rt Integrated Training System ees nated mp ) Module 8 Aerodynamics for EASA Part-66 Licence Category B1 and B2 909 2nd Edition Exclusively from WWW. airtechbooks.com‘otal Training Support Integrated Training System Preface Thank you for purchasing the Total Training Support Integrated Training System. We are sure you will need no other reference material to pass your EASA Part-66 exam in this Module. These notes have been written by instructors of EASA Part-66 courses, specifically for practitioners of varying experience within the aircraft maintenance industry, and especially those who are self-studying to pass the EASA Part-66 exams. They are specifically designed to meet the EASA Part-66 syllabus and to answer the questions being asked by the UK CAA in their examinations. The EASA Part-66 syllabus for each sub-section is printed at the beginning of each of the chapters in these course notes and is used as the "Learning Objectives’. ‘We suggest that you take each chapter in-turn, read the text of the chapter a couple of times, if only to familiarise yourself with the location of the information contained within. Then, using your club66pro.co.uk membership, attempt the questions within the respective sub-section, and continually refer back to these notes to read-up on the underpinning knowledge required to answer the respective question, and any similar question that you may encounter on your real Part-66 examination. Studying this way, with the help of the question practice and their explanations, you will be able to master the subject piece-by-piece, and become proficient in the subject matter, as well as proficient in answering the CAA style EASA part-86 multiple choice questions. We regularly have a review of our training notes, and in order to improve the quality of the notes, and of the service we provide with our integrated Training System, we would appreciate your feedback, whether positive or negative. So, if you discover within these course notes, any errors or typos, or any subject which is not particularly well, or adequately explained, please tell us, using the ‘contact-us’ feedback page of the club66pro.co.uk website. We will be sure to review your feedback and incorporate any changes necessary. We look forward to hearing from you. Finally, we appreciate that self-study students are usually also self-financing. We work very hard to cut the cost of our Integrated Training System to the bare minimum that we can provide, and in making your training resources as cost efficient as we can, using, for example, mono printing, but providing the diagrams which would be better provided in colocr, on the club66pro.co.uk website. In order to do this, we request that you respect our copyright policy, and refrain from copying, scanning or reprinting these course notes in any way, even for sharing with friends and colleagues. Our survival as a service provider depends on it, and copyright abuse only devalues the service and products available to yourself and your colleagues in the future, and makes them more expensive too. t Module 8 Preface ‘TTS Integrated Training System Erpene Zot oeumert © Copyright 2008Integrated Training System Intentionally Blank it Module 8 Preface (goeenedoy ne aero ‘TTS Intagrated Training Systor Spegeaditecemes © Copyright 2008Integrated Training System Module 8 Chapters 1. Physics of the Atmosphere 2. Aerodynamics 3. Theory of Flight 4, Flight Stability and Dynamics a Module 8 Preface nanan saceore “TTS integrates Training Sytem Sein teen (© Copyright 2008s\ ‘i Integrated Training System Intentionally Blank iv Module 8 Preface Peonerererehty “TTS Integrated Teaning System Rotate aromec © Gopyngrt 2008Integrated Training System TTS Integrated Training System Module 8 Basic Aerodynamics 8.1 Physics of the Atmosphere Module 8.1 Physics of the AtmosphereIntegrated Training System Copyright Notice © Copyright. All worldwide rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form by any other means whatsoever: i.e. photocopy, electronic, mechanical recording or otherwise without the prior written permission of Total Training Support Ltd. Knowledge Levels — Category A, B1, B2 and C Aircraft Maintenance Licence Basic knowledge for categories A, B1 and B2 are indicated by the allocation of knowledge levels indicators (1, 2 or 3) against each applicable subject. Category C applicants must meet either the category B1 or the category B2 basic knowledge levels. ‘The knowledge level indicators are defined as follows: LEVEL 1 + _ A familarisation with the principal elements of the subject. Objectives: ‘© The applicant should be familiar with the basic elements of the subject. ‘+ The applicant should be able to give a simple description of the whole subject, using common words and examples. ‘©The applicant should be able to use typical terms, LEVEL 2 + Ageneral knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject. + Anabilty to apply that knowledge Objectives: ‘+ The applicant should be able to understand the theoretical fundamentals of the subject. ‘+ The applicant should be able to give a general description of the subject using, as appropriate, typical «The apliant shoud be abe to use mathmatalfomulae in conjunction wth physical laws deseng he . Theepptcant should be able to read and understand sketches, drawings and schematics describing the + Theapptcant shouldbe able o arly his knowege ina praccal manner usirg detailed procdures LEVEL 3 + A detailed knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject. * Acapacity to combine and apply the separate elements of knowledge in a logical and comprehensive manner Objectives: * The applicant should know the theory of the subject and interrelationships with other subjects + The applicant should be able to give a detailed description of the subject using theoretical fundamentals, and specific examples. + The applicant should understand and be able to use mathematical formulae reated to the subject. + The applicant should be able to read, understand and prepare sketches, simple drawings and schematics describing the subiect «The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using manufacturer's, instructions. + The applicant should be able to interpret results from various sources and measurements and apply corrective action where appropriate. 2 TTS Integrated Training System © Copyright 2008 Module 8.1 Physics of the Atmosphere ‘orerod by sfomontTotal Training Support Integrated Training System Table of Contents Module 8.1 Physics of the Atmosphere 5 The Almosphere 5 Gas Composition 5 Regions of the Atmosphere 5 Temperature 8 Pressure 8 Performance Gelings 14 The Gas Laws 18 ‘The International Standard Almosphere (ISA), 16 Humidity 20 2 Module 8.1 Physics of the Atmosphere ese ca TTS intogratd Training Sytem _ . serrate ges © Copyright 2008 ‘Rape 2c he conmertModule 8.1 Enabling Objectives Integrated Training System Objective EASA 66 Reference Level International Standard Atmosphere (ISA), application to aerodynamics. 8.1 4 ‘TTS Integrated Training System ©Copyright 2008 Module 8.1 Physics of the Atmosphere overt ye StentIntegrated Training System Module 8.1 Physics of the Atmosphere The Atmosphere The gaseous envelope surrounding the Earth is called the atmosphere. There is no defined upper limit to the atmosphere, but most aviation activity takes place within the first 60,000 ft and therefore we need not study above that. Gas Composition The gases found in the atmosphere are in the following proportions (by volume): Nitrogen 78% Oxygen 21% Other gases 1% (e.g. argon, carbon dioxide, water vapour) These proportions do not change with altitude. Oxygen is essential for the sustenance of life and the combustion of materials. In the context of aviation, oxygen is required for the combustion of fuel, a deficiency of this gas resulting in incomplete burning and reduced engine efficiency. Water vapour is present in the atmosphere in varying proportions, and is responsible for the weather around the earth, which in turn affects aircraft operations and performance. Additionally the presence of water vapour may cause icing of the airframe or engine which may impair an aircraft's performance. Regions of the Atmosphere The atmosphere is divided into a number of layers: (a) The Troposphere - Temperature decreases with an increase in height. In this region nearly all significant weather occurs. (b) The Tropopause - The upper limit of the troposphere where temperature stops decreasing with an increase of height. The tropopause is therefore the upper limit of significant weather, the first point of lowest temperature, and additionally it is the region for maximum wind strengths The height of the tropopause varies with latitude, season of the year, and prevailing weather conditions with the result that it is usually higher in low latitudes, in summer and in fine weather. Typical heights for the tropopause are: Latitude Tropopause Height Equator 16-47 km — 53,000—87,000 ft 45° NIS 40-12km 33,000—39,000 ft Poles Th -9km — 25,000—29,000 ft 5 Module 8.1 Physics of the Atmosphere as one ico TTS integrated Training Sytem serenade coreat ‘© Copyright 2008Integrated Training System (©) The Stratosphere - From the tropopause to approximately 50 km above mean sea level, and is characterized by the temperature being steady or increasing with height (4) The Mesosphere - From 50 km to 80 km. The temperature generally decreases with height. (c) The Thermosphere or lonosphere - Temperature increases with height Temperature (a) Units The temperature scales most commonly used are Celsius (also known as Centigrade), Fahrenheit and Kelvin (also known as Absolute). The first two scales are based on the melting point of ice, being 0°C and 32°F respectively, and the boiling point of water, being 100°C or 212°F Heat is a form of transfer of energy, and is related to the random movement of molecules in a substance. If heat is reduced, the molecules become less active. The minimum temperature to Which a substance can be reduced is approximately minus 273°C and this is known as Absolute Zero, or 0 K, Correspondingly, the melting point of ice is equivalent to 273 K and the boiling point of water to 373 K. To convert from one temperature scale to another, the following formulae may be used: 9 C+32 5 (F - 32) ola (b) Temperature Variation in the Troposphere At ground level, in general, the temperature increases with a decrease of latitude With increasing altitude, the conductive and convective effects from the earth are reduced so that temperature will usually decrease with height up to the tropopause. Typical values of temperature found at the tropopause are: Latitude Temperature Equator -80°C 45°N/S -56°C Poles 45°C 6 Module 8.1 Physics of the Atmosphere arr ccm TIS itogratod Training Sytem ono, © Copyright 2008Integrated Training System There is, therefore, a reversal of temperatures with latitude in comparison to those found at ground level. This is partly because the tropopause is higher at the equator and the temperature decrease is effective over a greater height. 27,000f 45°C ‘TROPOPAUSE 56,0001 | 80°C Figure 1.1 — Variations of the Tropopause around the World {c) Lapse Rates The temperature decrease with an increase of height is referred to as lapse rate. A representative value of 2°C/1000 ft is a typical value for the troposphere, and this figure is used as the reference for the Jet Standard. The International Standard Atmosphere (ISA) uses the comparable value of 1.98°C/1000 ft. For meteorological purposes, differentiation between dry (that is, not saturated) and saturated adiabatic lapse rates is made, and the values of 3°C/1000 ft and 1.5°C/1000 ft respectively are used. The difference of lapse rate for saturated air is caused by the release of latent heat during condensation, thus reducing the temperature change. (d) Temperature and Aircraft Performance Ata given pressure, an increase of temperature results in a reduction of density. Firstly, considering airframe performance, a reduction of density (p) reduces lift (L). This may be counteracted by increasing the true airspeed (V) to achieve the required amount of lift (L): L=C.%pv's where: Ci = coefficient of lift and S = surface area The dynamic pressure is gained at the expense of an increased take-off run, cruising TAS or landing run according to the stage of flight. On the credit side, drag (D) reduces with increase of temperature: i Module 8.1 Physics of the Atmosphere ened ee TTS intogratad Training System Sepeaeasnee © Copyright 2008\ Tata Integrated Training System D=Cp %pV’S Apiston engine's performance is related to the temperature of the air being drawn into the cylinder head. The higher the temperature, the lower the density and we ght of fuel/air mixture that can be bumt in the combustion chamber. The power output of the engine therefore falls with increase of temperature. For a propulsion system, piston or jet: Thrust = Mass of air x Acceleration to which air is subjected Thus an increase of temperature will reduce the mass flow and, therefore the thrust. Pressure Definition Pressure is the force exerted on a unit area, i.e.: Force _ Mass x Acceleration Pressure = ——— = "or Area ‘Area In the atmosphere, pressure is caused by the mass of the gaseous molecules acting under the force of gravity on a given area. As all molecules act under gravity the the pressure can also be considered to be the weight of a column of air on a unit area. Columa of Air Unit Area oy Figure 1.2 ~ A column of air . Module 8.1 Physics of the Atmosphere scant cone TTS Integrated Training System sera © Copyright 2008 pege 2th oro4@) Total Training Support Integrated Training System Units The metric units of pressure are dynes per square centimetre, where the dyne is the force required to accelerate 1 gram by 1 centimetre per second. The Systéme international (S1) units of pressure are Newtons per square metre, where the Newton is the force required to accelerate 1 kilogram by 1 metre per second. The Newton is equal to 10° dynes. Although largely obsolete, the /mperial system of units is still encountered, and pressure is expressed in pounds per square inch. In meteorology the unit of pressure is the millibar (mb), which is equivalent to 1000 dynes per square centimetre. Before the introduction of the millibar, meteorological pressure was measured in terms of the length of a column of mercury in a barometer that the weight of the atmosphere could support. Vacuum 7 Length of Column of Mercury i Proportional 10 pea Pressure Figure 1.3 - Principle of the Mercury Barometer : Module 8.1 Physics of the Atmosphere Urania TTS Integrated Training System Simezdnedeame © Copyright 2008 :> Integrated Training System Variation of Pressure in the Atmosphere At sea level, pressure generally varies between 960 and 1050 mb. In tropical revolving storms and tornadoes, however, pressures may fall much lower. With increasing altitude the mass of overlying air decreases and so the pressure falls. Pressure values of the International Standard Atmosphere are given below: Altitude Pressure Pressure Pressure Pressure (ft) (mb) (psi) (in Hg) (mm Hg) 40,000 187.6 2.72 30,000 300.9 4.36 20,000 465.6 6.75 10,000 696.8 10.11 O 10is257 147 29.92 760 From the table it should be noted that at about 18,000 ft. the pressure is half the sea level value. Also, it should now be apparent that the rate of pressure decrease with height is not constant. In the first 10,000 ft. the pressure falls at a rate of approximately 1 mb per 30 ft but between 30,000 ft and 40,000 ft the pressure decrease is closer to 1 mb per 88 ft. Pressure Altitude The altitude at which a given pressure occurs in the International Standard Atmosphere is called the pressure altitude. If, for example, the pressure at the top of Mount Everest were determined as 300.9 mb, then the pressure altitude would be 30,000 ft. Assuming the same mean sea level conditions, and two columns of air of the same height, but differing temperatures, then the cold air would have a greater mass than the warm air due to the density difference. The pressure of the atmosphere, however, is caused by the mass of overlying molecules on a unit area. The pressure above the column of warm air is therefore higher than that above cold air. Because a higher pressure is found at a lower level, then the pressure altitude above warm air is lower than the pressure altitude above cold air. Alternatively it can be expressed that the true altitude of an aircraft is more than that indicated (assuming the correct mean sea level pressure has been set on the subscale) above warm air, and less than that indicated above cold air. 10 Module 8.1 Physics of the Atmosphere ree ee TTS Integrated Training System Engage? eth ocr © Copyngt 2008{®) Total Training Support Integrated Training System » Pressure Corresponding To 700mb ‘and 15008 A Pressure Altitude Of 10,000% Se yaomo 00mb 10,000) Warm cola {less dense} fen) |imore dense! I L 1013mb 1013mb 1013mb Figure 1.4 — Pressure Altitude — The effect of temperature on pressure 1 Module 8.1 Physics of the Atmosphere een TTS integrate Training System SpanesRece ‘© Copyright 2008Integrated Training System Density Definition Density is the mass per unit volume of a substance, at a specified temperature and pressure. Mass Pec Volume Units Density is expressed in grams, or kilograms per cubic metre for metric o° SI units, respectively. The Imperial units are pounds per cubic feet. Factors affecting density when considering a gas are: Pressure Density= | ———___SS_____ Gas constant x Absolute temperature For a given temperature, therefore, an increase of pressure increases density, or, at a given pressure, a decrease in temperature increases density. Variation of Density in the Atmosphere At sea level, densities vary between 1.20 and 1.55 kg per cu m, the higher values being usually associated with the colder temperatures of higher latitudes, and the lower values typical of Equatorial latitudes. Air at lower levels in the atmosphere is compressed by the mass of the air above it. With increasing altitude, the overlying mass reduces and air can now expand. resulting in a further reduction of pressure. With increasing altitude the temperature also decreases, but at a rate lower than the pressure. Density, therefore, decreases with height. Density values of the International Standard Atmosphere are summarized below: Altitude Density Density {ft} [kg/cu m] Ib/cu ft] 40,000 0.302 0.019 30,000 0.458 0.029 20,000 0.653 0.041 10,000 0.905 0.056 0 1.225 0.077 Al about 22,000 ft, the density is half the sea level value. We have already seen that density at sea level tends to be higher at the Poles than at the Equator. However, at 26,000 ft, the density value is similar at all latitudes. 12 TTS Integrated Training System © Copyright 2008 Module 8.1 Physics of the Atmosphere ested® Total Tr Integrated Training System Variation of Density with Humidity The total pressure of the atmosphere is equal to the sum of the individual pressures of the gases. The pressure of moist air is less than that for dry air, and so humidity decreases the total pressure. From the gas equation, it can be seen that the reduction in pressure results in a lower density. The greater the humidity, the lower the density. Density Altitude This is defined as the altitude in the International Standard Atmosphere at which a given density is found. Aircraft performance is largely dependent on density altitude as opposed to true or pressure altitude. Density and Performance The effects of density on lift, drag, power and thrust have been described in the section about temperature. There are, however, additional effects of density performance. Above about 300 kt TAS, air becomes significantly compressed, and locally increases the density. At much higher speeds this may give a marked increase in drag, and when increasing altitude, this can offset the otherwise reducing drag value. A similar compressibility effect increases drag on a propeller blade, reducing its efficiency, particularly at higher altitudes. A jet engine's performance, however, is enhanced by this compressibility effect as mass flow is improved. Air Density and the Human Body The reduced density of air with increasing altitude means that in a given volume of air breathed in, the oxygen content has decreased. Above 10,000 ft this reduction leads to hypoxia, its effects ranging from lack of judgment to sleepiness or collapse, according to height. At night, the reduced intake of oxygen impairs night vision at altitudes of 4,000 ft and above. To counter these problems, aircraft operating above 10,000 ft must have an enriched oxygen supply, either in conjunction with a pressurized cabin, or through face-masks. At night, ideally, oxygen should be available from ground level upwards. i Module 8.1 Physics of the Atmosphere omarrcnceeael TTS integrated Training System Engage 2 ate docamert © Copyright 2008Integrated Training System Performance Ceilings Service Ceiling This is defined as the altitude at which the rate of climb of an aircraft falls to a specified figure, usually 100 ft. per minute. Absolute Ceiling The absolute ceiling is the altitude at which the rate of climb of an aircraft falls to zero. Piston-Engined Aircraft For such aircraft operating under 26,000 ft. the improved atmospheric density found in winter in high latitudes will give the highest ceiling. Jet-Engined Aircraft As most jet-engined aircraft operate above 26,000 ft, then the best performance ceiling will be found at the highest pressures and lowest temperature, i.e. in summer, and at low latitudes. ie Module 8.1 Physics of the Atmosphere sandr acces ‘TTS Integrated Training System ‘Sepage 2 ots cocument & Copy 2008,Integrated Training System The Gas Laws Introduction Whilst air is not an ideal gas, it does conform within close limits, to the results of Boyle’s and Charles’ laws. Boyle’s Law The volume (V) of a given mass of gas at constant temperature is inversely proportional to pressure (P): PV = constant This can be expressed in the form: Pi Vs = PaV2 Charles’ Law ‘The volume of a given mass of gas at constant pressure, increases by m of its volume at 0°C for every 1°C rise in temperature: V = constant T The alternative expression below is also useful: V, _ V, 7 T Combined Boyle’s and Charles’ Law Equation The results of both laws may be combined in one equation, expressing the behaviour of a gas under varying conditions of pressure, volume and temperature: PMs _ PeMe T 15 Module 8.1 Physics of the Atmosphere rr TTS integrated Training Systom Rema atees {© Copyright 2008The International Standard Atmosphere (ISA) Integrated Training System The International Standard Atmosphere is a tabulation with altitude of the standard variation of pressure, temperature, density, viscosity, etc, appropriate to mid latitudes (45°N), released by the International Civil Aviation Organisation (ICAO). In order to provide a datum for aircraft performance comparison, and instrument calibration, this assumed set of conditions is used. Whilst representative, these conditions do not necessarily reflect actual conditions in the atmosphere. The values used are listed below: Sea Level Conditions Property Metric Value Pressure 101.3 kPa Density 1.225 Kgim? Temperature 15°C or 288.2 K Speed of Sound 340 mis, Viscosity 1.789x10° Kg/m/s Kinematic Viscosity 1.460x10° m*/s 0.02596 Wim/K 287.1 JIKg/K Thermal Conductivity Gas Constant Specific Heat Cp 1005 JiKg/K Specific Heat Cv 717.98 JIKgIK Ratio of Specific Heats 1.40 Gravitational Acceleration 9.80665 m/s* 16 TTS Integrated Training Systom © Copyright 2008 Module 8.1 Physics of the Atmosphere Imperial Value 2116.2 Ibfir? 0.002378 slug/ft? 59 °F of 518.69 °R 1116.4 fs 3.737x10-7 slug/fs 1.5723x10" ft'/s 0.015 BTU/hrift°R 1715.7 ft Ibfislug"R 6005 ft Ibf/siug?R 4289 ft Ibf/slug/R 1.40 32.174 fs?Total Training Support Integrated Training System International Standard Atmosphere (ISA) Data Altitude Temperature Kinematic Speed m ft °C Pressure Density Viscosity Viscosity of Ratio Ratio Ratio Ratio Sound ° 0 15.2 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 340.3 52 500 14.2 0.9821 0.9855 0.9973 1.0121 339.7 304 1000 13.2 0.9644 0.9711 0.9947 1.0243 339.1 457 1800 12.2 0.9470 0.9568 0.9920 1.0367 338.5 609 2000 11.2 0.9298 0.9428 0.9893 1.0493 338.0 762 2500 10.2 0.9129 0.9289 0.9866 © 1.0622 337.4 914 3000 9.3 0.8962 0.9151 0.9839 1.0752 336.8 1066 3500 8.3 0.8798 0.9015 0.9812 «1.0884 336.2 1219 4000 7.3. 0.8637 0.8881 0.9785 1.1018 335.6 1371 4500 6.3 0.8477 0.8748 0.9758 1.1155 335.0 1524 5000 5.3 0.8320 0.8617 0.9731 1.1293 334.4 1676 5500 4.3 0.8166 0.8487 0.9704 1.1434 333.8 1828 6000 3.3 0.8014 0.8359 0.9677 1.1577 333.2 1981 6500 2.3 0.7864 0.8232 0.9649 1.1722 332.6 2133 7000 1.3 0.7716 0.8106 0.9622 1.1870 332.0 2286 7500 0.3 0.7571, 0.7983 0.9595 1.2020 331.4 2438 8000 -0.6 0.7428 0.7860 0.9567 1.2172 330.8 2590 8500 -1.6 0.7287 0.7739 0.9540 1.2327 330.2 2743 9000 --2.6 0.7148 0.7620 0.9512 1.2484 © 329.6 2895 9500 =3.6 0.7012 0.7501 0.9485 1.2644 329.0 3048 10000 -4.6 0.6877 0.7385 0.9457 1.2807 328.4 3200 10500 -§.6 0.6745 0.7269 © 0.9430 1.2972 327.8 3352 11000 -6.6 0.6614 0.7155 0.9402. 1.3140 327.2, 3505 11500 7.6 0.6486 0.7043 «0.9374 1.3310 326.6 3657 12000 -8.6 0.6360 0.6932 0.9347 1.3484 326.0 3810 12500 9.6 0.6236 0.6822 0.9319 1.3660 325.4 3962 13000 -10.6 0.6113 0.6713 0.9291 1.3840 324.77 4114 13500 -11.5 0.5993 0.6606 0.9263. 1.4022, 324.1 4267 14000 12.5 0.5875 0.6500 0.9235 1.4207 323.5, 4419 14500 -13.5 0.5758 0.6396 = 0.9207 1.4396 322.9 4872 15000 -14.5 0.5643 0.6292 0.9179 1.4588 322.3 4724 15500 -15. 5 0.5531 0.6190 0.9151 «1.4783 321.7 4876 16000 -16.5 0.5420 0.6090 0.9123. 1.4981 321.0 5029 16500 -17.5 0.5311 0.5990 0.9094 1.5183 320.4 5181 17000 -18.5 0.5203 0.5892 0.9066 1.5388 (319.8 5334 17500 -19.5 0.5098 0.5795 «0.9038. «1.5596 319.2 5486 18000 -20.5 0.4994 0.5699 0.9009 1.5809 318.5 5638 18500 -21.5 0.4892 0.5604 0.8981 1.6025 317.9 5791 19000 -22.4 0.4791 0.5511 0.8953 1.6244 317.3, 5943 19500 -23.4 0.4693 0.5419 «0.8924 «1.6468 316.7 6096 20000 -24.4 0.4595 0, 5328 0.8895 1.6696 316.0 6248 20500 -25.4 0.4500 0.5238 0.8867 «1.6927 «315.4 6400 21000 26.4 0.4406 0.5150 «0.8838.««1.7163 314.8 6553 21500 27.4 0.4314 0.5062, ©0809-7403 314.1 6705 22000 28.4 0.4223 © 014976.-«—«0.8781«1.7647 313.5 6858 22500 29-4 0.4134 0.4891 -«0.8752«1.7895 312.9 7010 23000 30.4 0.4046 ©«-0.4806.««0.8723.«« e148 312.2 7162 23500 -31.4 0.3960 0.4723«««0.8694 1.8406 311.6 7315 24000-3213 0.3876 0.4642,«=«0.8665 1.8668 © 311.0, 7467 24500 33.3 0.3793 © 0.4561 -—«0.8636.-—«21.8935 310.3 7 Module 8.1 Physics of the Atmosphere Use anor eos TTS integrated Training System serrate Son, {© Copyright 2008Integrated Training System Altitude Temperature Kinematic Speed m ft °C Pressure Density Viscosity Viscosity of Ratio Ratio Ratio Ratio Sound 7620 25000 -34.3 0.3711 o.aga1 0.8607 1.9207 309.7 7772 25500 -35.3 0.3631 0.4402 0.8578 1.9484 309.0 7924 26000 -36.3 0.3952 0.4325 0.8548 1.9786 © 308.4 8077 26500 -37.3 0.3474 0.4248 0.8519 © 2.0053 307.7 8229 27000 -38.3 0.3398 = 0.4173 0.8490 © 2.0345 307.1 8382 27500 -39.3 0.3324 0.4098 0.8460 © 2.0643 306.4 8534 28000 40.3 0.3250 0.4025 0.8431 2.0947 305.8 8686 28500 -41.3 0.3178 0.3953 0.8402 2.1256 305.1 8839 29000 -42.3 0.3107 0, 3881 0.8372 2.1571 304.5 8991 29500 -43.2 0.3038 0.3811 0.8342 2.1892 303.8 9144 30000 -44.2 0.2970 0.3741 0.8313 2.2219 303.2 9296 30500 45.2 0.2903 0.3673 © 0,8283«-2,2553 302.5 9448 31000 -46.2 0.2837 0.3605 0.8253 2.2892 301.9 9601 31500 -47.2 0.2772 0.3539 © 0.8223 «2.3239 © 301.2 9753 32000 -48.2 0.2709 0.3473 0.8194 2.3592 300.5 9906 32500 49.2 0.2647 0.3408 0.8164 2.3952 299.9 10058 33000 -50.2 0.2586 0.3345 0.8134 2.4318 299.2 10210 33500 -51.2 0.2526 0.3282 0.8104 2.4692 298.6 10363 34000 -52.2 0.2467 0.3220 0.8073 © 2.5074 297.9 10515 34500 53.2 0.2410 0.3159 0.8043 2.5463 297.2 10668 35000 54.1 0.2353 0.3099 0.8013 2.5859 296.5 10820 35500 55.1 0.2298 0.3039 0.7983 2.6264 295.9 10972 36000 -56.1 0.2243 0.2981 0.7982 2.6677 295.2 10999 36089 86.3 0.2234 0.2971 0.7947 2.6751 295.1 11277 37000 56.3 0.2138 0.2843 0.7947 2.7948 © 295.1 11882 38000 86.3 0.2038 0.2710 0.7947 2.9324 295.1 11887 39000 -56.3 0.1942 0.2583 0.7947 3.0768 = 295.1 12192 40000 -56.3 0.1851 0.2462 0.7947 3.2283 295.1 12496 41000 -86.3 0.1764 0.2346 0.7947 «3.3872 295.1 12801 42000 56.3 0.1681 0.2236 0.7947 «3.5540 295.1 13106 43000 -56.3 0.1602 0.2131 0.7947 «3.7290 295.1 13411 44000 -56.3 0.1527 0.2031 0.7947 3.9126 295.1 13716 45000 56.3 0.1456 01936 0.7947 4.1052 295.1 14020 46000 56.3 0.1387 0.1845 0.7947 4.3073 295.1 14325 47000 -56.3 0.1322 0.1758 0.7947 4.5194 295.1 14630 48000 -56.3 0.1260 0.1676 = 0.7947 4.7419 295.1 14935 49000 -56.3 0.1202 0.1597 0.7947 4.9754 295.1 15240 50000 -56.3 0.1145 0.1522 0.7947 5.2203 298.1 15544 51000 -56.3 0.1091 0.1451 0.7947 5.4773 298.1 15849 52000 -56.3 0.1040 0.1383 0.7947 5.7470 295.1 16154 53000 56.3 0.09909 0.1318 0.7947 6.0300 295.1 16459 54000 -56.3 0.09444 0.1256 +0. 7947 «6.3268 295.1 16764 55000 -56.3 0.09001 0.1197 0.7947 6.6383 295.1 17068 56000 -56.3 0.08579 0.1141 0.7947 6.9652 298.1 17373 57000 -56.3 0.08176 0.1087 0.7947 7.3081 298.1 17678 58000 -56.3 0.07793 0.1036 0.7947 «7.6679 295.1 17983 59000 -56.3 0.07427 0.09878 «0.7947 8.0454 295.1 18288 60000 -56.3 0.07079 0.09414 0.7947 «8.4416 295.1 18 TTS Integrated Training System overosby eter Module 8.1 Physics of the Atmosphere ee ae aac © Copyright 2008 ‘Shpoge #oh he cosetByrom! Training Support Integrated Training System Altitude Temperature Kinematic Speed m ft °C Pressure Density Viscosity Viscosity of Ratio Ratio Ratio Ratio sound 18592 61000 -56.3 0.06746 0.08972 «0.7947 8.8572 295.1 18897 62000 -56.3 0.06430 0.08551 0.7947 «9.2932 295.1 19202 63000 -56.3 0.06128 0.08150 0.7947 9.7508 295.1 19507 64000 -56.3 0.05841 0.07768 ~«—«0.7947 10.231 295.1 19812 65000 -56.3 0.05566 0.07403 0.7947 «10.735 295.1 20116 66000 56.3 0.05305 0.07056 0 20421 67000 56.3 0.05056 0.06725 «0.7947 «11.818 295.1 20726 68000 -56.3 0.04819 0.06409 0.7947 «12.399 295.1 0 0 7947 11.263 295.1 21031 69000 -56.3 0.04593 0.06108 17947 «13.010 295.1 21336 70000 -56.3 0.04377 0.05822 :7947«13,650 295.1 19 Module 8.1 Physics of the Atmosphere Urata TIS integrated Training Syste Smevaacoes ‘© Copyright 2008\ % Integrated Training System Humidity Some water in the form of invisible vapour is intermixed with the air throughout the atmosphere. Itis the condensation of this vapour which gives rise to most weather phenomena: clouds, rain, snow, dew, frost and fog. There is a limit to how much water vapour the air can hold and this limit varies with temperature. When the air contains the maximum amount of vapour possible for a particular temperature, the air is said to be saturated. Warm air can hold more vapour than cold air. In general the air is not saturated, containing only a fraction of the possible water vapour. The amount of vapour in the air can be measured in a number of ways. The humidity of a packet of air is usually denoted by the mass of vapour contained within it, or the pressure that the water vapour exerts. This is the absolute humidity of air. Relative humidity is measured by comparing the actual mass of vapour in the air to the mass of vapour in saturated air at the same temperature. For example, air at 10°C contains 9.4 g/m? (grams per cubic metre) of water vapour when saturated. If air at this temperature contains only 4.7 g/m’ of water vapour, then the relative humidity is 50%. When unsaturated air is cooled, relative humidity increases. Eventually it reaches a temperature at which it is saturated. Relative humidity is 100%. Further cooling leads to condensation of the excess water vapour. The temperature at which condensation sets in is called the dew point. The dew point, and other measures of humidity can be calculated from readings taken by a hygrometer. A hygrometer has two thermometers, one dry bulb or standard air temperature thermometer, and one wet bulb thermometer. The wet bulb thermometer is an ordinary thermometer which has the bulb covered with a muslin bag, kept moist via an absorbent wick dipped into water. Evaporation of water from the muslin lowers the temperature of the thermometer. The difference between wet and dry bulb temperatures is used to calculate the various measures of humidity. Definitions Absolute humidity: The mass of water vapour in a given volume of air (i.e., density of water vapour in a given parcel), usually expressed in grams per cubic meter Actual vapour pressure: The partial pressure exerted by the water vapour present in a parcel Water in a gaseous state (i.e. water vapour) exerts a pressure just like the atmospheric air. Vapour pressure is also measured in Millibars. Condensation: The phase change of a gas to a liquid. In the atmosphere, the change of water vapour to liquid water. Dewpoint: the temperature air would have to be cooled to in order for saturation to occur. The dewpoint temperature assumes there is no change in air pressure or moisture content of the air. 20 Module 8.1 Physics of the Atmosphere te nr daoure TTS integrate Training System Epa Loreal © Copyright 2008Integrated Training System © Total T Dry bulb temperature: The actual air temperature. See wet bulb temperature below. Freezing: The phase change of liquid water into ice. Evaporation: The phase change of liquid water into water vapour. Melting: The phase change of ice into liquid water. Mixing ratio: The mass of water vapour in a parcel divided by the mass of the dry air in the parcel (not including water vapour). Relative humidity: The amount of water vapour actually in the air divided by the amount of water vapour the air can hold. Relative humidity is expressed as a percentage and can be computed in a variety of ways. One way is to divide the actual vapour pressure by the saturation vapour pressure and then multiply by 100 to convert to a percent. Saturation of air: The condition under which the amount of water vapour in the air is the maximum possible at the existing temperature and pressure. Condensation or sublimation will begin if the temperature falls or water vapour is added to the air. Saturation vapour pressure: The maximum partial pressure that water vapour molecules would exert if the air were saturated with vapour at a given temperature. Saturation vapour pressure is directly proportional to the temperature. Specific humidity: The mass of water vapour in a parcel divided by the fotal mass of the air in the parcel (including water vapour). Sublimation: In meteorology, the phase change of water vapour in the air directly into ice or the change of ice directly into water vapour. Chemists, and sometimes meteorologists, refer to the vapour to solid phase change as "deposi " Wet bulb temperature: The lowest temperature that can be obtained by evaporating water into the air at constant pressure. The name comes from the technique of putting a wet cloth over the bulb of a mercury thermometer and then blowing air over the cloth until the water evaporates. Since evaporation takes up heat, the thermometer will cool to a lower temperature than a thermometer with a dry bulb at the same time and place. Wet bulb temperatures can be used along with the dry bulb temperature to calculate dew point or relative humidity. 21 Use andlor czclosue Is Se epee Module 8.1 Physics of the Atmosphere estes © Copyright 2008Integrated Training System Intentionally Blank 22 Module 8.1 Physics of the Atmosphere eae TTS Intogratad Training System Semel ne dca © Copyright 2008Integrated Training System TTS Integrated Training System Module 8 Basic Aerodynamics 8.2 Aerodynamics Module 8.2 Aerodynamics> Integrated Training System Copyright Notice © Copyright. All worldwide rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form by any other means whatsoever: i.e. photocopy, electronic, mechanical recording or otherwise without the prior written permission of Total Training Support Ltd. Knowledge Levels — Category A, B1, B2 and C Aircraft Maintenance Licence Basic knowledge for categories A, B1 and B2 are indicated by the allocation of knowledge levels indicators (1, 2 or 3) against each applicable subject. Category C applicants must meet either the category B1 or the category B2 basic knowledge levels. The knowledge level indicators are defined as follows: LEVEL 1 + A familiarisation with the principal elements of the subject Objectives: «The applicant should be familiar with the basic elements of the subject. ‘+ The applicant should be able to give a simple description of the whole subject, using common words and examples. ©The applicant should be able to use typical terms, LEVEL 2 ‘+ A general knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject. + Anabilty to apply that knowledge. Objectives: ‘© The applicant should be able to understand the theoretical fundamentals of the subject. + The applicant should be able to give a general description of the subject using, as appropriate, typical examples. ‘+The applicant should be able to use mathematical formulae in conjunction with physical laws describing the subject. ‘+The applicant should be able to read and understand sketches, drawings and schematics describing the subject, ‘+ The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using detailed procedures, LEVEL 3 ‘+ A detailed knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject. * capacity to combine and apply the separate elements of knowledge in a logical and comprehensive manner. Objectives: ‘+The applicant should know the theory of the subject and interrelationships with other subjects, ‘+The applicant should be able to give a detailed description of the subject using theoretical fundamentals, and specific examples, + The applicant should understand and be able to use mathematical formulae related to the subject. * The applicant should be able to read, understand and prepare sketches, simple drawings and schematics describina the subject. + The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner usirg manufacturer's instructions. + The applicant should be able to interpret results from various sources and measurements and apply corrective action where appropriate 2 Module 8.2 Aerodynamics Laman cacy TIS integrated Training System Speen © Copyright 2008® Total Training Support Integrated Training System Table of Contents Module 8.2 Aerodynai oe Airflow. 7 ‘Atmospheric Pressure. z 8 Streamline Flow. Flow Continuity Bernoulli's Theorem 10 Airspeed " Aerodynamic and Geometric Definitions 13 Chord line 3 Mean Camber ine 3 ‘Thickness/Chord Ratio and Fineness Ratio 13 Angle of Attack, 13 Wash Out, 13 Wash In 14 Wing Area 14 Mean Chord (Geometric) 14 Taper Ratio 14 Aspect Ratio 14 Wing Loading 14 ‘Sweep Angle 14 Dihedral 14 ‘Anhedrai (or Cathedral). 15 ‘Axes and Flight Controls (Primary Controls) 18 Drag 19 Introduction 19 Profile Drag 19 Induced Drag 24 Total Drag 27 Wave Drag. 30 Lift 33 Introduction 33 Pressure disiribution 34 Pressure gradients, 35 Lift Equation 36 LifyDrag Ratio 37 Movement of the Centre of Pressure, 38 Spanwise Distribution of Pressure 39 Stall 4 Introduction 41 The Determining Factor a The Cause 41 Alleviation 42 Engine Power Effect 43 Altitude Effect 43 Weight Etfect 43 Loading in Tufns 44 Effect of Shape 4 Centre of Gravity Position Effect 45 Stall Warning Devices 46 Spinning 46 The Deep Stall 48 3 Module 8.2 Aerodynamics Sonar by be corn “TTS Integrated Training Sytem Spam tee come {© Copyright 2008= : Integrated Training System Stall Speed and Stall Angle. 49 Wing Tip Stalling 51 Aspect Ratio Effect 53, ‘Sweepback Effect 54 Flap Effect 56 summary 37 a Module 8.2 Aerodynamics Leone come TTS integrated Trening System ‘2 Copyright 2008 Srpage' oe dcamere® Total Training Support Integrated Training System Intentionally Blank 5 ie ee ater dec TTS integrated Training Systom eee ee en (© Copyright 2008> Integrated Training System Module 8.2 Enabling Objectives Objective EASA 66 Reference _| Level Airflow around a body; 8.2 Boundary layer, laminar and turbulent flow, free stream flow, relative airflow, upwash and downwash, vortices, stagnation; The terms: camber, chord, mean aerodynamic chord, profile (parasite) drag, induced drag, centre of pressure, angle of attack, wash in and wash out, fineness ratio, wing | shape and aspect ratio; Thrust, Weight, Aerodynamic Resultant; Generation of Lift and Drag: Angle of Attack, Lift coefficient, Drag coefficient, polar curve, stall; ‘Aerofoil contamination including ice, snow, frost. 6 TTS Integcated Training System © Copyright 2008 Module 8.2 Aerodynamics ‘ovrodby te stroIntegrated Training System © Total ining Suy Module 8.2 Aerodynamics Airflow Atmospheric Pressure In the previous chapter it was shown that the atmosphere exerts pressure at all times. This type of pressure, which exerts a force on all bodies, is called static pressure and acts equally in all directions. When air is in motion, however, it possesses an additional energy (kinetic energy) due to the fact that it is moving, and the faster it moves the more kinetic energy it has. If moving air is now brought to rest against some object, the kinetic energy is turned into pressure energy. This pressure on the surface of the body which causes the moving air to stop is called dynamic pressure. The value of dynamic pressure depends on tie density of the air and its speed and may be expressed as: Dynamic pressure = % pV? This is an important equation which affects all aerodynamic studies. Any object in still air will experience static pressure in all directions but an object which is moving, or is placed in a moving airstream will experience an additional pressure due to the movirg air being brought to rest. Still Air Moving Air ¥v ¥ ~ kL ef bk t t Figure 2.1 — Still air and the additional pressure created in moving air If the speed of the moving air is comparatively slow, say 100 kts, the dynamic pressure exerted by it is quite small in relation to the static pressure at sea level. In fact the dynamic pressure will only amount to less than 2% of the static pressure. If, however, the speed is increased to, say 450 kts, the dynamic pressure rises considerably, to about 30% of the static pressure. It is important to note that at low speeds the density of the air is not significantly affected by these changes in pressure and the air can be considered as an incompressible fluid. At high speeds, however, say in excess of 300 kts, this assumption can no longer be made and the changes in density due to compressibility become significant, z Module 8.2 Aerodynamics arte ai ‘TTS Integrated Training System rom tecmones (© Copyright 2008Integrated Training System Streamline Flow Itis useful to illustrate the path followed by air when it passes around fixed objects and the idiom used is that of streamlines. A streamline is the path traced out by a single particle of airflow such that this particle does not cross the path of any other. This can be illustrated by dropping dye into a stream of water and watching the visible path of the dye when it moves with —— Se Figure 2.2 ~ Airflow around a circular body Flow Continuity When water flows down a tube the principle of continuity of flow applies and the mass flow in the tube is the same at any point along its length. This rule applies even if the tube is not of constant diameter and this is clearly shown in the Figure 2.3. The mass flow at A, B and C is the same so if the density of the water is ‘p’, the cross sectional area of the tube ‘a’ and the speed of the water is ‘v' then: Mass flow =p av The continuity theorem states that the mass flow at any point A = the mass flow at point B = the mass flow at point C. Figure 2.3 — Airflow through a duct of increasing cross sectional area 4 Module 8.2 Aerodynamics snr cnc ‘TTS Integrated Training System ‘Srpage 2 ie document © Copyright 2008Integrated Training System raining Venturi effect Ina venturi tube, such as that shown in Figure 2.4, that is a tube that has constriction in it, the previous rule still applies; mass flow is always a constant even if the tube is not of constant diameter If, therefore, the pressure is measured at points 1 and 2 in the venturi it can be said praiv1 = p2aave 4 4 Point 1 Point 2 Figure 2.4 — Airflow through a venturi Considering the fluid as incompressible then as the cross sectional area a; is considerably bigger than the cross sectional area a, the speed V; must be less than the speed V2. In other words, as the flow passes through the venturi the speed of the fluid increases. This can often be seen when watching the flow of a river through the arch of a bridge observing how the water speeds up as it flows through the arch or constriction. The streamlines associated with this flow are shown below. It can be seen that the streamlines draw closer together as they pass through the venturi. Moving away from the concept of the tube to that of an aircraft wing, as illustrated in Figure 2.5, it can be seen that due to the curvature of the wing on its upper surface a venturi has been created between the upper surface and the undisturbed air some distance above it. The streamlines will be similar to those in the venturi and, of course, the flow of the air will be increased in speed as it passes through he venturi Figure 2.5 ~ Airflow around an aerofoll section 9 Module 8.2 Aerodynami Us on ene ‘TTS Integrated Training System eee ee {rote ert © Copyright 2008 SRpape zt he doamereIntegrated Training System Bernoulli's Theorem During the last century Bernoulli put forward his theorem stating that the total pressure (i.e. static + dynamic) in a fluid is constant if no work is done by it or on it. Total pressure H = S + % pV* = constant. Referring back to Figure 2.5 and looking at the point ahead of the wing marked 1 we can find the total pressure at this point: Hr=Si+ % pW? Similarly the total pressure at the point marked 2 can also be expressed as: He = So+ %5 piVo? However, Bernoulli's theorem states that the total pressure in a fluid is constant, therefore these two expressions must equal each other. Therefore: Si + pV? =S2+ %pve Considering the density to be a constant factor and knowing the speed at point 1 is less than the speed at point 2, it follows that the pressure at point 1 must be higher than the pressure at point 2. To put it differently there is a reduction in pressure over the upper surface of the wing as a result of Bernoulli's Theorem. It is this reduction in pressure over the upper surface of the wing of an aircraft that creates lift and is the reason an aircraft can fly. Stagnation Referring to Figure 2.6, note the flow of air around an object. Notice how the air divides — some flows over the top of the wing and some below it and right in the centre, at the leading edge of the wing, the air is brought completely to rest at point A. This point is called the stagnation point and it is where the full dynamic pressure plus whatever static pressure is effective at the time will be felt Figure 2.6 - The stagnation point 2 Module 8.2 Aerodynamics Use ener deca TTS Integrated Training System Seat ete © Copyright 2008Integrated Training System Airspeed The principle of the stagnation point is used in the measurement of airspeed. Refer to Figure 2.7. Air is directed from a pitot tube facing into the airflow to a flexible diaphragm in the airspeed indicator. This flexible diaphragm, in the form of a capsule, in fact is a stagnation point and will feel the full effect of dynamic pressure. Static pressure is fed to both sides of the capsule so that it cancels out. The resultant movement of the diaphragm can be taken by a suitable linkage to a dial, this indicating airspeed. It should be noted that the airspeed indicator is in fact a dynamic pressure indicator but is calibrated suitably in knots. As it measures dynamic pressure directly it is extremely useful when flying the aircraft as most aerodynamic functions of the aircraft are directly related to dynamic pressure. For instance, the stalling speed of an aircraft is always measured in indicated airspeed and remains, for the same weight, pretty well a constent figure regardless of altitude. No mention has been made yet of compressibility and in fact this should be taken into account. The airspeed indicator reading (corrected for instrument and position errors), when corrected for compressibility at all speeds is called equivalent air speed (EAS). Pitot Tube =—> Ram Air | = / L£a@ f Static Air Line Figure 2.7 - The stagnation point 4 Module 8.2 Aerodynamics esa cseeaae TS integrated Teinng System sora erent (© Copyright 2008Integrated Training System Speed Definitions (a) (b) (c) (a) (e) (0) 12 Indicated Airspeed (IAS) - The dynamic pressure of air against ¢ vehicle, or indicated airspeed, is equal to % pV”, where p density, and V = true airspeed. An airspeed indicator, calibrated to ISA mean sea level conditions records the dynamic pressure as a speed. If, for example, the indicated reading were 200 kts, then it means that the dynamic pressure is the same as it would be at a true air speed of 200 kts at standard conditions at mean sea level. Rectified Airspeed (RAS) - The indicated airspeed, corrected for instrument and position errors (IE and PE). Equivalent Airspeed (EAS) - The rectified airspeed corrected for compressibility (C). It should be noted that compressibility is always a subtracted quantity. Itis the airspeed at sea level which represents the same dynamic pressure as that flying at the true airspeed (TAS) at altitude. It is useful for predicting aircraft handling, aerodynamic loads, stalling etc. Note that instrument error and position error are sometimes neglected and thus EAS is. then considered to be the same as IAS, and the two terms are used interchangeably. True Airspeed (TAS) - The equivalent airspeed corrected for density. ‘ actual air density EAS =TAS x \;——______——_ \ Sandard air density Where: “standard air density” is the ISA sea level density of 1.225 kg/m? or 0.00237 slugsift’. The ratio “actual air density / standard air density” is known as the density ratio. Density Ratios at different altitudes are listed on the ISA tables in Chapter 8.1. Note that the ratio is equal to 1 only at sea level, and reduces with altitude. Thus EAS decreases with altitude if TAS is kept constant. At 40,000 feet, the density ratio is approximately 0.25. Since v0.25 = 0.5, the EAS is half of the TAS at 40,000 feet altitude. Calibrated Airspeed (CAS) - Some airspeed indicators are corrected for mean sea level compressibility. Calibrated airspeed is the value of this reading, corrected for instrument and position errors. Mach Number (Mn) - Mach number is the ratio of TAS to the locel speed of sound (LSS), Module 8.2 Aerodynamics ie ror ce TTS Integrated Training System owas ne sent © Copyright 2008®) Total Training Support Integrated Training System Sy Aerodynamic and Geometric Definitions Chord line The chord line of an aerofoil is the straight line joining the leading edge to the trailing edge. It is normally used as a reference line when measuring the angular position of the wing related to the airflow. Leading Edge Trailing Edge LE Radius Camber Line Max Thickness. ‘Chord Lengih Figure 2.8 — A typical aerofoil Mean Camber line Aline which joins the leading edge to the trailing edge such that it is equidistant from the upper surface and lower surface of the aerofoil.Ifit is curved the aerofoil is desoribed as cambered. Thickness/Chord Ratio and Fineness Ratio This is the ratio of the maximum thickness of the cross section to the chord, and is usually expressed as a percentage. Usually, the Fineness Ratio is the inverse o' the Thickness/Chord Ratio (i.e. the ratio of the chord to the thickness). Angle of Attack The angle of attack is the angle between the chord line of the wing and the direction of the relative airflow. Wash Out A decrease in wing angle of incidence from root to tip, caused by an intentional twist in the wing. Its usually Incorporated to Improve stability. a3 ander dear A ee eos Module 8.2 Aerodynamics Sater {© Copyright 2008Integrated Training System Wash In An increase in angle of incidence from root to tip, caused by an intentional twist in the wing. Itis rarely incorporated because it decreases the stability of the wing Sweep Angle at 14 Chord Line 1/4 Chord Wing Span pt Tip Chord Figure 2.9 - Wing planform geometry Wing Area The area enclosed by the wing outline and extending through the fuselage to the centreline. Mean Chord (Geometric) The wing area divided by the span. Taper Ratio The ratio of the root chord to tip chord. Aspect Ratio The ratio of the wing span to the mean chord, or alternatively span” to wng area Wing Loading The weight of the aircraft divided by the wing area. Sweep Angle The angle between the lateral axis and the % chord line (may be referred to as the leading edge). Dihedral ‘The upward inclination of the wing to the plane through the lateral axis. Dinedral Angle Figure 2.10 — Dihedral angle 14 TTS Integrated Training System ‘© Copyright 2008 Module 8.2 Aerodynamics sare nen§®) Total Training Support Integrated Training System Cy Anhedral (or Cathedral) The downward inclination of the wing to the plane through the lateral axis. Anhedral Angle Figure 2.11 — Anhedral angle Axes and Flight Controls (Primary Controls) (a) Elevators The elevator is attached to the trailing edge of the tailplane and controls the pitching moment about the lateral axis. A backward movement of the control column moves the elevator up and causes the aircraft nose to pitch up. Figure 2.12 — The Elevator controls rotation about the Lateral Axis (pitching) — Longitudinal Control ° Module 8.2 Aerodynamics Lenten TTS integrated Training System Sense tues © Copyright 2008Integrated Training System (b) Ailerons The ailerons are attached to the outboard trailing edges of the wings or mainplanes and controls the rolling motion about the longitudinal axis. If the control column is moved to the right the right aileron moves up and the left aileron down, causing a roll to the right. Figure 2.13 - The Ailerons control rotation about the Longitudinal Axis (roll) — Lateral Control (c) Rudder The rudder is attached to the rear edge of the fin and causes the aircraft to yaw about the normal axis. Movement of the right rudder pedal forward moves the rucder to the right causing the aircraft to yaw to the right about the normal axis. Figure 2.14 — The Rudder controls rotation about the Normal Axis (yaw) — Directional Control a2 Module 8.2 Aerodynamics “TIS iniogratd Training System remy Copy 2008,Integrated Training System Alternative Forms of Control (a) Stabilator or All-Moving Tail ‘Sometimes used in place of separate elevator control. Figure 2.15 — The Stabilator (b) Spoilers May be used instead of or in addition lo ailerons. When the spoiler is operated it causes a loss of lift on the side it is raised, thus causing a roll to that side. Movement of the control column to the right causes the right spoiler to rise but the left spoiler to remain retracted a Figure 2.16 — The Spoilers ae Module 8.2 Aerodynamics Une demas TTS intogratd Tianing Systm : © Copy 2008,Integrated Training System Intentionally Blank. 18 Module 8.2 Aerodynamics sorry atarct TTS Integrated Training System ‘Sepage 2 ef docament {© Copyright 2008Integrated Training System Drag Introduction Itis convenient to study the subject of drag under two distinct headings: * Profile Drag or ‘Zero Lift Drag’ * Induced Drag or ‘Lift Dependent Drag’ Profile Drag Profile Drag is named Parasite Drag in the USA, where it means the same. Elsewhere, the term Parasite Drag is reserved to denote the drag on an helicopter fuselage, in order to differentiate it from the Profile Drag on the rotating blades. However, in this latter differentiation of the use of the terms, their cause is identical, and is described below. Profile drag is made up of three components: (a) Skin Friction Drag (b) Form or Pressure Drag (c) _ Interference Drag. (a) _ Skin Friction and Boundary Layer Consider a flat smooth surface over which an airstream is flowing. What may seem to be a smooth surface to an observer, will, to a molecule of air, seem a very rough one. Air is a Viscous medium, and any surface subjected to a moving airstream will inevitably have, through viscous adhesion, a minutely thin layer of air at its surface which has zero relative velocity. Succeeding layers adjacent to the surface will, through the same viscous action, be subject to retardation, but to a lesser degree with increasing distance (albeit a very small one) from the surface. A point is therefore reached where the airflow will be unaffected, and its velocity will be that of the ‘free stream’ airflow. This layer of air from the surface where there is zero velocity, to the point where there is no retardation, is referred to as the ‘Boundary Layer’ and is normally defined as the region in which the velocity of flow is less than 99% of the free stream value. The boundary layer exists in two forms: (a) Laminar Flow, and (b) Turbulent Flow. Physical laws dictate that at some point along a surface which is subject to a moving airstream, the flow will change from laminar to turbulent. This point is of importance in the study of drag, the significant feature being that the drag is greater in the turbulent layer than in the laminar. The main variables which dictate the change from the laminar state to the turbulent are: (a) Velocity of flow, (b) Viscosity of the fluid, or air, (c) Size of the object. 19 Module 8.2 Aerodynamics camara ‘TTS Integrated Training System pape 2 ce document © Copyright 2008Integrated Training System Generally speaking, the transition point (that point at which the laminar flow turns turbulent) for an aerofoil section will be at the point of maximum section depth where the velocity of flow is greatest (refer to Venturi effect). As can be clearly seen, it pays to maintain laminar boundary layer flow as long as possible over an aerofoil section in order to reduce drag, and to keep the surface as smooth as possible. One method of ensuring a greater percentage of laminar flow is to maintain an increasing depth of section as far back from the leading edge as possible, thereby locating the point of maximum. velocity farther aft. This results in a wing section known as a laminar flow wing; a description which is, of course, only partially true; Figure 2.17 indicates non-laminar and laminar sections. t 1 a Conventional Section Laminar Flow Section Figure 2.17 — Non-laminar and laminar aerofoil sections Figure 2.18 shows some important features of the transition from laminar to turbulent flow, these being: (i) The depth of the laminar layer typically given as 0.07in. (ii) The depth of the turbulent layer typically given as 0.7in. (iii) The velocity gradients of the two layers being different leads to the greater shearing or friction effect occurring in the turbulent layer. Distance from Surface 0.7in Distance from Transition Surface .07in ont : i t 1 L : Velocity Profile Turbulent Laminar Lominar Sub-Layer Figure 2.18 - The Boundary Layer in the transition from laminar to turbulent flow a Module 8.2 Aerodynamics reseraecene TTS inoprates Training System © Copyright 2008 Sepege 2h omerIntegrated Training System {®) Total Training & (b) Form or Pressure Drag When an object is placed in a viscous fluid, such as air, which is moving relative to the object, it will experience a resistance owing to the formation of vortices which create turbulent as opposed to streamlined flow. If we regard a flat plate at right angles to an airflow as being an extreme case, the kinetic energy of the airstream is largely brought to rest and converted to pressure energy: Figure 2.19 also shows the point ‘S' which is referred to as the stagnation point. The pressure brought to rest, is referred to as the ‘Dynamic Pressure’; it is of considerable importance, and is the pressure experienced by any object when a moving airstream is brought to rest: it is quite distinct from static pressure. The formula for dynamic pressure is /% pV’ where p = air density and V is velocity. It may be seen from Figure 2.19, that the flow behind the plate is composed of vortices, and since these have low pressure in the centre, we now have high pressure in front and low behind the plate: this results in a drag force in the direction of the moving airstream. Turbulent Wake Figure 2.19 — Turbulent wakes behind a flat plate and a sphere (c) _ Reduction of drag with streamlining Itis clear from the extreme case of the flat plate at right angles to the airfiow, that it represents the maximum generation of vortices and turbulence; in other words, maximum resistance or drag. The production of vortices require the expenditure of energy in order to generate them, and this of course, is wasteful. By substituting a cylindrical section for the plate, we produce a less abrupt change in the path which the airflow is trying to follow. In this case, fewer vortices are generated: there is less difference in pressure from the front to the rear of the shape, and a degree of ‘streamlining’ has been achieved. Taken a step further, reference to Figure 2.20 will show a more streamlined shape as in a symmetrical aerofoil section. This shape allows the airflow a much more gradual passage from the front of the section to the rear than in the case of the cylinder. The end result therefore, of streamlining, is to produce much less vortex generation, reduced turbulence, and greatly reduced drag. = 0 = SSS Figure 2.20 - Streamlining 2 Module 8.2 Aerodynamics aera TTS Integrated Training System emp ee tao {© Copyright 2008> Integrated Training System Although by careful streamlining considerable reductions in the form drag are achieved there is. a limit to extension of the method. The ‘fineness ratio’ of an aerofoil section is a measure of its streamlining, and is defined as the chord to thickness length ratio. Figure 2.21 shows a section of conventional ratio, but if this ratio is too great, the resulting very thin section leads to structural difficulties. | Length | | Thickness Figure 2.21 — Length and thickness of an aerofoil (a) Interference drag Ona complete aircraft, the total drag is greater than the sum of the values for the individual parts of the aircraft. This additional drag is the result of ‘flow interference’ in such areas as wing/fuselage, wing/nacelle junctions, and in fact any areas where such junctions exist. The interference leads to modifications of boundary layers (discussed later) and creates greater pressure differences between fore and aft areas on the surfaces concerned, this in turn leading to greater total drag. This drag can be reduced in value by careful fairing or the addition of fillets in the areas concerned. (e) The Drag Formula Itis found by experience that, within certain limitations of flow velocity, the resistance of an object in a moving airstream is proportional to’ (i) The shape of the object and frontal area (ii) The square of velocity (iii) The density of the fluid As a basic formula this is written as Drag « pV’S_ or Drag = KpV°S. In the case of the flat plate, clearly, not all the air is being brought to rest by the plate, as some of it is seen to be flowing round the edges. This means that the full conversion of kinetic energy to pressure energy is not realized. For this reason, the value of 'k’ in the second formula will vary according to the shape of the object and its associated system of vortices: the value of 'K’ is found by experiment, and is called the Coefficient of Drag (Co). The importance of the unit of dynamic pressure has already been emphasized and the above basic formula is now modified by ils inclusion. The new formula therefore, becomes: 22 Module 8.2 Aerodynamics Sooty tone TTS Integrated Training System Sage dane document ©Copynight 2008,§®) Total Training Support Integrated Training System cy “ Drag = Cp % pV’S where Cp is the ‘coefficient of drag’, and S the wing area. The unit of dynamic pressure % pV’, is very often written simply as ‘q’ because of its frequent use. As a point of interest, the value of Co in the basic formula is about 0.6 for a flat plate. Other values of the drag coefficient that are of interest are: * Acylindrical section 0.47 « Astreamlined section 0.04 * Apitot tube has a value of unity. To conclude, the combined drag due to skin friction, form drag and interference drag under the heading of ‘Profile drag’, increases in the manner shown below. The subject of Induced Drag or ‘lift dependent drag’ is discussed in the chapter on Lift. aenencensnage Profile Drag Figure 2.22 — Drag increases with IAS exponentially (square law) 23 Module 8.2 Aerodynamics ore TTS Integrated Training System ‘Sian cme doamere © Copynigh 2008Integrated Training System Induced Drag Introduction Pressure distribution over the upper and lower surfaces of the wing was examined in the previous chapter. As high pressure exists underneath the wing and low pressure on top of the wing, the one place where these pressures will attempt to equalize is around the wing tip. The high pressure underneath the wing moves upwards towards the low pressure on the upper surface and in doing so assumes a rotary motion. This rotary motion spirals back from the wing tip, moving in an anticlockwise direction from the right-hand wing tip as viewed from behind and in a clockwise direction from the left-hand wing tip. Energy is required to produce this rotational vortex from each wing tip and this energy can come only from thrust. The vortices therefore create drag and this drag is called induced drag. Figure 2.23 - Photograph showing the wing-tip vortex phenomenon, Drift effect The larger the lift being produced by the wing, the bigger the pressure difference between the lower and upper surfaces. The larger the pressure difference the stronger the vortex produced and it can therefore be said that induced drag is proportional to lift. In straight and level flight lift must equal weight, so if weight is increased then lift must be increased end therefore induced drag will be larger. The same is also true for a turn where lift must be increased, producing more induced drag although the gravitational weight has not been changed. Vortices are shown diagrammatically in Figure 2.24. Figure 2.24 - Wing tip vortices ee Module 8.2 Aerodynamics ee eeamaet ‘TS Integrated Training Systm Smpiatacaes © Copyngh 2008,Support Integrated Training System Downwash The effect of the vortex is to deflect the air downwards as it passes over the trailing edge of the wing, in other words producing downwash. As the maximum strength of this movement is close to the vortex, as one moves from the wing tip towards the fuselage the downwash steadily decreases. Thus for a given strength of vortex, the larger the wing span the less will be the effect of this downwash velocity. The angular deflection of the airflow will depend on the speed. For a given downwash velocity the deflection angle will be greater at low speeds than at high speeds, as shown in Figure 2.25. vs Js Downwash Angle mA Figure 2.25 — Downwash angles affected by airspeed The total reaction force of a wing is at right angles, not to the initial direction of the airflow, but to the resultant between the original direction and the final direction. It will be readily seen that the more the final flow is deflected downwards — in other words the bigger the downwash — the more the total reaction is tilted rearwards, and this is clearly illustrated in Figure 2.26. The actual usable lift in level flight has to be perpendicular. This leaves a small rearward component of the total reaction force and this is induced drag. From Figure 2.26 it will be seen that the larger the lift component the bigger will be the rearward component D,, induced drag. Induced drag is in fact proportional to lift-squared itt Drag TR Initial Flow =~ Resultant fal Flow (Downwash) > Figure 2.26 — Induced drag increases with lift exponentially (square law) 25 TTS Integrated Training System (© Copyright 2008 Module 8.2 Aerodynamics (preva be samen!Integrated Training System Span Effect The wing span of the aircraft has a marked effect on the amount of induced drag. The strength of the vortex diminishes from the wing tip towards the fuselage and therefore the downwash created by it also diminishes. For a given strength of tip vortex, therefore, the longer the wing span the lower will be the average downwash and the lower the induced drag. For a given amount of lift, the longer span and short tip chord produces a weaker vortex than a wing with a short span and long tip chord and will therefore give less induced drag. In other words, the higher the aspect ratio, the lower the induced drag Summary of Effects The amount of induced drag created by a wing depends upon the amount of downwash and we saw from previously that the slower the speed the bigger the angular defection downwards of the air. This therefore means that the induced drag is largest at low Speeds and decreases as. the speed increases, We can say from this that induced drag varies inversely as the square of the speed or, induced drag is proportional to speed” To summarize the effects of induced drag, then: * Induced drag increases with an increase in weight. * Induced drag decreases with wing span, that is, high aspect ratio reduces induced drag, * Speed increases, induced drag decreases. Several deductions can be made from this summary. It becomes apparent that gliders and sailplanes having very long, narrow wings - wings with a high aspect ratio - and normally flying at very low speeds when induced drag is at its highest, therefore benefit from high aspect ratio wings to reduce this drag to a minimum. Conversely, large jet transport aircraft do not usually have high aspect ratio wings and, in addition, are usually of very high weight. From this it is apparent that at low speed they will have very high induced drag, Key Points To Note Induced Drag is proportional to Lift Induced Drag is inversely proportional to Speed. Induced Drag is greatest toward the wing tip. Induced Drag is less with greater wing aspect ratio. AHigh Aspect Ratio Wing has a long span and a short chord. The amount of lift generated by the wing upper surface is greatest towards the wing root. The airflow over the upper surface of the wing in flight tends to flow towards the root. In flight, the angle of attack at which the largest amount of lft is generated for the smallest amount of drag is at approximately 4°. This is known as the optimum angle of attack * Itcan be said that from an angle of attack of zero up to 4° the LiftDrag ratio increases. Above 4° it decreases. At zero angle of attack a cambered aerofoil produces some lift and some drag At zero angle of attack a symmetrical wing produces no lift but some drag. On a wing in flight, 2/3 of the lift is produced by the upper surface and the remainder by the lower surface 26 Module 8.2 Aerodynamics ne rr doe TS integratd Training System Sura cece Sopa 2008Integrated Training System Total Drag Introduction In preceding sections it has been shown that the aircraft is subjected to two types of drag, profile drag and induced drag. Profile drag increases with speed and is proportional to the square of the speed, and induced drag decreases with speed and is inversely proportional to the square of the speed. These two curves of profile and induced drag are shown against speed in Figure 2.27. The two curves can he amalgamated to give the total drag curve of the aircraft. The lowest point on this total drag curve gives the speed at which the total drag is a minimum. This speed is called the minimum drag speed, Va. For a constant weight and in straight and level flight the Vn will be a constant indicated airspeed for all altitudes. It would be reasonable to assume that one would be better off fiying the aircraft at Vms because the drag is least at this speed. In practice however, aircraft are not normally operated at this speed because the overall efficiency, especially that of the engine, may be better at a higher speed. . 3 a ol sl 1 Speed ———____» Figure 2.27 — Drag curves a Module 8.2 Aerodynamics ear cor TTS integratod Training System Someones {© Copyright 2008Integrated Training System Itis of some importance when handling an aircraft to know if the speed is stable. By this it is meant that if for some reason the speed increases, perhaps due to temporary turbulence, does the speed tend to decay back to its original value or not? The answer to this question can be found by examining the total drag curve which is shown in Figure 2.28. DRAG Ving SP Figure 2.28 - Total Drag curve Consider an aircraft flying at speed X. In straight and level flight thrust = drag so the thrust, required is indicated by the horizontal line T}. If for some reason the spead increases from X to Y, the thrust remaining unchanged, the drag now exceeds tie thrust so the speed will drop back to its original value at X. If, on the other hand, the speed decays to point Z, thrust is now greater than drag and the speed will automatically return to its original value at X. It should be noted that the two speeds quoted here are above Ving. On the other side of the curve with the aircraft flying at speed A the thrust level is now T2. If the speed now reduces to B the drag becomes higher than the thrust and the speed will continue to decay. If, conversely, the speed increases to point C, the thrust becomes higher than the drag and the speed will continue to increase. These second examples are speeds below Vm. This simple illustration makes clear why at speeds higher than Ving the speed tends to be stable and at speeds below Vina the speed is not stable This speed instability below Vins is most marked on jet transport aircraft. The great weight of some of the larger types of such aircraft today produces very high induced drag values and makes handling on the approach somewhat difficult. Considerable anticisation is required to either increase or decrease speed, the whole thing being aggravated to the slow response of jet engines. It would be fair to say that this type of aircraft requires more precise handling on the approach than the piston-engined aircraft and is less forgiving of imprecise handling In the section on induced drag it was shown that if weight is increased then induced drag also increases. The minimum drag speed occurs at the point where the curve for profile drag crosses the curve for induced drag. As was seen from the first diagram, at this speed the value of the = Module 8.2 Aerodynamics ned ccs TTS inegrated Training System Series {@ Copyright 2008Integrated Training System 4@) Total Training Support Cy induced drag is the same as that of profile drag. In other words profile drag equals induced drag and total drag is double the value of either one. Figure 2.29 illustrates the fact that an increase in aircraft weight will raise the speed at which Vd OCCUFS. RAG Via 2 SPEED ——______» Figure 2.29 — Drag increases with aircraft weight Itwas shown in the previous chapter that the effect of an increase in aspect ratio is to decrease induced drag. From this it follows that aircraft with high aspect ratios will have a lower Va than aircraft with low aspect ratios. = Module 8.2 Aerodynamics Lreanarcecage TTS Integrated Training System Shpoge et eds © Copyright 2008Integrated Training System Wave Drag Ithas been shown that drag is the same at any altitude for a given IAS but an aircraft climbing at this constant IAS has a steadily increasing Mach number. When this Mach number reaches a certain value the drag starts to increase because of compressibility effects. This drag is known as wave drag and its effect on the total drag curve is illustrated in Figure 2.30 DRAG > SPEED ——>— Figure 2.30 - Total Drag curves — with and without compressibility effect (Wave drag) 30 Module 8.2 Aerodynamics nears aoe TTS Integrated Training System Shpnge 2 the document © Copyrgnt 2008Integrated Training System Summary: Check list From the previous paragraphs the following has been established: an increase in angle of attack will produce an increase in lift brought about by the velocity of the airflow over the upper surface of the wing being increased. An increase in the angle of attack will cause: The Centre of Pressure to move forward. The Transition Point to move forward. The Separation Point to move forward. The Stagnation Point to move down and aft towards the undersurface of the wing. The Centre of Pressure will reach its farthest forward point at just below the stalling angle. Induced Drag is directly related to lift because as the angle of attack is increased the induced drag will increase. Due to the greater pressure difference between the upper and lower surfaces of the wing, the tip vortex (the basic origin of induced drag) will become intensified. For a given speed the greater the angle of attack, the greater the induced drag. Itis important to realize that although induced drag increases with increased lift when increasing angle of attack, the increase in lift will always be much greater than drag up to and including the stalling angle. Remember the stalling angle is the angle above which a given aerofoil will stall Induced Drag is influenced by the aspect ratio of the wing, the higher the aspect ratio for a given wing area the less the induced drag produced. Induced drag is always greatest towards the wing tip where the tip vortex is generated by air flowing from the underside of the wing to the upper surface, where it then flows aft and down behind the wing and tends to converge behind the aircraft. It can also be said the flow on the upper surface of the wing tends to flow aft and towards the wing root, and on the undersurface of the wing, aft and towards the wing tip, as a direct result of the influence of the vortex at the wing tip. The flow towards the root and tip on the upper and lower surfaces cause numerous vortices to form at the trailing edge of the wing, The greater the chord length at the wing tip the more intense the tip vortex becomes and so the greater the induced drag. Hence a high aspect ratio wing with a long span and a short chord will produce less induced drag than a low aspect ratio wing with a short span and a long chord. The Lift/Drag ratio of an aerofoil increases rapidly up to approximately 3° to 4° at which angles the lift is some 24 times the drag, the ratio then falls progressively until at the stalling angle, approximately 15°, the lift may only be 10 or 12 times as great as the drag. Above the stalling angle the ratio falls still further until an angle of attack of 90° is reached when lift will be zero. The best all round angle of attack is 3° to 4° where the Lift/Drag ratio is greatest, and this angle of attack is also known as the optimum angle of attack. 3 Module 8.2 Aerodynamics: Ween deca ‘TTS Integrated Training System sony ee tare © Copyright 2008Integrated Training System Itis also important to note that a cambered aerofoil, even at zero angle of attack will produce some lift and some drag. Even at some negative angles of attack a cambered aerofoil will produce some lift and drag. But remember, a symmetrical aerofoil at zero angle of attack will produce no lift but some drag. To obtain a good understanding of aerodynamics it is important to interrelate the various points that are made at each stage and to avoid considering them as separate entities. nd Module 8.2 Aerodynamics Peteierereenaas TTS Intagrated Training System Sree © Copyrignt 2008Integrated Training System Lift Introduction Ithas been shown that if a streamlined body is placed in a moving airstream it produces drag, a force in the direction of the airflow. It should be noted that the streamlined body we were examining was symmetrical in shape. This drag force was the total force produced by the streamlined body. If we now incline the streamlined body at a small angle to the airflow the total force is now no longer in the direction of the airflow and this is illustrated in Figure 2.31. The total force can now be resolved into two forces, drag, and the one at right angles to it, lft. Resultant Angle of 20 ‘attack Figure 2.31 — Resultant of Lift and Drag The diagram may give the impression that the lift and drag forces are approximately equal, but it has only been drawn this way for the sake of clarity. An aerofoil section in fact, produces lift many times greater than the value of drag it also produces. Bernoulli's theorem indicated that there will be a reduction in pressure over the upper surface of the wing; this reduction provides approximately two thirds of the lift produced by a wing. The general pressure distribution over the surfaces of a wing at a small angle of attack is illustrated in Figure 2.32. 33 Module 8.2 Aerodynamics TTS itogratod Training Systm © Copyght 2008,Integrated Training System Stagnation ae point tf 4 D Figure 2.32 (a) — Pressure distribution around an aerofoil at a low angle of attack Pressure distribution The upper surface of the wing produces a considerable reduction in pressure but the lower surfaces produce a mixture of increase and decrease in pressure as well. The detail of Figure 2.32 shows that at the leading edge of the wing, point A, the full pressure is felt, this being the stagnation point. As the air moves over the upper surface of the wing, towards station B, it is approaching an area of lower pressure and at station B the pressure is just atmospheric or static. Past station B the pressure steadily reduces until it reaches its minimum value at C as indicated by the longest vector, and after C as the air moves towards the trailing edge of the wing the pressure, although below static pressure, is now gradually increasing. The fact that the air travelling from C towards D at the trailing edge is now moving against an adverse pressure gradient is of considerable importance when we come to discuss stalling, On the under-surface of the wing at point A the pressure was above static, in fact the full dynamic pressure was felt there and to some extent an increase in pressure is felt on the under-surface of tie wing up to. about point E. Thereafter the wing under-surface produces a small venturi of its own which gives a reduction in pressure, and in order to limit this reduction the under-surface of the wing is given considerably less curvature than the upper. The pressure distribution as shown in Figure 2.32 (a), is for a comparatively small angle of attack, say about 4°C. Changes in the angle of attack of the aerofoil produce very considerable changes in the pressure distribution and Figure 2.32 (b) illustrates the pressure pattern at a high angle of attack, say about 12°, a Module 8.2 Aerodynamics Urea ge TTS integrated Training System poe 2 ah ocrent © Copysight 2008,Integrated Training System Figure 2.32 (b) - Pressure distribution around an aerofoil at a high angle of attack Pressure gradients The most obvious difference between Figure 2.32 (b) and (a) is the change of shape of the below static pressure on top of the wing. The main feature of this new shape is that the point of minimum pressure is very much nearer the leading edge of the wing than it was before. This means that the air traveling from C to the trailing edge of the wing has to deal with a very much longer and larger adverse pressure gradient. The only means available to the air to travel against this adverse pressure gradient is its own kinetic energy — its energy of motion, and if that adverse pressure gradient proves to be too great for the Kinetic energy of the air, the flow will in fact break away from the wing. On the undersurface of the wing the effect of the increase in pressure is enhanced, thus providing more lift and the small amount of negative pressure towards the trailing edge has been reduced. The overall effect of the increase in the angle of attack is to increase lift but this process can only be carried out to a certain point and when this point is reached, the wing stalls. The relationship between the angle of attack and lift is illustrated below. It can be seen that there is a steady increase in lift as the angle of attack increases and then a sudden decrease at the stalling angle which occurs at about 16° 35 Module 8.2 Aerodynamics ratty eect TIS integrates Treining Sytem Eee Lame) © Copyright 2008Integrated Training System Lift Equation The basic factor controlling the value of lift is dynamic pressure. The equation for this, as already noted, is: Lift < % pV? The size of a wing will obviously affect the amount of lift produced and this must therefore be added to the equation: Lift. % pV°S, where S is the wing area. The shape of a wing will also influence the amount of lift that can be generated and this, produces a factor, dependent upon the cross-sectional area of the wing, called the coefficient of lift, C_. As demonstrated with angle of attack this will have an influence upon the amount of lift generated. The coefficient of lft is in fact derivative of the wing shape and its angle of attack. The full lift equation can therefore be written: Lift = % pV’SC, The shape of the lift curve for any wing will be more or less the same but it should be noted that the higher the camber of the wing the greater the lift it will develop. This is illustrated in Figure 2.34 where a cambered section is compared to a symmetrical section. A point of interest is that although the cambered section still generates lift at a zero angle of attack the symmetrical section does not, Angle of pitack _—_—_—_— Figure 2.34 — Lift curves for cambered and symmetrical aerofoils - Module 8.2 Aerodynamics sen deta TTS Integrated Training Systom ee @ Copyright 2008 ccm4G) Total Training Support Integrated Training System © Lift/Drag Ratio The total resultant force derived from airflow over a wing can be resolvec into two forces, lift and drag. The whole object of the exercise is of course to produce lift and in an ideal situation would be done without incurring drag. Unfortunately, this is never possible but it is of great importance to know the ratio between lift and drag so that the aircraft can be designed to provide the maximum amount of lift for the minimum amount of drag. Lift and drag vary with the angle of attack and the variations of these two are shown in Figure 2.35 and 2.36. Aogle of — — — anak Figure 2.35 — C; relationship with Angle of Attack on aa L— | anges son 028 Co Angle of Attack Figure 2.36 — Co relationship with Angle of Attack - Module 8.2 Aerodynamics neon dois TIS integrated Treiing System atest © Copyaight 2008 on3) : Integrated Training System If these two figures are combined mathematically they produce a curve es shown in Figure 2.37. Itcan be seen that there is a steady increase in the liftdrag ratio, which is what is desirable, until an angle of attack of about 4°. Thereafter the situation deteriorates as the lift/drag ratio lessens until, at an angle of attack of around 15°, it tails right off, this being the stalling angle. The highest point on this curve where we are getting the largest amount of lft for the smallest amount of drag, occurs at about 4° and this is therefore the optimum angle of attack. Obviously, the combination of most lift for least drag is the most efficient and why aircraft are usually flown at the optimum angle of attack. eee Ususl | eee T Angles of Flight“ Angle of Attack Figure 2.37 — Lif/)Drag ratio relationship with Angle of Attack Movement of the Centre of Pressure Previously the centre of pressure was defined as that point on the chord line through which the lift can be considered to act. The vector representing lift through the centre of pressure passes through the point of minimum pressure on the upper surface of the aerofoil. This is illustrated in Figure 2.38. Centre of Pressure 4 MOQ K Figure 2.38 — Centre of Pressure of an aerofoil 38 Module 8.2 Aerodynamics Sorry esr TTS Integrated Training System Sinem dearer {© Copyright 2008(@) Total Training : Integrated Training System Wy Spanwise Distribution of Pressure The amount of lift produced by the upper surface of the wing will gradually decrease from root to tip. This means that although the pressure on top of the wing is all below static pressure, itis much lower near the root than it is near the tip. On the underside of the wing the reverse applies and the pressure near the root is much higher than itis near the tip. Looked at in plan view, this will cause the air flowing over the upper surface of the wing to be deflected inwards and the air flowing over the underside of the wing to be deflected outwards. This is illustrated in Figure 2.39. Pressure Gradient Figure 2.39 — Wing tip and trailing edge vortices, When the two airflows meet at the trailing edge of the wing they are moving in different directions and the result is to form a sheet of vortices. If one were to be able to see the air and stand behind the trailing edge of the wing, the vortices on the right-hand wing would be rotating anticlockwise and on the left-hand wing rotating clockwise. The result of these vortices is to impart a downward velocity to the airflow. This downward movement of the air as it passes over the trailing edge of the wing is called downwash. 39 TTS Integrated Training System © Copyright 2008 Module 8.2 Aerodynamics ander cnnseIntegrated Training System Intentionally Blank 40 Module 8.2 Aerodynamics TTS Integrated Training System Sates © Copynget 2008Integrated Training System Stall Introduction Ithas already been shown that the lift produced by a wing steadily increases as the angle of attack is increased, but only up to a certain point. Past this angle of attack the lift decreases rapidly and the angle at which this occurs is known as the stalling angle. The Determining Factor A stall is produced when the airflow has broken away from most of the upper surface of the wing. The determining factor in this is the angle of attack: the wing always stalls at a fixed angle, usually in the region of 15°. The Cause The cause of the stall is the inability of the air to travel over the surface of the wing against the adverse pressure gradient behind the point of minimum pressure. Figure 2.40 illustrates the pressure distribution over the upper surface of the wing at a small angle of attack, say about 4°. The minimum pressure point is at B, and the air travels from A to B without difficulty as it is moving from high to low pressure. However, from B to C it is being forced to travel from low to high pressure, that is, against an adverse pressure gradient. This poses no problems at low angles of attack because the kinetic energy of the air is adequate to take it to the trailing edge. c Figure 2.40 — Point of minimum pressure 41 Use andr etscosue ie TTS Integrated Training System Moet Oe oe eamemes) sorb became, ‘2 Copyright 2008Integrated Training System oF Figure 2.41 — Pressure reduction at a high angle of a:tack As angle of attack is increased however, the minimum pressure point moves forward and the distance B to C increases until at the stalling angle, it covers most of the wing. This is illustrated in Figure 2.41. When the angle of attack reaches a certain value the air runs out of kinetic energy and breaks away from the surface of the wing in a random manner. Lift decreases sharply and drag increases considerably. Alleviation Various design features can be incorporated in the wing which will assist in ensuring that the root of the wire stalls before the tip. These are: * The wing may be twisted so that the tip is at a smaller angle of incidence than the root, which will ensure that the root reaches its stalling angle before the tip. This is known as ‘Wash-out’ ‘* The cross-section of the wing tip may be given a higher camber than the root, which will give it a higher coefficient of lift. + Astall-inducer may be fitted to the wing root as illustrated in Figure 2.42. These strips reduce the effective camber of the root. This reduces its coefficient of lift and will cause it to stall before the tip. 42 Module 8.2 Aerodynamics Use andr aco a 75 grated Tring System coerce Scop s008Integrated Training System Stall Inducer Figure 2.42 — Stall inducer (or “stall strip") Engine Power Effect If engine power is on there will be a reduction of stalling speed compared with the power-off stalling speed. With propeller-driven aircraft this is due to: * Vertical component thrust «The propeller slipstream over the wings. Altitude Effect In straight and level flight at the stall, for a given wing area, cross-section and weight, the lift is of fixed value. This is a most fortunate occurrence when one considers the lift equation: Lift = % pV°SC; + angle of attack As lift at the stall is a fixed value and angle of attack, wing area and coefficient of lift are also constant, the total value of % pV? must also be constant. % pV" is dynamic pressure shown on the airspeed indicator and it is for this reason that for a given weight an aircraft will always stall at the same indicated airspeed regardless of height. Weight Effect Any change of weight will require a different value of lift for straight and level flight, an increase in weight requiring an increase in lift. At the stalling angle in level flight, the greater the weight the more the lift required and, therefore, the higher the stalling speed. A useful rule of thumb in this context is that the percentage increase in stalling speed is half the percentage increase in weight. Thus: + Weight 2000 Ib, normal stalling speed 100 kt * Weight 2200 Ib, percentage increase 10%, stalling speed increases 5%, i.e. to 105kt. 43 Module 8.2 Aerodynamics ara ace TTS Integrated Training System ia m spremed bye eaten, {© Copyright 2008Integrated Training System Loading in Turns The same effect is produced during manoeuvres, which produce a G loading, for instance, turns. During a turn the lift not only has to balance the weight but also the centrifugal force resulting from the aircraft moving in a curved path. Because of his the lift has to be greater than in level flight and, provided the speed is kept constant, the only way that this extra lift can be derived is by an increase in angle of attack. This increase in angle of attack puts the aircraft wing nearer to the stalling angle. The result of having to produce effectively more lift from the wings is that the aircraft's weight appears to be increased, hence the expression G loading. The increase in stalling speed is calculated by taking the normal stalling speed in level flight for the aircraft's weight and multiplying it by the square root of the G loading For example: Normal stalling speed 100 kt, 100 x V2 400 x 1.4 140 kt. Stalling speed in a 2G tum uot Further details of calculating staling speeds are given later in this chapter. Effect of Shape ‘A.wing does not normally stall over its entire length simultaneously. The stall begins at one part of the wing and then spreads. The main factor governing where the stall begins is the shape of the wing, and will be dealt with in a later section. It is plainly undesirable that a wing stalls from its tip first as this can lead to control difficulties. Any tendency to drop a wing at the stall may well lead to spinning, Further advantages of having a wing stall from its root rather than tip first are that aileron control can be maintained up to the point of full stall and the separated airflow from the wing root will cause buffet over tie tail which serves to act as a stall warning When the angle of attack increases to high values the upward inclination of the thrust line provides a vertical component which acts in concert with the lift to support the aircraft's weight. The slipstream from the propeller increases the speed of the air flowing over the wing, thus delaying the stall. Caution should be exercised in power-on stalls as their effect may result in a tip stall on a wing which normally stalls from the root. - Module 8.2 Aerodynamics Ute TTS integrated Training System cried, {© Copyright 2008Integrated Training System Cy Centre of Gravity Position Effect The stalling speed will be affected by the position of the centre of gravity. If the centre of gravity is forward of the centre of pressure a down-load is required from the horizontal stabilizer. The effect of this is that the lift is supporting not only the weight through the centre of gravity but also the down-load on the tail, therefore the lift will have to be higher and in tum the stalling speed will be higher. The nearer that the centre of gravity approaches to the centre of pressure, the less will be the down-load and the stalling speed will consequently be reduced. Wing tit Pe Fwd CG fimit Operational CG Figure 2.43 - Change in the position of Centre of Gravity — E‘fect on stall 45 Module 8.2 Aerodynamics nec TTS Integrated Training System pune ce doarnet Scopyean 2008= Integrated Training System Icing Effect The effect of ice formation on a wing is to corrupt the camber of the wing and so considerably to reduce the coefficient of lift. This can be brought about by extremely thin layers of ice — even hoar frost — and the utmost care must be taken to de-ice the wings of an aircraft prior to takeoff if there is any suggestion that ice may be present on the wings. The drastic effect of ice in reducing the coefficient of lift and, as a result, causing the stalling speed to be much higher thin normal is illustrated in Figure 2.44. 8 5 ay au 7 g 22 fo = 2g iS ZI i z ol ANGLE OF ATTACK Figure 2.44 - Stall angle with and without icing Stall Warning Devices Itis not normal to have an angle of attack indicator on the flight deck; it is usual instead to have some form of stall warning alarm operated by a switch which is sensitive to angle of attack. The warning may take the following forms: + Avisual warning, example a flashing light. * Audible warnings, example a horn * Astick shaker. Spinning Following a stall involving a wing drop, a spin may develop. Referring to Figure 2.45, the wing which drops increases its effective angle of attack due to having acquired a downward velocity. This increase in angle of attack causes a further decrease in lift and an increase in drag. The up-going wing, however, experiences a decrease in angle of attack and an increase in lift. As the lift has been reduced on the downgoing wing it will continue to drop and any attempt to raise it by the use of ailerons merely aggravates the situation because it will increase the angle of attack stil further. At the same time the increase in drag on the downgoing wing, coupled with a decrease in drag on the up-going wing, will produce a yawing moment tewards the dropped wing. From this it can be seen that the aircraft will roll and yaw towards the dropped wing, and this motion may be self-sustaining. If itis self-sustaining, the motion is described as a spin 46 Module 8.2 Aerodynamics seam arenes “TS Intgratd Training System Soe © Cony 2008Integrated Training System INCREASED V INCREASED L WING RISE REDUCED V = REDUCED L = WING DROP DROPPING WING, 7 BECOMES STALLED a OR MORE STALLED 20" ct t AISING WING BECOMES LESS a A STALLED 18 a Figure 2.45 — Stall developing into a spin 47 Module 8.2 A se ena dacoewo TTS Integrated Training System Cate ee names ‘evra aanect © Copyright 2008Integrated Training System The Deep Stall Conventional recovery from a stall is by easing the stick forward to lower the nose and then applying power. However, some aircraft of current design will enter into what is known as a deep stall, or a super-stall, from which normal recovery is not possible. Broadly speaking, these aircraft have swept back wings, high speed wing sections and a high T-tail. The airflow following a stall in a conventional aircraft is illustrated in Figure 2.46. It can be seen that although the air has broken away in a random manner from the upper surface of the wing, the horizontal stabilizer and the elevators are stil in undisturbed air. The result of this is that the horizontal stabilizer will produce a sharp nose down pitch which may be assisted by application of elevator. Figure 2.46 — Effect of aircraft tail configuration on Deep Stall This can be contrasted with the state of affairs when an aircraft with a high T-tail is stalled. This time the separated air from the wings, following the stall, entirely covers the horizontal stabilizer and elevators, virtually reducing their effectiveness to nil. In the case of aircraft with sweep back on the wings, the wing itself may develop a nose up pitching moment after the stall. This is due to the tendency of a swept wing to stall at the tip and so cause the centre of pressure to move forwards. The situation is often aggravated because the aircraft has now acquired a vertical downward velocity which will progressively increase the angle of attack way beyond the stalling angle. Finally, this type of aircraft is often equipped with rear-mounted engines and the effect of turbulent air entering the engine intakes may be to cause them to fiame out, causing a complete loss of power. Obviously an aircraft with these characteristics cannot be permitted to stall. When such an aircraft is first built, it is equipped with a tail-mounted parachute for use in test flying to thing the nose down in the event of it entering a super-stall. For general airline operation, aircraft of this type are fitted with equipment called a stick pusher. This is actuated by an angle of attack sensor on the fuselage (usually de-iced) which senses that the angle of attack is approaching the stall. Signals are then sent to an electro-hydraulic system, the rams of which physically push the control stick forward, thus preventing the aircraft from entering the stall hl Module 8.2 Aerodynamics ie ener acon TTS itogratd Training Systm © Copyright 2008 mpage fs comuneg Support Integrated Training System Stall Speed and Stall Angle Calculation of the stalling speed. During level flight, lift is exactly equal and opposite to the weight. Therefore: (i) Lift Weight The lift formula is: (ji) Lift CL%pVv’S It stands to reason that when the C, is maximum, V must be a minimum value (low speed, high angle of attack). This minimum value of velocity is, therefore, the stalling speed (V.), when the CL is at maximum. value, Therefore: (ii) Lift = — Weight = Cumay % pV." S So, rearranging the formula, it becomes: (iv) Weight = Cymax % pV.? S Thus, to obtain the Vs (stalling speed), the formula is so rearranged: Weight ve (Ci %p S transposed) imax) 2 PS Therefore (v) Normal stall speed GO) Ve = Factors affecting the stalling speed of an aircraft. 1. Weight 2. Load Factor 3. Wing Area 4. Change in Cuimax) 5. Power and Slipstream Module 8.2 Aerodynamics Urea cna TTS inlegrated Training System see eer © Copyright 2008Integrated Training System 4. Weight Any change in the weight of an aircraft will affect the stalling speed. It will be noted from the formula: yc that if the weight increases, the division thereof by Cumay$ results in an increased stalling speed (Vs). oes) 2 2. Load Factor ‘Any manoeuvre that requires an increase in total lift without a corresponding increase in wing area, must increase the effective total weight acting on the aerofoils. This apparent weight increase is known as a load factor, which is defined as the ratio of the load acting on the aircraft during the manoeuvre to the loading acting on the aircraft in straight and level flight. i Teer Total Lift __ Total Weight Aircraft Weight Actual Weight ‘As demonstrated in the previous paragraph, any increase in weight results in a higher stalling speed. This new stalling speed may be calculated from the following formula: New V; = Old V; x ,/ Load Factor 3. Wing Area (S) Where increased wing area is obtained by the use of Fowler flaps, the division of a given weight by an increased value of (S) results in a lower value of V. 4, Change in Cmax) The use of flaps increases the C; of that wing. Once again, the division of a given weight by a larger value of C, results in a lower stalling speed. This is the advantage of the use of flap during the landing manoeuvre because it permits the original value of lift to be retained at a lower speed. It is particularly useful in the lowering of the approach speed. 5. Power and Slipstream When power is applied at the stall, the already nose-high attitude produces a vertical component of thrust as shown in Figure 2.47. This consequently reduces the work load (i.e. weight) of the wings and allows a much lower stalling speed to be attained. The slipstream at high power settings provides an extra boost to the stagnating airflow over the aerofoil and thus controls the boundary layer. had Module 8.2 Aerodynamics ante dena TTS integrated Training System © Copyright 2008 mpage 2h amuIntegrated Training System Vertical component of thrust (300 Ib} 1000 Ib Figure 2.47 — Vertical component of thrust Wing Tip Stalling An aircraft wing is designed to stall progressively from the root section to the tips, The reasons for this are as follows: An early buffeting is induced over the tail sections. Aileron effectiveness is maintained up to the stalling angle of attack. Large rolling moments of the aircraft are prevented in the event of one wing tip stalling before the other. Methods used in the prevention of tip stalling: * Washout: This is a progressive reduction of wing incidence from the root to the tip. This results in the wing root reaching the critical angle of attack before the tip. * Root spoilers: This method employs a triangular-section strip fixed to the leading edge of the wing near the root. At high angles of attack, the airflow is obstructed in following the contour of the leading edge and this results in a breakdown of the airflow whereby an early stall is induced at the wing root * Change of aerofoil section: The aerofoil section may be gradually changed by decreasing the camber slightly at or near the tips, or by sweepback. This results in a slight decrease in lift at the tips thus giving an aerofoil with more gradual stalling characteristics from the root to the tip. The effect of sweepback is to increase the stalling angle. 51 Module 8.2 Aerodynamics aman cacy T'S Intgratod Training System Sates © Copyright 2008Integrated Training System * Slats and Slots By employing slats and slots on the outboard sections of the wing, the effective angle of attack at that part of the wing is decreased. Thus, when the root section reaches the critical angle of attack, the tip sections remain un-stalled. Note: Tapering the aerofoil from root to tip gradually reduces the C, towards the tips; this in itself reduces the high rolling moment which would occur if one tip stalled before the other. 2.9 18; 06 ec omceet 14 12 o 4 Lift coefficient & with slots ofen IMaximutn li oA 1 J ar © as ee TO ‘Angle of Attack Figure 2.48 - Effect of flaps, slats and slots on stall engle 52 TTS Integrates Training System © Copyright 2008 Module 8.2 Aerodynamics{@) Total Training Support Integrated Training System ©) Aspect Ratio Effect Note: When referring to stalling angle, it is that angle with the horizon as viewed abeam by the pilot from the flight deck. As discussed under wing tip vortices, the net direction of the airflow is altered. e 7 © = 1 16 Angle of Attack Figure 2.49 - Effect of Aspect Ratio on lift and stall angle Aircraft having high aspect ratios (long span and short chord) have very little induced downwash and, therefore, the net direction of the airflow remains largely unaltered. Conversely, aircraft with low aspect ratio wings (broad tips) induce a large amount of downwash which alters the net direction of the airflow significantly. These effects are illustrated in Figure. 2.50. Because of this altered airflow, low aspect ratio wings have significantly tigher stalling angles than do wings of high aspect ratio. - Module 8.2 Aerodynamics Uasandenchenase ‘TTS integrated Training System Scotia ee © Copyright 2008 aIntegrated Training System Note: This explains why rectangular wings usually stall from the root to the tip. The effective stalling angle of attack is reduced at the tips due to the presence of the wing tip vortex resulting in the net direction of the airflow being altered, as shown in Figure 2.51. Etfective Stalling Angle of Attack Reduced Stalling Angle Higher Jet Direction of the RAF Figure 2.50 — Effect of induced downwash on angle of attack Criticat Critical ating angle Stalling Angle Stalling Angie ~~ 4 + ain Angle fnqeusantt T ne S&S Wing Tip Wing Root Figure 2.51 - Effect of induced downwash at wingtip, compared to wing root Sweepback Effect In itself, a swept wing has a low aspect ratio and thus the presence of wing tip vortices are marked and give rise to a downwash that alters the net direction of the relative airflow. Since an aerofoil stalls when the critical angle between the chord line and the relative airflow is exceeded, the presence of the downwash alters this relative airflow and, having a downward component, results in the stalling angle being higher when the critical angle of attack is reached. ‘Swept wings therefore, have higher stalling angles than those of unswept wings. ' Module 8.2 Aerodynamics season TS Integrated Training System Shee zd fe coouot (© Copyright 200855 TTS Integrated Training System © Copyright 2008 Integrated Training System +- Elliptical Wing Rectangular Wing Moderate Taper Wing High Taper Wing Pointed Tip Wing ‘Sweepback Wing Figure 2.52 — Effect of wing planform on stall propagation Module 8.2 Aerodynamics Ura cmanIntegrated Training System Flap Effect With each successive increase of flap, the characteristics of the aerofoil are changed, i.e. the chord line assumes a steeper inclination, being the straight line from leading edge to trailing edge. The critical stalling angle (about 15 degrees) is therefore reached with little or no inclination of the longitudinal axis of the aircraft (i.e. aircraft in straight and level attitude). Any further increase in flap setting in this attitude would result in the critical stalling angle of attack being exceeded. To prevent this, the aircraft would have to be placed in a nose down attitude, thereby reducing the critical angle of attack to within limits (about 15 degrees). Straight and Level No Flap LD * 4° are RAF. Lower Nose Attitude Reduced, Aircraft Unstalled Flap Down Aircraft Stalled Figure 2.53 - The effect on chord line and hence angle of attack of flap deployment Thus, the effect of flap reduces the stalling angle although the critical angle of attack remains about 15 degrees. Note: The stalling angle, or level flight stalling angle, is increased when leading edge flaps are employed. Further reference to wing planforms and their stall characteristics are discussed in Chapter 8.3. 56 Module 8.2 Aerodynamics Sasol i TTS Integrated Training System Simad tear © Copyright 2008Integrated Training System Summary * With increased angle of attack, whilst maintaining level flight, induced and profile drag will increase. + Whilst maintaining level flight, at a constant altitude, an increase in speed will result in a reduction in induced drag. Profile drag equals induced drag at Vmd. Profile drag is proportional to speed. Induced drag is inversely proportional to speed. With an increase of weight of the aircraft the Vmd will increase. With an increase in altitude the stalling angle will remain the same. With an increase of speed the stalling angle will remain the same. Washout of a wing will ensure the coot of the wing stalls first. Stall inducers may be fitted to the leading edge of the wing root to ensure that the wing stalls at the root first. Stall warning sensors are normally fitted at, or near, the wing leading edge. + If the centre of gravity is forward of the centre of pressure a down load will exist on the tailplane, * If the centre of gravity is forward of the centre of pressure the stalling speed will be increased. + The nearer the centre of pressure is to the centre of gravity the lower the stalling speed will be. . Module 8.2 Aerodynamics mer dees TTS inlegrated Training System omeuiecmenes © Copyright 2008=~ Integrated Training System Intentionally Blank - Module 8.2 Aerodynamics ee ander eos TTS Integrated Training System Sea {© Copyright 2008Integrated Training System TTS Integrated Training System Module 8 Basic Aerodynamics 8.3 Theory of Flight Module 8.3 Theory of FlightIntegrated Training System Copyright Notice © Copyright, All worldwide rights reserved. No part of this publication mey be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form by any other means whatsoever: i.e. photocopy, electronic, mechanical recording or otherwise without the prior written permission of Total Training Support Ltd. Knowledge Levels — Category A, B1, B2 and C Aircraft Maintenance Licence Basic knowledge for categories A, B1 and B2 are indicated by the allocation of knowledge levels indicators (1, 2 or 3) against each applicable subject. Category C applicants must meet either the category B1 or the category B2 basic knowledge levels. The knowledge level indicators are defined as follows: LEVEL 1 + _ A familarisation with the principal elements of the subject. Objectives: ‘© The applicant should be familiar with the basic elements of the subject. ‘+ The applicant should be able to give a simple description of the whole subject, using common words and examples. © The applicant should be able to use typical terms. LEVEL 2 ‘+ A general knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject. An ability to apply that knowledge. Objectives: ‘+ The applicant should be able to understand the theoretical fundamentals of the subject. ‘+ The applicant should be able to give a general description of the subject using, as appropriate, typical «The aptan shoud be able to use mathematical mule in conjunction with physical laws desing the . The applicant should be able to read and understand sketches, drawings and schematics describing the «The aplcant should beable to apply his knowledge na practical maner usr deta procedures LEVEL 3 * A detailed knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject. * capacity to combine and apply the separate elements of knowledge in a logical and comprehensive manner. Objectives: ‘© The applicant should know the theory of the subject and interrelationships with other subjects. ‘©The applicant should be able to give a detailed description of the subject using theoretical fundamentals and specific examples, ‘The applicant should understand and be able to use mathematical formulae related to the subject. ‘The applicant should be able to read, understand and prepare sketches, simple drawings and schematics describing the subject, ‘©The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner usirg manufacturer's instructions. ‘* The applicant should be able to interpret results from various sources and measurements and apply corrective action where appropriate. 2 Module 8.3 Theory of Flight se ane sci ‘TTS Integrated Training System eee eee worthy eect © Copyright 2008® Total Training Support Table of Contents Module 8.3 Theory of Flight. Lift Augmentation Integrated Training System Introduction Flaps Leading Edge Slots Slats, ‘The Boundary Layer Siat and Slotted Flap Combination Slat and Slotted Flap Combination Wing Planforms Introduction Aspect Ratio ‘Aspect Ratio and Induced (Vortex) Drag ‘Aspect Ratio and Stalling Angle 20 Use of High Aspect Ratio, 24 ‘The Effects of Taper 24 Stall Patterns. 24 Sweepback 25 Alleviating the Tip Stall 32. Pitch-up. 33 Forward Sweep 36 Delta Wings 37 Polymorphic Aircraft 40 Canard Design. 42 ‘Summary. 42 Flight Controls. 45 Introduction 45 ‘Aerodynamic Balancing 46 Power Operated Control 48 Mass Balance 49 3-Axis Control 50 Tabs, 55 Flight Forces 59 Introduction 59 Pitching Moments 59 Climbing, Gliding and Turning 61 Turing and Manoeuvres: Points to Note 70 Basic Manoeuvres 81 Lift 81 Stalling Angle. 83 Stalling Speed 83 Multi-Engined Aireraft 83 \V-Speeds. 88 High Speed Flight 1 Introduction ot Definitions ot irflow 92 Speed of Sound 92 Shock Waves, 95 3 TTS Integrated Training System (© Copyright 2008 Module 8.3 Theory of Flight sonny be saeIntegrated Training System Wave Drag. 97 Effects of Compressibiliy on Lift 98 ‘Supersonic Fall in Cy 102 Effects of Increasing Mach No on Stability 402 Mach Trim 105 Key Points| los 4 TTS Integrated Training System © Copyright 2008 Module 8.3 Theory of Flight oecrodby he sentS Total Training Support Integrated Training System Intentionally Blank 5 f oe TS integrated raining System a eg est ek ee (© Copyright 2008Integrated Training System Module 8.3 Enabling Objectives Objective EASA 66 Reference _| Level Relationship between lift, weight, thrust and drag; 8.3 ‘ Glide ratio: Steady state flights, performance; Theory of the turn; Influence of load factor: stall, flight envelope and structural limitations; Lift augmentation: : : Fl anon i ‘TIS integrated Training System eee ea ty esa {© Copyright 2008 Sepaae die docamersIntegrated Training System AE Total Tr v Module 8.3 Theory of Flight Lift Augmentation Introduction High lift devices are incorporated on aircraft wings to reduce the distance required for take-off and landing. The distance used by an aircraft either to take off or land depends on the speed involved, and this speed in its turn is related to the stalling speed of the aircraft. An aircraft cannot approach to land at a speed below its stalling speed, therefore the higher the stalling speed the longer the distance required to complete the landing run. The same applies for take- off, the aircraft not being able to leave the ground until it has achieved flying speed, i.e. above the stalling speed, therefore the lower the stalling speed under these circumstances the less distance is required. All high lift devices produce the same effect, that is to increase the coefficient of lift of the wing. The methods used for increasing the C, are: * Flaps + Slats * Boundary layer control A flap is a hinged aerofoil section which can be mechanically lowered either from the trailing edge or the leading edge of a wing. The effect of lowering a flap is to increase the overall camber of the wing and thus increasing the coefficient of lift. Some types of flap also increase the wing area, thus augmenting the additional camber and producing even more lift. Flaps There are many different types of flap in common use and some of the more usual ones are shown below. Plain Flap. The plain flap is an aerofoil section merely hinging down from the trailing edge of the wing. aT Figure 3.1 — Plain Flap 7 le 8.3 Theory of Fi ae ee TIS integrated Training System Megne ee ween cra eee ere © Copyright 2008Integrated Training System Split Flap As Illustrated below, the split flap hinges down from the undersurface of the trailing edge. This has the advantage that the camber of the upper surface of the wing is not disturbed but, at the same time the flap will produce a considerable amount of drag. = Figure 3.2 - Split Flap Slotted Flap. One of the problems with flaps in general is that at large flap angles the air tends to separate away from the flap upper surface, thus reducing its effectiveness. This can be minimized by putting a small slot between the trailing edge of the wing and the leading edge of the flap, as illustrated below. The slot produces a venturi which speeds the air up, thus giving it more kinetic energy and enabling it to follow the contour of the flap farther rearwards before breaking away. Se Figure 3.3 - Slotted Flap Fowler Flap. The Fowler flap, in addition to moving downwards, also moves rear-wards in sections when it is lowered. Whilst increasing the camber of the wing this also enlarges the wing area, and will result in a very large increase in the coefficient of lift. It is quite usual for Fowler flaps also to have slats, and this type is illustrated below. oe Figure 3.4 — Fowler Flap i Module 8.3 Theory of Flight se ror doe TTS Integrated Training System ecm pent {© Copyright 2008Integrated Training System Krueger Flap This is a leading edge flap which increases the leading edge camber, and is illustrated in below. Figure 3.5 - Krueger Flap Leading Edge Droop In this system the entire leading edge of the wing is mechanically lowered, as shown below. This has the effect of increasing the leading edge camber. As can be imagined, the mechanism for lowering the leading edge must be extremely complicated, and this type of high lift device has not found general favour. a2 7 Co Figure 3.6 — Leading Edge Droop The increase in camber caused by the lowering of flaps produces more lift from the given wing section. If we consider straight and level flight, on lowering of flaps the greater lift will enable either the angle of attack to be reduced or the speed to be reduced. Generally speaking, a compromise is reached between these two factors and the speed is considerably reduced with a small reduction in the angle of attack. The effect of lowering flaps is not constant from zero angle down to their full deployme=’) A selection of flaps down to approximately 30° will give a very large increase in lift for a cdssparatively small penalty in drag, but further lowering, to say 60°, will not produce much increase in lift but will produce a considerable increase in drag. When considering the distance required for take-off one might first feel that the lowest speed for takeoff would give the shortest distance, the whole effect being achieved by large flap angle. Unfortunately, as already mentioned, a large flap angle incurs a very high drag penalty which reduces the acceleration of the aircraft, so you would end up with a rather long distance before you could reach the un-stick speed. A lower flap angle would give a higher un-stick speed, but, with less drag, better acceleration would be achieved. In practice, a compromise is reached between these two limits and a flap setting of somewhere in the region of 10° to 12° is used for take-off. 9 Module 8.3 Theory of Flight Sonarat oy be aloront TTS Integrated Training System [pom rs sosmont ‘® Copyright 2008Integrated Training System The distance required to land depends on the touch-down speed. The lowest speed will be given by selection of full flap, this giving the lowest stalling speed. In adcition the selection of full flap will produce a very considerable amount of drag which will assist in decelerating the aircraft on landing. Leading Edge Slots The leading edge slot, when opened, prevents the airflow from breaking away at the normal stalling angle. This allows the wing to be used at higher angles of attack, giving higher C. and so lower speeds Slot closed Slot open Figure 3.7 - Leading Edge Slot - closed and open Slats Slats aa augmentation devices that take the form of a small auxiliary aerofoil, highly cambered, adjacent to the leading edge of a wing (forming a slot), usually along the complete span. They are adjustable, control being either automatic or manual by the pilot. The effect on the C, and angle of stall may be seen on Figure 3.8, C, being increased by approximately 70%, and angle of stall by some 10°. The effect of the slat is to prolong the lift curve by delaying the stall until @@her angle of attack. When operating at (@p angles of attack the slat is genera a hil efficient because of its marked camfét. The resultant acti crocunomiory is to fldwh the marked peak of the low@¥}ssure envelope, changing it to bE with a (ie gradual gradient, as may be seen on Figure'$¥. This flattening means that the boundary layer does not undergo the sudden thigkaning due to negotiating the steep pressure gradient that existed behind the former peak, ining its energy and enabling it to pstrate almost the full chord before separating, Figure 3.10 also shows that although the pressure distribution is flatter, the area of the low pressure region is unchanged or even increased. The passage of the boundary layer over the wing is assisted by the air flowing through the slot (between slat and leading edge) accelerating through the venturi effect, thus adding to the kinetic energy and so helping it to penetrate against the adverse pressure gradient. a Module 8.3 Theory ot Flight ee TTS Integrated Training System mpage 2ef ne document © Copyright 2008Integrated Training System 2°75 With slot open . Without slot Angle of Attack Figure 3.8 — Change in stall angle with slot open Figure 3.9 — Change in stall angle with flap and slat "1 TTS Integrated Training System © Copyright 2008 Module 8.3 Theory of Flight Use ane acon ‘preety sistIntegrated Training System No Slat ‘With Slat Figure 3.10 - Slat’s effect on pressure distribution To summarize the foregoing thus far, slats have the effect of: ‘* Delaying separation until an angle of attack of 25° to 28° is attained, during which time: © Lift coefficient has increased by approximately 70%. It should be evident that the stalling speed of a slatted wing is significantly reduced, e.g. if an un-slatted wing stalls at 100 kt, its fully slatted counterpart would stall at approximately 80 kt. The exact amount of reduction depends on the length of leading edge covered by the slat, and the chord of the slat. Automatic slats are often located at the wing leading edge in front of ailerons in order to increase the stalling angle by being automatically extended when the aileron moves down. Normally the action of a down going aileron will reduce the stalling angle of the wing at that point. Slat Control Since slats are of use only at high angles of attack, some method must be used to fair the slats with the leading edge, thus precluding increased drag at normal flight configuration. If the slats are small and the drag is negligible they may be fixed, i.e. non-automatic. Large slats, however, are invariably of the automatic type. They are usually of the mechanical control, hydraulically actuated kind, their selection being mechanically matched to the selection of flap, the linkage being such that slats are extended before flap and before the speed reaches that used for approach and landing. The reverse occurs on takeoff, when sla's are fully in only after flap is up, and at the correct airspeed In the event of malfunction either of flaps or slats, it is usual to be able to ‘split’ the linkage between the two, thus isolating the inoperative control, allowing the serviceable unit to operate normally. On some aircraft the stall sensing unit may be used to extend slats only if the sensor is activated by approach to the stall angle. Figure 3.11 illustrates a typical slat segment of the kind more common to aircraft with swept back wings. 12 Module 8.3 Theory of Flight ae a dco TTS Integrates Training System eee srry esate, © Copyright 2008t Integrated Training System Figure 3.11 — Slat closed and open 13 Module 8.3 Theory of Flight el TTS letegratd Training System Smmeave nen {© Copyright 2008Integrated Training System The Boundary Layer This may be best described as the layer of air extending from the surface to the point where no drag effect is discernible, or, that region of flow in which the speed is less than 99% of the free stream flow, and it usually exists in two forms — laminar and turbulent. Figure 3.12 illustrates the boundary layer. Distance from Surface 0.7in Distance from 7 i Transition Surface O7in Poe Velocity Profile Turbulent Laminar ee Laminar Sub-Layer Figure 3.12 — Airflow within the Boundary Layer In general, the flow at the front of a body is laminar and becomes turbulent at a point some distance along the surface, known as the transition point. From Figure 3.12 it may be seen that the rate of change of velocity is greater at the surface in the turbulent flow than in the laminar. This higher rate of change of velocity results in greater surface friction drag. It can be seen that the nature of the boundary layer is a controlling factor in the determination of surface friction drag, but more important still, the nature of the boundary layer also determines the maximum lift coefficient, the stalling characteristics of a wing, the value of form drag and, to some extent, the high speed characteristics of an aircraft. The boundary layer cannot be eliminated entirely, though some measure of control of it may be afforded by wing devices, one already dealt with being LE slots, which have the effect of re- energizing the boundary layer. Others are: * Boundary layer fences to restrict the boundary layer outflow. They also check the spanwise growth of the separation ‘bubble’ along the leading edges. Boundary layer suction; suitably placed suction points draw off the weakened layer so that a new high energy layer can take its place. * Boundary layer blowing; high velocity air injected into the boundary layer to increase its eneray. * Vortex generators; these re-energise the boundary layer, and are usually positioned ahead of control surfaces. * LE extension, also known as a ‘sawtooth’ LE - restricts the outward flow of the boundary layer. if Module 8.3 Theory of Flight Se TTS iterated Training System Sunvdmccnn © Copyright 2008Integrated Training System + LE notch, has the same effect as LE extension. Siat and slotted flap Figure 3.13 — Typical slat and flap positions on a transport category aircraft 15 ie i 1S tegate Tring Sytem saree ati Sa © Copyright 2008Integrated Training System Slat and Slotted Flap Combination The combination shown on the previous page will provide a 75% increase of maximum lift with a basic aerofoil angle at max lift of 250 This will provide more control of the boundary layer with an increase of camber and wing area. The pitching moment that a trailing edge flap will produce ‘on its own, can be neutralized. Fixed leading edge cs Zs 3 \ Fron spar < o Slot setuator Slat Shown Fully Extended Figure 3.14 — Slat mechanism ms wees 30} 32 at22" 2 Max c. ¢ 2a ate2" 8 20 16 at 1s foes ogee Angle of Antack Figure 3.15 - Effect on stall angles with flaps and slots 16 Module 8.3 Theory of Flight gorse he sare ‘TTS Integrated Training System Srpoge 2a dose © Copyright 2008® Total Training Support Integrated Training System Figure 3.16 — Effect on airflow of slot 17 Module 8.3 Theory of Flight Us ri i TTS Integrated Training System eau Oy eae emote (© Copyright 2008Integrated Training System Intentionally Blank ue Module 8.3 Theory of Flight Us eee secoee ie TTS Integrated Training System rey aoe © Copyright 2008. Integrated Training System ing Suppor Wing Planforms Introduction The previous chapters have considered the basics of lift, drag and stalling, and explained the causes of these phenomena. It is however, also necessary to study another important aspect of the design of wings, i.e. the planform. The planform is the geometrical shape of the wing as viewed from above; it largely determines the amount of lift and drag obtainable from a given wing area, and has a marked effect on the value of the stalling angle of attack. This chapter is concerned mainly with the low-speed effects of various wing planforms. Aspect Ratio The aspect ratio (A) of a wing is found by dividing the square of the wing span by the area of the wing: Span® Area Ifa wing has an area of 250 square feet and a span of 30 feet, the aspect ratio is therefore 3.6. Another wing with the same span but with an area of 150 square feet would have an aspect ratio of 6. An alternative method of determining aspect ratio is by dividing the span by the mean chord of the wing. Thus, a span of 50 ft with a mean chord of 5 ft gives an aspect ratio of 10. From the preceding examples it can be seen that the smaller the area or mean chord in relation to the span, the higher is the aspect ratio. A rough idea of the performance of a wing can be obtained from knowledge of the aspect ratio. Aspect Ratio and Induced (Vortex) Drag The origin and formation of trailing edge and wing tip vortices was explained earlier and it was shown that induced downwash was the cause of induced drag. The induced drag produced by a wing is proportional to the lift generated. The amount of induced drag under a given set of conditions can be found from the formula: 2 Induced drag = SS as Ee 2 Where G. the coefficient of induced drag, and A = aspect ratio. From the formula it can be seen that induced drag Is Inversely proportional to aspect ratio. A graph showing the curves of two different aspect ratio wings plotted against CD and angle of attack is given below. 19 sane dao TIS integrated Training Systom bececachce Mesa AHL Soe {© Copyright 2008Integrated Training System 0.28 0.24 0.20 Figure 3.17 - Co variation with angle of attack (~) Aspect Ratio and Stalling Angle From the previous paragraph it can be seen that as the aspect ratio is decreased, so the induced drag is increased. It was also stated that the stall occurs when the effective angle of attack reaches the critical angle. Thus for a given aerofoil section the higher the aspect ratio, the lower is the stalling angle of attack. For a simple example, consider a wing in level flight: if there were no induced downwash (and hence no induced drag) then the wing would stall when the angle of attack reached its critical angle relative to the ‘horizontal’ total airstream past the wing. However, all wings have vortices and so induce a downward component in the direction of the total airflow; thus the lower the aspect ratio, the larger the vortices and the greater the induced downwash. The stall will therefore occur when the effective angle of attack, which now has a downward component, reaches the critical angle. In the two cases which have been considered, the stalling angle of the wing with no induced drag is the lower by, approximately, the angular degree of the induced downwash. The reduced effective angle of attack of very low aspect ratio wings can delay the stall considerably. Some delta wings have no measurable stalling angle up tc 40° or more inclination to the flight path. At this sort of angle the drag is so high that the flight path is usually inclined downwards at a steep angle to the horizontal. Apart from a rapid rate of descent, and possible loss of stability and control, such aircraft may have a shallow attitude to the horizon and this can be deceptive. The condition is called the super stall or deep stall, although the wing may in fact be far from a true stall and still be generating appreciable lift 20 Use andes TTS Integrated Training System Ute Met lal stig tare © Copyright 2008AB Total Integrated Training System uy Use of High Aspect Ratio While a high aspect ratio wing will minimize induced drag, long thin wings conversely increase weight and have relatively poor stiffness characteristics. Also the effects of vertical gusts on the airframe are aggravated by higher aspect ratio. Broadly it can be said that the lower the cruising speed of the aircraft, the higher the aspect ratios that can be usefully employed. Aircraft configurations which are developed for very high speed flight (especially supersonic flight) operate at relatively low lift coefficients and demand great aerodynamic cleanness. This usually results in the use of low aspect ratio planforms, The Effects of Taper The aspect ratio of a wing is the primary factor in determining the three-dimensional characteristics of the ordinary wing and its drag due to lift. Certain local effects, however, take place throughout the span of the wing and these are due to the distribution of area throughout the span. The typical lift distribution is arranged in some elliptical fashion. The natural distribution of lift along the span of wing provides a basis for appreciating the effect of area distribution and taper along the span. If the elliptical lift distribution is matched with a planform whose chord is distributed in an elliptical fashion (the elliptical ving), each square foot of area along the span produces exactly the same lift pressure. The elliptical wing planform then has each section of the wing working at exactly the same local lift coefficient and the induced down-flow at the wing is uniform throughout the span. In the aerodynamic sense, the elliptical wing is the most efficient planform because the uniformity of lift coefficient and downwash incurs the least induced drag for a given aspect ratio. The merit of any wing planform is then measured by the closeness with which the distribution of lift coefficient (C_) and dovnwash approach that of the elliptical planform. The effect of the elliptical planform is illustrated by the plot of the ratio of the local lift coefficient (C)) to wing coefficient (C,) against semi-span distance. The elliptical wing produces a constant value of C,/ C,_ = 1.0 throughout the span from root to tip. Thus, the local section angle of attack a and local induced angle of attack «are constant throughout the span. If the planform area distribution is anything other than elliptical it may be expected that the local section and induced angles of attack will not be constant along the span 21 lic Use andlor dlsclosure i TS igatd Trarng Sytem cored le etna ei ote (© Copyright 2008Integrated Training System 15, 05 Spanwise Lift Distribution Root Tip raper Ratio, (A) = Lia Chord Taper Ratio. (8) Root Chord Elliptical Rectangular Progression Moderate Taper High Taper, joderate Taper ae c ° ‘Sweepback Pointed Tip, =O Figure 3.18 — Lift distributions and stall propagation characteristics of different wing planforms A planform previously considered is the simple rectangular wing which has a taper ratio of 1. A characteristic of the rectangular wing is a strong vortex at the tip with local downwash behind the wing which is high at the tip and low at the root. This large non-uniformity in downwash causes similar variation in the local induced angles of attack along the span. At the tip, where high downwash exists, the local induced angle of attack is greater than the average for the wing. Since the wing angle of attack is composed of the sum of a, and a, a large, local crx 22 Module 8.3 Theory of Flight esa aces TTS Integrated Training System ‘Seapets document Copy 2008,®) Integrated Training System spport reduces the local ao , creating low local lift coefficients at the tip. The reverse is true at the root of the rectangular wing where low local downwash exists. This situation creates an induced angle of attack at the root which is less than the average for the wing, and a local section angle of attack higher than the average for the wing. The result is shown by the graph, which depicts a local coefficient at the root almost 20% greater than the wing lift coefficient. The effect of the rectangular planform may be appreciated by matching a near elliptical lift distribution with a planform with a constant chord. The chords near the tip develop less lift pressure than the root and consequently have lower section lift coefficients. The great non- uniformity of local lift coefficient along the span implies that some sections carry more than their share of the load while others carry less. Hence, for a given aspect ratio, the rectangular planform will be less efficient than the elliptical wing. For example, a rectangular wing of A = 6 would have 16% higher induced angle of attack and 5% higher induced drag than an elliptical wing of the same aspect ratio. At the other extreme of taper is the pointed wing which has a taper ratio of zero. The extremely small area at the pointed tip is not capable of holding the main tip vortex at the tip and a drastic change in downwash distribution results. The pointed wing has greatest downwash at the root and this downwash decreases towards the tip. In the immediate vicinity of the pointed tip an upwash is encountered which indicates that negative induced angles of attack exist in that area. The resulting variation of local lift coefficient shows low C; at the root and very high C; at the tip. The effect may be appreciated by realizing that the wide chords at the root produce low lift pressures while the very narrow chords towards the tip are subject to very high lift pressures. The variation of C,/ Ci, throughout the span of the wing of taper ratio = 0 is shown on the graph. ‘As with the rectangular wing, the non-uniformity of downwash and lift distribution result in the inefficiency of this planform. For example, a pointed wing of A = 6 would have 17% higher induced angle of attack and 13% higher induced drag than an elliptical wing of the same aspect ratio. Between the two extremes of taper will exist planforms of more tolerable efficiency. The variations of C;/ C, for a wing of taper ratio = 0.5 are similar to the lift distribution of the elliptical wing and the drag due to lift characteristics are nearly identical. A wing of A = 6 and taper ratio = 0.5 has only 3% higher a and 1% greater Cp; than an elliptical wing of the same aspect ratio. The elliptical wing is the ideal of the subsonic aerodynamic planform since it provides a minimum of induced drag for a given aspect ratio. However, the major objection to the elliptical planform is the extreme difficulty of mechanical layout and construction. A highly tapered plan- form is desirable from the standpoint of structural weight and stifiness, and the usual wing planform may have a taper ratio from 0.45 to 0.20. Since structural considerations are important in the development of an aeroplane, the tapered planform is a necessity for an efficient configuration. In order to preserve aerodynamic efficiency, however, the planform is tailored by wing twist and section variation to obtain as near as possible the elliptic It distribution. 23 ao ‘TIS Integrated Training System Meaie de ea) a sores tees {© Copyright 2008Integrated Training System Stall Patterns An additional outcome of planform area distribution is the stall pattern of the wing. The desirable stall pattern of any wing is one where the stall begins at the root sections first. The advantages of the root stalling first are that ailerons remain effective at high angles of attack, favourable stall warning results from the buffet on the tailplane and aft portion of the fuselage, and the loss of downwash behind the root usually provides a stable nose-down moment to the aircraft. Such a stall pattem is favoured but may, in fact, be difficult to obtain with certain wing configurations. The various planform effects are separated as follows: © The elliptical planform has constant lift coefficients throughout the span from root to tip. Such a lft distribution means that all sections will reach the stall at essentially the same. wing angle of attack and the stall will both begin and progress uniformly throughout the span. While the elliptical wing would reach high lift coefficients before an incipient stall, there would be little advance warning of a complete stall. Also, the ailerons may lack effectiveness when the wing operates near the stall and lateral control may be difficult. The lift distribution of the rectangular wing exhibits low local lift coefficients at the tip, and high local lift coefficients at the root. Since the wing will initiate the stall in the area of highest local lift coefficients, the rectangular wing is characterized by a strong root-stall tendency. This stall pattern is of course, favourable since there is adequate stall warning buffet, adequate aileron effectiveness, and usually strong stable moment changes on the aircraft. Because of the great aerodynamic and structural inefficiency of this planform, however, the rectangular wing finds limited application, chiefly to low cost, low speed, light planes. * The wing of moderate taper (taper ratio = 0.5) has a lift distribution which is similar to that of the elliptical wing. Hence the stall pattern is much the same as that of the elliptical wing © The highly tapered wing of taper ratio 0.25 shows the stalling tendency inherent with high taper. The lift distribution of such a wing has distinct peaks just inboard from the tip. Since the wing stall is started in the vicinity of the highest local lift coefficient, this plan- form has a strong ‘tip stall’ tendency. The initial stall is not started at the exact tip but at that station inboard from the tip where the highest local lift coefficients prevail ¢ The pointed tip wing of taper ratio equal to zero develops extremely high local lift coefficients at the tip. For all practical purposes the pointed tip will be stalled at any condition of lift unless extensive tailoring is applied to the wing. Such a planform has no practical application to an aircraft which is definitely subsonic in performance. Sweepback applied to a wing planform alters the lift distribution in a way similar to decreasing the taper ratio. The full significance of sweepback are discussed in the following paragraphs. 24 Module 8.3 Theory of Flight - TTS integrated Training Sytem Sas marncs S Copyaignt 2008rt Integrated Training System Sweepback Swept-back Leading Edges This type of planform is used on high speed aircraft and may take the form of a swept back wing, or of a delta with or without a tailplane. The reason for the use of these planforms is their low drag at the higher speeds. The high speed/low drag advantages are however, gained at the cost of a poorer performance at the lower end of the speed scale. Effect of Sweepback on Lift Ifa straight wing is changed to a swept planform, with similar parameters of area, aspect ratio, taper, section and washout, the Cimax is reduced, This is due to premature flow separation from the upper surface at the Wing tips. For a sweep angle of 45° the approximate reduction in Cmax is around 30%. Figure 3.19 shows typical C, curves for a straight wing, 2 simple swept back wing and a tailless delta wing of the same low aspect ratio. Lift Coefficient ‘Swept Back Wing A=2 Tailless Delta Wing A=2 4 8 12 16 20 2428 32 36 Angle of Attack Figure 3.19 — Lift curves for various levels of wing sweep The main reasons for the lowering of the C; slope is best explained by examination of the Figures 3.20 and 3.21. From the first it can be seen that the velocity V can be divided into two components V; parallel to the leading edge which has no effect on the lift, and V2normal to the leading edge which does affect the lift and is equal to V cos A. Therefore, all other factors being equal, the C, of a swept wing is reduced in the ratio of the cosine of the sweep angle. Figure 3.21 shows that an increase in fuselage geometric incidence A will only produce an increase in the angle of attack A cos A in the plane perpendicular to the wing quarter chord line. Since it has already been said that itis airflow in the latter plane which effects Ci, the full incre- ment of lift expected from the A change is reduced to that of a A cos A change. 25 Module 8.3 Theory of Flight ean cosy TTS Integrated Training System came reory of Fllg secret be en, (© Copyright 2008Integrated Training System Figure 3.20 — The effect of sweep angle on effective airflow Considering the graph of Figure 3.19, the stall occurs on all three wings at angles of attack considerably greater than those of wings of medium and high aspect ratios. On all aircraft itis desirable that the landing speed should be close to the lowest possible speed at which the aircraft can fly; to achieve this desirable minimum the wing must be at the angle of attack corresponding to the Cimae ee Module 8.3 Theory of Flight aa coon Sepoae 2 ee docemere © Copyright 2008Integrated Training System Training $ Incidence change A = in this plane Incidence change A= cos A inthit}plane Figure 3.21 - The effective incidence change when an aircraft's pitch changes

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