Resources, Conservation and Recycling 55 (2011) 923932

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Resources, Conservation and Recycling

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/resconrec

Review

Utilization of silica fume in concrete: Review of hardened properties

Rafat Siddique
Thapar University, Patiala (Punjab) 147004, India

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Several types of industrial byproducts are generated. With increased environmental awareness and its
Received 20 March 2011 potential hazardous effects, utilization of industrial byproducts has become an attractive alternative to
Received in revised form 2 June 2011 disposal. One such by-product is silica fume (SF), which is a byproduct of the smelting process in the
Accepted 17 June 2011
silicon and ferrosilicon industry. Silica fume is very effective in the design and development of high
strength high performance concrete.
Keywords:
This paper covers the physical, chemical properties of silica fume, and its reaction mechanism. It deals
Concrete
with the effect of silica fume on the workability, porosity, compressive strength, splitting tensile strength,
Compressive strength
Creep
exural strength, creep and shrinkage of concrete.
Flexural strength 2011 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Porosity
Silica fume
Splitting tensile strength
Shrinkage
Workability

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 924
2. Properties of silica fume . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 924
2.1. Physical properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 924
2.2. Chemical composition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 924
3. Advantages of using silica fume . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 924
3.1. Applications of silica fume . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 924
4. Reaction mechanism of silica fume . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 925
5. Effect of silica fume on the workability of concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 925
6. Effect of silica fume on the hardened properties of concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 925
6.1. Porosity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 925
6.2. Compressive strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 925
6.3. Splitting tensile strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 928
6.4. Flexural tensile strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 928
6.5. Modulus of elasticity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 929
6.6. Shrinkage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 930
6.7. Creep . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 930
7. Conclusions and summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 931
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 931

Corresponding author. Tel.: +91 175 239 3207; fax: +91 175 239 3005.
E-mail address: siddique [email protected]

0921-3449/$ see front matter 2011 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.resconrec.2011.06.012
924 R. Siddique / Resources, Conservation and Recycling 55 (2011) 923932

1. Introduction Table 1
SiO2 content of silica fume produced from different alloy sources (ACI Committee
234, 1995).
Silica fume (SF) is a byproduct of the silicon and ferrosilicon
industry. The reduction of high-purity quartz to silicon at temper- Alloy type SiO2 content SF
atures up to 2000 C produces SiO2 vapours, which oxidizes and 50% ferrosilicon 6184%
condense in the low-temperature zone to tiny particles consisting 75% ferrosilicon 8491%
of non-crystalline silica. By-products of the production of silicon Silicon metal 8798%

metal and the ferrosilicon alloys having silicon contents of 75% or

more contain 8595% non crystalline silica. The by-product of the Table 2
production of ferrosilicon alloy having 50% silicon has much lower Typical physical properties of silica fume (Silica Fume and Association, 2005).

silica content and is less pozzolanic. Therefore, SiO2 content of the Property Value
silica fume is related to the type of alloy being produced (Table 1).
Particle size (typical) <1 m
Fig. 1 shows the schematic diagram of silica fume production. Bulk density
Silica fume is also known as micro silica, condensed silica fume, (as-produced) 130430 kg/m3
volatilzed silca or silica dust. Silica fume colour is either premium (slurry) 13201440 kg/m3
(densied) 480720 kg/m3
white or grey.
Specic gravity 2.22
Surface area (BET) 13,00030,000 m2 /kg

2. Properties of silica fume

Table 3
Chemical composition of silica fume samples.
2.1. Physical properties
Oxides Sandvik and Titherington and Yazici (2008)
More than 95% of silica fume particles are ner than 1 m. Its Gjrv (1992) Hooton (2004)
typical physical properties are given in Table 2. SiO2 92.1 96.65 92.26
Al2 O3 0.5 0.23 0.89
Fe2 O3 1.4 0.07 1.97
2.2. Chemical composition CaO 0.5 0.31 0.49
MgO 0.3 0.04 0.96
K2 O 0.7 0.56 1.31
Silica fume has a very high content of amorphous sili- Na2 O 0.3 0.15 0.42
con dioxide and consists of very ne spherical particles. Small SO3 0.17 0.33
amounts of iron, magnesium, and alkali oxides are also found LOI 2.8 2.27
(Table 3).

3.1. Applications of silica fume

3. Advantages of using silica fume
High performance concrete (HPC) containing silica fume for high-
High early compressive strength way bridges, parking decks, marine structures and bridge deck
High tensile, exural strength, and modulus of elasticity overlays
Increased toughness High-strength concrete enhanced with silica fume for greater
High bond strength design exibility
Enhanced durability Silica-fume Shotcrete for use in rock stabilization, mine tunnel
Very low permeability to chloride and water intrusion linings, and rehabilitation of deteriorating bridge and marine
Increased abrasion resistance columns and piles.
Superior resistance to chemical attack from chlorides, acids, Oil well grouting
nitrates and sulfates, etc. Repair productssilica fume is used in a variety of cementitious
High electrical resistivity and low permeability repair products.

Raw Materials

Carbon: coke, coal, wood chips

Quartz

Smelting furnace
Silicon metal
Temperature 2000oC

Off Gas

Baghouse filter As-produced

silica fume

Fig. 1. Schematic diagram of silica fume production.

 R. Siddique / Resources, Conservation and Recycling 55 (2011) 923932 925

Table 4
Workability characteristics (Wong and Razak, 2005).

Mixture w/cm Slump (mm) Vebe (s) w/cm Slump (mm) Vebe (s) w/cm Slump (mm) Vebe (s)

C 0.27 165 8 0.30 225 3 0.33 240 1

SF 5 100 8 215 3 180 3
SF 10 50 12 117 5 100 6
SF 15 35 15 30 16 35 16

4. Reaction mechanism of silica fume diameter at which porosity starts to steeply increase with decreas-
ing pore diameter was smaller in silica-fume-containing concretes
Silica fume is a very reactive pozzolanic material because of its than in ordinary concretes at 12 h. This smaller threshold diam-
extreme neness and very high amorphous silicon dioxide content. eter in silica-fume-containing concretes indicated higher packing
Mechanism of silica fume in concrete can be described basically density of binder grains in these concretes. Khan (2003) observed
under three roles: (i) pore-size renement and matrix densica- that the inclusion of silica fume (015% as partial replacement
tion, (ii) reaction with free-lime, and (iii) cement pasteaggregate of cement) resulted in more signicant reductions in porosity
interfacial renement. in mixtures. However, the reduction in the porosity was greater
In concrete the characteristics of the transition zone between when silica fume was incorporated at up to 10% replacement level,
the aggregate particles and cement paste play a signicant role beyond which the reduction was marginal or reversed.
in the cement-aggregate bond. Silica fume addition inuences the Poon et al. (2006) studied the effect of silica fume (5 and 10%)
thickness of transition phase in mortars and the degree of the orien- on the porosity of concrete mixtures using MIP. The results showed
tation of the CH crystals in it. The thickness compared with mortar the decrease in porosity in with age due to addition of silica fume
containing only ordinary Portland cement decreases and reduction (Table 5).
in degree of orientation of CH crystals in transition phase with the Cwirzen and Penttala (2005) did investigations on eight non-
addition of silica fume. Hence mechanical properties and durabil- air-entrained concretes having water-to-binder (w/b) ratios of 0.3,
ity are improved because of the enhancement in interfacial or bond 0.35 and 0.42 and different additions of condensed silica fume. Their
strength. Mechanism behind is not only connected to chemical for- results from the MIP investigation showed that the concrete having
mation of CSH (i.e. pozzolanic reaction) at interface, but also to a w/b ratio of 0.3 showed decrease in capillary porosity with silica
the microstructure modication (i.e. CH) orientation, porosity and fume. However for w/b ratios of 0.35 and 0.42, capillary and total
transition zone thickness) as well. porosities appeared to be quite similar.
Rossignolo (2008) wrote a paper which deals with the effect of
5. Effect of silica fume on the workability of concrete silica fume and styrene-butadiene latex (SBR) on the microstruc-
ture of the interfacial transition zone (ITZ) between Portland
Khayat and Aitcin (1993) reported that addition of 10% sil- cement pastes and aggregates (basalt). It was observed that the
ica fume in a lean concrete (100 kg/m3 ) of cement reduced the usage of 10% of silica fume, in relation to the cement paste, caused
water demand. In normal structure concrete, even with 5% silica a reduction of 36% in the thickness of the matrix-aggregate ITZ, in
fume addition, the water demand is increased to maintain constant relation to the reference concrete.
slump. For producing very high strength and durable concrete, silica
fume up to 10% is added as an admixture and use of superplasticizer 6.2. Compressive strength
to maintain specied slump is found necessary.
Wong and Razak (2005) examined the effect of silica fume (5, When silica fume is added to concrete, it results in a signicant
10, and 15%) on the slump and Vebe time of concrete (Table 4). It change in the compressive strength of the mix. This is mainly due to
was observed that mixtures achieved slump values ranging from 30 the aggregate-paste bond improvement and enhanced microstruc-
to 260 mm, while Vebe time was in the range of 115 s. The large ture.
variation of workability across mixtures was due to the constant Bentur et al. (1987) reported that the strength of silica fume con-
superplasticizer dosage used for mixtures with the same w/cm crete is greater than that of silica fume paste which they attributed
ratio. to the change in the role of the aggregate in concrete. In cement
Mazloom et al. (2004) made high-performance concrete con- concrete, the aggregate functions as inert ller but due to the pres-
taining silica fume. The silica fume content was 0, 6, 10, and 15%, and ence of weak interfacial zone, composite concrete is weaker then
watercementitious ratio being 0.35. It was observed that mixes cement paste. But, in silica fume concrete, the presence of silica
incorporating higher silica fume content tended to require higher fume eliminates this weak link by strengthening the cement paste
dosages of superplasticizer. The higher demand of superplasticizer aggregate bond and forming a less porous and more homogenous
with the concrete containing silica fume was attributed to the very microstructure in the interfacial region. Thus, silica fume concrete
ne particle size of silica fume that causes some of the superplas- is stronger than silica fume cement paste, taking into account that
ticizer being adsorbed on its surface. the strength of aggregate exceeds the strength of cement paste.
Mazloom et al. (2004) investigated the inuence of silica fume
(0, 6, 10, and 15%) on the compressive strength of high performance
6. Effect of silica fume on the hardened properties of
concrete
Table 5
6.1. Porosity MIP measured total porosity of series 1 concrete (w/b = 0.3) (Poon et al., 2006).

Mix MIP measured total porosity (%, v/v)

Igarashi et al. (2005) evaluated the capillary porosity and pore
3 days 7 days 28 days 90 days
size distribution in high-strength concrete containing 10% silica
fume at early ages. They concluded that silica-fume-containing Control 8.69 0.11 8.44 0.13 7.92 0.12 6.97 0.28
5% SF 7.53 0.16 7.24 0.14 6.31 0.11 5.85 0.02
concretes were found to have fewer coarse pores than the ordi-
10% SF 7.64 0.15 6.14 0.13 5.66 0.12 5.11 0.41
nary concretes, even at early ages of 12 and 24 h. The threshold
926 R. Siddique / Resources, Conservation and Recycling 55 (2011) 923932

Table 6
Development of compressive strength with age (MPa) (Mazloom et al., 2004).

Concrete mixes Silica fume (%) Compressive strengths (MPa)

7 days 14 days 28 days 42 days 90 days 365 days 400 days

OPC 0 46 52 58 62 64 73 74
SF6 6 50.5 58 65 69 71 73 73
SF10 10 52 61 67.5 71 74 73 73
SF15 15 53 63 70 73 76 75 76

Table 7 slow nature of pozzolanic reaction and (ii) after 90 days of curing,
Details of HPC mixtures (Sobolev, 2004).
the average strength enhancement with 10% silica fume achieved
Proportions (kg/m3 ) SF (5%) SF (10%) SF (15%) SF (20%) 17% increment. It was also found that reducing the w/c ratio from
Cement 426 449 468 478 0.30 to 0.27 did not trigger a signicant strength enhancement as
Silica fume 22 50 83 120 anticipated.
Behnood and Ziari (2008) designed concrete mixtures to eval-
Age Compressive strength (MPa) uate the effect of silica fume on the compressive strength of
1 day 16.8 24.1 34.4 45.1 the heated and unheated concrete specimens. Three mixtures
3 days 28.6 42.2 63.0 84.9 were made with a constant water-to-cement ratio (w/c) 0.30. The
7 days 50.1 67.2 84.8 102.5 dosages of replacing cement by silica fume were 0% (W30OPC), 6%
28 days 60.0 80.0 100.0 120.0
(W30SF6) and 10% (W30SF10). One mixture was prepared with w/c
of 0.40 without silica fume (W40OPC), whereas other concrete was
produced with w/c of 0.35 containing 6% silica fume (W35SF6). The
concrete up the age of 400 days (Table 6). They observed that (i) at results of the compressive strength are given in Table 9. As was
28 days, the silica fume concrete was 21% stronger than control expected, the replacement of cement by 6% and 10% silica fume
concrete and (ii) compressive strength development of concrete increased the 28-day compressive strength approximately by 19%
mixtures containing silica fume was negligible after the age of 90 and 25% respectively. This was due to the reaction of silica fume
days; however, there was 26% and 14% strength increase in the with calcium hydroxide formed during the hydration of cement
control concrete after one year compared to its 28 and 90 days that caused the formation of calcium silicate hydrate (CSH). It
strength, respectively. Wild et al. (1995) also mentioned that the was also due to the ller role of very ne particles of silica fume.
difference in strength development in OPC concrete and silica fume They concluded that (i) concrete containing silica fume had
concrete can be attributed to the rapid formation of an inhibiting signicantly higher strength than that of OPC concrete at room tem-
layer of reaction product preventing further reaction of silica fume perature. After exposure to 100 C, signicant reductions occurred
with calcium hydroxide beyond 90 days. in the compressive strength of concrete with and without silica
Sobolev (2004) studied the compressive strength of high per- fume; (ii) in the range 300600 C, severe strength losses occurred
formance concretes (Table 7). It was observed that (i) increase in in all three concretes, which were 68.8%, 70.9% and 73.2% of the
superplasticizer dosage from 8 to 18% led to a reduction of w/c from initial values for W30OPC, W30SF6 and W30SF10 concretes respec-
0.31 to 0.26 and improved the concrete compressive strength from tively. This was because during exposure to high temperatures,
86 to 97 MPa and (ii) maximum compressive strength of 91 MPa cement paste contracts, whereas aggregates expand. Thus, the
was obtained at 15% silica fume. transition zone and bonding between aggregates and paste are
Wong and Razak (2005) studied the compressive strength of weakened. As a result, this process as well as chemical decom-
concrete containing silica fume (Table 8). Concrete mixtures with position of hydration products causes severe deteriorations and
w/cm ratios of 0.27, 0.30 and 0.33 were prepared. They observed strength loses in concrete after subjecting to high temperatures;
that (i) silica fume did not produce an immediate strength enhance- and (iii) After heating to 600 C, the residual compressive strength
ment; instead, the blended mixtures only achieved higher strength of all three concretes were approximately same, whereas the rela-
than the control from 7 days onwards. Strength loss in the early tive residual compressive strengths of concretes containing 6% and
ages, which was proportional to the cement replacement level, was 10% silica fume were 6.7% and 14.1% lower than those of the OPC
probably due to the dilution effect of the pozzolan and as well as the concretes, respectively, after exposure to 600 C. Therefore, the rate

Table 8
compressive strength (Wong and Razak, 2005).

Mixture Compressive strength (MPa)

1 day 3 days 7 days 28 days 56 days 90 days 180 days

w/cm 0.27 39 68 72.5 84 86.5 87.5 90

SF 5 35 63 75.5 88.5 93 96.5 97.5
SF 10 25 61 79 95.5 100 104 107
SF 15 24.5 59.5 76.5 101. 103.5 106 109

w/cm 0.30 48 63.5 72 83.5 84.5 85.5 87.5

SF 5 46 62 81 91 95.5 95.5 97
SF 10 42 61.5 78.5 95 97 99 103
SF 15 38 57.5 74.5 98.5 101.5 104 106.5

w/cm 0.33 41.0 58.0 62.5 75 78 79 81.5

SF 5 35.0 55.0 69.5 83.0 85.0 90.0 90.0
SF 10 32.0 53.0 70.5 89.5 90.5 92.0 93.5
SF 15 31.0 47.5 70.5 88.5 93.0 95.5 100.5
 R. Siddique / Resources, Conservation and Recycling 55 (2011) 923932 927

Table 9
Results of compressive strength at different temperatures (Behnood and Ziari, 2008).

Mixture name SF (%) w/c Compressive strength (MPa)

20 C 100 C 200 C 300 C 600 C

7-Day 28-Day

W40OPC 0 0.40 48.3 61.8 53.3 55.5 46.5 20.6

W35SF6 6 0.35 61.5 73.9 62.8 64.7 56.5 21.8
W30OPC 0 0.30 55.3 67.4 57.6 59.7 49.0 21.0
W30SF6 6 0.30 69.1 80.3 68.0 69.0 56.5 23.4
W30SF10 10 0.30 74.1 84.2 70.8 71.7 57.9 22.6

of strength loss was signicantly higher in silica fume concretes.

This was attributed to the presence and amount of silica fume in
concretes that produced very dense transition zone between aggre-
gate and paste due to ultra ne particles as ller.
Kksal et al. (2008) investigated the compressive strength of
hooked ends steel bre reinforced concrete with silica fume. Aspect
ratios (l/d) of bres were 65 and 80 and volume fractions (Vf) of
steel bres were 0.5% and 1%. Silica fume content was 0, 5, 10,
and 15% weight of cement. The test results are given in Table 10.
It was observed that (i) a considerable increase in the compres-
sive strength of the concretes without steel bres by increasing
the silica fume content. The increases were 12, 73.4 and 85.5% for
5, 10 and 15% silica fume, respectively. These result were clearly
dependant on increasing bond strength of cement pasteaggregate
interface by means of lling effect of silica fume and (ii) compres-
sive strengths of concretes produced by additions of both steel bre
and silica fume had higher than the ones containing silica fume
only. Fig. 2. Effect of aggregate type on the compressive strength of 15% silica fume
Bentur and Goldman (1989) studied the effect of water and cement concrete (Almusallam et al., 2004).
air-curing in mild environmental conditions on the compressive
strength at the age of 90 days. The air curing resulted in a some- years. Results are presented in Table 11. While strengths of the con-
what lower strength compared to continuous water curing. This cretes containing silica fume were higher at ages between 7 and 91
was attributed to the observations that the strengthening inu- days, the Portland cement concrete continued to gain strength at
ence of the silica fume takes place quite early during the period later ages; with a 55% increase between 28 days and 5 years. In con-
128 days and possibly slower rate of drying from within the silica trast, the long-term strength gain of silica fume concretes was very
fume concrete, which apparently developed a tight micro-structure low and 5-year strengths were 12% of the day strengths. Reduc-
after 7 days of water curing. Similar trends were observed for 28 tions in strengths were noted to be within the normal variation
days except that the strength values were usually lower by about of strengths observed in long-term studies with Portland cement
10%. concretes.
Hooton (1993) determined the compressive strengths of con- Almusallam et al. (2004) investigated the effects of silica fume
cretes containing 0, 10, 15, and 20% silica fume up to the age of 5 (15%) on the compressive strength of concrete made with low-
quality coarse aggregates (calcareous, dolomitic, and quartzitic
limestone and steel slag). The inuence of aggregate quality on the
Table 10
Test results of concrete steel bre concrete (Kksal et al., 2008). compressive strength is shown in Fig. 2. It was observed that com-
pressive strength increased with age in all the concrete specimens.
Series Silica fume (%) Steel bre Compressive
After 180 days of curing, highest compressive strength was noted
content (%) strength (N/mm2 )
in the 15% silica fume cement concrete specimens (54 MPa) fol-
A 0 0 32.4 lowed by those prepared with 10% silica fume (52 MPa), and plain
0.5 33.4
1.0 37.4
0.5 34.1 Table 11
1.0 38.5 Moist-cured concrete compressive strength development (Hooton, 1993).
B 5 0 36.4
0.5 38.3 Testing age Concrete mixture details
1.0 48.1
Control 10% SF 15% SF 20% SF 10% SF in slurried
0.5 41.4
product
1.0 45.7
C 10 0 56.2 1 day 25.6 25.2 28.0 27.2 33.2
0.5 60.4 7 days 44.6 59.8 63.2 64.5 69.9
1.0 66.9 28 days 55.6 70.7 75.2 74.2 85.0
0.5 59.7 56 days 63.5 74.0 76.4 72.9 82.6
1.0 63.7 91 days 63.4 77.6 72.9 74.0 83.7
D 15 0 60.1 182 days 72.5 73.2 71.4 77.8 82.7
0.5 66.5 365 days 79.0 76.7 70.0 80.3 80.2
1.0 69.3 2 years 86.1 81.5 71.4 82.0
0.5 63.2 3 years 88.2 89.7 85.1 88.3
1.0 70.5 5 years 86.0 79.6 68.6 70.3
928 R. Siddique / Resources, Conservation and Recycling 55 (2011) 923932

w/(c+sf) =.26 w/(c+sf) =.30 w/(c+sf) =.34

7.5
w/(c+sf) =.38 w/(c+sf) =.42
Splitting tensile strength (MPa)

6.5

5.5

4.5

3.5
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Silica fume content (%)
Fig. 4. Effect of aggregate type on split tensile strength of 15% silica fume cement
Fig. 3. Relationship between 28-day split tensile strength and percentage replace- concrete (Almusallam et al., 2004).
ment of silica fume (Bhanja and Sengupta, 2005).

cement concrete (49 MPa). The higher compressive strength noted coarse aggregates (calcareous, dolomitic, and quartzitic limestone
in the silica fume cement concrete, compared to plain cement con- and steel slag). The concrete specimens had a w/c ratio of 0.35 and
crete, may be attributed to the reaction of the silica fume with a coarse aggregate to ne aggregate ratio of 1.63. The inuence of
calcium hydroxide liberated during the hydration of cement. Khatri aggregate quality on the compressive strength of 15% silica fume
et al. (1995) stated that it results in formation of secondary calcium cement concretes is shown Fig. 4. Results demonstrated that (i) the
silicate hydrate that lls up the pores due to the hydration of the splitting tensile strength increased with age; (ii) highest splitting
initial calcium silicate hydrate. tensile strength was observed in 15% silica fume cement concrete;
Babu and Babu (2003) studied the compressive strength of and (iii) splitting tensile strength of the silica fume cement concrete
concrete containing of expanded polystyrene (EPS) beads as was more than that of plain concrete.
lightweight aggregate and silica fume. Three percentages of sil- Tanyildizi and Coskun (2008) studied the effect of silica fume
ica fume3, 5 and 9% were used. It was found that the rate of on tensile strength of lightweight concrete exposed to high tem-
strength development was greater initially and decreased as the perature. In mixtures containing silica fume, 0, 10, 20 and 30% of
age increased. A comparison of strengths at 7 days reveals that Portland cement by weight was replaced with silica fume. They
concretes with 3% silica fume developed almost 75% of its 28-day reported that the tensile strength started to drop with temperature
strength, while that with 5 and 9% silica fume developed almost 85 starting from 200 C. The reduction in splitting tensile strength of
and 95% of the corresponding 28-day strength. They concluded that lightweight concrete containing 10% silica fume was 3.11%, 11.46%
rate of strength gain was increasing with an increasing percentage and 80.15% at the 200, 400 and 800 C, respectively. The reduc-
of silica fume. tion in splitting tensile strength of lightweight concrete containing
20% silica fume was 4.69%, 12.91% and 78.87% at the 200, 400 and
6.3. Splitting tensile strength 800 C, respectively. And the reduction in splitting tensile strength
of lightweight concrete containing 30% silica fume was 5.8%, 40.62%
Hooton (1993) investigated the inuence of silica fume on the and 75.08% at the 200, 400 and 800 C, respectively. They concluded
splitting tensile strength of concretes up to the age of 182 days that addition of admixture silica fume prevented the decrease in the
(Table 12). He concluded that except at 28 days, the splitting tensile tensile strength of concrete.
strength was not improved for silica fume concrete mixes. Also it Kksal et al. (2008) studied the splitting tensile of steel bre
was observed that with increasing replacement of silica fume split reinforced concrete with silica fume. Aspect ratios (l/d) of bres
tensile strength decreased. were 65 and 80 and volume fractions (Vf) of steel bres were 0.5%
Bhanja and Sengupta (2005) studied the contribution of silica and 1%. The test results are given in Table 13. They found that
fume on the tensile strength of high-performance concrete at the increasing the silica fume and steel bre contents, a considerable
age of 28 days. Five concrete mixes, at w/cm ratios of 0.26, 0.30, increase in the splitting tensile strength of the concrete occurred.
0.34, 0.38 and 0.42 were prepared by partial replacement of cement The increases in the splitting tensile strengths of the concretes
by equal weight of silica fume (0, 5, 10, 15, 20 and 25%). Studies without steel bres were determined as 9.7, 54 and 87.9% for the
clearly exhibited that very high percentages of silica fume did not 5, 10 and 15% silica fume, respectively.
signicantly increase the splitting tensile strength and increase was
insignicant beyond 15% (Fig. 3).
6.4. Flexural tensile strength
Almusallam et al. (2004) investigated the effect of silica fume
on the splitting tensile strength of concrete made with low-quality
Bhanja and Sengupta (2005) studied the contribution of silica
fume on the exural strength of high performance concrete (HPC).
Table 12 Five series of concrete mixes, at w/cm ratios of 0.26, 0.30, 0.34,
Splitting tensile strength of concrete (Hooton, 1993). 0.38 and 0.42 were made with partial replacement of cement by
Test age (days) Concrete mixes equal weight of silica fume (0, 5, 10, 15, 20 and 25%). The exural
tensile strength results are shown in Fig. 5. It was observed that
Control 10% SF 15% SF 20% SF
silica fume seemed to have a pronounced effect on exural strength
28 5.2 6.3 6.2 4.6 in comparison with splitting tensile strength. For exural strengths,
91 6.8 6.7 6.2 5.6
even very high percentages of silica fume signicantly improved
182 7.1 6.2 6.5 5.6
the strength. Also it was found that there was a steady increase in
 R. Siddique / Resources, Conservation and Recycling 55 (2011) 923932 929

Table 13
Test results of concrete mechanical properties (Kksal et al., 2008).

Series Silica fume (%) Steel bre Splitting tensile

content (%) strength (N/mm2 )

A 0 0 3.48
0.5 3.75
1.0 4.59
0.5 3.7
1.0 6.6
B 5 0 3.82
0.5 4.05
1.0 8.98
0.5 4.4
1.0 6.9
C 10 0 5.36
0.5 6.91
1.0 9.56
0.5 7.3
1.0 9.7
D 15 0 6.54
Fig. 5. Relationship between 28-day exural strength and percentage replacement
0.5 8.4
of silica fume (Bhanja and Sengupta, 2005).
1.0 10.01
0.5 7.5
1.0 10.0 Table 16
Modulus of elasticity of silica fume concrete (Hooton, 1993).

Testing age (days) Concrete mix

Table 14
Test results of concrete mechanical properties (Kksal et al., 2008). Control 10% SF 15% SF 20% SF

Series Silica fume (%) Steel bre Flexural tensile 28 days 43.2 43.7 42.8 43.4
content (%) strength (N/mm2 ) 91 days 48.0 46.2 45.0 45.7
182 days 49.2 46.7 46.1 46.1
A 0 0 5.7
385 days 51.8 48.4 48.1 48.1
0.5 5.9
1.0 6.69
0.5 6.10
1.0 10.10 Klc et al. (2008) examined the inuence of aggregate type on
B 5 0 6.1
the exural strength characteristics of high-strength silica fume
0.5 7.2
1.0 8.7 concrete. Five different aggregate types (gabbro, basalt, quartsite,
0.5 7.6 limestone and sandstone) were used. Silica fume replacement ratio
1.0 10.3 with cement was 15% on a mass basis. Waterbinder ratio was 0.35.
C 10 0 8.08
The amount of hyperplasticizer was 4% of the binder content by
0.5 8.5
1.0 9.6 mass. The results are given in Table 15. They showed that (i) exural
0.5 8.98 tensile strength increased with the increase in curing time and (ii)
1.0 11.3 sandstone concrete showed the lowest exural tensile strength,
D 15 0 9.35 while Gabbro concrete showed the highest exural tensile strength.
0.5 9.52
1.0 10.28
0.5 9.58 6.5. Modulus of elasticity
1.0 12.8
Hooton (1993) reported the modulus of elasticity of silica fume
concretes up to the age of 365 days (Table 16). It can be seen
the exural strength with increase in the silica fume replacement that elastic modulus of the Portland cement concrete was approx-
percentage. imately equal to silica fume concretes at 28 days but continued to
Kksal et al. (2008) evaluated the exural strength of con- increase at later ages.
crete incorporating hooked steel bres and silica fume. Aspect Mazloom et al. (2004) investigated the effect of silica fume on
ratios (l/d) of bres were 65 and 80 and volume fractions (Vf) of the secant modulus of elasticity (Table 17). It was observed that
steel bres were 0.5 and 1%. Table 14 gives the exural strength increasing the silica fume replacement level increased the secant
results. Signicant increases in the exural strengths of the con- modulus of concrete.
cretes were observed by adding silica fume and steel bres. The Almusallam et al. (2004) determined the effect of silica fume
exural strengths of concretes containing 1% steel bre were found on the elastic modulus of concretes prepared with four types of
to be greater than that of the concrete with 0.5% steel bre for each low quality coarse aggregates, namely calcareous, dolomitic, and
of the silica fume content. quartzitic limestone and steel slag. The results are given in Table 18.

Table 15
Flexural strengths of concrete at different curing times (Klc et al., 2008).

Curing time (days) Flexural tensile strength (MPa)

Gabbro (247) Basalt (132) Quartsite (160) Limestone (110) Sandstone (52)

3 12.6 11.4 12.9 7.9 3.2

7 16.1 15.4 14.9 12.5 4.5
28 17.3 16.7 16.2 12.8 5.2
90 18.4 17.9 16.9 13.9 5.6
930 R. Siddique / Resources, Conservation and Recycling 55 (2011) 923932

Table 17 Table 19
Compressive strength and secant modulus of elasticity (Mazloom et al., 2004). Maximum plastic shrinkage strain in plain and blended cement concretes (Al-
Amoudi et al., 2004).
Kind and age of concrete Compressive Measured
strength (MPa) modulus (GPa) Silica fume type Replacement (%) Maximum plastic
shrinkage strain (m)
OPC 7 days 46 28.8
28 days 58 34.4 1 5 1322
SF6 7 days 50.5 31 7.5 1645
28 days 65 35.5 10 2348
SF10 7 days 52 31.1 2 5 1724
28 days 67.5 37 7.5 2794
SF15 7 days 53 31.5 10 2924
28 days 70 38.1 3 5 1038
7.5 1370
10 1656
4 5 1122
The type of coarse aggregate had a signicant effect on the modu- 7.5 1183
lus of elasticity of concrete. The modulus of elasticity of steel-slag 10 1224
aggregate concrete was the highest while the modulus of elastic- 5 5 783
7.5 939
ity of calcareous limestone aggregate concrete was the lowest. On
10 1119
average, the increase in the modulus of elasticity was 16 and 32%
due to the incorporation of 10 and 15% silica fume, respectively. Plain cement 0 716

Moreover, the modulus of elasticity of concrete specimens pre-

pared with steel-slag aggregate was more than that of concrete
specimens prepared with limestone aggregate. shrinkage of concrete by 33 and 50%, respectively. The effect of silica
Gneyisi et al. (2004) studied the modulus of elasticity of rub- fume on autogenous shrinkage was explained by its inuence on
berized concretes with and without silica fume. Two types of tire the pore structure and pore size distribution of concrete as well as
rubber, crumb rubber and tire chips, were used as ne and coarse its pozzolanic reaction.
aggregate, respectively. Two control mixtures were designed at Al-Amoudi et al. (2006) found that the maximum plastic shrink-
w/cm ratios of 0.60 and 0.40, and silica fume content varied age strain was observed in silica fume cement concrete. This was
between 5 and 20%. The results showed that the moduli of elas- attributed to the undensied nature of this silica fume. On the other
ticity of the plain concretes were about 33 and 46 GPa at 0.60 and hand, the lowest plastic shrinkage strain was noted in the plain
0.40 w/cm ratios, respectively. However, the silica fume concretes cement concrete.
had slightly greater elastic modulus values which were about 36 Al-Amoudi et al. (2004) investigated the inuence of silica fume
and 47 GPa for high and low w/cm ratios, respectively, irrespective on the plastic shrinkage of concrete exposed to hot-weather con-
of the amount of silica fume used. ditions (a wind velocity of 15 km/h, temperature of 45 C and
RH of 35%). Maximum plastic shrinkage strains attained during
6.6. Shrinkage the 24-h exposure is presented in Table 19. The plastic shrinkage
strain increased with increasing dosage of silica fume in the par-
According to Sellevold (1987) the inclusion of silica fume at high ent cement. This trend was noted in all the concrete specimens
replacement levels signicantly increased the autogenous shrink- prepared with the selected silica fume cements.
age of concrete due to the renement of pore size distribution that Zhang et al. (2003) did an experimental study on the autoge-
leads to a further increase in capillary tension and more contraction nous shrinkage of Portland cement concrete (OPC) and concrete
of the cement paste. Tazawa et al. (1989) investigated the effects incorporating silica fume. Autogenous shrinkage up to the age of
of silica fume addition on the drying shrinkage of mortar. They 98 days is presented in Table 20. It appeared that both the w/c
observed that magnitude of drying shrinkage is determined by the ratio and the incorporation of silica fume had signicant effect on
balancing of two factors; the shrinkage stress due to capillary ten- the autogenous shrinkage strain of the concrete. The autogenous
sion in the pores, and rigidity of the structure as determined by shrinkage increased with decreasing w/c ratio and with increas-
compressive strength. ing silica fume content. This is in agreement with those reported
Mazloom et al. (2004) conducted tests for total, autogenous and by Tazawa and Miyazawa (1993), Brooks et al. (1998), Mak et al.
drying shrinkage of high performance concrete having silica fume. (1998), and Persson (1998). The results indicated that the concrete
The percentages of silica fume were: 0, 6, 10 and 15% with w/c with low w/c ratio and with silica fume induce autogenous shrink-
ratio being 0.35. The results showed that (i) silica fume did not age rapidly even at early ages. Particularly at w/c ratio of 0.26, the
have much effect on drying specimens (total shrinkage); (ii) silica autogenous shrinkage strains of the silica fume concrete at the age
fume considerably affected the shrinkage of sealed specimens. It is of 2 days were more than 100 micro strain.
clear that the general effect of increasing the silica fume inclusion
is to increase autogenous shrinkage; and (iii) there was signicant 6.7. Creep
increase in autogenous shrinkage at high levels of silica fume. In
fact, inclusion of 10 and 15% silica fume increased the autogenous Khatri et al. (1995) studied the behaviour of concretes contain-
ing silica fume having a constant water/solids ratio of 0.35 and a
Table 18 total cementitious materials content of 430 kg/m3 . They observed
Modulus of elasticity of concrete after 28 days of curing (Almusallam et al., 2004). that silica fume reduced the strain due to creep compared with
Aggregate Modulus of elasticity (GPa)
Portland cement concrete. Adding silica fume to concrete contain-
ing 65% slag did not affect the creep. Ternary mixes containing 15%
0% SF 10% SF 15% SF or 25% y ash and 10% silica fume experienced greater creep than
Calcareous limestone 21.6 26 29.3 control concrete.
Dolomitic limestone 24.5 25.9 32.8 Mazloom et al. (2004) studied the creep of high performance
Quartzitic limestone 28.8 36.2 38
concrete having silica fume (0, 6, 10 and 15%). The w/c ratio was
Steel slag aggregates 29.6 32.9 40.4
0.35. It was found that silica fume had a signicant inuence on the
 R. Siddique / Resources, Conservation and Recycling 55 (2011) 923932 931

Table 20
Autogenous shrinkage of concrete (Zhang et al., 2003).

w/c Autogenous shrinkage (micro strain)/% of 98-day shrinkage

SF 0% SF 5% SF 10%

2 days 7 days 14 days 98 days 2 days 7 days 14 days 98 days 2 days 7 days 14 days 98 days

0.26 49/25 100/51 129/65 197 101/38 170/64 194/73 266 101/36 174/62 221/78 282
0.30 36/20 87/48 115/64 180 77/35 149/68 174/80 218 74/27 161/59 213/64 251
0.35 25/63 34/85 40/100 40 49/22 101/47 128/60 215 41/16 115/46 160/64 251

Table 21 increase in capillary tension and more contraction of the cement

Creep of 80 mm 270 mm high specimens (microstrain) (Mazloom et al., 2004).
paste.
Age of loading (days) Concrete mixes The plastic shrinkage strain increased with increasing dosage of
silica fume.
OPC SF6 SF10 SF15
Silica fume reduced the strain due to creep compared with Port-
7 595 510 459 417
land cement concrete.
28 413 407 381 328

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