SEDIMENTOLOGY AND SEQUENCE STRATIGRAPHY OF EARLY SYN-RIFT TIDAL SEDIMENTS: THE

NUKHUL FORMATION, SUEZ RIFT, EGYPT

IAN D. CARR,1,* ROB L. GAWTHORPE,1 CHRISTOPHER A.L. JACKSON,1 IAN R. SHARP,1 AND ALI SADEK 2
1 Basin and Stratigraphic Studies Group, Department of Earth Sciences, The University of Manchester, Oxford Road, Manchester, M13 9PL, U.K.
e-mail: [email protected]
2 Department of Geology, Faculty of Science, University of Cairo, Giza, Cairo, Egypt

ABSTRACT: Facies and tectono-stratigraphic models for the tidally in- be unequivocally related to structural style at the time of deposition (cf.
fluenced Miocene Nukhul Formation are presented, based on outcrop Surlyk and Clemmensen 1983; Gjelberg et al. 1987; Richards 1991).
data from Hammam Faraun fault block, Suez Rift, Egypt. Deposits of This study focuses on the Miocene Nukhul Formation, Suez Rift, which
the Nukhul Formation are attributed to two linked depositional set- was deposited in a wave-dominated estuary in tectonically formed, narrow
tings, offshore to shoreface and estuary settings, and were deposited embayments subject to a mesotidal range. We develop a process-based
during initial stages of rifting in hanging-wall depocenters of early- facies model for the Nukhul Formation, characterize key stratal surfaces
formed propagating fault segments. The offshore to shoreface deposits that subdivide the formation into genetically related packages, and discuss
consist of variably bioturbated mudstones that pass gradationally up- structural controls on sedimentation and stratigraphic evolution. Thus, we
ward to bioturbated bioclastic sandstones. The more landward estuary address controls on the distribution, geometry, facies stacking pattern, and
deposits can be separated into a tripartite division of estuary mouth, character of key stratal surfaces of tidal deposits in a rift basin. The ex-
estuary funnel with bayhead delta, and upper estuary channel deposits. ceptional exposure of un-inverted rift basin structures and wave-dominated,
Estuarine processes generated a complex intercalation of lithologies, tidally influenced stratigraphy found in the Hammam Faraun fault block,
with both gradational and sharp facies transitions. In the estuary de- Suez Rift, allows: (1) walking out of facies transitions in both depositional
posits, tidal ravinement surfaces are typically characterized by mud- dip and strike orientations, (2) characteristics of key strata surfaces to be
stones of the estuary-funnel association below, passing abruptly up to documented, and (3) structural influence on deposition and stratigraphic
erosionally based estuary mouth sandstones. Maximum flooding sur- evolution to be defined. Development of the sedimentological and tectono-
faces are expressed by an abrupt erosional contact separating estuary- stratigraphic models for the Nukhul Formation provides insights into the
mouth sandstones below and estuary-funnel mudstones above. controls on sequence development during early stages of rifting (so-called
Stratigraphic development was strongly influenced by the evolving rift initiation), and also leads to better prediction of sandbody location,
early-rift structure. Depocenters were narrow (25 km wide) and elon- geometry and heterogeneity in early syn-rift plays.
gate (, 10 km long) parallel to the strike of normal-fault segments.
The shoreface shoal prevented wave energy in the estuary and in- GEOLOGICAL SETTING
creased the relative influence of tidal currents. The elongate, fault-
controlled geometry of the depocenters confined the bayhead delta and The Suez Rift is the northern extension of the Red Sea Rift, which
further enhanced tidal influence. Stratal geometry reflects deformation developed during separation of the African plate from the Arabian plate in
associated with low-relief growth folds and surface-breaking faults the Late Oligocene. The rift trends NWSE and is up to 300 km long and
that, together, formed part of an evolving fault array. This basin con- 80 km wide. Normal faults strike parallel to the elongation of the modern
figuration and associated Nukhul stratigraphy is markedly different to gulf and are linked by shorter faults, resulting in a classic extensional zig-
tectono-stratigraphic models for crustal-scale tilted fault blocks that zag fault pattern in plan view. In cross section, the rift is characterized by
are applicable from late stages of rifting. large tilted fault blocks 10 to 20 km wide, the dips of which subdivide the
rift into three asymmetric dip provinces along its length (Moustafa 1976;
Colleta et al. 1988; Patton et al. 1994). This study concentrates on the
INTRODUCTION Hammam Faraun fault block of the central dip province, which is exposed
in western Sinai (Fig. 1A).
In a sequence stratigraphic framework, tidal facies are commonly de- In the Hammam Faraun fault block, the latest pre-rift deposits are dom-
scribed from incised valleys and are interpreted to have formed during inantly carbonates (e.g., Garfunkel and Bartov 1977) and these are uncon-
relative sea-level rise following fluvial incision (e.g., Allen and Posamentier formably overlain by earliest syn-rift continental deposits of the Abu Zen-
1993; Dalrymple et al. 1994; Mellere 1994; Nichol et al. 1996; Zhang and ima Formation. The Abu Zenima Formation (23.521.1 Ma) ranges from
Li 1996). Previous facies and sequence stratigraphic models have been 100 m thick (Fig. 1B) to locally absent, and lies with an erosional contact
developed mainly on the premise that eustasy was the controlling factor above pre-rift lithologies and infills early-formed depocenters in the hang-
on relative sea level and accommodation, and the driving force for both ing-wall of short, 15 km long faults (Figs. 1A, 2) (Sharp et al. 2000b;
fluvial incision and subsequent infill during relative sea-level rise. Other Jackson et al. 2002). The overlying Nukhul Formation (21.119.7 Ma), the
controlling factors on accommodation, such as local tectonics, have not, as subject of this paper (Figs. 1B, 2), was also deposited when the Hammam
yet, been considered. Due to fault propagation, fault linkage, and fault death Faraun block was characterized by a number of short, intra-fault block
the structural development of rift basins introduces extra complexity to the faults with relatively small (, 1 km) displacements (Sharp et al. 2000b).
sequence stratigraphy of tidal facies. These structural factors cause varia- The top of the Nukhul Formation is characterized by deposits displaying
tions in basin physiography and accommodation in four dimensions (see evidence of a prominent increase in water depth associated with a change
review in Gawthorpe and Leeder 2000). Furthermore, there are relatively to basinal mudstones of the Lower Rudeis Formation (Fig. 2).
few studies of tidal deposits in rift basins, especially where tidal facies can The distribution, geometry, and lapout relationships of the Nukhul For-
mation are closely related to the structural geometry of fault-controlled
* Present address: Geology (BMS), Oxford Brookes University, Headington, Ox-
depocenters, and have been interpreted to reflect the growth and linkage of
ford OX3 0BP, U.K. normal faults and associated folds (Gawthorpe et al. 1997; Gawthorpe et
Present address: Norsk Hydro Research Center, Sandsliveien 90, N-5020, Ber- al. 2000; Gawthorpe and Leeder 2000; Sharp et al. 2000a; Sharp et al.
gen, Norway 2000b, Jackson et al. 2002). However, in addition to local fault control on

JOURNAL OF SEDIMENTARY RESEARCH, VOL. 73, NO. 3, MAY, 2003, P. 407420

Copyright q 2003, SEPM (Society for Sedimentary Geology) 1527-1404/03/073-407/$03.00
408 I.D. CARR ET AL.

FIG. 1.A) Location map indicating studied

exposures of the Nukhul Formation in the
Hammam Faraun fault block, Western Sinai,
Gulf of Suez, and locations of other figures in
this paper. Paleocurrents (insets) from the Thal
and Tanka areas show NWSE oriented tidal
cross-beds and NNE oriented tidal inlets.
Paleocurrents from the Nukhul area show
WNWESE directed tidal cross-beds and SSE
directed inlet currents. B) Typical exposure of
the Nukhul Formation at the top of the cliff,
with the continental Abu Zenima Formation at
the base of the cliff and, along the west face of
the Nukhul syncline, 4 km long and 120 m high.
 SEDIMENTOLOGY AND SEQUENCE STRATIGRAPHY OF THE NUKHUL FORMATION, EGYPT 409

FIG. 2.Idealized chronostratigraphic diagram

illustrating the development of formations across
the Hammam Faraun fault block. The Nukhul
Formation was deposited in the hanging-wall
depocenters of early-formed fault segments.
Fault movement was later concentrated on major
block-bounding faults.

the development of the Nukhul Formation, there are data supporting the magnetostratigraphy (Bentham et al. 1996). The structural framework for
role of regional base-level change. In particular, the prominent transgres- this study is based on our detailed structural studies (e.g., Gawthorpe et al.
sive surface and condensed section at the top of the Nukhul Formation 1997; Sharp et al. 2000a; Sharp et al. 2000b; Jackson et al. 2002) and those
(T10 of Krebs et al. 1997; see our Fig. 2) are developed throughout the of Adel Moustafa (e.g. Moustafa 1993, 1996; Moustafa and Abdeen 1992).
Suez Rift (Krebs et al. 1997). Although this basin-wide change is regionally
extensive, several workers have interpreted it to reflect the tectonic evo- SEDIMENTARY FACIES
lution of the rift (e.g., Patton et al. 1994; Gupta et al. 1999; Sharp et al.
2000b). This study suggests that the Nukhul Formation was deposited in two
broadly contemporaneous environments: (1) an open-shelf offshore to shor-
METHODS eface environment (Facies Association A), and (2) a structurally controlled
estuary. The estuary deposits can be subdivided into estuary-mouth deposits
Sedimentological analysis of the Nukhul Formation is based on: sections (Facies Association B), estuary-funnel with bayhead-delta deposits (Facies
logged at 1:25 to 1:50, spaced at intervals between tens to a few hundred Association C) and upper-estuary channel (Facies Association D) deposits.
meters; mapping horizontal facies variations; and field-based interpretation The facies and facies associations are shown schematically in Figure 3, and
of large-format photo panoramas. The data presented in this paper come their key characteristics are summarized in Table 1. The facies associations
from three main exposures of the Nukhul Formation in the Hammam Far- are described in a seaward to landward order within the estuary.
aun fault block: the areas around Wadi Thal, Wadi Tanka, and Wadi Nu-
khul (Fig. 1A). The exceptional quality of the exposure enables key stratal Facies Association A: Offshore to Shoreface
surfaces associated with abrupt facies shifts and facies belts within genet-
ically related stratal packages to be walked out, or traced on photo Units of Facies Association A are up to 30 m thick and can be traced
panoramas where exposures were too steep, over distances of up to 10 km. for over 5 km along both depositional dip and strike. In a depositional dip
This paper develops a generic model for estuary deposits in rift settings, orientation, seaward deposits of Facies Association A consist of variably
applicable to all three outcrop study areas. Landward to seaward trends bioturbated silty mudstones with prominent ferroan carbonate concretions
were identified by walking up depositional dip from shallow marine de- (Facies A1), and pass landward into bioturbated, fine-grained, bioclastic
posits to continental deposits. The estuary depositional system in each sub- sandstones (Facies A2) (Fig. 3, 4A).
basin was broadly parallel to the fault orientation, in a NWSE trend. Variably Bioturbated Mudstones (A1).These mudstones form reces-
However, the directions of landward to seaward trends vary within and sive-weathering intervals up to 20 m thick (typically 25 m thick), with
between fault segments, as sediment entered the depocenters at one or both ferroan carbonate concretions in the middle of vertical sections and sub-
fault tips. In this paper, landward to seaward orientations rather than actual ordinate decimeter-thick coarsening-upward units towards the top. The
orientations, are given for the estuaries. mudstones contain benthic and planktonic foraminifera, and sponge spic-
The chronostratigraphic framework (Fig. 2) linking the individual areas ules as bioclasts. Bioturbation is highly variable (bioturbation index ranging
is based on biostratigraphic graphic correlation (Krebs et al. 1997) and between 1 and 6, sensu Taylor and Goldring 1993) and is commonly in-
410 I.D. CARR ET AL.

FIG. 3.A) Genetic facies model for the Nukhul Formation, based on outcrops from the Hammam Faraun block. Offshore to shoreface (Facies Association A) deposits
trace laterally to estuary deposits (Facies Associations BD). B) Schematic longitudinal cross section, based on outcrops from the Hammam Faraun block, illustrating
autocyclically generated surfaces. Gradational transitions occur from variably bioturbated mudstones (A1) to bioturbated, bioclastic sandstones (A2) and green/red laminated
mudstones (C1) to fine- to medium-grained, cross-bedded sandstones (C3). Sharp transitions occur from bioturbated, bioclastic sandstones (A2) to coarse-grained, trough
cross-bedded sandstones (B1); coarse-grained, low-angle planar cross-bedded sandstones (B2) to green/red laminated mudstones (C1); and green/red laminated mudstones
(C1) to low-angle-laminated sandstones and mudstones (D1). MHWM 5 mean high water mark, MLWM 5 mean low water mark.

distinct, although Planolites and Chondrites can locally be identified. The Chondrites that are locally overprinted by Thalassinoides and subordinate
decimeter-thick coarsening-upward units grade from mudstone at the base Ophiomorpha. Bioclasts include abundant benthic and planktonic forami-
into fine bioclastic sandstone at the top. Thalassinoides, Ophiomorpha, nifera, as well as oyster, pectin, and indeterminate bivalve, and echinoderm
Planolites, and Teichichnus are common in the uppermost 50 cm of these fragments.
units. Interpretation of Facies Association A.The mudstone-dominated na-
Bioturbated, Bioclastic Sandstones (A2).This facies consists of 1 ture of Facies A1 suggests deposition mainly from suspension, with the
10 m thick, bioturbated, bioclast-rich, fine- to medium-grained silty sand- presence of marine microfauna suggesting a marine environment. The var-
stones. They have sharp or gradational contacts with underlying variably iable amount of bioturbation, with horizontal burrows dominant, is consis-
bioturbated mudstones (A1) and typically have sharp contacts with over- tent with a low-energy marine setting, generally below fair-weather and
lying facies (Fig. 4A). Very coarse sandsize grains, similar in mineralogy storm wavebase (e.g., McCave 1984). As such, the mudstones are inter-
and grain size to overlying coarse-grained, trough cross-bedded sandstones preted to have been deposited in an offshore environment (Fig 3A).
(Facies B1), are found evenly distributed towards the top of the facies. The gradational vertical transition from offshore mudstones (A1) to bio-
Facies A2 sandstones are generally structureless, although rare beds 10 turbated, bioclastic sandstones (A2) reflects shallowing water depths and
20 cm thick containing poorly preserved parallel lamination, ripple cross- increasing wave energy. This, together with the marine fauna, ichnofabrics,
lamination, and hummocky cross-stratification are observed. The sand- and rare sedimentary structures, suggests that Facies A2 sandstones were
stones have a bioturbation index of 46 with Teichichnus, Planolites, and deposited above storm wavebase, in a shoreface environment (Howard and
 SEDIMENTOLOGY AND SEQUENCE STRATIGRAPHY OF THE NUKHUL FORMATION, EGYPT 411

TABLE 1.Facies and facies associations of the Nukhul Formation.

Unit Thickness and

Facies Lateral Extent Grain Size and Structures Fossils Bioturbation Depositional Processes
Facies Association A: Offshore to Shoreface
Variably bioturbated mud- Thickness: 220 m Silty mudstone with prominent Fe Foraminifera, sponge spicules BI 5 16 Planolites, Chondrites, Deposition from suspension
stones (A1) Extent: 4 km concretions, rare laminae, and Thalassinoides, Ophiomorpha,
decimeter-thick coarsening-up Teichichnus
units
Bioturbated, bioclastic sand- Thickness: 110 m Fine, fine-medium sandstone, struc- Oyster beds, pectins, bivalves, fora- BI 5 46 Thalassinoides, Ophiom- Deposition during rare storm events
stones (A2) Extent: 4 km tureless with subordinate parallel minifera, echinoids orpha, Teichichnus, Planolites and subsequent bioturbation
lamination, cross laminae, and
hummocky cross-stratification
Facies Association B: Estuary Mouth
Coarse-grained, trough Thickness: ,3 m Pebbly, medium-coarse sandstone, Oyster fragments and abundant frac- BI 5 1 Wave and tidal currents passing
cross-bedded sandstones Extent: 6 km trough cross-beds, scours, wave tured thick- and thin-shelled bi- through a channel
(B1) ripples, mudstone drapes, rip-up valves
clasts
Coarse-grained, low-angle Thickness: ,1.5 m Low-angle, planar cross-beds, Rare fractured oyster debris BI 5 02 Flood tidal currents passing into es-
planar cross-bedded sand- Extent: .3 km small-scale trough cross-beds on tuary funnel
stones (B2) larger bedforms
Facies Association C: Estuary Funnel with Bayhead Delta
Green/red laminated mud- Thickness: 25 m Mudstones, laminated BI 5 16 Planolites, Skolithos Deposited from suspension during
stones (C1) Extent: 4 km tidal stillstands
Interbedded mudstones and Thickness: ,17 M Fine-medium sandstone and mud- BI 5 16 Sandswave reworked current rip-
rippled sandstones (C2) Extent: 4 km stone, cross-laminae, wave rip- ples. Mudsdeposited from sus-
ples, rare planar laminae pension during tidal still-stands
Fine- to medium-grained, Thickness: ,4.5 m Fine-medium sandstone; 1 m scale, Rare fractured bivalve debris BI 5 1 Flood-dominated tidal currents, with
cross-bedded sandstones Extent: 2 km silt-draped compound cross-bed subordinate ebb tidal currents;
(C3) sets; oppositely oriented cross- mudstones deposited from sus-
laminae and cross-beds; and pla- pension during tidal stillstands
nar, low-angle laminae
Interbedded fine- to medium- Thickness: .3 m Fine-medium sandstone and mud- Oysters BI 5 16 Rippled sandstones deposited during
grained sandstones and Extent: 2 km stone; mud-draped current rip- flood and ebb tides; mudstone
mudstones (C4) ples, planar laminae: microdeltas; deposited from suspension at
mud-chip breccia high-tide stillstand
Facies Association D: Upper Estuary Channel
Low-angle-laminated sand- Thickness: 23 m Fine sandstone with pebbles, heter- Oysters BI 5 1 Lateral accretion
stones and mudstones Extent: ? olithic inclined strata; cross-lami-
(D1) nae; parallel laminae
Conglomerates and thin Thickness: 2 m Matrix-supported conglomerates BI 5 0 Rooted horizons Fluvial processes
sandstones (D2) Extent: 1 km (clasts .75 cm) and sandstones,
fining-up, with low-angle planar
cross-beds and trough cross-bed-
ding

Reineck 1981), with the thorough bioturbation most likely reflecting a low Association C. The basal contact of Facies B1 is typically a pebble-lined
intensity and frequency of storms. The ichnofabrics and trace fossils present erosional surface that has up to 23 m of relief. Internally, the sandstones
are reminiscent of the highly bioturbated shoreface sandstones such as the are divided into erosionally based, 12 m high sets of trough cross-bedding
Fulmar and Ula formations in the Jurassic North Sea (e.g. Taylor and Gaw- (Fig. 4C). Set boundaries may be mantled by quartz pebbles or mudstone
thorpe 1993; Gowland 1996). The coarse-grained clasts, found toward the rip-up clasts, and draped by oppositely directed current rippled and wave
top of the deposits, are interpreted to be derived from the overlying coarse- rippled finer sediment.
grained, trough cross-bedded sandstones and redistributed down into the Coarse-Grained, Low-Angle Planar Cross-Bedded Sandstones
shoreface units by bioturbation. It is interpreted that there is a genetic (B2).Facies B2 consists of sheet-like, coarse-grained sandstones contain-
relationship between the bioturbated, bioclastic shoreface sandstones and ing low-angle, planar cross-sets with rare oyster debris. Units are up to 1.5
the overlying coarse-grained, trough cross-bedded sandstones, because of m thick and can be traced over distances of . 3 km. In a seaward direction
the common occurrence of this relationship. The shoreface is thus inter- they are eroded by Facies B1 sandstones; in a landward-orientation, they
preted to be part of a barrier through which the coarse-grained, trough pass into Facies Association C. Paleocurrents indicate a dominant landward
cross-bedded sandstones eroded. oriented flow, with the low-angle cross-bedding prograding landward over
Facies C1. Facies B2 also contains subordinate 10 cm scale oppositely
Facies Association B: Estuary Mouth directed trough cross-beds superimposed on the larger low-angle, planar
This facies association has two facies: a coarse-grained, trough cross-bed- cross-beds.
ded sandstone facies (B1) and a more landward coarse-grained, low-angle Interpretation of Facies Association B.This facies association, being
planar cross-bedded sandstone facies (B2). Facies B1 erosionally overlies both coarse-grained and containing wave- and tide-generated sedimentary
Facies Association A (offshore to shoreface) or Facies Association C (estuary structures, is interpreted to have formed in a relatively high-energy estua-
funnel) and is generally abruptly overlain by Facies Association C. rine environment. Facies B1 sandstones are interpreted as tidal-inlet de-
Coarse-Grained, Trough Cross-Bedded Sandstones (B1).Facies B1 posits (e.g., Hoyt and Henry 1967) on the basis of their channelized form,
consists of erosionally based, pebbly, medium- to coarse-grained, bioclastic draped trough cross-bedding, and oppositely directed current ripples re-
sandstones with abundant oyster debris (Fig. 4A). Units of Facies B1 are flecting the tidal currents passing through the channel (Fig. 3). Evidence
up to 3 m thick, can be traced in a depositional dip orientation for 6 km, for wave activity suggests a relatively seaward location within the estuary.
and erosionally overlie bioturbated, bioclastic sandstones (A2) or Facies The tidal-inlet interpretation is also based on the close association of Facies
412 I.D. CARR ET AL.
 SEDIMENTOLOGY AND SEQUENCE STRATIGRAPHY OF THE NUKHUL FORMATION, EGYPT 413

B1 with shoreface sandstones (Facies A2) and estuary mudstones (Facies sandstones constitute , 50% of the facies and contain mud-draped, small-
C1). The trough cross-bedding was formed by the migration of sinuous- scale cross-lamination, interference ripples, planar lamination, and intra-
crested dunes within inlets; the continuity of the sandstone units in a de- clast mudstone breccias. Exposure features are common, such as drainage
positional dip orientation reflects the landward migration of tidal inlets due microdeltas (Fig. 4B). The mudstones are structureless, are present in beds
to their overall transgressive nature (e.g., Dalrymple et al. 1992). , 2 cm thick, and appear to drape topography on the tops of the underlying
Low-angle, planar-laminated cross-bedded sandstones of Facies B2 dis- sandstones. Primary sedimentary structures are commonly disturbed by
play landward-directed paleocurrents, and interfinger with more landward soft-sediment deformation, commonly in the form of pseudonodules and
facies, for example estuary mudstone (Facies C1), indicating the influence ball-and-pillow structures. Individual beds may be highly bioturbated (bio-
of flood-directed currents. Facies B2 is interpreted as being deposited in a turbation index up to 5), but with a monospecific trace-fossil assemblage
flood tidal delta (Fig. 3), with the estuary mouth passing landward into the consisting entirely of bivalve resting traces. Erosionally based, decimeter-
estuary funnel via a flood tidal delta (e.g. Dalrymple et al. 1992). The thick, 35 m wide lenticular units of coarse-grained, oyster-rich, cross-
oppositely directed trough cross-beds are interpreted to have been formed bedded sandstone are commonly found within this facies.
by the migration of subordinate ebb-tide-directed sinuous crested dunes Interpretation of Facies Association C.The fine-grained nature of
over the flood tidal delta. the deposits compared to the coarse-grained, trough cross-bedded sand-
stones of Facies B1, the increasing landward tidal influence and relatively
Facies Association C: Estuary Funnel with Bayhead Delta diminishing wave influence suggest an estuary-funnel depositional envi-
ronment (Fig. 3, Dalrymple et al. 1992). The fine-grained nature of Facies
Facies Association C consists of four facies: (1) green/red laminated C1 mudstones is interpreted to reflect deposition from suspension in the
mudstones (C1), (2) interbedded mudstones and rippled sandstones (C2),
estuary funnel. By comparison with modern estuaries, the mudstones are
(3) fine- to medium-grained cross-bedded sandstone (C3), and (4) inter-
interpreted to have been deposited during tidal slacks from a zone of highly
bedded fine- to medium-grained sandstones and mudstones (C4). There is
concentrated suspended sediment, the turbidity maximum (Allen 1991).
a clear seaward to landward order from Facies C1, through C2 and C3, to
Facies C2 is transitional between C1 and C3. The thin sandstones are
C4. The facies typically show gradual landward transitions and may also
interpreted to have been deposited as subtidal, wave-reworked current rip-
interfinger in a seaward direction with estuary-mouth deposits (Facies As-
ples, in front of and between the fine- to medium-grained, cross-bedded
sociation B). In vertical section, units of Facies Association C generally
sandstones (Facies C3). The interbedded mudstones were deposited at times
have sharp upper and lower contacts with Facies Association B (estuary
of slack water, between tides. The bioturbated units are interpreted to rep-
mouth) but may be abruptly overlain by upper-estuary channel sandstones
resent times when tidal currents were diverted from these areas, allowing
(Facies Association D).
them to become colonized.
Green/Red Laminated Mudstones (C1).Facies C1 consists of 25 m
thick green to red colored, laminated mudstones that are sheet-like, ex- The meter-scale, compound, cross-bedded sandstones of Facies C3 are
tending for distances of 4 km. Units of Facies C1 may have rare Planolites interpreted as flood-dominated, subtidalintertidal dunes (cf. Allen and Ho-
and Skolithos burrows. mewood 1984; Ashley 1990). This interpretation is based on recognition
Interbedded Mudstones and Rippled Sandstones (C2).This facies of subordinate ebb-tide and emergence sedimentary structures. Planar lam-
forms units up to 17 m thick that can be traced over distances of 4 km. ination toward the top of the tidal dunes is interpreted to have formed
The facies consists of fine- to medium-grained sandstones with cross-lam- during falling tide, under upper-flow-regime conditions. The oppositely di-
ination, wave ripples, and rare planar lamination that are thinly interbedded rected erosion surfaces and cross-beds found on the stoss sides of the dunes
with yellow to green mudstones (Fig. 4A). Within units of Facies C2, the are interpreted to have formed by drainage as the crest of the dune became
interbedded mudstones may change vertically from yellow to green across emergent during falling tide, thus allowing ebb-tide direction to be rec-
a sharp surface, and this color change is associated with an increase in ognized. Mud drapes on the dune lee side, above ebb-tide cross-laminae,
bioturbation index from 1 to 3. Facies C2 may be completely homogenized probably formed during low tide stillstand and suggest that the dunes did
by bioturbation. not become fully emergent during low tide. Belderson et al. (1982) sug-
Fine- to Medium-Grained, Cross-Bedded Sandstones (C3).This fa- gested that tidal dune height is about one-third of the water depth, thus the
cies consists of fine-to medium-grained sandstones, with oyster fragments 1 m sets suggests a minimum water depth of 3 m. Evidence for emergence
and compound cross-sets that reach up to a meter in thickness (Fig. 4D). indicates that water depth decreased to below the crest of the dunes, giving
Facies C3 may be up to 4.5 m thick and can be traced for 2 km. Individual a fall in water depth of at least 2 m and, hence, suggesting a mesotidal (2
sets can be traced for . 50 m. Cross-bed sets consist of 10 cm-scale cross- 4 m) range.
beds, reactivation surfaces, and oppositely directed small-scale current rip- Facies C4 is interpreted to represent mixed sand/mud flat or mid tidal
ples. The toes of foresets and the oppositely directed ripples are commonly flat deposits (e.g., van Straaten 1954). Rippled sandstones were deposited
draped by mudstone or mud-chip breccia, and the mudstone drapes may during flood and ebb tides, with mudstones deposited during slack water
contain sandstone-filled desiccation cracks. Towards the top of the com- between tides. The mudcracks and drainage features are evidence for emer-
pound cross-sets are low-angle planar laminae. On their stoss sides, the gence, with mud-chip breccias suggesting that subsequent tidal currents
compound cross-sets have erosionally-based, oppositely directed, low-angle reworked exposed, desiccated tidal flats. Lenticular, oyster-rich sandstones
surfaces with 10 cm-scale cross-beds above. are interpreted to be small tidal creeks or channels that cut through mud
Interbedded Fine- to Medium-Grained Sandstones and Mudstones and mixed flat deposits. Soft-sediment deformation within this facies has
(C4).This facies forms units . 3 m thick that extend for 2 km. The previously been interpreted to have been produced by earthquake-induced

FIG. 4.A) Representative stratigraphic section through the Nukhul Formation from the Thal area (see Fig. 1 for location). Facies association and key surfaces are
indicated, TS is transgressive surface, TRS is tidal ravinement surface, MFS is maximum flooding surface, TST is transgressive systems tract, and HST is highstand systems
tract. B) Current ripples in Facies C4 cut by falling-stage drainage features producing microdeltas. C) Coarse-grained trough cross-bedded sandstone (Facies B1) of the
estuary-mouth facies association from Thal area. D) Finemedium grained cross-bedded sandstones with mudstone drapes (Facies C3) of the estuary-funnel facies association
in the Thal area.
 414
I.D. CARR ET AL.

FIG. 5.A) Correlation panel from the Wadi Thal area illustrating horizontal and vertical facies transitions in the lowermost part of the Nukhul Formation and the characteristics of key stratal surfaces (see Fig. 1 for
location). W, X, Y, and Z refer to specific details discussed in the text. See Figure 4 for key to logs. B) Photograph of Wadi Thal section illustrating relationships between the deposits and how they correspond to
systems tracts.
 SEDIMENTOLOGY AND SEQUENCE STRATIGRAPHY OF THE NUKHUL FORMATION, EGYPT 415

FIG. 6.Fault-parallel strike correlation from

the northern end of Thal Ridge (see Fig. 1 for
location). Note transgressive onlap and overstep
towards the fault tip (NW), but deposits
reflecting more offshore deposition and
becoming thicker towards the center of the fault
segment (SE). Datum for the correlation is the
T10 major transgressive surface/condensed
section (Fig 4A). Y and Z refer to specific
details discussed in the text.

shaking and dewatering due to the orientation of the dewatering features Nukhul Formation Facies Model
being parallel to basin-bounding normal faults (e.g., Sharp et al. 2000b).
Figure 3 illustrates the genetic facies relationships developed in the Nu-
Facies Association D: Upper Estuary Channels khul Formation that have been identified by walking out lateral facies
transitions in the three fault-bounded areas studied (Fig. 1A). The facies
Facies Association D consists of low-angle-laminated sandstones and transitions in these three areas suggest that separate depositional systems
mudstones (Facies D1) and conglomerates and sandstones (Facies D2). The developed in each study area, each with its own sediment source(s), hang-
facies reflect the diminishing tidal influence in a landward direction, pass- ing-wall depocenter, and connection with the open sea.
ing in a depositional dip direction landward into continental deposits. The most seaward facies association, A (offshore to shoreface), com-
Low-Angle-Laminated Sandstones and Mudstones (D1).Facies D1 prises variably bioturbated mudstones (A1) (e.g., W in Fig. 5) that pass
forms units up to 23 m thick (Fig. 4A), composed internally of large- gradationally landward into bioturbated, bioclastic sandstones (A2) (e.g.,
scale, low-angle planar inclined heterolithic strata that downlap onto a sub- X in Fig. 5). The dominant process that operated in the shoreface environ-
horizontal erosion surface. A pebbly and shelly lag generally overlies the ment was fair-weather wave activity with subordinate storm activity. The
basal erosion surface. Mudstone-draped parallel-laminated, cross-bedded sharp contact between bioturbated, bioclastic sandstones (A2) and coarse-
and current-rippled sandstones are oriented at a high angle to the dip of grained, trough cross-bedded sandstones (B1) is interpreted to have formed
the inclined surfaces. The sandstones contain vertical burrows and soft- due to tidal currents sweeping through the estuary mouth (e.g., Y in Fig.
sediment deformation structures. Facies D1 sits with an erosional contact 5). The presence of scattered, coarse-grained clasts near the top of biotur-
above Facies Association C estuary-funnel deposits in a seaward direction; bated, bioclastic sandstone (A2) units suggests a genetic relationship be-
passes gradationally landward into Facies D2; and passes vertically, via a tween the offshore to shoreface and estuary-mouth deposits (cf. de Fatima
sharp contact, to Facies A2 and B1. Rossetti 2000). It is thus interpreted that the estuary-mouth deposits rest
Conglomerates and Thin Sandstones (D2).Facies D2 consists of ero- with an erosional surface above the bioturbated, bioclastic sandstones.
sionally based, matrix-supported conglomerates and centimeter-thick sand- Flood-tide-delta sandstones (B2) are generally poorly preserved but,
stones, forming fining-upward units up to 2 m thick that can be traced over where found, they interfinger in a landward direction with green/red lam-
horizontal distances of ; 1 km. Conglomerate clasts are subrounded frag- inated mudstones (C1) of the estuary funnel facies association (C). The
ments of chert and limestone up to 75 cm in diameter, derived from pre- green/red laminated mudstones (C1) interfinger landward with interbedded
rift strata. Both the conglomerates and the sandstones are low-angle planar mudstones and rippled sandstones (C2), which, in turn, can be traced in a
and trough cross-bedded, and the sandstones have rootletted horizons with- landward direction into subtidalintertidal dune sandstones (C3; Z in Fig.
in them. Conglomerates rest erosionally above pre-rift lithologies and es- 5). Moving laterally within estuary deposits, Facies C1, C2 and C3 may
tuary-funnel deposits, commonly pass gradationally up to estuary-funnel pass gradationally into interbedded fine- to medium-grained sandstones and
deposits, and pass horizontally seaward into Facies D1. mudstones (C4) interpreted as tidal-flat deposits dissected by minor tidal
Interpretation of Facies Association D.The low-angle-laminated channels. Estuary funnel facies association (C) pass landward into upper
sandstones and mudstones (D1) are interpreted as estuary point-bar depos- estuary channels facies association (D), characterized by low-angle-lami-
its, formed by the lateral migration of a tidal channel (Fig. 3, e.g., Reineck nated sandstones and mudstones (D1) interpreted as lateral accretion units,
1967). The mudstone drapes indicate the tidal origin, and the large-scale, which, beyond the tidal limit, pass into fluvial channels (D2). Taken to-
low-angle downlapping surfaces are interpreted as lateral accretion surfac- gether, the landward to seaward facies associations D and C are interpreted
es. The smaller-scale cross-bedding, oriented approximately perpendicular as a bayhead delta. Sands derived from a fluvial source were reworked by
to the lateral accretion surfaces, represents bedform migration in the direc- tidal currents at the mouth of the upper estuary channel.
tion of flow within the channel. Facies D2 conglomerates and sandstones In summary, the Nukhul Formation is interpreted to have been deposited
are interpreted as fluvial channel deposits and are the most landward facies in wave-dominated estuaries (cf. Dalrymple et al. 1992). Most wave energy
documented within the Nukhul Formation during this study. was dissipated in the shoreface environment and did not pass through the
416 I.D. CARR ET AL.

FIG. 7.Schematic cross sections through the estuary axis illustrating the formation of key surfaces in the Nukhul Formation. A) Relative sea-level rise, but with
accommodation creation outpacing sediment supply. This produces the landward translation of facies and deposition of the TST. B) Maximum transgression, with the
estuary-mouth deposits at their most landward position. C) Sediment supply is greater than accommodation creation as the rate of sea-level rise decreases. The bayhead
delta progrades forming the HST.

estuary mouth, thus increasing the relative tidal influence within the estuary tract and correlatable surfaces within systems tracts are described, and pro-
itself. Flood tidal deltas built landward into the estuary funnel, and the cesses that formed them interpreted.
deltas interfingered with estuary-funnel mudstones. Clastic sediment en- Transgressive Systems Tracts.The basal part of the repetitive TST
tered the confined hanging-wall depocenters from fluvial systems at the HST cycle is well illustrated by TST 2 from Wadi Thal (Figs. 4A, 5),
fault tips, were reworked by the tides with a mesotidal range, and were which is bounded beneath by a transgressive surface that separates the
aligned parallel to the local structures. The relative importance of local previous highstand shoreface and fluvial deposits beneath from the trans-
structural versus more regional controls on the evolution of the Nukhul gressive central estuary deposits above. The central estuary deposits of TST
Formation are discussed later in this paper. 2 show a landward-directed transition from estuary-funnel mudstones (C1)
in the NW to backstepping tidal-flat deposits (C4) in the SE (Fig. 5). Near
SEQUENCE STRATIGRAPHY the top of TST 2, estuary-funnel mudstones are overlain by shoreface sand-
stones in the NW of Wadi Thal (Fig. 5). However, shoreface sandstones
Key Stratal Surfaces and Stacking Patterns are more commonly overlain above an erosional surface by estuary-mouth
The offshore to shoreface and estuarine Nukhul Formation overlies the sandstones (B1). The erosional surface beneath the estuary-mouth sand-
continental Abu Zenima Formation and is, in turn, overlain by the deep stones is sharp and generally planar, but with erosional scours up to 2 m
marine to shoreface Lower Rudeis Formation, in an overall transgressive deep and 5 m wide. The surface can be correlated for up to 10 km before
succession. Internally, the Nukhul Formation consists of repetitions of ge- passing landward into flood tidal delta (B2) and estuary-funnel mudstones
netically related transgressive systems tracts (TST) and infilling highstand (Z in Fig. 6). Estuary-funnel mudstones beneath the correlatable surface
systems tracts (HST) estuarine units, bounded by surfaces that can be show a change from rare vertical to abundant horizontal burrows towards
walked out within individual hanging-wall depocenters (i.e., up to c. 15 the surface. Vertical burrows descend from the surface, mottling the un-
km). Although the TSTHST succession (e.g. TST 1HST 1 in Fig. 5) derlying mudstone and are filled with coarse-grained material from above.
appears similar to shallow marine high-frequency systems tracts, no low- The correlatable surface is interpreted to have been formed by the landward
stand or forced regressive systems tracts have been identified. This section migration of the estuary mouth during transgression. It is thus a tidal rav-
describes one of these repeating TSTHST successions from a represen- inement surface (TRS; Allen and Posamentier 1993), which can be traced
tative measured section from the Wadi Thal area (Fig. 5). The key char- from the point where the tidal inlets began to transgress, to the inlets max-
acteristics of systems tracts and key stratal surfaces that bound the systems imum landward position. Increased bioturbation toward the surface is in-
 SEDIMENTOLOGY AND SEQUENCE STRATIGRAPHY OF THE NUKHUL FORMATION, EGYPT 417

FIG. 8.A) Tidal ravinement surface from the Thal area; see Figure 1 for location. Green/red laminated mudstone (C1) at the base changes vertically across a sharp
surface to coarse-grained, trough cross-bedded sandstone (B1), producing an atypical flooding surface character. Lens cap for scale. B) Maximum flooding surface from
Wadi Nukhul, see Figure 1 for location. Photograph shows coarse-grained, trough cross-bedded sandstones (B1) below a sharp surface and green/red-laminated mudstones
(C1). A notebook, 30 cm high, for scale.

terpreted to indicate an increasing marine influence during the initial stage be cut by an erosional surface beneath fluvial deposits that built out over
of transgression. Although the TRS is a key correlatable surface, it does the underlying estuary deposits during HST progradation. The surface be-
not always bound the TST. neath the fluvial deposits may erode into the previous TST (Figs. 5A, B,
TST 2 is bounded above by a maximum flooding surface (MFS), which 7C).
is recognized by the change from backstepping transgressive deposits to Highstand Systems Tracts.Above the MFS, coarsening-upward pro-
progradational infilling deposits, and is typically marked by a shift from gradational facies relationships are recognized in the subsequent HST, e.g.,
inlet sandstones (B1) beneath the surface to estuary-funnel mudstones (C1) HST 2 (Figs. 4A, 5A). Central estuary mudstones at the base of HST 2
above (e.g., Y in Fig. 6, Figs. 7C, 8B). Maximum flooding surfaces can pass laterally and vertically into intertidalsubtidal (C3) sandwaves and
be correlated for . 10 km above the estuary-mouth sandstones, are gen- lower estuary ripple fields (C2) as the bayhead delta progrades (Figs. 4A,
erally planar and non-erosional. However, erosional topography generated 5A, B). Erosionally based estuary channel sandstones may prograde into
by inlet scour is locally preserved beneath the surface, with estuary mud- the central estuary area, eroding through the previously deposited central
stones filling this topography. Close to sediment input points, the MFS may estuary mudstones, and possibly through the MFS.

FIG. 9.Four sub-basins of the Hammam Farraun fault block. From north to south, Wadi Wasit, Thal Ridge, Wadi Tanka, and Wadi Nukhul, have different sediment
thicknesses, reflecting unique fault movement histories during early syn-rift times. See Figure 1 for locations.
418 I.D. CARR ET AL.

FIG. 10.Fault control on Nukhul deposits. A)

View looking north at the northern end of the
Thal Ridge showing convergence of green/red
laminated mudstones (C1) towards the fault
zone. These steeply dipping beds of the Nukhul
Formation formed part of a growth monocline
during Nukhul deposition that is now preserved
in the immediate hanging-wall of the Thal Ridge
fault. See Figure 1 for location. B) Dip-
orientated cross section from the Nukhul area
illustrating the characteristic stratigraphic
geometries in the hanging-walls of normal faults.
The earliest syn-rift Abu Zenima Formation thins
towards the Nukhul Fault, whereas the younger
Nukhul Formation expands towards the fault
zone and onlaps older stratigraphy. These two
geometries reflect surface growth above a blind
fault, and surface-breaking fault stages,
respectively. See Figure 1 for location.

The Nukhul Formation is thus characterized by a repetitive cyclicity of Tanka fault is , 40 m thick, and, in the hanging-wall of the Wasit fault
TSTHST, with TSTs typically being bounded beneath by a TS or TRS in the north of the study area, the unit is only 30 m thick (Fig. 9). In the
and above by MFS and characterized, in relatively seaward localities, by adjacent Baba fault block the Nukhul Formation is locally absent (Sharp
tidal-inlet deposits and, landward of the inlets, by backstepping central et al. 2000a; Sharp et al. 2000b). These data suggest that the development
estuary deposits (Fig. 7B). Highstand systems tracts are bounded beneath of normal fault zones was a primary control on the Nukhul Formation
by MFS, above by a TS or TRS, and are characterized by prograding stratigraphy and the accommodation development was strongly influenced
bayhead delta deposits. No lowstand systems tracts or major downshift by fault-controlled subsidence that varied between the fault zones.
surfaces have been recognized within the succession. This distinctive TST Within the hanging-wall of individual fault zones, two distinctive stratal
HST cyclicity is interpreted to be an alternation between times of large units can often be observed: a wedge-shaped stratal unit that thins toward
ratio of accommodation space to sediment supply (TST) and large ratio of the fault zones, and a wedge-shaped unit that expands toward the fault
sediment supply to accommodation space (HST). The role of structural zones (Fig. 10 A). In effect these wedge-shaped stratal units are sequence
evolution in controlling cyclicity in the Nukhul Formation is discussed in sets (sensu Mitchum and Van Wagoner 1991), inasmuch as each is com-
the following section. posed of several TSTHST cycles. In units that thin toward the fault zones,
bedding dips into the hanging-wall depocenter, away from the fault, and
STRUCTURAL CONTROL ON THE NUKHUL FORMATION individual beds converge and are often eroded below intraformational trun-
There is a variety of evidence that points to a structural control on the cation surfaces at the base of younger horizons near to the fault zone (Fig.
deposition of the Nukhul Formation. Structural control is demonstrated by 10A). Locally, the Nukhul Formation may be extremely thin, or absent, in
thickness variations between sub-basins, both parallel and perpendicular to the immediate hanging-wall of the faults (cf. Gawthorpe et al. 2000). As
the fault trends within sub-basins. Changes in stratal geometries through discussed by Gawthorpe et al. (1997) and Gawthorpe et al. (2000), this
the succession show how the structural influence evolved through time, wedge-shaped form and stratal geometry are interpreted to reflect deposi-
with an initial wedge-shaped stratal unit that thins towards the fault fol- tion and erosion around growth folds above blind normal faults. In the
lowed by a wedge-shape stratal unit that thickens into the fault. Onlap second type of stratal unit, strata thicken, diverge, and dip towards the fault
relationships towards fault tips point towards active fault growth during zone (Fig. 10B). This stratal geometry is typical of deposition in the im-
deposition, and the alignment of paleocurrent parallel to local structures mediate hanging-wall of surface-breaking normal faults, where the rate of
indicates that the fault confined the depositional systems. subsidence is greatest in the immediate hanging-wall of the fault (e.g.,
The Nukhul Formation shows major variations in thickness between dif- Leeder and Gawthorpe 1987). Along-strike variation in fault displacement
ferent fault zones (Fig. 9). For example, in the Nukhul area, this stratal also played an important role in controlling basin morphology. The north-
unit is up to 110 m thick. The same interval in the hanging-wall of the ern end of the Thal Ridge area, illustrated in Fig. 6, illustrates the along-
 SEDIMENTOLOGY AND SEQUENCE STRATIGRAPHY OF THE NUKHUL FORMATION, EGYPT 419

FIG. 11.Summary tectono-sedimentary

model for the Nukhul Formation. Deposition
occurred in the hanging-walls of numerous,
small displacement, normal faults, creating
elongate, narrow depocenters. Depocenter (A) is
bounded by the steeply dipping hanging-wall
limb of a fault-propagation monoclinal growth
fold. Depocenter (B) is bounded by a surface-
breaking fault zone. Note how the structural
style influences the geometry and stratal
architecture of the syn-rift deposits. Upper
estuary channel (FAD) and estuary funnel (FAC)
sandstones and mudstones prograde from a
sediment entry point at the fault tip. Tidally
influenced estuary-funnel (FAC) and estuary-
mouth (FAB) sandstones are aligned parallel to
the growth folds and faults. Offshore to
shoreface sandstones (FAA) and mudstones are
aligned parallel to the coast, in an orientation
that may be normal to the orientation of the tidal
sandbodies.

strike (fault-parallel) facies relationships and thickness variations that are passed out into a more open marine basin. The inlet facies belt was pref-
typical of the early syn-rift deposits within the Hammam Faraun area. To- erentially located around structural highs, so-called transverse hanging-wall
wards the fault tip, the succession onlaps and thins from 20 m to 6 m over anticlines (Schlische 1995), formed by low displacement rates at fault tips
3 km (e.g., Sharp et al. 2000b). These stratal and facies relationships sug- (Fig. 11).
gest marked along-strike variations in depositional environments and ac- The Nukhul Formation displays a characteristic repeated stacking of
commodation development related to decreasing displacement rates to- TSTs and HSTs (Figs. 4A, 5A, 6, 10A), and lacks incised valleys and
wards the tips of fault segments. incision surfaces related to relative falls in sea level. This repetition is
Taken together, the distribution of the Nukhul Formation, its thickness attributed to subsidence of hanging-wall depocenters, which caused accom-
variations and its internal stratal geometry suggest a structural style dom- modation creation to outpace sediment supply, and hence the retrograda-
inated by depocenters that were typically 410 km long, 24 km wide and tional nature of the TSTs. This is followed by a decrease in the rate of
controlled by a number of isolated normal fault segments and growth folds accommodation creation, and the hanging-wall depocenter was filled as
(Fig. 11), and were unconnected during the time of Nukhul estuary depo- sediment supply outpaced accommodation creation. Subsequent fault
sition (Fig. 9). This structural geometry had a strong control on Nukhul movement once more increased the ratio of accommodation space to sed-
facies geometry and evolution (Fig. 11). In the North Wadi Thal example iment input, and hence another TST was formed (Fig. 7AC).
(Fig. 6), facies become more proximal towards the fault tip, which are Although a wide range of data support the importance of local tectonics
sediment input points. Lateral transitions from fluvial to tidal to open ma- on the development of the Nukhul Formation, data also support more re-
rine facies are developed parallel to the fault away from the lateral fault gional base-level controls. In particular, the prominent transgressive surface
tip, consistent with an increasing marine influence linked to an increase in and condensed section towards the top of the Nukhul Formation are re-
displacement towards the center of the fault segment. Similar stratigraphic gionally developed within the Suez Rift (Krebs et al. 1997). Within bio-
relationships are found parallel to the other fault zones within the Hammam stratigraphic resolution, this surface (T10 of Krebs et al. 1997; see our Fig.
Faraun fault block, such as in the Tanka and Nukhul areas (e.g., Jackson 2) is contemporaneous across the rift and marks the change to deeper-water
et al. 2002). mudstones of the Lower Rudeis Formation. Although regionally extensive,
Paleocurrents (Fig. 1A) from Thal and Tanka, measured from bayhead several workers have interpreted this basin-wide change to reflect the tec-
delta and flood-tidal delta cross-beds respectively, show a NWSE orien- tonic evolution of the rift (e.g., Patton et al. 1994; Gupta et al. 1999; Sharp
tation for the bayhead delta, and a NNE orientation of tidal inlets. Paleo- et al. 2000b). In particular, it has been interpreted to reflect the change
currents from the Nukhul area show WNWESE directed tidal cross-beds from numerous small-displacement faults that were active during Nukhul
and SSE directed inlet currents. The tidal cross-beds are aligned to local deposition, to localized deformation on the major half-graben bounding
structure that confined the bayhead delta. These relationships indicate that faults that dominate the structural style today. However, it is likely that the
sediment transport pathways were strongly influenced by the evolving fault- faults gradually died out (Sharp 2000b) rather than became inactive all at
controlled topography. Sediment, from a fluvial source originating in the once.
rift shoulders, entered the hanging-wall depocenters predominantly at fault
tips. Sediment derived from the evolving growth folds and footwalls was CONCLUSIONS
only a minor contributor during this early rift stage because of limited
topographic relief of footwall blocks (Fig. 11). Paleocurrents indicate that, This paper presents facies and tectono-stratigraphic models for the tidally
within the depocenters, flow was predominantly parallel to the adjacent influenced early synrift sequences of the Miocene Nukhul Formation based
faults (Fig. 1A). The elongate fault-controlled geometry of the depocenters on a detailed outcrop study of the Hammam Faraun fault block, Suez Rift,
confined the bayhead delta, and the tidal sandbodies became aligned par- Egypt. The Nukhul Formation can be divided into offshore to shoreface
allel to the fault. The tidal-inlet sandstones (Facies Association B) sat at and estuary deposits. The offshore to shoreface deposits consist of two
the relatively narrow mouth of the estuary, where the elongate depocenter facies; variably bioturbated mudstones that pass gradationally landward to
420 I.D. CARR ET AL.

bioturbated bioclastic sandstones. In a more landward setting, the estuary GAWTHORPE, R.L., SHARP, I.R., UNDERHILL, J.R., AND GUPTA, S., 1997, Linked sequence strati-
graphic and structural evolution of propagating normal faults: Geology, v. 25, p. 795798.
deposits can be separated into a coarse-grained estuary mouth association, GJELBERG, J., DREYER, T., HOIE, A., TJELLAND, T., AND LILLENG, T., 1987, Late Triassic to Mid
fine-grained mudstones and sandstones of the Estuary Funnel with Bayhead Jurassic sandbody development on the Barents and Mid-Norwegian Shelf, in Brooks, J., and
Delta Association, and interbedded, low-angle, tidally influenced sand- Glennie, K.W., eds., Petroleum Geology of North West Europe: Oxford, U.K., Graham &
Trotman, v. 2, p. 11051130.
stones and mudstones of the upper estuary channel association. These es- GOWLAND, S., 1996, Facies characteristic and depositional models of highly bioturbated shallow
tuary deposits pass landward into fluvial and associated continental depos- marine siliciclastic strata: an example from the Fulmar Formation (Late Jurassic), UK Cen-
its. Estuary transgression and infill generated a complex intercalation of tral Graben, in Hurst, A., Johnson, H.D., Burley, S.D., Canham, A.C., and Mackertich, D.S.,
eds., Geology of the Humber Group Central Graben and Moray Firth, UKCS: Geological
facies, and facies transitions may be either gradational or sharp. Society of London, Special Publication 114, p. 185214.
Stratigraphic development and sandbody geometry was strongly influ- GUPTA, S., UNDERHILL, J.R., SHARP, I.R., AND GAWTHORPE, R.L., 1999, Role of fault interactions
enced by the evolving early rift structure. Depocenters were narrow (25 in controlling synrift sediment dispersal patterns: Miocene, Abu Alaqa Group, Suez Rift,
Sinai, Egypt: Basin Research, v. 11, p. 167190.
km wide) and elongate (, 10 km long) parallel to the strike of normal- HOWARD, J.D., AND REINECK, H.-E., 1981, Depositional facies of high energy beach-to-offshore
fault segments. The orientation of tidal sandbodies was significantly influ- sequence, comparison with low energy sequence, American Association of Petroleum Ge-
enced by the orientation of the early fault segments, with tidally influenced ologists, Bulletin, v. 65, p. 807830.
HOYT, J.H., AND HENRY, V.J., 1967, Influence of island migration on barrier island sedimen-
sandbodies parallel to the fault strike. Stratal geometry also reflects defor- tation: Geological Society of America, Bulletin, v. 78, p. 7786.
mation associated with low-relief growth folds and surface-breaking faults JACKSON, C.A.L., GAWTHORPE, R.L., AND SHARP, I.R., 2002, Growth and linkage of the East
that together formed part of an evolving fault array. This basin configu- Tanka fault zone, Suez rift: Structural style and syn-rift stratigraphic response: Geological
Society of London, Journal, v. 159, p. 175187.
ration and the associated Nukhul stratigraphy are markedly different from KREBS, W.N., WESCOTT, W.A., NUMMEDAL, D., GAAFAR, I., AZAZI, G., AND KARAMAT, S., 1997,
tectono-stratigraphic models for crustal-scale tilted fault blocks that are Graphic correlation and sequence stratigraphy of Neogene rocks in the Gulf of Suez: Societe
more applicable to the late stages of rifting. Although thickness and facies Geologique de France, Bulletin, v. 168, p. 6371.
LEEDER, M.R., AND GAWTHORPE, R.L., 1987, Sedimentary models for extensional tilt-block/half-
were strongly influenced by local fault growth, more regional controls on graben basins, in Coward, M.P., Dewey J.F., and Hancock, P.L., eds., Continental Exten-
accommodation development generated key flooding surfaces and influ- sional Tectonics: Geological Society of London, Special Publication 28, p. 139152.
enced the overall sequence stacking pattern within the Nukhul Formation. MCCAVE, I.N., 1984, Erosion, transport and deposition of fine-grained marine sediments, in
Stow, D.A.V., and Piper, D.J.W., eds., Fine Grained Sediments: Deep-water Processes and
These regional controls operated at a spatial scale of individual crustal- Facies: Geological Society of London, Special Publication, p. 3569.
scale fault blocks to the scale of the rift as a whole. MELLERE, D., 1994, Sequential development of an estuarine valley fill: The Twowells Tongue
of the Dakota Sandstone, Acoma Basin, New Mexico: Journal of Sedimentary Research, v.
B64, p. 500515.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS MITCHUM, R.M., JR., AND VAN WAGONER, J.C., 1991, High-frequency sequences and their stack-
ing patterns: sequence-stratigraphic evidence of high-frequency eustatic cycles: Sedimentary
The authors would like to thanks Norsk Hydro, Amerada Hess, BP and NERC Geology, v. 70, p. 131160.
(Grant No. GR3/R9527) for financial support; John Underhill, Sayeed Gooda, Dave MOUSTAFA, A.R., 1976, Block faulting in the Gulf of Suez: Egyptian General Petroleum Cor-
poration, Fifth Exploration Seminar, 35 p.
Pivnick are thanked for their encouragement and advice. BP, GUPCO, and EGPC MOUSTAFA, A.R., 1993, Structural characteristics and tectonic evolution of the east-margin
are thanked for logistical support for field work. The authors would also like to blocks of the Suez Rift, Tectonophysics, v. 223, p. 381399.
thank referees for their constructive comments that greatly improved the manuscript. MOUSTAFA, A.R., 1996, Internal structure and deformation of an accommodation zone in the
northern part of the Suez Rift: Journal of Structural Geology, v. 18, p. 93107.
MOUSTAFA, A.R., AND ABDEEN, A.R., 1992, Structural setting of the Hammam Faraun fault
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