Entry Angle: The angle of convergence of melt entering the extrusion die.
Die Gap: The distance, or separation, between the die lips.
Die Land: The straight section through an extrusion die.
Die Spider: A legged unit used to support the torpedo (The die section in the
melt stream that forms the interior of a hollow section.).
Die Swell: The increase the dimensions of an extrudate over those of the die
through which it was extruded. DS = part dimension/die dimension.
Die: An orifice used to shape a plastic melt.
Digital Setting: The setting of a parameter to a precise numerical value.
Usually done by means of thumb-wheels or a key pad.
DIN: A German test method or standard issued by the Deutscher
Normenausschuss.
Discharge Extruder: An extruder that accepts the output from another
machine (usually a compounding machine). It is used, for example, to smooth
out a pulsating output from a Co-Kneader. The mixed material is discharged
into a short, single screw extruder, or discharge extruder, which forms the
output into strands that are cut into pellets.
Dispersion Coating: A plastic, dispersed in a liquid, is applied to a film and
the liquid is evaporated to leave a coating. This method is used when the
coating resin cannot be melt processed or dissolved.
Distortion: An unwanted change in extrudate shape.
DNA: Deutscher Normenausschuss; the organization responsible for issuing
DIN standards.
Doser: A device that meters/doses a resin, and/or additives, into the extruder 269
barrel (Usually called a feeder).
Double Parallel Screw: (Also known as a stepped screw or as a nylon screw)

A screw in which two parallel section (feed and metering) connected by a
tapered transition zone. This tapered transition zone is usually very short for
nylon 66 extrusion since the polymer has a very sharp melting point. It is
claimed that the rapid decrease in channel depth (step) acts as a barrier to for-
ward flow of non-melted granules.
Downstream Equipment: The auxiliary units used in an extrusion line, after
the die, which are used to cool, shape, control and, if necessary, cut the extru-
date.
Drag Flow: Flow of molten polymer in an extruder caused by the relative
motion of the screw rotating in the barrel. Mechanism by which material is
caused to flow in a single screw extruder and build up pressure. The polymer
must wet both screw and barrel to produce drag flow effects.
Draw Down (See Drawdown):The stretching of an extrudate to produce a
product of the correct size.
Draw Ratio: The die gap thickness divided by the thickness of the final plastic
layer. The degree to which an extrudate has been drawn in a particular direc-
tion.
Draw Resonance: A form of draw down failure characterized by the wandering
or wavering of the edge of a molten film or by the loss of thickness uniformity
across the width of a coating.
Drawdown: A process for stretching the extrudate after it leaves the die by it
pulling faster than it is being extruded. In extrusion coating the resin is drawn
down from the die gap thickness to the coating thickness.
Drawing: The stretching of an extrudate to produce orientation.
Dribbling: See Drooling.
Driven from the Back: An extruder fitted with an axial grooved bush. An
extruder fitted with a gear pump is said to be driven from the front.
Driven from the Front: An extruder fitted with a gear pump. An extruder fitted
with an axial grooved bush is said to be driven from the back.
Drooling: An undesirable loss of melt from an extruder die.
Droop: See Offset.
Dry Blend or Dry Blend: A dry compound prepared without heat fluxing or the
addition of solvent. It is also known as a powder blend and is usually prepared
in a high-speed mixer.
Dual Durometer Extrusion: Extruding a shape with a soft and a hard material.
Sometimes based on PVC materials. A form of co-extrusion.
Dual Strand Extruder: An extruder fitted with more than one die to obtain high
outputs without speeding up the rate of extrusion (for example, window pro-
file). If extrusion rates are increased problems associated with dimensional
tolerances, shrinkage, surface finish and plate out become more severe. The
extruder is generally fitted with two mirror image profile dies.
Dulmage Mixing Section: A dispersive mixing section. The barrier section is a
cylindrical shearing section, of approximately three screw diameters (3 D) in
length, which forms the screw tip. It consists of a series of semicircular
grooves machined in the screw tip which run, on a long helix, in the same
direction as the screw flight. An extrusion screw, may have more than one
Dulmage mixing section separated by conventional screw sections.
Durometer: A device for measuring the hardness, or resistance to indentation,
of a material.
Dye: A chemical colorant that is soluble in resin and which can, therefore, pro-
duce transparent colors.
Early Flow Tuning: (Abbreviated EFT) A technique used in the extrusion of flat
270 sheet to control the melt flow profile in the pre-land section of the die. A flexi-
ble, stainless steel membrane is incorporated in the pre-land section of the die
that can be finely adjusted to control the melt flow across the die.
Edge Bead: The build up in thickness at the edges of an extruded film that is
caused by neck in. The cross section of an edge bead is teardrop shaped and
tapers into the film. Internal reduction rods may be used to minimize edge
beads.
Edge Tear: Partial tearing, or ripping, of a film along its edge that is also
known as nip in. The line speed and the extruder output rate, at which edge
tear occurs, determine the minimum coating thickness.
Elastic Melt Extruder: An extruder, based on twin discs, which uses polymer
melt elasticity effects to convey the polymer melt through the system and out
of the die.
Elastomer: Also known as rubber. A macromolecular material that at room
temperature returns rapidly to approximately its original dimensions and
shape after substantial deformation by a weak stress. In doing so, it releases
that stress and springs, or snaps, back.
Electro-Discharge Machining (EDM): A method of shaping metal by a
process of spark erosion.
Environmental Stress Cracking: (Also known as ESC) Failure or cracking of a
material or product under stress while in a certain environment. The stress
may be external or internal (developed as a result of processing) while the
environment is often a liquid (such as a detergent or other chemical agent).
Ethylene Plastic: Plastics based on polymers or copolymers of ethylene; the
ethylene being in present in the greatest amount by weight.
Extrudate: The shaped material exiting from the extrusion die.
Extruded Foam: An extruded product produced when a plastic mass is
expanded by the formation of gas cells.
Extruder Barrel: Section of extruder in which the extruder screw turns. It is
also known as the extrusion cylinder or barrel.
Extruder Feedback Control System: A method of controlling extruder output
by the adjustment of speed or back pressure to maintain a constant output
rate.
Extruder Screw: The unit used to propel plastics through a plastics extruder
and to generate pressure on the melt.
Extrusion Blow Molding: A blow molding process in which the parison, or
tube, is produced by extrusion.
Extrusion: Process for making a product by forcing material through a die.
Extrusion Valve: An adjustable restriction in the melt stream that is used to
control back pressure in an extruder.
Feed Port: The entry hole in an extruder barrel through which the plastic
material is introduced.
Feed: Usually applies to the material being introduced into to the extruder. It
is often a mixture of virgin and regranulated material.
Feed Zone: The barrel zone adjacent to the location of the hopper. This term
is also used to describe the first zone of a screw that conveys the material
from the feed port or hopper, through the feed zone of the barrel.
FFS: Form-fill-seal.
Filler: A material, usually a solid, which is added to plastics in order to
enhance their properties or to cheapen them.
Film: Thin sheet. Usually applies to thicknesses of 0.010 inch (0.25 mm) or
less.
Fines: Plastic material (resin) which is in a fine powder form.
Finite Element Analysis: A mathematical procedure used to quantify flow and
stress effects by dividing the analyzed space into discreet finite elements
that are related to each other by constitutional equations. The method uses 271
computer techniques to analyze stresses and flows in the absence of exact
solutions.

Fish Eyes: Defects in an extrudate (usually film), which look like the eyes of a
fish, which are caused by small particles of un-melted or cross-linked resin.
They are small globular masses that have not blended completely into the sur-
rounding material.
Flame-Retardant: A substance added to hinder the burning of plastic materi-
als.
Flaming: The action of applying a flame to a plastics surface to make that sur-
face more receptive to printing inks.
Flash: Excess material around the edge of an extrusion or molding.
Flight: The space enclosed by the screw thread and the surface of the screw
root, in one complete revolution or turn.
Fogging: The increase in haze of a film due to condensation.
Foil: Term sometimes applied to very thin, but very stiff, sheet.
Form and Fill: A packaging process in which the container is formed and the
contents inserted, on line. It is used in blow molding, for example, to get high
speed production by the rapid cooling which results when cold liquid is inject-
ed into the bottles.
Form-Fill-Seal: (Also known as FFS) A packaging process in which a film is
formed into a container, filled and then sealed.
Forming Box: A die extension, which is cooled, used for sizing and cooling
products such as rod. Melt is pumped into the forming box and solid rod
slowly emerges.
Free Extrusion: Extrusion into a cooling unit without the use of forming, con-
trolling fixtures, or sizing devices.
Freeze Line: The location on a blown film bubble where a semi-crystalline,
thermoplastics material (usually a polyolefin) starts to crystallize, as it cools.
Frictional Heating: Heat generated mechanically within the extruder by turning
the screw.
Frost Line: (See Freeze Line).
Frost Line Height: (Abbreviated as FLH.) The distance measured between the
frost line and the die.
Gate: A valve, for example, the slide at the base of the hopper used to stop
and start the flow of material or part of the die. A hinged gate may be used to
attach an adapter to the extruder.
Gauge Bands: (Also known as piston rings) Regions of increased thickness
on a roll of film produced through winding thicker film in the same place or on
the same part of the reel. May be eliminated by rotating the die.
Gauge or Gage: An instrument in which a measured value is displayed or a
measure of thickness (100 gauge is 1 mil or 0.001 in).
Gear Pump: A type of extruder where the melt is conveyed (pumped) by inter-
meshing gears. It may be fitted to the discharge end of a conventional extrud-
er to give a more stable output.
Gear Pump Extruder: An extruder which uses intermeshing gears to pump
molten plastic or resin.
Gel: A semi-solid consisting of a solid network in which liquid is held. In
extrusion the term gels usually refers to lumps seen in film which result from
resin degradation or cross-linking.
Gelation: A term used in PVC technology to define the point at which PVC
particles will gel, or fuse, under the combined effects of heat and pressure.
The term is also used to describe the setting (or hardening) of a PVC plastisol
on heating.
Gelled: Term used to describe PVC after the particles have been fused under
the combined influence of heat and pressure.
272 Glass Transition: A reversible change in an amorphous material to or from a
solid to a rubbery (or brittle to flexible) state. Also occurs in the amorphous
regions of a semi-crystalline thermoplastic material.
Glass Transition Temperature (Tg): The approximate mid-point of the tem-
perature range over which the glass transition takes place.
Godet Unit: A multiple roll drive unit that is usually used in the production of
monofilaments and strip. The extrudate is drawn along by friction between the
extrudate and the rolls. It is commonly used to orient monofilament.
Graft Copolymer: A copolymer in which side chains of one composition have
been attached (or grafted) to a polymer of a different composition.
Granulator: A machine that grinds up plastic for re-use. It does not necessari-
ly produce regular granules.
Granules: Plastic raw material supplied in the form of small pellets approxi-
mately 0.12 in. or 3 mm.
Guide Tip or Guider Tip: Part of a torpedo through which wire passes and
emerges into the melt.
Gum Space: The distance between the guide tip of a torpedo and the die.
Gusset: The folded-in portion of flattened tubular film. Also, a piece of materi-
al used to give additional size or strength to a component.
Halogen: A group of chemical elements including fluorine, chlorine, bromine
or iodine.
Halogen Containing: A material, plastic or additive that contains halogen
atoms.
Hang Up: A problem associated with irregular, or uneven, flow through a die.
It may be caused by dirt, uneven temperature or poor die design (For exam-
ple, by a lack of streamlining).
Haul Off: A system that pulls an extrudate away from the die. It is usually a
series of rolls or a caterpillar haul off.
Haze: The scattering of light due to occlusions, crystallinity, microvoids,
cracks, gel particles, or suspended matter that reduces the transparency of
film to visible light.
Head and Gate End: The die end of an extruder.
Heat Sealing: Technique for sealing film by the application of heat.
Heat Stabilizer: A material that hinders thermal degradation. Frequently asso-
ciated with PVC formulations.
Heater Band: An electrical, heating element in the form of a sleeve or cuff.
Helix Angle: The angle between the screw thread and the transverse plane of
the screw.
HF: High (or radio) frequency.
High Frequency Welding: High frequency vibrations transmitted into plastics
are used to melt and fuse parts together. This process can be used to weld
many plastics, but is peculiarly suited to PVC, as this resin is polar.
Hold-up Time: (Abbreviation: HUT) The amount of time, usually measured in
minutes, for which a material is resides within a barrel. It may also be referred
to as barrel residence time. In extrusion and injection molding, the barrel may
be heated to relatively high temperatures. The HUT is important as the use of
such high temperatures can easily cause oxidation or degradation of a ther-
moplastic material. Therefore, it is important minimize residence times in the
barrel, particularly at high melt temperatures.
Homopolymer: A polymer made from one monomer.
Hopper: The material holding device, attached to the extruder at the feed port,
used to hold, and then feed, plastic material into an extruder.
Hub: The part of the screw that functions as a seal to prevent plastic from
leaking back into the drive. It has the same diameter as the flight.
Hunting: Control terminology that means that an actual value is moving
around a set point. It is usually applied to on/off temperature control.
Hydraulics: The study of the mechanical properties of liquids and their appli- 273
cation to engineering.
Hydrocarbon: A chemical compound based on the elements carbon and

hydrogen.
Hygroscopic: Means that a material absorbs water from the air.
IBC: An abbreviation for internal bubble cooling.
Impact Modifier: An material that is added to a plastic resin to improve its
impact strength. For example, MBS resins are added to PVC to produce bot-
tles of adequate strength.
Injection Blow Molding: A blow molding process in which the parison, or
tube, is produced by an injection molding operation.
Interlock: Applies to safety guarding on machinery. For example, when two
machine guards are linked together in such a way that machine operation is
not allowed, unless both guards are closed.
Internal Bubble Cooling: (IBC) A cooling technique used in tubular film extru-
sion to improve output and/or, to modify film properties by changing the air
within the expanded tube or bubble. In conventional tubular (layflat) film
extrusion the air, which expands the extrudate, remains captive within the bub-
ble and reaches relatively high temperatures. This means that film cooling
largely occurs from the outside. Changing the internal air improves heat trans-
fer and therefore cooling. Cryogenic internal bubble cooling can improve the
output by, approximately, a further 50%.
Internal Cooling Mandrel: Tube sizing system that has a cooled mandrel to
size the inside diameter of the tubing.
International Standards Organization (ISO): An official body, like the ASTM,
which issues test standards or procedures.
Jig Cooling: Cooling a product after production on or in a jig to obtain a
desired shape.
Jig: Usually refers to a device for holding a component. For example, while it
is cooling.
JIT: Just in time production means that components are not produced until
they are required.
K: Refers to temperature measurement in degrees Kelvin (for example, 2050K)
or alternatively to the K value of PVC which is a measure of molecular weight.
Kelvin: Refers to a temperature measurement in degrees Kelvin (The Kelvin
temperature scale) which is obtained by adding 273 to the temperature in C.
Also referred to as degrees absolute.
Key: That part of the screw that permits the turning motion of the drive to be
transmitted to the screw.
Keying: The modification of a surface to make it more receptive to inks. Tech-
niques include corona discharge or flaming.
L/D Ratio: Length to diameter ratio.
Lace Cut: Refers to granules that have been produced by chopping strands of
circular cross-section.
Laddering: Defective surface finish caused by melt fracture at the die.
Laminates: Layers of different film, or sheet, plied together to form one struc-
ture.
Land Length: The ratio between the length of the opening in the flow direction
and the die opening, for example 10:1.
Land: See Die Land.
Lay: A lay is the length of twist produced by stranding filaments, such as wire,
fibers, or roving.
Lay Flat or Lay-Flat: Another term used to describe the tubular, or bubble,
process used to produce film.
Lay-Flat Width: A measure of the size of tubular film and is the width of a roll
274 of double thickness film. A tube with diameter D gives a lay-flat width of D/2
or 1.57 D.
Lead: The horizontal distance travelled by a material in one revolution of the
screw.
Length to Diameter Ratio: Commonly called L/D and given as two numbers,
for example, 10/1. This means that the length is ten times greater than the
diameter. The minimum L/D ratio for a screw for a thermoplastic material is
approximately 15:1, while 20:1 is more usual and 24:1 preferred. The higher
the ratio the more stable the output and the more uniform the melt tempera-
ture. However, a longer screw absorbs more energy and a limit is set by the
torsional strength at the feed end of the screw.
Limit Switch: A switch set at the limit of movement of any part of a machine.
For example, it may initiate the cutting of the extrudate.
Liquid Colorant: A concentrated liquid coloring system or masterbatch.
Longs: Long strands of material produced during the compounding stage
when the cutter, or chopper, does not cut small enough.
Lubricant: A material added to ease flow (internal lubricant) or to prevent
resin adhesion to the extrusion machinery (external lubricant).
Lumpiness: A roughness in the bore, or inside diameter, of a pipe or parison.
Frequently associated with poor mixing of material along the screw, for exam-
ple, in UPVC extrusion.
Machine Direction: The length-wise or longitudinal direction of an extrudate.
Mandrel: A term used to describe a sizing element either, in a die or, in a sizer
that controls one dimension of an extrudate. This dimension is usually the
inside diameter.
Manifold: A distribution system within a die whose function is even out the
flow of material across the width of a die.
Masterbatch: A concentrated mixture of an additive or additives in a carrier
system. The carrier system may be a plastic material or a universal carrier
system such as a wax-type material.
MD: Machine direction.
Melt Application Compression: (Abbreviation: MAC.) Also known as the melt
strand process. In this molding process, a decorative material is first placed
in a mold. Then a melt strand is formed over the opened mold cavity by an
extruder fitted with a sheet die. The mold is closed to shape the part. After
cooling the decorated component is removed. In this process, as melt tem-
peratures are low, the decorative material is not subjected to high thermal
stresses.
Melt Coating: A plastic film is extruded onto a pre-formed film. This is neces-
sary when the material processing conditions are too dissimilar for coextru-
sion.
Melt Flow Rate: The flow rate obtained from extrusion of a molten resin
through a die of specified length and diameter under prescribed conditions of
time temperature and load. The conditions are specified in ASTM D1238 or
ISO 1133. The larger the number the easier the material flows.
Melt Fracture: Instability in the melt flow through a die starting at the entry to
the die. It leads to surface irregularities on a finished article such as a regular
helix or irregularly spaced ripples.
Melt: Polymer, or resin, at its processing temperature is commonly called
melt.
Melt Pressure: The pressure on the melted plastic material at any point in a
process.
Melt Strength: The strength of a plastic while in the molten state. Reflected
in, for example, the resin melt s ability to hold shape and not sag after it
leaves the die.
Melt Temperature: The temperature of the molten plastic material as it is 275
within or as it leaves the extruder die.
Melt-Strand: A wide strip, or sheet, of melt produced by an extruder and used

as a feedstock for the melt-strand process. See melt application compression.
Metallizing: The technique used to build up a layer of metal (usually alu-
minum) onto a plastic surface.
Metering Zone: The section of an extruder screw that has a uniform flight
depth that conveys the melt and controls the rate of flow through the extruder
into the die.
MFI: Melt flow index. Now called melt flow rate or MFR.
MFR: Melt flow rate.
Micron: A millionth of a meter, that is, 10-6: there are 25 microns (0.025 mm)
in 0.001 in.
Microprocessor: A component of a computer. It is the data processing part of
the central processing unit (CPU).
Microprocessor Control: A type of control system for a machine which is
based on microprocessor(s). Such machines usually have a visual display unit
(VDU) and keypad entry.
Mil: One thousandth of an inch. (0.001" or, 0.001 in.)
Millimeter: One thousandth of a meter, or 10-3 m. One millimeter (mm) equals
0.039 in.
Mirror Image Extruder: A type of extruder system. Such extruders are
installed in pairs, facing each other to save floor space. They are often used
with crosshead dies for processes such as wire covering.
Mirror Image Profile Die: A type of extrusion die used with a dual strand
extruder. Two such dies are used with one being the mirror image of the other.
The melt may be fed through a homogenization device and then divided into
two streams before being fed into the two dies (Each producing, for example,
window profiles).
Mixing Section: A section of a screw that is designed to improve melt mixing.
Ideally, such a mixing section should first produce dispersive mixing and then
distributive mixing. These two mixing processes may be repeated more than
once.
Modular Compounding Machine: A compounding machine which is built on a
modular principle, so that it may be configured to suit a particular material or
compounding operation. Such machines may be based on a single shaft sys-
tem or on a double shaft system. A twin screw extruder may also be consid-
ered as a modular compounding machine in some cases.
Monoaxial: In films, or tapes, it refers to single direction orientation produced
by drawing in the machine direction.
Monofilament: Single strands of plastic used as brush bristles, fishing line or
as rope (when twisted together). Diameter range 0.005 to 0.06".
Monomer: The starting material, molecule, or unit from which a plastic is pro-
duced (or polymerized).
NC: Numerical control.
Neck In: See neck-down.
Neck-Down: Reduction of extrudate width caused by drawing down of sheet
during extrusion. It is measured as the difference between the die width and
the width of the extrudate.
Necking: A localized reduction in cross-section that may result from the appli-
cation of a tensile stress.
Nip: A nip, or pinch, is formed between two rolls.
Nip In: See edge tear.
Non-Newtonian Flow: The flow of a polymeric material characterized by a
non-linear relationship, or non-proportionality, between shear rate and shear
stress.
276 Nylon Plastic: Another name for polyamide plastics.
Nylon Screw: See Double Parallel Screw.
Offset: Means that a setting is consistently different from that which is set. In
temperature control this is minimized by using an integral (I) term.
Olefin Plastics: Plastics based on the polymerization of olefin monomers (eg
ethylene, propylene). At least 50% of the resin must be olefin.
Open Loop Control: A type of machine control whereby a parameter is set and
is not adjusted by feedback information.
Orange Peel: An extrusion defect - See Applesauce.
Orientation: An extrusion process that increases the strength and stiffness of
a plastic material by stretching or rolling.
Overcoating: Used in extrusion coating or laminating. It means that the plastic
coating is wider than the substrate. The excess plastic is trimmed and re-
used.
Overshoot: Applied to temperature control. Means that the temperature
shoots past the set point. This often happens during warm-up unless the
controller is fitted with derivative (D) control action.
Oxidation: A common form of degradation for plastics that occurs when a
resin is heated in the presence of, and reacts with, air or oxygen. When this
occurs, the resin is said to be oxidized.
Parallel Laminate: A laminate in which all the layers of material are plied, or
oriented, in the same direction.
Parison: A softened tube of polymer, produced by extrusion or injection mold-
ing, used to make a blow molded product.
Pellets: A plastic feed form supplied as cylinders (approximately 0. 118 in. or,
3 mm, in length and breadth), spheres, or lace cut granules.
Permeability: Refers to the ability of a plastic to allow diffusion through itself.
Many plastic bottles will lose gas, from carbonated drinks because they are
permeable to carbon dioxide.
Permeability Resistance: The resistance of a film to diffusion of gases or
vapors: the reciprocal of permeability.
Pigment: An insoluble coloring system that gives opaque colors in a resin.
Pinch Draw Rollers: A set of rollers used as pullers in the extrusion process:
one form of puller unit.
Pitch: The horizontal distance between corresponding points of two succes-
sive lands on a screw.
Plain Extruder: A smooth bore extruder.
Plain Screw: A conventional three-zone screw as used in a smooth bore
extruder. A screw that does not incorporate mixing sections or mixing pins.
Plastic: A material that contains as an essential ingredient one or more high
molecular weight polymers. It is generally solid at room temperature and is
capable of flowing, under heat and pressure, to form a final shape.
Plastication or Plastification: The process of turning a plastic material into a
melt.
Plasticize: To soften a material and make it plastic or formable, either by
means of a plasticizer or the application of heat.
Plasticizer: A chemical, usually a liquid, which is added to a plastic or resin,
in order to lower its glass transition temperature, which makes it softer and
more flexible.
Plastisol: A suspension of PVC in a plasticizer, which is liquid at room tem-
perature, and will gel or fuse into a solid at higher temperatures.
Plate Die: A simple die made by machining a hole in a metal piece and bolt-
ing it onto the die holder.
Plate Out: When an additive migrates through the plastic during processing,
and builds up on the die.
Plucking: An extrusion defect that appears at intervals along an extrudate that 277
looks like a long needle has been stitched along it.
Plug Flow: A flow condition that means that the velocity across the melt

stream is virtually constant. It applied to the flow of most polymers, which are
non-Newtonian fluids.
Polymer: A chemical compound made up of a large number of repeating mol-
ecular units.
Polymerization: The chemical process whereby a monomer is turned into a
polymer or resin.
Polyolefin Plastics: (Also known as olefin plastics.) Plastics based on olefin
monomers or repeat units (e.g. ethylene). At least 50% of the resin must be
olefin.
Poor Surface Finish: Undesirable dullness on the surface of a product.
Porosity: An extrusion defect that appears as voids.
Preheater: Device used to preheat resin before it is fed to the extruder. Also a
device used to preheat wire before it is fed to the extruder.
Preheating: The process of heating a resin or wire before it is fed into a pro-
duction machine. It is used to increase output, quality and/or dry the material.
Pressure Die: A wire coating die in which the guide tip stops short inside the
die to allow the melt to make contact with the wire inside the die. Pressures of
5,000 psi (345 bar) are common.
Process Capability: A measure of variation within a process relative to a set
specification range (CP= Specification Range/Process Variation).
Process Timer: A timing device used to switch on an electrical circuit at a pre-
selected time.
Processability: The ease with which a plastic material can be extruded. For
example, at a given screw speed, reduced amps and pressure characterize
improved processability.
Profile Dies: Dies that produce parts with complex cross sections by extru-
sion. For example, a window frame section.
Profile: The structure that is seen when an extrudate is cut at right angles to
the direction of extrusion. This usually refers to a complex cross section.
Proportional Band: (PB) A temperature band or range (for example, 10% of
set point) over which power is proportioned, or reduced, as the set point is
approached.
Proportional Control: A control action in which the power supply is progres-
sively reduced within the proportional band as the set point is approached.
Proportioning: Often used interchangeably with Proportional.
Pseudoplastic: A material is said to be pseudoplastic if its viscosity decreases
when it is sheared at a higher rate. That is, it exhibits pseudoplasticity or shear
thinning.
Pseudoplasticity: This means that the viscosity of a material (its resistance to
flow) decreases the faster it is sheared (It demonstrates shear thinning).
Puller: Device used to remove the extrudate from the die region at a con-
trolled rate. It is usually either a pair of rollers or two belts (caterpillar) which
trap the extrudate between them.
Purge Compound: A compound specifically designed, or used, to assist purg-
ing or, machine cleaning. Also known as a purge, a flushing, or cleaning com-
pound. Before such purge compounds are used it is advisable to remove the
die and head assembly as many purge compounds do not melt, or flow, like
ordinary resins.
Purging: The action of cleaning an extrusion cylinder or barrel by running
material through the barrel.
Pushing Flight: That face, or edge, of the screw flight that drives the plastic
towards the die. The face nearest the die.
278 Pyrometer: An instrument used to measure temperature.
QC: Quality control.
Quality Control: Techniques or schemes that seek to maintain a consistent
quality of production.
Ram: Another word for plunger or piston.
Ram Extruder: An extrusion machine that uses direct piston pressure, rather
than a screw, to drive extrusion.
Reactive Processing (Reactive Extrusion): Term used to describe a process,
usually extrusion compounding, where the plastic is chemically reacted, or
modified, as well as being shaped.
Reclaim: A reclaimed plastic material. Usually a reclaimed thermoplastic
material, which is commonly known as, regrind.
Reclaimed Thermoplastic Material: Also known as reclaim. A material that
has been recovered from scrapped, or unwanted, output. The re-use, by melt
processing, of a molded component is only possible with thermoplastic mate-
rials or thermoplastic elastomers (TPE). One of the most common additives
used with thermoplastic materials is reclaimed material. The feed is usually a
mixture of virgin (new) material and reclaimed material. However, many
machines run on 100% reclaimed material.
Reclamation: The process of reclaiming plastic material from unwanted prod-
uct.
Recycled Plastics Material: A thermoplastic material, prepared from discard-
ed articles that have been separated by type, cleaned, and ground.
Regranulation: The process of regrinding scrapped output.
Regrind: The term used for a material that has been reclaimed by grinding.
Reinforcing Filler: A filler that strengthens, or reinforces, a polymer. One of
the best known examples is glass fiber that is widely used to make rigid plas-
tics.
Relay: A mechanical/electrical device in which a small electrical signal is used
to initiate the switching of a much larger electrical supply.
Release Agent: A material painted or sprayed onto a substrate in order to
prevent adhesion.
Reprocessed Plastic Material: A thermoplastic material prepared from indus-
trial scrap produced by other than the original processor.
Restrictor Bar: A device used to even out flow along a sheet die. It is used to
promote the production of sheet of uniform thickness.
Retractable Melt Thermocouple: A type of thermocouple whose depth of
immersion can be varied during operation. It is used to study the distribution
of melt temperatures across a melt stream, for example, in extrusion.
Reworked Plastic Material: A thermoplastics material prepared from rejected
production components that has been reprocessed in a fabricators plant after
having been processed in that plant.
RH: Relative humidity. A measure of how much moisture is present in the
atmosphere.
Rheology: The science of flow. The study of the deformation and flow of mat-
ter in terms of stress, strain and time.
Rheometer: A device used to measure the flow properties of materials.
Ringing: An extrusion defect that takes the form of concentric rings of a
thicker or thinner wail section caused by screw pulsation or, by slipping in the
haul off or, by the extrudate sticking in the sizing box.
Ripple: An extrusion fault that takes the form of a steady undulation or wave-
like appearance. Sometimes found in PVC extrusions that are non-uniform in
temperature.
Rodding: Process used to force material to flow through an extruder. A rod of
plastic (the same as that being extruded) is pushed onto the screw until the
feedstock is gripped and feeds by itself.
Root: The root is the central shaft of a screw. 279
Rotating Die: Used in lay flat film extrusion to hide thickness variations and
eliminate gauge bands.

Rotometer: Instrument for monitoring and regulating water flow.
Rupture Disc: A rupture disc is a hollow, threaded plug which has a thin metal
diaphragm welded to it that is generally located between the screw tip and the
breaker plate. If the melt pressure exceeds the strength of the diaphragm, it
bursts and reduces the extrusion pressure by venting the material from the
machine.
Safety Gate: An access port to moving machinery that will only allow the
machine to work if it is closed.
Sample: A small part or portion of a material, or product, intended to be rep-
resentative of the whole.
Scorex: A term used for shear controlled orientation extrusion.
Scotch: A mechanical restraint used, for example, on the safety gates of some
blow molding machines. When the guard is opened the scotch prevents the
mold from being closed.
SCR Drive: A motor drive system that controls the speed of a DC motor by the
use of rectified pulses of power. This means that the AC supply is converted to
appropriately sized DC pulses as dictated by a speed measuring device.
SCR: Stands for silicon-controlled rectifier.
Screen: A piece of wire gauze used as a mesh or sieve; usually made into a
screen pack.
Screen Pack: A collection, or group, of wire-mesh screens supported by the
breaker plate that are used to remove contamination and/or to improve mixing
by building up pressure. The coarse screen (20 or 40) is placed next to the
breaker plate followed by finer screens (60, 80 or finer).
Screw Channel: The open section between the flights of the screw.
Screw: The screw consists of a round bar of steel, into which is cut a helical
channel (leaving the screw thread). It rotates inside the extrusion barrel and
melts and conveys a plastic material from the hopper to the die.
Segmented Extruder: An extruder in which the screw and barrel are built up
using segments or sections. Such a construction is used in extrusion experi-
ments to study, for example, the effect of changes in screw design on melt
mixing. Both segmented single screw extruders and segmented twin screw
extruders are commercially available.
Self-Tuning: Some instruments are self tuning to avoid over-response or over-
reaction to a change.
Semi-Automatic: This means that a machine, for example a blow molding
machine, will do one cycle of operation and then stop until the operator starts
it again.
Semi-Crystalline: Usually applies to a semi-crystalline, thermoplastic material.
The material is not 100% crystalline. - See crystalline.
Semiconductor: A material whose electrical resistance is midway between that
of an insulator and that of a conductor.
Set Point: A setting on an instrument. If a temperature controller is set at
200F or 93C then the set point is 200F or 93C.
Setting: The preparation of a machine for production.
Shank: The shank of a screw is the rearward end. It is the part that fits into
the drive and which contains the drive key.
Shark Skin: A defect caused by melt fracture. See Applesauce.
Shear Heat: Heat generated as a result of shearing or deformation of the poly-
mer: for example, by the screw within the extrusion barrel.
Shear Rate: The rate at which a material is undergoing deformation, or move-
ment, in response to a shear stress; usually expressed in reciprocal seconds,
that is, in sec-1.
280 Shear Stress: The force applied to a material to cause flow. It has the dimen-
sions of force per unit area.
Sheet: An individual piece of sheeting. Extruded sheet usually has a thickness
greater than 0.01 in. (0.25 mm).
Sheet Extrusion Die: Die used to make plastic sheeting.
Shrinkage: The reduction in dimensions that a component suffers after pro-
duction.
Shrink-Wrap: A packaging technique that utilizes stretch orientation. Compo-
nents are placed inside a bag that is heated cause shrinkage (tightening) of
the plastic film.
Silage Bale-Wrap Film: A type of extruded polyethylene film used for the
wrapping of silage. Such film is often coextruded, with a central layer of linear
low-density polyethylene sandwiched between a UV-resistant black layer and
a self-adhesive inner layer. The self-adhesive inner layer is a tacky polyethyl-
ene film.
Single-Screw Extruder: An extruder that uses a single conveying screw to
melt and pump the plastic material.
Single-Shaft Kneading Extruder: A modular compounding machine. Such a
machine may be based on a central shaft onto which are fitted rotors (that
interact with barrel mounted stators) and threaded sections (which convey
material between the rotor/stator pairs). The material is heat-softened, in an
extrusion section, passed into the mixing section and then into another screw
section. This process may be repeated several times to obtain mixing and
devolatilization.
Sink Mark: An unwanted depression on the surface of a component.
Size (of an Extruder): The size of an extruder is expressed in terms of the
external diameter of its screw: for example, 2 inch or 50 mm.
Sizing Plates: Used in tube or pipe production to control size or external
diameter. They are metal plates with machined holes of the required size.
Sizing Rings: Used in tube or pipe production to control size or, external
diameter.
Skiving: A process for the production of film or sheet by cutting from a block
or log of material. It is used, for example, to make PTFE tape.
Slip Agent: A substance added to promote sliding action. For example, a fatty
acid amide, erucamide, is used widely in film extrusion.
Slip: The ability of materials to slide over each other.
Smooth Bore Extruder: A smooth barrel extruder or a plain extruder. A con-
ventional single screw extruder that does not contain an axial grooved bush.
See Grooved Bush Extruder.
Softener: An additive, usually a liquid, which is added to make a polymer soft-
er. Oils are used in elastomers/rubbers for this purpose.
Solenoid: An electromechanical device in which the flow of an electrical cur-
rent through a coil causes an iron core to move. It may be used to open or
close valves.
Solution Casting: Similar to dispersion coating except that the polymer is sol-
uble in a suitable liquid. See Solvent Casting.
Solvent Casting: A solution of polymer is cast onto a metal plate or rolls and
the solvent is evaporated, leaving a film.
SPC: Statistical Process Control.
SPE: The Society of Plastics Engineers.
Specimen: A piece or portion of a sample used to make a test.
Spider Lines: An extrusion defect that is caused by the plastic melt being
divided by the legs of the spider.
Spider: That part of a pipe or wire coating die assembly that supports the tor-
pedo.
Spreader: Another word for torpedo. 281
Sputtering: An electrical process for depositing a metal coating onto a sur-
face.

SQC: Statistical Quality Control.
Square Pitch: When the pitch of a screw is equal to its diameter it is called a
square pitched screw. It has a helix angle of 17.70 and the number of turns is
equal to the L/ D ratio.
Standard Deviation: A measure of spread or dispersion. It is defined as the
square root, of the mean of the squares of the individual deviations from the
average.
Start: The number of separate threads that can be traced along the screw. This
number is usually one; so most screws are single start screws.
Static Mixer Blender: An in-line unit that mixes the plastics melt stream to
make it uniform in temperature and composition. It does this by cutting and
recombining the melt stream by making it flow over many blade-type obstruc-
tions.
Static: The electrical charge generated, and retained, on insulated surfaces:
generated on film surfaces when they are separated.
Statistical Process Control: The application of statistical techniques to pro-
duction processes to keep them under control and thus improve productivity
and uniformity.
Statistical Quality Control: The application of statistical techniques to the pro-
duction process to improve quality.
Stellite: A hard and non-corroding alloy made from cobalt (35 to 80%),
chromium (15 to 40%), tungsten (10 to 25%), molybdenum (0 to 40%) and
iron (0 to 5%).
Stenter Frame (also called Tenter Frame): A device for imparting biaxial ori-
entation to extruded film. The film is gripped by the edges and drawn side-
ways at the same time as it is pulled in the machine direction.
Step: A rapid decrease in channel depth (over one turn or less) which acts as
a barrier to forward flow of un-melted granules. It, therefore, fixes the gel
point at the step. See Double Parallel Screw.
Stepped Screw: See Double Parallel Screw.
Surging: The unsteady flow of a plastic melt through the extruder.
Tapered Extruder: An extruder that contains a tapered screw or screws. See
Tapered Twin-Screw Extruder.
Tapered Parallel Screw: An extrusion screw which has a gradually tapering
root (the channel depth gradually changes) in the compression zone, while the
feed zone and the metering zone are parallel and of constant depth. Probably
the most common screw type. Unlike the double parallel screw, the velocity of
the un-melted portion of the melting material bed is maintained and there is
less risk of polymer stagnation (because of the absence of a step).
Tapered Screw: A screw that has a gradually tapering root: i.e., the channel
depth gradually changes. Usually the diameter of the screw root increases
steadily from the hopper end to the die end of the extruder.
Tapered Twin Screw Extruder: A type of twin-screw extruder that contains two
screws the outside diameters of which gradually reduce from the feed zone to
the discharge end. By tapering the screws, large thrust bearings can be
incorporated which permits high outputs. Shear at the screw tips is also
reduced because of the reduced surface speed of the screw at that point.
Temperature Profile: The temperatures set on the zones of a machine. During
melt processing it is common to have a lower temperature at the hopper-end
of a machine and a higher temperature at the die-end. The temperatures of the
zones in between are increased fairly uniformly. This is a normal or uphill
temperature profile. However, one can also have a reverse temperature profile.
282 With some materials, for example high melting point nylon, the extruder may
be started with an uphill profile and then be switched to a downhill profile
once extrusion is safely underway.
Tenter Frame: See Stenter Frame.
Terpolymer: A polymer made from three monomers.
Thermocouple: A heat sensor that consists of two wires of different metals
joined at each end. It has two junctions, one hot and one cold. Because of this
temperature difference a small electric current flows and its value is propor-
tional to that difference. Also called the Seebeck effect or, the thermoelectric
effect.
Thermoplastic: A plastic material that can be repeatably melted and solidified
by being cooled. This makes thermoplastics recyclable.
Thermoset: The short form for thermosetting plastic.
Thermosetting Plastic: A plastic material in which the initial monomers react
to form a three-dimensional cross-linked network. It is essentially one large
molecule. Therefore, it cannot be re-melted or reprocessed.
Thixotropy: Means that the viscosity of a material increases drastically when
the shearing force inducing the flow is removed.
Thread Up: The procedure of starting an extrusion line by leading the extru-
date through the downstream equipment.
Three Term Control: Associated with temperature controllers, it means that
the instrument has circuits, or terms, for proportional, integral, and derivative
control. It is a PID controller.
Three-Roll Stack: Set of three metal cooling rollers used to cool and size
plastics sheet in a sheet extrusion line.
Thrust Bearing: The main bearing that takes the load (or thrust) generated by
the screw in an extruder. It is designed to last at least 100,000 hours at the
extreme thrust load of the screw.
Thrust Load: The load generated by the turning action of the screw that is
assumed to be twice the head pressure value. For example, if a 3.500 in. (
88.9 mm) machine is operating against a maximum head pressure of 5,000
psi ( 350 bar) the direct back force is 50,000 lbs. (223 kN). The extreme
thrust load is twice this or, 100,000 (446 kN).
Timed Acceleration: Limits the rate at which an electric motor comes up to
speed to prevent excessive loads that may damage the screw or the drive.
Total Quality Control (TQC): Means that everyone in the factory is committed
to quality production.
TQ: Tubular quench.
Trailing Flight: The rear part of the screw flight.
Transducer: A device that changes energy from one form to another. For
example, a force may be changed to an electrical output as in a pressure
transducer.
Transition, First Order: A change of state associated with a discontinuity in
properties such as the crystal to liquid change that occurs in the melting of
polymer crystals. The melting point of a semi-crystalline, thermoplastics
material is an example of a first order transition.
Transition, Second Order: A transition characterized by a shift in the rate of
change of a property, such as heat capacity verses temperature. An example
is the glass transition temperature (Tg).
Transverse Direction: The direction across the extruder (i.e. at right angles)
to the machine direction.
Tubing Die: A die used to produce tubing. This die has an outer bushing and
an inner pin. The plastic melt flows in between the two to form the product.
Tubing: Small bore pipe with an internal diameter of 0.5-in. (12.7 mm) or
less. The term may also be applied to larger bore pipe if such pipe is flexible
and has thin walls.
Tubular Film: Film produced by extrusion. A tube of softened plastic is inflated 283
to the required diameter, cooled, and collected on a reel.
Tubular Quench: A tubular film process in which the bubble is quenched with

water to improve the clarity of films made from semi-crystalline thermoplastic
materials such as polypropylene.
Twin-Screw Extruder: An extruder that uses two screws to convey a plastic
material. The two screws are parallel and may be intermeshing or non-inter-
meshing and co-rotating or counter-rotating.
Two Term Control: Associated with temperature controllers. Refers to the fact
that the instrument has circuits, or terms, for proportional and integral or pro-
portional and derivative control. That is, it is either a PI controller or a PD con-
troller.
Ultrasonic Welding: A joining process for plastics that uses the friction
induced in components by ultra sound to melt the material at the interface of
the parts.
Underwater Pelletizing: Another name for the die face cutting process used
to produce pellets from molten strands by cutting them off, underwater, at the
die face,
UV Stabilizers: Chemicals added to plastics to hinder decomposition caused
by UV light.
UV: Ultra violet.
Vacuum Calibrator: Equipment used to set the dimensions of an extrudate
(e.g., the external diameter of pipe or tubing) by expanding the material
against sizing rings by application of a vacuum.
Vacuum Sizing: Technique used to set the dimensions of an extrudate by
expanding the material against a sizing sleeve, or against sizing rings, by
means of an applied vacuum.
Variance: A statistical term obtained by squaring the standard deviation.
VDU: Stands for visual display unit.
Vent: A hole, or port, in the barrel though which material can be withdrawn
from or introduced into the molten plastic material.
Vented Extruder: An extruder which contains a port, or vent, in the barrel
through which material can be withdrawn, or introduced, into the molten plas-
tic material. It is often used to extract volatiles (devolitize) from a plastic mate-
rial.
Venting: The process whereby volatiles escape, or are removed from, a
molten plastic material.
Venturi Cooling Ring: A unit used to cool film, by using a primary air stream
to draw in additional air by the venturi effect. It is also used to stabilize, or size
the film while it is cooling.
Vertical Extrusion: A process in which the barrel of an extrusion machine is
mounted vertically. (I.e., at right angles to the ground.)
Virgin: In extrusion refers to material that is new or unused.
Viscosity Coefficient: The shearing stress necessary to induce a unit velocity
flow gradient in a material. Generally expressed in Pascal-seconds (Pa-sec).
Viscosity: The resistance to flow of a material. The ratio of the shear stress
and shear rate. Viscosity is constant for a Newtonian fluid, but variable for
polymers. It is expressed in Nsm2, Pa-sec, or lbs. sec. in2 and given the Greek
letter (Apparent viscosity is the value obtained for non-Newtonian fluids,
e.g. polymers, assuming that they behave as Newtonian materials).
Voids: A defect found in thick sections that develop during cooling. They are
unwanted cavities.
Volatiles: A general term for a substance that is a gas at processing tempera-
tures.
Warping: Distortion of a product that generally occurs upon cooling. The
dimensions of an extrudate may distort as a result of uneven cooling or
284 because it was hauled off unevenly. May result from orientation in filled (e.g.,
glass) extrudates.
Water Treeing: The breakdown of cable insulation caused by moisture in the
presence of an electric field.
Web: A name given to film under tension during production.
Weir: An aperture on the end of a water tank that is used to control the water
overflow into the drain.
Wettability: The relative tendency of a fluid (for example a plastics melt), to
adhere to and spread on a substrate. The wettability of a plastic coating is typ-
ically dependent on surface tension, viscosity and chemical compatibility.
Wheatstone Bridge: A divided electrical circuit used for the measurement of
resistance.
Wind-Up: Roller system used for collecting film or wire.
Winders: Units used to collect extrudates on spools or reels.
Window: An area of transparent material in an otherwise translucent, or
opaque, part. This defect could be due to uneven cooling or, to un-melted
granules that have passed through the machine.
Wire Covering or Wire Coating: An extrusion operation for the application of
a plastic coating onto a wire. It is usually done by crosshead extrusion.
Yardage: The length of product on a reel.
Yield: The area of film at a given thickness produced from a given weight of
resin.
ZD: Zero defects. Refers to the goal of producing perfect product all the time.
Zero Start: The speed control must be turned to zero before the drive can be
started.
ZI: Zero inventory manufacturing - see JIT.
Zone: A section of an extruder barrel. For ease of control, the barrel of an
extruder is divided into zones or regions. Each zone has its own heating ele-
ments and controls. That is called zoned heating.
Zoned Heating: The separate heating, and temperature control, of each zone
of an extruder. The barrel of a small extruder will usually have three zones,
while larger machines may have, for example, twelve. A temperature sensor
and associated electronics (for example, a microprocessor-based, three term
(PID) controller) control each of these zones.
BOOK LIST
Agassant, J.-F., Avenas, P., Sergent, J.-Ph., and Carreau, P. J., Polymer
Processing, Hanser, 1991
Andreassen, E., Computer Modelling of Polymer Processing, A RAPRA
review report. RAPRA Technology Ltd., 1992.
Belofsky, H., Plastics Product Design and Process Engineering, Carl Hanser
Verlag, 1995.
Brydson, J. A., Flow Properties of Polymer Melts, Second Edition, George
Godwin, Harlow, 1981.
Brydson, J. A., Plastics Materials, Fifth Edition, Butterworth Scientific, 1995.
Cogswell, F. N., Polymer Melt Rheology, Woodhead Publishing, Ltd., 1997.
Crawford, R. J., Plastics Engineering, Second Edition, Pergammon Press,
Oxford, 1987.
Dealy, J. M. and Wissbrun, K. F., Melt Rheology and Its Role in Polymer
Processing, Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1990.
Djordjevic, D., Coextrusion, A RAPRA review report. RAPRA Technology 285
Ltd., 1992.

Gordon, G. V. and Shaw, M. T., Computer Programs for Rheologists, Carl
Hanser Verlag, 1994.
Hiemenz, P. C., Polymer Chemistry, Marcel Dekker, Inc., 1984.
Hough, M. C. and Dolbey, R., The Plastics Compendium B Vol.1, RAPRA
Technology Ltd., 1995.
Macosko, C.W., Rheology: Principles, Measurements, and Applications, VCH
Publishers, 1994.
OBrien, K. T. (Editor), Applications of Computer Modelling for Extrusion and
Other Continuous Polymer Processes, Carl Hanser Verlag, 1992.
Pearson, J. R. A. and Richardson, S. M. (Editors), Computational Analysis of
Polymer Processing, Applied Science Publishers, 1983.
Progelhof, R. C. and Throne, J. L., Polymer Engineering Principles,
Hanser/Gardner, 1993.
Rao, N. S., Designing Machines and Dies for Polymer Processing with
Computer Programs, Carl Hanser Verlag, 1981.
RAPRA , The Versatility of Extrusion, Conference proceedings, RAPRA
RAPRA, Developments in the European Extrusion Industry, An Industry
Analysis Report, RAPRA Technology Ltd., 1995.
RAPRA, Screws for Polymer Processing, Conference Proceedings, RAPRA
Rauwendaal, C., Polymer Extrusion, Hanser, 1990.
Rauwendaal, C., Understanding Extrusion, Hanser, 1998
Richardson, P. N., Introduction to Extrusion, Society of Plastics Engineers,
1974.
Rubin, I. I. (Editor), Handbook of Plastics Materials and Technology, Wiley-
Interscience, 1990.
Society of the Plastics Industry (Sheet Producers Division), Guide to
Extruded Plastic Sheet Products, SPI, 1988.
Stevens, M. J. and Covas, J. A., Extruder Principles and Operation, (2nd
Edition), Chapman & Hall, 1995.
Tucker, C. L. (Editor), Fundamentals of Computer Modelling of Polymer
Processing, Carl Hanser Verlag, 1989.
Whelan, A., Injection Moulding Machines, Originally published by Applied
Science Publishers in 1984 and now marketed by Chapman & Hall.
Whelan, A., Polymer Technology Dictionary, Chapman & Hall, 1994.
Wildi, R.H. and Maier, C., Understanding Compounding, Hanser Gardner,
1998.
286
NOTES
287
NOTES

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What are the main sections covered in the handbook?

What are the main sections covered in the handbook?

What are some common extrusion processes discussed?

What are some common extrusion processes discussed?

The

SECTION 2: MATERIALS AND THEIR FLOW

SECTION 4: THE SCREW AND BARREL SYSTEM

SECTION 6: EXTRUSION OPERATIONS

SECTION 7: DEFECTS AND DEFECT FINDING

SECTION 8: GUIDELINES FOR THE FOLLOWING

SECTION 9: USEFUL INFORMATION

section 1: introduction to extrusion

SINGLE SCREW EXTRUSION

Scope of the Handbook

Extrusion and Thermoplastics

Figure 1. Single Screw Extruder (courtesy of Dr. Harold Giles)

Post Extrusion Equipment

section 1: introduction to extrusion

TWIN SCREW EXTRUSION

Uses of Twin-Screw Extruders

Gear Box Main

Down Stream Feed

Twin Screws with

Figure 2. Twin Screw Extruder (courtesy of Krupp Werner & Pfleiderer)

Operation and Characteristics

Co-Rotating or Counter-Rotating Machines

section 1: introduction to extrusion

Breakerplate and Screenpack

Figure 3. Gear Pump

section 1: introduction to extrusion

Sizing Tank Cooling Unit Haul-Off Unit Cutting Unit

Figure 4. Pipe Extrusion

Nip (or Pinch) Stainless Steel

Extruder Cylinder Dancer Roll for

Figure 5. Blown Film Extrusion

Extrusion Screen Gear Static Calender

Figure 6. Sheet and Film Extrusion

section 1: introduction to extrusion

Preh Spark Tension

Figure 7. Wire Coating

Extrusion Blow Molding

Fiber from Film

section 1: introduction to extrusion

Resin Decomposition and Fumes

section 1: introduction to extrusion

The Die or Nozzle

Work Handling Devices

section 2: introduction to extrusion

FLOW PROPERTIES MEASUREMENT

ELASTIC EFFECTS IN POLYMER MELTS

POLYMERS AND PLASTICS

Long Chain Structure

section 2: introduction to extrusion

section 2: introduction to extrusion

Major Thermoplastic Materials

Commodity or Bulk Thermoplastics

section 2: introduction to extrusion

New Material Supply

Trade Name/Trademark Usage