Biogeography-Based Optimization

and the Solution of the Power Flow Problem

sometimes become desolate. The BBO algorithm seeks to
Rick Rarick, Dan Simon, F. Eugenio Villaseca, model this behavior in a way that causes an "optimal" island to
Bharat Vyakaranam emerge from the original population of islands.
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering An optimization problem that is of primary importance for
Cleveland State University power utilities is the optimal power flow (OPF) problem which
Cleveland, Ohio, USA was introduced in 1962 by the French engineer Jules Carpentier
[email protected] [7]. A power utility may own power generating plants fueled
by coal, natural gas, and nuclear material, as well as
hydroelectric plants. The cost of operation and the amount of
AbstractBiogeography-based optimization (BBO) is a novel emissions per kilowatt-hour of these plants will vary depending
evolutionary algorithm that is based on the mathematics of on the type of plant. Also, the demand for power will vary
biogeography. Biogeography is the study of the geographical depending on the location of the plant, the time of day, and the
distribution of biological organisms. In the BBO model, problem season of the year. It is important to adjust the power output
solutions are represented as islands, and the sharing of features levels among the various generating plants in the system at any
between solutions is represented as immigration and emigration given time so as to minimize the operating costs and
between the islands. This paper presents an application of the simultaneously meet three major constraints. First, the Law of
BBO algorithm to the power flow problem for an IEEE 30-bus Conservation of Energy requires that the power generated by
Test Case system. The BBO solution is compared with the the plants must equal the power absorbed by the loads plus the
solution of the same problem using a genetic algorithm (GA). The power losses that occur in the transmission system. Second,
results of Monte Carlo simulations indicate that the BBO both the active and reactive power levels and the voltage levels
algorithm consistently performs better than the GA in at each bus in the system must be maintained within specified
determining an optimal solution to the power flow problem. limits for efficiency, the protection of equipment, and the safety
of the public and electrical workers. And third, the maximum
KeywordsBiogeography-Based Optimization, Power Flow
amount of emissions that a plant is allowed to produce is
Problem, Genetic Algorithms, Evolutionary Algorithms, Power
Systems.
regulated by law in most countries.
The mathematical model of a large power system network
I. INTRODUCTION is nonlinear and nonconvex. The classical approach to solving
Classical algorithms for solving optimization problems rely such problems has been the gradient method using Lagrange
strongly on initial values and convexity for their success in multipliers. The solution of the optimization problem requires
determining global optima. The algorithms frequently get solving very large systems of nonlinear equations. It is not
trapped in local optima or diverge. Modern heuristic techniques unusual to have 5,000 buses in a large power system with
such as genetic algorithms (GA) and, more generally, 10,000 unknown variables that must be constrained by as many
evolutionary algorithms, have proven to be effective in solving equations. In addition there can be 10,000 inequality
such problems [1]. These techniques are based on the science constraints on these variables. Inverting the large matrices and
and mathematics of biological genetics which seeks to solving the large matrix equations is a very formidable task.
understand and model the way populations in nature such as The matrices are extremely sparse, and special numerical
insects, animals, and humans "solve" evolutionary problems. techniques must be employed to ensure accuracy and stability.
The inequality constraints contribute an additional layer of
The science of biogeography can be traced to the 19th difficulty to the problem [8]. Evolutionary algorithms avoid all
century work of Alfred Wallace [2] and Charles Darwin [3]. of the above mathematical difficulties, and consequently they
Eugene Munroe was the first to introduce mathematical models are being employed increasingly in the solution of large,
of biogeography in 1948 [4], and Robert MacArthur and intractable power system problems. The OPF research literature
Edward Wilson were the first to extensively develop and contains numerous adaptations of genetic algorithms [9], as
publicize them in the 1960s [5]. Biogeography-based well as more recent techniques such as evolutionary
optimization [6] is founded on the observation that the programming [10], particle swarm algorithms [11], and ant
migration of species among a group of neighboring islands, colony searches [12].
combined with mutation of the individual species, will tend
over many generations to produce islands that attract and keep The OPF problem is usually solved in two stages. First,
large numbers of species through immigration. Other islands numerical techniques such as the Newton-Raphson method are
will lose species through extinction or emigration and will used to solve the so-called power flow problem (not the same
as the OPF problem). This part of the solution guarantees that
This work was supported by NSF Grant 0826124 in the CMMI Division the equality constraints arising from the conservation of energy
of the Engineering Directorate and by Department of Energy Contract DE- principle mentioned above are satisfied. Then the solution to
FC26-06NT42853. this power flow problem is used as the starting point (initial

978-1-4244-2794-9/09/$25.00 2009 IEEE SMC 2009

guess) for the various numerical techniques used to solve the In order to apply the BBO concept to an optimization
OPF problem. In this preliminary study, the GA and the BBO problem, the n-tuple ( SIV1 , , SIVn ) associated with the
algorithms were restricted to the power flow problem. In
features of an island is viewed as a possible solution to the
addition to demonstrating a new way of solving the power flow
optimization problem. In other words, the set of all such n-
problem, we compare the performance of the GA to the new
tuples is the search space from which an optimal solution will
BBO algorithm in a practical power systems application and
be determined. The value of the ISI for a particular island is
show the superior performance of the latter via Monte Carlo
viewed as the value of the objective function associated with
simulations.
that solution. The goal of the BBO algorithm, then, is to
The remainder of the paper is organized as follows. Section determine the solutions which maximize the ISI over the entire
II describes the BBO algorithm and lists the pseudocode search space.
required for its implementation. Section III explains the
We can use the migration rates of each solution to
formulation of the power flow problem and the application of
probabilistically share features between islands. For each SIV
both algorithms to the problem. In Section IV, the results of the
(feature) in each island (solution), we probabilistically decide
MATLAB simulations are given and the performance of the
whether or not to immigrate. If immigration is selected for a
algorithms is compared. Some concluding remarks and topics
given SIV, then the emigrating island is selected
for future investigations are given in Section V.
probabilistically using roulette wheel selection [9] normalized
II. THE BIOGEOGRAPHY-BASED OPTIMIZATION by . After the migration operation, a mutation operation is
ALGORITHM probabilistically applied to the island to increase diversity in
In a group of neighboring islands, species of plants and the population. This gives the algorithm shown in Figure 2 as a
animals will migrate over time between the islands by various conceptual description of one generation using this approach.
means, being carried along by driftwood, fish, birds, and the We use the notation yk ( s ) to denote the s-th feature of the k-th
wind. Over evolutionary periods of time, some islands may island in a population y of islands. Migration and mutation of
tend to accumulate more species than others because they the entire population take place before any of the solutions are
posses certain environmental features that are more suitable to replaced in the population, which requires the use of the
sustaining those species than islands with fewer species. This temporary population z.
ability to sustain larger numbers of species can be associated
with a fitness measure that we can quantify by assigning an z y
island suitability index (ISI) to each island. The value of the ISI For each island zk
depends on many features of the island. If a value is assigned to For each SIV s
each feature, then the ISI is a function of these values. Each of Use k to decide whether to immigrate to zk ( s )
these values is represented by a suitability index variable (SIV). If immigrating to zk ( s ) then
These mappings are summarized as follows: Use to select the emigrating island y j
zk ( s ) y j ( s )
Island ( feature1 , ,feature n ) ( SIV1 , , SIVn ) ISI End if
An island with a large number of species (a large ISI ) has Probabilistically decide whether to mutate zk ( s )
an abundance of species which can emigrate to other islands, so Next SIV s + 1
its rate of emigration, denoted by , is correspondingly large. Next island zk +1
yz
The island is also less likely to be able to sustain further
immigration of species because of the growing demand on its Figure 2: One Generation of the BBO Algorithm
finite environmental resources, so its immigration rate, denoted
by , is small. For many applications it suffices to assume a III. THE POWER FLOW PROBLEM
linear relationship between an island's ISI and its immigration Power systems are comprised of generators, transformers,
and emigration rates and that these rates are the same for all transmission lines, and electrical loads connected at circuit
islands under consideration (the population). These nodes called buses. A simplified three-bus system is depicted in
relationships are depicted in Figure 1. Figure 3. The system is assumed to be a balanced three-phase
system in sinusoidal steady-state operation. The power flow
Migration Immigration problem is defined to be the calculation of the voltage
Rate Rate magnitude and phase angle at each bus in the system [13].
From these voltages and angles, combined with the known
transmission line admittances, the active and reactive power
flowing into the network from each bus can be calculated.
Emigration
Rate The description of the power flow problem requires the
introduction of the following terminology and notation. Four
electrical quantities are associated with each bus. At Bus i, Vi
ISI is the magnitude of the bus voltage, i is the voltage phase
Figure 1: Island Migration Rates vs. ISI angle, and Pi and Qi are the net active and reactive powers

SMC 2009
entering the network from the bus, respectively. For the That is, the power injected into the network at Bus i is equal to
standard IEEE 30-bus system used in our simulations [16], the the power supplied by the generator minus the power absorbed
voltage magnitude and the phase angle vectors are denoted by by the load.
V = (V1 ,V2 , ,V30 ) , = (1 , 2 , , 30 ) (1) Every power system has a reference bus called a slack bus.
The slack bus has a generator connected to it and is usually
The explicit dependence of the active and reactive powers denoted as Bus 1. The voltage magnitude V1 and angle 1 are
on the voltages, angles, and admittances in the system is given specified with 1 = 0 being specified as the reference angle for
by the power flow equations
all voltages and currents in the system. The active and reactive
Nb
powers of the generator, PG1 and QG1 , are not specified, so P1
Pi (V , ) = Vi V j [Gik cos(ik ) + Bik sin(ik )]
k =1
and Q1 are not specified but are left as free variables in order
(2)
Nb to guarantee that the system of equations in (2) has a solution.
Qi (V , ) = Vi V j [Gik sin(ik ) Bik cos(ik )]
k =1 At every bus in the system to which a load is connected, the
powers, PDi and QDi , absorbed by the load are specified in the
where i) for i k , Gik + jBik is the negative of the admittance
design requirements. Some of the buses will have a generator
connected between Bus i and Bus j; ii) for i = k , Gii + jBii is connected to them, and the active power PGi supplied by the
the sum of all admittances connected to Bus i; and iii) N b is generator is specified except for the generator at the slack bus.
the number of buses in the system. At each bus there are four And some of these generators may also have the reactive power
unknown quantities: Vi , i , Pi , and Qi . The system of QGi specified by design because of the type of power plant or
nonlinear equations in (2) has 4 N b unknowns and only 2 N b other conditions requiring both the active and reactive powers
equations, and therefore it is underdetermined. to be maintained at a certain level. So in these cases, both PGi
and QGi are specified. Buses for which all four powers,
Gen 1 Gen 2
PGi , QGi , PDi , and QDi , are specified are called PQ buses.
Bus 1 V11 V2 2 Bus 2 At the remaining buses to which a generator is connected,
P1 , Q1 P2 , Q2
only the active power of the generator PGi is specified; the
reactive power QGi is left unspecified. The voltage at these
Load 1 buses is controlled to specified values by adjusting the
generators output. These are called PV buses.
Transmission
Line
We can combine the generator and load power
specifications into a single quantity called the specified power
Bus 3 at Bus i. It is defined as the power generated at the bus minus
V33
P3 , Q3 the load connected to the bus:
Load 2
Pi sp = PGi PDi
(4)
Figure 3: A 3-Bus Power System Qisp = QGi QDi
The general practice in the analysis and design of power The first equation in (4) is well defined for all buses except the
systems is to specify two of the four unknown quantities at slack bus, namely all PQ and PV buses. The second is well
each bus so that the system in (2) can be solved. Depending on defined for all buses for which QGi is specified, namely the PQ
which quantities are specified, the buses are divided into three
buses.
categories: slack buses, PQ buses, and PV buses. These
categories are described next. In order to solve the power flow equations in (2) iteratively,
an initial value for the voltage-angle vector (V , ) is generated
For the sake of the mathematical notation involved, it is
assumed that every bus in the system has both a generator and a to start the algorithm. The values of Pi and Qi can then be
load connected to it. Under this assumption, four additional calculated for all buses in the system using (2). These quantities
quantities are defined for Bus i: the active and reactive powers represent the net estimated power entering the network from
supplied by the generator, PGi and QGi , and the active and Bus i and are denoted by Pi est and Qiest . The power mismatch
reactive powers absorbed by the load, PDi and QDi . If a is then defined as
particular bus does not have a generator or a load, then we set
the corresponding quantities to zero. Using this notation, the Pi = Pi est Pi sp = Pi ( PGi PDi )
power balance equations are defined at Bus i as (5)
Qi = Qiest Qisp = Qi ( QGi QDi )
Pi = PGi PDi
(3) Mismatches are nonzero when the power estimated from a
Qi = QGi QDi
given voltage-angle vector (V , ) differs from the specified

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power at the bus. The goal of the power flow problem is to The GA and BBO algorithms require a fitness function for
find a vector (V , ) such that the power balance equation at roulette wheel calculations. Since the theoretical minimum of
each bus is satisfied: c(V , ) is zero, the fitness function was chosen to be
Pi (V , ) = 0 100
(6) f (V , ) = (10)
Qi (V , ) = 0 c (V, ) + 0.005
For PV buses, QGi is not specified, and for slack buses, to avoid extremely large fitness values or divide-by-zero errors.
neither PGi nor QGi are specified. In these cases, a mismatch
IV. SIMULATION RESULTS
for the corresponding quantity is not defined, and there is no
requirement that the power balance equations associated with The GA and BBO algorithms were applied to the power
these buses be satisfied when solving the power flow problem flow problem using the MATLAB programming environment.
[15]. The standard IEEE 30-bus system, based on the data from a
real power system in Virginia in the 1960s, was used as a test
Since the voltage magnitude is specified at PV buses, the case for the study. A diagram and the electrical specifications
given voltage magnitude vector V can be used to define the of the system are available at the Power Systems Test Case
voltage mismatch [14] as Archives website maintained by the University of Washington
[16]. The data file containing the electrical specifications is
Vi = Vi Vi sp (7) formatted in the IEEE Common Format for the exchange of
solved load flow data [17].
where Vi is the i-th component of the vector V in (1). As in (6),
The GA population size was chosen as 100. Each
a voltage balance equation can be then defined:
chromosome in the population has 60 genes made up of the 30
Vi = 0 (8) voltage magnitudes and 30 voltage phase angles in the vector

Note that Vi is not estimated from the power flow equations X = (V1 , V2 , ,V30 , 1 , 2 , , 30 ) (11)
est est
(2) as were Pi and Q , but is obtained from the estimate for
i The slack bus voltage V1 was fixed at 1 p.u. (per unit, a
V in the algorithm when solving the power flow problem. normalized unit of voltage measurement) and its angle 1 was
Typically numerical methods such as the Newton-Raphson fixed at zero degrees. The weights assigned to the cost function
method are used to solve the nonlinear system in (2) were Q = 1 and V = 100.
[8][13][15]. As mentioned above, an initial guess for the
voltage-angle vector (V , ) is required to start the algorithm. For the reproduction operation, a one-point crossover
This initial solution vector is used in (5) and (7) to generate a scheme was used. Each pair of parent chromosomes can
mismatch or estimation error. In numerical approaches, a potentially generate two offspring depending on the crossover
gradient method is then applied to the mismatch to generate a probability. Fifty parents were randomly chosen by roulette
new estimate for (V , ), and the process is iterated. wheel selection based on the fitness expression in (10).
Crossover was set to occur with a probability of 0.70 at a
In GA or BBO algorithms, an initial population of randomly determined crossover point in the chromosome.
individuals (chromosomes for the GA and islands for the BBO)
is generated by assigning a random vector (V , ) to every After the crossover step, a non-uniform mutation operation
is applied to each chromosome in the population. The
individual in the population. The components of the vector are probability of selecting a given chromosome for mutation is
real-valued voltages and phase angles constrained to be within 0.05. If a chromosome is chosen for mutation, then one of its
some prescribed limits based on considerations from the power genes, say g X , in (11) is changed to a new value g
system specifications. The components of these vectors
comprise the genes in the GA and the features (SIVs) in the according to the formula
BBO algorithm. The mismatches can then be calculated for
g ' = a '+ r ( b ' a ' )
each individual and a cost assigned from a weighted sum of the
squares of the mismatches: where a ' = g f (G ) ( g a )
(12)
b ' = g + f (G )(b g )
c (V , ) = Pi 2 + Q Q i
2
+ V V i
2
(9)
f ( G ) = (1 G / G max )
iPV PQ iPQ iPV 2
and
Here PV and PQ are index sets for the PV and PQ buses,
respectively. This cost is used as the objective function in both and r is a uniformly distributed random number in [0, 1], G is
the GA and the BBO algorithms. The goal of each algorithm is the current generation number, Gmax is the maximum number
to find a global minimum for the cost c(V , ) in as few of generations, and a and b are the lower and upper limits
generations as possible. For the power flow problem, the global associated with the gene gi . Duplicate chromosomes were
minimum is known to be zero from (6) and (8). removed at each generation step and replaced with random
mutations. Lastly, an elitism operation was applied in order to
preserve the six fittest individuals from each generation.

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 The BBO algorithm is similar to the GA except that in generations, although these simulations were not subjected to
BBO, the reproduction scheme of the GA is replaced by the Monte Carlo trials because of prohibitive computation times.
migration scheme described in Figure 2. The same mutation, Nevertheless, in numerous non-Monte Carlo simulations with a
duplication removal, and elitism schemes are used in both large number of generations, the BBO always found a smaller
algorithms. In BBO nomenclature, chromosomes are referred minimum cost and had a smaller average cost, even when the
to as islands and genes as features or SIVs. crossover or mutation rates were changed.
Many of the decisions and numerical values within both Some further Monte Carlo results are shown in Figure 5
algorithms depend on stochastically generated quantities, so and Figure 6. Figure 5 shows the minimum cost achieved over
700 Monte Carlo simulations were run to improve the all individuals, over all generations, and over all Monte Carlo
reliability of the conclusions about performance. Only 100 simulations. Figure 6 shows the minimum average cost over all
generations were simulated in order to reduce simulation time, generations and over all trials. Both figures indicate that the
which was 462 minutes on a 2.3 GHz processor. This number BBO algorithm is able to find a better solution than the GA
of generations is extremely small for this type of problem. For with respect to these statistical measures.
example, a GA very similar to the one in this study was applied
to the IEEE 14-bus standard system in [1] and required 10,000
generations to achieve a minimum cost very close to zero. But
since the goal of this study is a comparison of the relative
performance of the GA and the BBO algorithms, such time-
consuming simulations were not required.
The overall performance of the two algorithms is shown in
Figure 4. The plots were generated as follows. A cost is
calculated for each individual in a population. Each population
is associated with a generation, and each generation is
associated with a Monte Carlo trial. Thus, a cost is generated
for each individual in each generation in each trial; or, put
another way, the cost is a function of the individual index, the
generation index, and the trial index:
Figure 5: Minimum Cost from Monte Carlo Trials
cost = cost ( ind, gen, trial ) (13)

If we take the average of this cost, first over all individuals in a

particular generation, and then over all Monte Carlo trials
containing that generation, we obtain the average cost as a
function of the number of generations:

(
AveCost ( gen ) = ave ave cost ( ind, gen, trial )
trials ind
) (14)

This function is plotted in Figure 4 for the GA and BBO.

Figure 6: Minimum Average Cost from Monte Carlo Trials

V. CONCLUSION
The objective of this study was to compare the performance
of a novel biogeography-based optimization algorithm to that
of a traditional genetic algorithm in a practical application.
Both algorithms were applied to a standard power flow
problem in power systems analysis. Initial Monte Carlo testing
indicates that the BBO consistently performs better than the
GA with respect to certain basic statistical measures. The
mathematical basis for this improved performance is discussed
in [18].
Figure 4: Average Cost of 700 Monte Carlo Trials
For this study, the algorithms were applied to the relatively
The plot shows that for about the first 16 generations, the simple IEEE 30-bus test case so that the code could be tested
GA performs better than the BBO, but thereafter the BBO for accuracy more efficiently and initial results generated in a
performs better. This improved performance is consistently reasonable amount time. Although traditional numerical
observed in simulations with 1000, 5000, and 10000 methods for solving such problems have been successful, the

SMC 2009
difficulty in solving such problems increases rapidly as the [5] R. MacArthur and E. Wilson, The Theory of Biogeography, Princeton
number of buses increases or the system is stressed under University Press, 1967.
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Available: http://academic.csuohio.edu/simond/bbo/markov
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[19] J. Kennedy and R. Eberhart, Swarm Intelligence, Academic Press, CA,
Many variations and enhancements are possible with both 2001.
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are used to test evolutionary algorithms.
Finally, different approaches to the migration operation
could be tested. Instead of the linear approximations that we
used for the migration rate curves and , more complicated
curves can be constructed. Also, the migration strategy that we
used can be described as an immigration-based strategy, but
others are possible, such as the emigration-based, single
immigration, and single emigration strategies discussed in [22].
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