BiotechnologyInformation Series

Principles of Biotechnology
Biotechnology Defined Principles of Biology Except for the sequence and
number of letters in each recipe,
Biotechnology can be broadly de- All living organisms are com-posed DNA from any organism is chemi-cally
fined as using living organisms or their of cells that contain a sub-stance called and physically the same. One of the
products for commercial pur-poses. As DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) in the great scientific discoveries of
such, biotechnology has been practiced chromosomes. (See Fig.1.) The biotechnology is that DNA from any
by human society since the beginning of structure of DNA mol-ecules contains organism will function if it is trans-
recorded his-tory in such activities as information that is used by cells as a ferred into any other organism!
baking bread, brewing alcoholic recipe for the organism; that is, the
beverages, or breeding food crops or characteris-tics of any living thing Using Biotechnology to
domestic animals. essentially are determined by the Modify Plants and
information in DNA. The words for
A narrower and more specific the DNA recipe, called genes, are
Animals
definition of biotechnology is the derived from a 4-letter alphabet (A, C,
Combining DNA from different
commercial application of living or- G, T) and usually contain between 1,000
existing organisms (plants, animals,
ganisms or their products, which and 100,000 letters. The entire recipe,
insects, bacteria, etc.) results in
involves the deliberate manipula-tion of called the genome, may contain
modified organisms with a combina-tion
their DNA molecules (see glossary for between 4 million (simple bacteria) and
of traits from the parents. The sharing of
definitions of bold-print words). This 3 billion (human) letters or more.
DNA information takes place naturally
definition implies a set of laboratory
through sexual re-production and has
techniques developed within the last 20
been exploited in plant and animal
years that have been responsible for the
breeding pro-grams for many years.
tremendous scientific and commercial
interest in biotechnology, the founding
However, sexual reproduction can
of many new companies, and the
occur only between individuals of the
redirection of research efforts and
same species. A Holstein cow can be
financial re-sources among established
mated with a Hereford bull because the
compa-nies and universities.
two animals are differ-ent breeds of the
These laboratory techniques pro- same species, cattle. But trying to mate
vide scientists with a spectacular vision a cow with a horse, a different species
of animal, would not be successful.
of the design and function of living
organisms, and provide tech-nologists in
many fields with the tools to implement
exciting commer-cial applications.

All life is composed of cells that contain DNA.

Figure 1

North Central Regional

Extension Publication
NCR #487
Figure 2

Whats new since 1972 is that Products of transgenic bacteria that have received
scientists have been able to iden-tify the the appropriate human, cow, or pig
specific DNA genes for many desirable
Genetic Engineering gene. (See Fig. 2.)
traits and transfer only those genes,
usually carried on a plasmid or virus, Specific applications of genetic 2) Gene Therapy
into an-other organism. This process is engineering are abundant and The first clinical gene therapy is
called genetic engineering and the increasing rapidly in number. Genetic underway to correct an enzyme
transfer of DNA is accom-plished using engineering is being used in the deficiency called ADA in children.
either direct injec-tion or the production of pharmaceuti-cals, gene Bone marrow cells are removed,
Agrobacterium, electroporation, or therapy, and the devel-opment of defective DNA in bone marrow cells is
particle gun transformation transgenic plants and animals. supplemented with a copy of normal
techniques. It provides a method to DNA, and the repaired cells are then
transfer DNA between any living cells returned to the patients body.
plant, animal, insect, bacterial, etc. 1) Pharmaceuticals
Virtually any desirable trait found in Human drugs such as insulin for
nature can, in principle, be transferred diabetics, growth hormone for 3) Transgenic Plants
into any chosen organism. An organism individuals with pituitary dwarf-ism, Transgenic plants that are more
modified by genetic engineering is and tissue plasminogen activator for tolerant of herbicides, resistant to insect
called transgenic. heart attack victims, as well as animal or viral pests, or express modified
drugs like the growth hormones, versions of fruit or flowers have been
bovine or porcine somatotropin, are grown and tested in outdoor test plots
being produced by the fermentation of since 1987. The genes for these traits
have been
2
delivered to the plants from other hair or body fluids), or serve as a Identifying Genes
unrelated plants, bacteria, or viruses pedigree for seed or livestock One important aspect of
by genetic engineering techniques. breeds. (See Fig. 4.) genetic engineering projects is to

(See Fig. 3.)

4) Transgenic Animals
Presently, most transgenic
animals are designed to assist
researchers in the diagnosis and
treatment of human diseases. Several
companies have designed and are
testing transgenic mam-mals that
produce important pharmaceuticals in
the animals milk. Products such as
insulin, growth hormone, and tissue
plasminogen activator that are
currently produced by fermenta-tion
of transgenic bacteria may soon be
obtained by milking transgenic cows,
sheep, or goats.

Using Biotechnology in
Diagnostic Applications
Since each living creature is
unique, each has a unique DNA recipe.
Individuals within any given species,
breed, or hybrid line can usually be
identified by minor differences in their
DNA se-quencesas few as one
difference in a million letters can be
detected! Using the techniques of DNA
fingerprinting and PCR (poly-merase
chain reaction) scientists can diagnose
viral, bacterial, or fungal infections,
distinguish between closely related
individu-als, or map the locations of
specific genes along the vast length of
the DNA molecules in the cells.

Identifying Organisms
By using RFLP technology
(restriction fragment length poly-
morphism), DNA fingerprints can be
generated. Any individual organism can
be uniquely identified by its DNA
fingerprint. Conse-quently, this
fingerprint can be used to determine
family relation-ships in paternity
litigation, match organ donors with
recipients in transplant programs,
connect suspects with DNA evidence
left at the scene of a crime (in the form
of Figure 3
3
 identify the DNA gene that
controls a particular trait. In the same
way that a visitor might use the state, THE PROCESS OF DNA FINGERPRINTING
city, street, and house number to locate
a friends house, genetic engineers use
genetic maps to locate genes. The 1. The process begins with a
genetic maps are generated by blood or cell sample from which
statistical analyses, PCR, RFLP, and the DNA is extracted.
DNA sequencing. Maps are being
developed for humans, mice, swine,
cattle, corn, wheat, and other plants or
animals with commercial or research 2. The DNA is cut into fragments
impor-tance. using a restriction enzyme. The
fragments are then separated into
bands by electrophoresis through
an agarose gel.
Diagnosing Infectious Dis-eases
and Genetic Disorders
Diagnosis of infectious dis-eases is 3. The DNA band pattern is
a profound application of the new DNA transferred to a nylon membrane.
technology. Tuber-culosis, AIDS,
papillomavirus, and many other
infectious diseases, in addition to the
inherited disorders like cystic fibrosis or
sickle cell anemia, are diagnosed within 4. A radioactive DNA probe is
hours by the PCR technique rather than introduced. The DNA probe binds
days or weeks by traditional methods. to specific DNA sequqences on the
The greatly increased sensitivity and nylon membrane.
speed of the PCR technique, as
compared with traditional methods,
allows earlier intervention and 5. The excess probe material is
treatment. PCR assays will soon be washed away leving the unique
available to diagnose diseases of crops DNA band pattern.
and livestock.

6. The radioactive DNA pattern is

Summary transferred to X-ray film by direct
exposure. When developed, the
1) All living organisms are resultant visible pattern is the
composed of cells that contain DNA FINGERPRINT.
the molecule DNA. The chemi-
cal structure of DNA contains
information, based on a 4-letter
genetic code, that cells use as a
recipe for life. The functional
units of information, the words
of the recipe, are called genes. Figure 4

2) DNA from all living transfer process is called genetic cally and physically the same, the
organisms is the same, except engineering and the organisms that DNA recipe (sequence and number
for the sequence and number are produced are called transgenic. of letters) is unique to each individual.
of letters in the recipe. These different sequences account for
Therefore, traits can be trans- 3) Organisms can be the diver-sity of life observed in nature
ferred from one organism into uniquely identified by their DNA and are the basis for using DNA
another by transferring the DNA sequences. Though the DNA of all fingerprints to distinguish
genes for those traits. This organisms is chemi-
4
between any two individuals, breeds, Genetic mapthe locations of electroporation (any organism), or the
hybrids, species, etc. They are also the specific genes along a chromosome particle gun (any organism).
basis of diagnosis of viral, bacterial, or marked with probes.
fungal diseases using PCR technology. Transgenican organism that has
Genomethe entire DNA recipe for been modified by genetic engineering
an organism, found in every cell of that to contain DNA from an external
organism. source.
Glossary
Mutationa change of one of the Vectorany DNA structure that is used
Agrobacteriuma natural bacterium letters in the DNA recipe caused to transfer DNA into an organ-ism; most
that can be used to transfer DNA genes by chemicals, ultraviolet light, X-rays, commonly used are plas-mid DNA
into broadleaf plants, such as tobacco, or natural processes. vectors or viruses.
tomato, or soybean.
Particle guna gun that shoots DNA
into the cells of an organism; the most
Chromosomea cellular struc-ture
versatile of a series of procedures For Further Reading
comprised of a long, folded DNA called transformation.
molecule and protein. Bio/Technology. A monthly journal
PCRpolymerase chain reaction, devoted specifically to scientific,
DNAdeoxyribonucleic acid, the which rapidly duplicates specific DNA economic, and public policy issues in
substance within cells that carries the molecules in response to temperature biotechnology. For subscription
recipe for the organism and is changes in a com-puter-controlled information, phone 1-800-524-0328.
inherited by offspring from parents. heater.

Plasmida small, circular DNA that BiotechnologyAn Activist's

DNA fingerprintingcutting a DNA Handbook. Available from the
is used to transfer genes from one
chromosome with restriction enzymes Vermont Biotechnology Group.
organism into another.
and separating the pieces by Phone (802) 223-7222.
electrophoresis to generate a unique Probea very short piece of DNA
pattern, the fingerprint for each used to find a specific sequence of Molecular Advances in Genetic
species, breed, hybrid, or individual, letters in a very long piece of DNA Disease. Science. May 8, 1992.
depending on which enzymes and from a chromosome or genome.
probes are used. The Promise and Pitfalls of
Molecular Genetics. Science.
Electrophoresisa lab technique for Recombinant DNADNA formed July 10, 1992.
determining DNA fragment sizes by by joining pieces of DNA from two
separating them in a gel placed in an or more organisms. Scientific American. October, 1985.
electric field. Entire issue devoted to molecular
RFLPrestriction fragment length biology.
Electroporationusing an electric polymorphism, which describes the
shock to transfer DNA into the cells of patterns of different (polymorphism) Understanding DNA and Gene
an organism; one of several procedures sizes of DNA (fragment length) that Cloning by Karl Drlica. 2nd Edition.
called transfor-mation. result from cutting with restriction Wiley and Sons. 1990.
enzymes (restriction). See DNA
finger-printing above.
Genea functional unit of DNA, one
word in the DNA recipe.
Sequencethe order of letters in the
Genetic codethe information DNA recipe. The DNA sequence is Written by David F. Betsch, Ph.D.,
contained in DNA molecules that the chemical structure that contains Biotechnology Training Programs,
scientists describe on the basis of a 4- information. Inc. Edited by Glenda D. Webber,
letter alphabet (A, C, G, and T).
Iowa State University Office of
Transformationa procedure to
Genetic engineeringthe process of Biotechnology.
transfer DNA into the cells of an
transferring DNA from one organism organism. Can be done with
into another that results in a genetic
Agrobacterium (most dicots), calcium
modification; the production of a
chloride (bacteria),
transgenic organism.
5
North Central Regional Extension Publications are subject to peer review and prepared as a
part of the Cooperative Extension activities of the 13 land-grant universities of the 12
North Central States, in cooperation with the Extension Service - U.S. Department of
Agriculture, Washington, D.C. The following uni-versities cooperated in making this
publication available:
* Iowa State University 119 University of Nebraska University of Wisconsin
Printing & Publ. Bldg. Ames, Dept. of Ag. Communications Ag. Bulletin, Rm. 245
IA 50011-1050 515-294-5247 Lincoln, NE 68583-0918 30 N. Murray St.
402-472-3023 Madison, WI 53715
608-262-3346

Kansas State University North Dakota State University Lincoln University

Umberger Hall Manhattan, Ag. Comm, Box 5655, Morrill Hall 900 Moreau Drive
KS 66506 913-532-5830 Fargo, ND 58105 Jefferson City, MO 65101
701-2137-7881 314-882-2792

University of Minnesota 3 * Publishing state

Coffey Hall
St. Paul, MN 55108
612-625-8173
For copies of this and other North Central Regional Extension Publications, write to:
Publications Office, Cooperative Extension Service, in care of the University listed above
for your state. If they do not have copies or your univer-sity is not listed above, contact the
publishing university as marked with an asterisk.

Programs and activities of the cooperative Extension Service are available to all potential
clientele without regard to race, color, national origin, age, sex, religion or disability.

In cooperation with NCR Educational Materials Project

Issued in furtherance of Cooperative Extension work, Acts of Congress of May 8 and June
30, 1914, in cooperation with the U.S. Department of Agriculture and Cooperative Extension
Services of Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Michigan, Minnesota, Missouri, Nebraska, North
Dakota, Ohio, South Dakota, and Wiscon-sin. Stanley R. Johnson, Director, Cooperative
Extension Service, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa 50011.

June 1998
6