CHAPTER 2

ELECTROMECHANICAL
INSTRUMENTS
Learning Outcomes
At the end of the chapter, students should be
able to:
Understand construction and operation of
permanent magnet moving-coil (PMMC)
instrument.
Describe how PMMC instruments are used
as galvanometers, dc ammeters, dc
voltmeters, ac ammeters, and ac voltmeters.
Introduction
PMMC instrument consists basically of a lightweight coil
of copper wire suspended in the field of a permanent
magnet. Current in the wire causes the coil to produce a
magnetic field that interacts with the field from the
magnet, resulting in partial rotation of the coil. A pointer
connected to the coil deflects over a calibrated scale,
indicating the level of current flowing in the wire.

The PMMC instrument is essentially a low-level dc

ammeter.
Introduction

It can be employed to measure a wide range of direct

current dc levels with the use of parallel-connected
resistors.
 The instrument may also be used as a dc voltmeter by
connecting appropriate-value resistors in series with the
coil.

Ohmmeters can be made from precision resistors, PMMC

instrument, and batteries.
 Multirange meters are available that combine ammeter,
voltmeter, and ohmmeter functions in one instrument

Mutlirange Voltmeter Mutlirange Ammeter

 Ac ammeters and voltmeters can be constructed by using
rectifier circuits with PMMC instruments.

The Half wave rectifier

 Deflection Instrument Fundamentals
A deflection instrument uses a pointer that moves over a
calibrated scale to indicate a measured quantity.
Three forces are operating in the electromechanical
mechanism inside the instrument:
Deflecting force
Controlling force
Damping force
 Deflecting Force
The deflecting force causes the pointer to move from its
zero position when a current flows.
In the PMMC instrument, the deflecting force is magnetic.

The pointer is fixed to the coil

So, it moves over the scale as
The coil rotates
The deflecting force in the PMMC instrument is provided by
A current-carrying coil pivoted in a magnetic field.
 Controlling Force
The controlling force in the PMMC
instrument is provided by spiral
springs.
The springs retain the coil & pointer
at their zero position when no
current is flowing.
The coil and pointer stop rotating
when the controlling force becomes
equal to the deflecting force.
The spring material must be
nonmagnetic to avoid any magnetic The controlling force from
field influence on the controlling the springs balances the
force. deflecting force.

The springs are also used to make electrical connection to

the coil, they mush a low resistance( Phosphor bronze is the
material usually employed).
Damping Force
The damping force is required to
minimize (or damp out) oscillations of
the pointer and coil before settling
down at their final position.
The damping force must be present
only when the coil is in motion; thus it
must be generated by the rotation of
the coil.
In PMMC instruments, the damping
force is normally provided by eddy
currents.
Eddy currents induced in the coil set
up a magnetic flux that opposes the
coil motion, thus damping the
oscillations of the coil.
Damping Force
The damping force in a PMMC instrument is provided by
eddy currents induced in the aluminum coil former as it
moves through the magnetic field.
The methods of supporting the moving system of a deflection
instrument

1. Jeweled-bearing suspension
Cone-shaped cuts in jeweled ends
of shafts or pivots (mat be broken
by shocks).
low possible friction.
Some jewel bearings are spring
supported to absorb such shocks.
 2. Taut-band method

Much tougher than jeweled-bearing.

Two flat metal ribbons (phosphor bronze or platinum alloy) are
held under tension by spring to support the coil.
Because of the spring, the metal ribbons behave like rubber under
tension. Thus, the ribbons also exert a controlling force as they
twist.
The metal ribbons can be used as electrical connections to the
moving coil.
Much more sensitive than the jeweled-bearing type because there
is less friction.
Extremely rugged, not easily be shattered.
 PMMC Construction
The main feature is a permanent magnet with two soft-iron
pole shoes.
A cylindrical soft-iron core is positioned between the core and
the faces of the pole shoes.
The lightweight moving coil pivoted to move within these narrow
air gaps.
The air gaps are made as narrow as possible in order to have
the strongest possible level of magnetic flux crossing the gaps.

The current in the coil of a PMMC instrument must flow in one

particular direction to cause the pointer to move (positively)
from the zero position over the scale.
Because the PMMC is polarized, it can be used directed to
measure alternating current.
PMMC Construction

DArsonval or
horseshoe magnet

Core-magnet

21
Torque Equation and Scale

When a current I flows

through a one-turn coil
situated in a magnetic
field, a force F is exerted
on each side of the coil
F (BIl ) N newtons
where N is the number of turns
Total force on each side of the coil of N turns:
F 2 B I l N newtons
The force on each side acts at a radius r, producing a deflecting
torque:
TD 2 B l I N r ( N .m)
B l I N ( 2r )
TD B l I N D
 T D BlIN 2 r BlIND BA IN
A=l.D, Where D is the coil diameter

The controlling torque exerted by the spiral springs is directly

proportional to the deformation or windup of the springs.

Thus, the controlling torque is proportional to the actual angle

of deflection of the pointer.

TC K where K is a constant
 For a given deflection, the controlling and deflecting torques
are equal:
K BlIND
BlND
I CI whereC is a constant
K

This equation shows that the pointer deflection is always

proportional to the coil current.

Consequently, the scale of the instrument is linear, or uniformly

divided.
Example
v 1
A PMMC instrument with a 100-turn coil has a magnetic
flux density in its air gaps of B = 0.2 T. The coil
dimensions are D = 1 cm and l = 1.5 cm. Calculate the
torque on the coil for a current of 1 mA.

Solution:
TD B l I N D
0.2 (1.5 10 2 ) 0.001 100 (1 10 2 )
TD 3 10 6 N .m
Galvanometer
It is a PMMC instrument designed to be sensitive to
extremely low current levels.
The simplest galvanometer is a very sensitive
instrument with the type of center-zero scale.

Galvanometers are often employed to detect zero

current or voltage in a circuit rather than to measure
the actual level of current or voltage.

The most sensitive moving-coil galvanometer use taut-

band suspension, and the controlling torque is
generated by the twist in the suspension ribbon.

For the for greatest sensitivity, the weight of the pointer

can create a problem. The solution is by mounting a small
mirror on the moving coil instead of a pointer

Basic deflection system of

a galvanometer using a light beam
 An adjustable shunt resistor is employed to protect the coil
of a galvanometer from destructively excessive current
levels.

The shunt resistance is initially set to zero, then gradually

increased to divert current through the galvanometer.

27
Example
v 2
A galvanometer has a current sensitivity of 1 A/mm and
a critical damping resistance of 1 k. Calculate (a) the
voltage sensitivity and (b) the megaohm sensitivity.
Solution:

Voltage sensitivity 1 k 1 A
mm
1 mV/mm
For a voltage sensitivity of 1 V/mm,
1 V/mm
megohm sensitivity 1 M
1 A
mm
DC Ammeter
An ammeter is always connected in series with
a circuit in which current is to be measured.
To avoid affecting the current level in the circuit,
the ammeter must have a resistance much lower
than the circuit resistance.

For larger currents, the instrument must be modified so

that most of the current to be measured is shunted (a
very low shunt resister) around the coil of the meter.
Only a small portion of the current passes through the
moving coil.
 A dc ammeter consists of a PMMC instrument and a low-
resistance shunt.

V sh V m
I sh R sh I m R m
Im Rm
R sh
I sh
I sh I I m
Im Rm
R sh
I Im
Example 3
A PMMC instrument has FSD of 100 A and a coil resistance of 1 k.
Calculate the required shunt resistance value to convert the instrument
into an ammeter with (a) FSD = 100 mA and (b) FSD = 1 A.
Solution:
(a) FSD = 100 mA
Vm I m R m 100 A 1 k 100 mV
I Is Im
I s I I m 100 mA 100 A 99.9 mA
Vm 100 mV
Rs 1.001
Is 99.9 mA
(b) FSD = 1 A
V m I m R m 100 mV
I s I I m 1 A 100 A 999.9 mA
Vm 100 mV
Rs 0.1001
Is 999.9 mA
Example: An ammeter has a PMMC instrument with a coil resistance of Rm
= 99 and FSD current of 0.1 mA. Shunt resistance Rs = 1. Determine
the total current passing through the ammeter at :
a) FSD,
b) 0.5 FSD, and
c) 0.25 FSD

Solution
(a) At FSD
meter voltage V m I m R m
0.1mA 99 9.9mV
and I s R s V m
V m 9.9 mV
Is 9.9mA
Rs 1
totalcurrent I I s I m 9.9mA 0.1mA
10mA
32
 (b) At 0.5 FSD
I m 0.5 0.1 m A 0.05 m A
V m I m R m 0.05 m A 99 4.95 m V
V m 4.95 m V
Is 4.95 m A
Rs 1
total current I I s I m 4.95 m A 0.5 m A 5 m A
(c) At 0.25 FSD
I m 0.25 0.1 mA 0.025 mA
V m I m R m 0.025 mA 99 2.475 mV
V m 2.475 mV
Is 2.475 mA
Rs 1
total current I I s I m 2.475 mA 0.025 mA 2.5 mA

Thus, the ammeter scale may be calibrated linearly from zero to

10mA
 Ammeter Swamping Resistance
The moving coil in a PMMC instrument is wound with thin
copper wire, and its resistance can change significantly when its
temperature changes.
The heating effect of the coil current may be enough to produce
a resistance change, which will introduce an error.
To minimize this error, a swamping
resistance made of manganin or
constantan is connected in series
with the coil: (manganin and
constantan have resistance
temperature coefficients very close
to zero).
The ammeter shunt must also be made of manganin or constantan
to avoid shunt resistance variations with temperature.
Multirange Ammeters

Make-before-break switch

The instrument is not left without a

shunt in parallel with it even for a brief
instant. If this occurred, the high
resistance of the instrument would
affect the current flowing in the circuit.

During switching there are actually

two shunts in parallel with the
instrument.

35
 Ayrton Shunt
The figure shows another method
of protecting the deflection
instrument of an ammeter from
excessive current flow when
switching between shunts.
Resistors R1, R2, and R3 constitute
Rsh
an Ayrton Shunts

Internal Ammeter Resistance: Rin

Vs
R in
I
* R m* R sh
R in R m / /R sh *
R m R sh
Rsh 36
Example: A PMMC instrument has a three-resistor Ayrton
shunt connected across it to make an ammeter as shown in the
figure. The resistance values are R1 = 0.05, R2 = 0.45 and
R3 = 4.5. The meter has Rm = 1k and FSD = 50A.
Calculate the three ranges of the ammeter.
Solution

Switch at contact B

V s I m Rm 50A1k 50mV
Vs 50mV
Is 10mA
R1 R2 R3 0.05 0.45 4.5
I I m I s 50A10mA
10.05mA
37
 Switch at contact C
Vs I m Rm R3 50 A1 k 4.5 50 mV
Vs 50 mV
Is 100 mA
R1 R2 0.05 0.45
I I m I s 50 A 100 mA
100.05 mA

Switch at contact D
Vs I m Rm R3 R2 500 1k 4.5 0.45 50mV
Vs 50mV
Is 1A
R1 0.05
I I m I s 500 1A
1.00005A
Accuracy and Ammeter Loading Effects
Internal resistance of ideal ammeter is zero Ohm, but in practice, the
internal resistance has some values which affect the measurement
results.
This error can be reduced by using higher range of measurement.
Let us calculate the relationship between the true value and the
measured value
V Th
I T (true value )
RTh Rth

dc circuit with source

V Th and resistors IT Vth IT
I m ( measured value )
RTh R in

Im RTh
Accuracy Rth
IT R T h R in
dc circuit with source
and resistors
A Im Vth A Im
I
% Acc m 100%
IT
RTh
100%
R T h R in 39
Example: For a DC Circuit as shown in the
figure, given R1=2k, R2=2k with voltage
of 2V. By measuring the current flow through
R3 with a dc ammeter with internal resistance
of Rin = 100, calculate percentage of
accuracy and percentage of error.
Solution RTh

R T h R 1 / / R 2 R 3 2 k
VTh
E 2V
V Th R2 2 k 1V
R1 R 2 2 k 2 k
V Th 1V
IT 500A
RTh 2 k
V Th 1V
Im 476.19A
RTh R in 2 k 100

Im 476.19 A
% Acc 100% 95.24% % Error 1 % A cc 1 95.24% 4.76%
IT 500 A
40
DC Voltmeter
The deflection of a PMMC
instrument is proportional to the
current flowing through the moving
coil. The coil current is directly
proportional to the voltage across the
coil.
The coil resistance is normally quite small,
and thus the coil voltage is also usually
very small. Without any additional series
(multiplier resistance) resistance the
PMMC instrument would only measure
very low voltage.
The voltmeter range is easily increased by
connecting a resistance in series with the
instrument.

The meter current is directly proportional to the applied voltage,

so that the meter scale can be calibrated to indicate the voltage.
 The voltmeter range is increased by connecting a multiplier
resistance with the instrument (single or individual type of extension
of range).
RV R s R m
V I m RV I m R s I m R m
1
Rs V R m
Im
Last equation can be used to select the multiplier resistance value (Rs)
for certain voltage range (FSD). In this case Im will be the full scale
current.
A multiplier resistance that is nine times the coil resistance will increase
the voltmeter range by a factor of 10 (multiplier resistance + coil
resistance)
The voltmeter sensitivity (S) is defined as the total voltmeter resistance
(internal resistance Rin) divided by the voltage range (full scale)
Example:
A PMMC instrument with FSD of 100 A and a coil resistance of 1k is to
be converted into a voltmeter. Determine the required multiplier
resistance if the voltmeter is to measure 50V at full scale and Voltmeter
sensitivity. Also calculate the applied voltage when the instrument
indicate 0.8, 0.5, and 0.2 of FSD.
Solution
At 50 V FSD

V I m RV I m R s I m R m

V
Rs Rm
Im
50 V
I m 100 A Rs 1 k 499 k
100 A
 Since the voltmeter has a total resistance of Rv = Rs+Rm = 500k , then
its resistance per volt or sensitivity is 500k / 50V =10 k / V.

At 0.8 of FSD
I m 0.8 100 A 80 A
V I m Rs R m
80 A 499 k 1k 40 V
At 0.5 of FSD
I m 50 A
V 50 A 499 k 1k 25 V

At 0.2 of FSD
I m 20A
V 20A 499 k 1k 10 V

Thus, the voltmeter scale may be calibrated linearly from zero to 50 V

Voltmeter Swamping Resistance
As in the case of ammeter, the change in coil resistance (Rm) with
temperature change can introduce errors in a PMMC voltmeter.
The presence of the voltmeter multiplier resistance (Rs) tends to swamp
coil resistance changes, except for low voltage ranges where Rs is not very
much larger than Rm.
In some cases it might be necessary to construct the multiplier
resistance form manganin or constantan.
Multirange Voltmeters
Individual or series connected resistors may be used as shown in the following
configurations

Multirange series voltmeter with ranges V = Im(Rm+R) ,

Multirange voltmeter with ranges V = Im(Rm+R)
where R can be R1, R1 +R2, or R1 +R2 + R3
where R can be R1, R2, or R3
Example:
A PMMC instrument with FSD = 50A and Rm = 1700 is to be employed
as a voltmeter with ranges of 10V, 50V, and 100V. Calculate the required
values of multiplier resistors for the two circuits shown in the previous
slides.
Solution

For the circuit shown

V
Switch contact at Rm +R1 =
Im

V
R1 = - Rm
Im
10 V
1700 200 k 1.7 k
50 A
198.3 k

50V
Switch contact at R2 1700
50 A
998.3 k

Switch contact at 100V

R3 1700
50 A
46
1.9983 M
For the circuit shown
Switch contact at
V
R m R1 1
Im
V 10 V
R1 1 R m 1700 198.3 k
Im 50 A

Switch contact at
V2
R m R1 R 2
Im
V2 50 V
R2 R1 R m 198.3 k 1700 800 k
Im 50 A

Switch contact at
V3
R m R1 R 2 R 3
Im
V3 100 V
R3 R 2 R1 R m 800 k 198.3 k 1700 1 M
Im 50 A
Accuracy and Voltmeter Loading Effect
Let us calculate the
relationship between the
VT VT
true value (VT) and the
measured value (Vm)

V T V Th
V Th Vm Vm
Vm R in
R in RTh

Vm R in
Accuracy
V T R in RTh
Vm
%Acc 100%
VT
R in
%Acc 100%
R in RTh
48
Example:
A voltmeter with sensitivity of 20k/V is used for
measuring a voltage across R2 with range of 50V as
shown in the figure below.
Calculate a) reading voltage. b) accuracy of
measurement. c) error of measurement
Solution
E 100V
V Th V T R2 200k 50
R
1 R 2 200 k 200 k
RTh R1 / / R 2 200k / / 200k 100k

20 k
a) R in S Range 50V 1M
V
R in 1M RTh
Vm V
T 50V 45.45V
R in RTh 1M 100k VTh
Vm 45.45V
b) A ccuracy 0.909 or % A cc 90.9%
VT 50V

c) E rro r 1 A cc 1 0 .9 0 9 0 .0 9 1 or % E rro r 9 .1 %
AC Voltmeter
Full-Wave Rectifier Voltmeter
Half-Wave Rectifier Voltmeter
Half-Wave Full Bridge Rectifier Voltmeter
 AC Ammeter and Voltmeter
When an alternating current (sinusoidal ) with a very low frequency
(0.1 Hz or lower) is passed through a PMMC instrument, the pointer
tends to follow the instantaneous level of the AC.
As the current grows positively, the pointer deflection increases to a maximum at
the peak of the ac.
Then as the instantaneous current level falls, the pointer deflection decreases
towards zero.
When the ac goes negative, the pointer is deflected (off-scale) to the left of zero.

With the normal 50 Hz or higher supply frequencies, the damping

mechanisms and the inertia of the meter movement prevent the pointer
from following the changing instantaneous levels of the signal.
The instruments pointer settles at the average value of the current flowing
through the moving coil which is zero.

PMMC instrument can be modified by one of the following circuits to

measure AC signals
1. Full-Wave Bridge Rectifier Voltmeter
When the input is positive, diodes D1 and D4 conduct,
causing current to flow through the meter from top to
bottom ( red solid path).
When the input goes negative, diodes D2 and D3 conduct,
current flows through the meter from the positive to the
negative terminal ( blue dashed path).

The ac voltmeter uses a series-connected multiplier

resistor (Rs) to limit the current flow through the Ip
instrument. Iav Irms

The meter deflection is proportional to the average

current (Iav), which is 0.637 peak current (Ip or
Im).
But the actual current (or voltage) to be indicated in ac measurement is normally
the Irms = 0.707 Ip (or Im) .
( note Irms = 1.11 Iav Ip (or Im) = 1.414 Irms )
When other than pure sine waves are applied, the voltmeter will not
indicate the rms voltage.
 Rs

D2

Rm

D4 D3

applied peak voltage (V p ) - rectifiers voltage drop 1.414V rms 2V F

Im
totat circuit resistance Rs Rm

VF is rectifier voltage drops for D1 and D2 or D3 and D4

Peak current Im = Iav/0.637 = IFSD/0.637
Example:
A PMMC instrument with FSD = 100 A and Rm = 1 k is to be employed
as an ac voltmeter with FSD = 200 V (rms). Silicon diodes with VF = 0.7 V
are used in the bridge rectifier circuit of shown above. Calculate: (a) the
multiplier resistance value required, (b) the pointer indications the rms
input voltage is (i)100V and (ii) 50 V.
Solution
At FSD, the average current flowing
through the PMMC instrument is 100A
I
I m av 157 A
0.637
V p 1.414V rms 1.414 200 282.8 V olt
V p 2V F V p 2V F
(a) Im Rs Rm
Rs Rm Im
(282.8 1.4)V
3
1k 1791.36 k
(157 10 )mA
\
V p \ 2V F 1.414 100 1.4
(b) i-for the rms input voltage is 100V Im 78.11 A
Rs R m (1791.36 1)k

I av \ 0.607 I m \ 49.76 A 50 A 0.5FSD

ii- Similarly, for the rms input voltage is 50V

I av \ \ 25 A 0.25 FSD
2. Half-Wave Rectifier Voltmeter

RSH shunting the meter is included to cause a relatively large

current to flow through diode D1 (larger than the meter current)
when the diode is forward biased. This is ensure that the diode is
biased beyond the knee and will into the linear range of its
characteristics.
Diode D2 conducts during the negative half-cycles of the input.
When conducting, D2 cause a small voltage drop across D1 and
the meter, thus preventing the flow of any significant reverse
leakage current ( and reverse voltage) through the meter via D1.

In the half wave rectifier

Half-Bridge Full-Wave Rectifier Voltmeter
During the positive half-cycle of the input, diode D1 is forward biased and D2 is
reverse biased. Current flows from terminal 1 through D1 and the meter and
then through R2 to terminal 2. but R1 is in parallel with the meter and R2.
Therefore, much of the current flowing in D1 pass through R1 while only part
of it flows through the meter and R2
During the negative half-cycle, diode D2 is forward biased and D1 is reverse
biased. Current flows from terminal 2 through R1 and the meter and then
through D2 to terminal 1. New, R2 is in parallel with the series connected meter
and R1

This arrangement forces the diodes to

operate beyond the knee of their
characteristics and helps to
compensate for differences that might
occur in the characteristics of D1 and
D2 .
AC Ammeter

Like a dc ammeter, an ac ammeter must have a very low

resistance because it is always connected in series with
the circuit in which current is to be measured.
This low-resistance requirement means that the voltage
drop across the ammeter must be very small, typically not
greater than 1000 mV.
The voltage drop across a diode is 0.3 to 0.7 V.
The use of a current transformer gives the ammeter a low
terminal resistance and low voltage drop.
 Ohmmeter
A. Series Ohmmeter
Basic Circuit and Scale
The simplest circuit consists of a voltage
source (Eb) connected in series with a pair
of terminals (A & B), a standard resistance
(R1), and a low-current PMMC instrument.

The resistance to be measured (Rx) is connected across terminal A and B.

The meter current I m E b (R x + R1 + R m )

When the ohmmeter terminals are shorted (Rx= 0) meter full-scale deflection occurs.
IFSD = Eb / (R1 + Rm)

At half-scale deflection Rx = R1 + Rm

At zero deflection the terminals are

open-circuited (Rx = ).
 Example : The series ohmmeter shown in Figure is
made up of a 1.5V battery, a 100 A meter, and a
resistance R1 which makes (R1 + Rm) =15k.
a) Determine the instrument indication when Rx = 0.
b) Determine how the resistance scale should be
marked at 0.75 FSD, 0.5 FSD and 0.25 FSD
Solution
Eb 1.5V
a) I m 100 A FS D
R x R1 R m 0 15 k
3 100 A Eb
b ) A t 0.75 FSD : I m 75 A & R x R1 R m
4 I
Eb
Rx R1 R m
I
1.5V
15k 5k
75 A

100 A 1.5V
At 0.5 FSD : I m 50 A & Rx 15k 15k
2 50 A
 100 A 1.5V
A t 0.25 FSD : I m 25 A & Rx 15k 45k
4 25 A

The ohmmeter scale is now marked

as shown in the figure. It is clear that
the ohmmeter scale is nonlinear.

Comments: disadvantages of simple series ohmmeter

The simple ohmmeter described in last example will operate satisfactorily as
long as the battery voltage remains exactly at 1.5V. When the battery voltage
falls, the instrument scale is no longer correct.
Although R were adjusted to give FSD when terminals A and B are short-
circuited, the scale would still be in error because now mid-scale would
represent a resistance equal to the new value of R1 + Rm.
Ohmmeter with Zero Adjust
Falling battery voltage can be taken care by an
adjustable resistor (R2) connected in parallel
with the meter.
With terminals A and B short-circuited, the total
circuit resistance is R1 + (R2 // Rm).
Since R1 is always very much larger than R2 // Rm,
the total circuit resistance can be assumed to
equal R1
Eb Eb
Ib = if R \\R << R then I
R x + R1 + R 2 \\R m 2 m 1 b
R x + R1
I b R 2 \\R m
A lso , the meter voltage is V m = I b R 2 \\R m which give meter current as I m =
Rm
When Rx equal to R1 the circuit resistance is doubled and the circuit current is halved. This
cause both I2 and Im to be reduced to half of their previous level. Thus the mid-scale measured
resistance is again equal to R1.

Each time the ohmmeter is used, terminals A and B are first short circuited, and R2 is
adjusted for zero-ohm indication on the scale
 The series ohmmeter can be converted to a multi-range ohmmeter by
employing several values of standard resistance R1 and a rotatory
switch

The major inconvenience of such a circuit is that a large adjustment of

the zero control (R2) would have to be made every time the resistance
range (R1) is changed.
 Example:
An ohmmeter as shown in the figure with Eb =
1.5V, R1 = 15k, Rm = R2 = 50 and IFSD = 50A.
Calculate, (a) Rx at 0.5FSD, (b) when Eb = 1.3V
what is the value of R2 to get full-scale current and
(c) when Eb = 1.3V what is the value of Rx at half-
scale current.
Solution

Since (Rm // R2) = 25 << R1 then at half scale Rx = R1 = 15k independent of Eb

(a) V m I m R m 25 A 50 1.25 m V
Vm 1.25 m V
I2 25 A
R2 50
I b I 2 I m 25 A 25 A 50 A
E 1.5V
R x R1 30 k
Ib 50 A
E
Rx R 1 30 k 15 k 15 k
I
b
(b)
Eb 1.3V
Ib 86.67 A
R x R1 0 15k
I 2 I b I m FSD 86.67 A 50 A 36.67 A
V m I m FSD R m 50 A 50 2.5mV
Vm 2.5mV
R2 68.18
I 2 36.67 A

(c)
V m I m R m 2 5 A 5 0 1 .2 5 m V
Vm 1 .2 5 m V
I2 1 8 .3 3 A
R2 6 8 .1 8 Since (Rm // R2) =
28.85 << R1
I b I 2 I m 1 8 .3 3 A 2 5 A 4 3 .3 3 A then at half scale
E 1 .3V Rx = R1 = 15k
R x R1 30k independent of Eb
Ib 4 3 .3 3 A
R x 30k R 1 30k 15k
R x 15k
B. Shunt Ohmmeter
Basic Circuit and Scale
The simplest circuit consists of a voltage source (E)
connected with an adjusted Resistor (RAdj) and a
low-current PMMC instrument.

The resistance to be measured (Rx) is connected across terminal A and B.

When Rx = 0, short circuit between A and B, there will be no current
flow in the coil branch and the scale point at zero on the left hand side.
When Rx = , open circuit between A and B. Then adjust RAdj to get
FSD. The meter will point infinity at the right of the scale.
E
I m I FS D
R A dj R m
For any Rx we have,
ER x
Im
R A dj R m R x R A dj R m

Scale of shunt ohmmeter is opposite to the scale

of series ohmmeter when connecting with Rx
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