Conventional and Customary

International Aviation Law

Module 3

David Kuan-Wei Chen, McGill University

Istanbul Technical University

Air Transportation Management, M.Sc. Programme
Air Law, Regulation and Compliance Management
Kuan-Wei Chen 2015 9 February 2015
 Outline
Major principles of international air law
Sources of International Air Law
The Origins and Evolution of Conventional and
Customary International Air Law

The Role of the International Civil Aviation

Organization in Establishing Standards and
Recommended Practices

Which international aviation conventions have States

ratified, and how are they being implemented?
Major Principles of International Air Law
John Cobb Cooper, Backgrounds of International Public Air Law (1967)
1. Sovereignty over airspace.

Every State has absolute sovereignty and jurisdiction over the air space directly
above its territory (including territorial waters).

Every State has the unilateral and absolute right to permit or deny entry into the
area recognised as its territory, and a right to control all movements within such
territory.

2. Freedom over the High Seas and other areas.

Air space over the high seas, and over other parts of the Earth's surface not subject
to any State's jurisdiction, is free to the aircraft of all States.

3. Nationality of Aircraft.
Aircraft have a special relationship to a particular State.

That State determines the privileges to which such aircraft may be entitled and such
State is also reciprocally responsible for the international good conduct of such
aircraft.
Source of International Air Law
 Sources of international law
The Case of the S.S. "Lotus
France v. Turkey
Permanent Court of International Justice 1927
International law governs
relations between independent
states. The rules of law binding
upon states [are] expressed in
conventions or by usages
generally accepted as
expressing principles of law.

Statute of the International

Court of Justice (ICJ)
Article 38
 Source of International Air Law
Customary International Law

Multilateral Conventions / Treaties

ICAO Standards and Recommended Practices (SARPs)

Bilateral agreements
(e.g., traffic rights, safety, security)
Intergovernmental decisions and regulations
(e.g., European Union regulation on flight delay, Emissions Trading
Scheme etc.)
National legislation and regulation
Administrative practice and procedure
Contracts
(e.g., air carrier alliance agreements, airport agreements)
Judicial decisions and opinions
The Origins and Evolution of
Conventional and Customary
International Air Law

http://www.icao.int/secretariat/PostalHistory/the_chicago_convention.htm
 Air law began with
A hot air balloon!
On 21 November 1783, Frenchman
Jean-Franois Piltre de Rozier flew
9 km in 25 minutes over Paris.
Paris police issued a directive
prohibiting balloon flights without
prior authorisation.

Butte-
aux-
Cailles http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9d/Early_flight_02562u_%284%29.jpg
 Air law developed in peacetime
German balloons drifted over the French border and
landing in France in 1908-1909.
France responded by calling an international conference to
address the violation of airspace.
Paris International Air Navigation Conference, 8 May to 29
June 1910.

Conference produced a draft convention

addressing inter alia:
aircraft nationality and registration,
certification of aircraft (airworthiness),
crew licences, radio equipment, prohibited zones, Wright Model B, 1910-1914

cabotage
 Issues left unresolved after the
1910 Paris Conference
HOWEVER, States could not agree :

1. whether airspace should be open to all (like

the high seas) or whether States have
sovereignty over airspace
2. whether there should be right of innocent
passage or need prior authorisation

in 1911, the United Kingdom enacted

the Aerial Navigation Act,
allowing the UK to prohibit air navigation
of any area, including the coastline and
adjacent territorial waters, for the sake of
the defence or safety of the realm. http://www.zazzle.ca/lyon_france_1910_airplane_poster_round_stickers-
217136179112350071
 Air law developed
during and after wartime
War demonstrated the destructive but also valuable
power of aviation
It became clear that aviation and control of airspace
is closely linked to national security
many aircraft and pilots became available for civilian
use, potential for transportation
first commercial airlines began forming from 1909,
and first regular service began in 1919.

First Ottoman plane in 1912

http://www.turkeyswar.com/aviation/aviation.html
Goliath first commercial aircraft 1919
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henri_Farman#mediaviewer/File:Farman-goliath.jpg
 Historical development of international air law
The regulation of aviation developed largely due to the potential
impact of aviation on transportation, commerce and
national security
We were once told that the aeroplane had
abolished frontiers. Actually it is only since
1908-1909
1909 the aeroplane became a serious weapon that
Hot air balloons
floating from First commercial frontiers have become definitely impassable.
Germany into airlines George Orwell
France

World War I
1914-1918

1910 1919
Paris International Convention Relating
Air Navigation to the Regulation of
Conference Aerial Navigation
(Paris Conference) (Paris Convention)
International Commission
on Air Navigation
(ICAN)
 Convention Relating to the
Regulation of Aerial Navigation
PARIS CONVENTION 1919
Remember the Paris Conference of 1910?

.
Issue of sovereignty over airspace and right of passage unsettled

Preamble identified:

the need to establish rules of

universal application
the necessity to agree on
certain principles and rules
need to encourage the peaceful
intercourse of nations by means
of aerial communication
 Paris Convention 1919
Sovereignty
Article 1
The High Contracting Parties recognise
that every Power has complete and
exclusive sovereignty over the air space
above its territory.

Recognise hints this is a customary rule

complete and exclusive sovereignty
Territory includes territorial waters adjacent
thereto
 Paris Convention 1919
right of passage
Article 2
in time of peace States must accord freedom of
innocent passage above its territory to aircraft of
other States under the conditions laid down in
the present Convention

Prohibit aircraft for military reasons or in the interest of

public safety (Art 3)
Right of flyover without landing; fixed route; designated
aerodromes; establishment of international airways
(Art 15)
 Historical development of international air law
The regulation of aviation developed largely due to the potential
impact of aviation on transportation, commerce and national
security 1929
Aviation grew Warsaw Convention, for the
tremendously in Unification of Certain Rules
the 1920-1930s Relating to International
Carriage by Air
World War I
1914-1918 World War II
1939-1945
1944
1910 1919 International Civil
Paris International Convention Relating Aviation Conference
Air Navigation to the Regulation of (Chicago Conference)
Conference Aerial Navigation Convention on
(Paris Conference) (Paris Convention) International Civil
Aviation
International Commission on (Chicago Convention)
Air Navigation (ICAN)
International Civil Aviation
Organisation (ICAO)
 Chicago Conference 1944
Trends in aviation before the Chicago Conference

- aviation is international in scope

- States closed and controlled their airspace during WWI
- commercial importance of air transport recognised
- airports and air navigation services were recognised as key to
support a growing air transport industry

- the airline was seen as a source of national pride ( flag carrier)

- in Europe, the national carrier was a means to link overseas

colonies, thus government owned
- in the US, private companies developed, and the government
felt it was necessary to manage competition, thus government
regulated (Civil Aeronautics Board)
 Chicago Conference 1944
As the end of WWII approached:

- recognised the need to have a uniform

approach to international civil aviation
- the US emerged as the dominant
aviation power, with aircraft production
power and technological expertise
- Disagreement on the economic
regulation of air transportation
(right of entry, capacity, route, fares)
The UK proposed :
- An International Air Authority
The US proposed :
to control routes and frequencies
- Unrestricted operating rights for
and allocation of quotas
all airlines on international routes
- Multilateral freedoms of the air The New Zealand and Australia
so market forces can determine proposed:
capacities, frequencies and fares - A single international airline
providing worldwide service
 Outcome of the Chicago Conference
Convention on International Civil Aviation
(Chicago Convention)
International Air Services Transit Agreement
(1st and 2nd freedoms)
International Air Transport Agreement
(exchange of 3rd, 4th and 5th freedoms)
standard form of bilateral agreement for the exchange of air
routes
Establishment of the International Civil Aviation
Organization (ICAO)
 Chicago Convention 1944
Sovereignty
Paris Convention 1919
Article 1
The High Contracting Parties recognise that every Power has complete and
exclusive sovereignty over the air space above its territory.

Article 1
Sovereignty
The contracting States recognize that every State has complete
and exclusive sovereignty over the airspace above its territory.

Article 2
Territory
For the purposes of this Convention the territory of a State shall
be deemed to be the land areas and territorial waters adjacent
thereto under the sovereignty, suzerainty, protection or
mandate of such State.
 Chicago Convention 1944
right of passage
Non-Scheduled flights

Right of non-scheduled flights to fly into or transit across its

territory and to make stops for non-traffic purposes
(Article 5) = 1st and 2nd freedoms of the air

1st freedom of the air

transit across territory

2nd freedom of the air

Fly into territory for non-traffic purposes
(refueling, maintenance; non-
commercial service)
 Chicago Convention 1944
right of passage
Scheduled flights
Scheduled air services operated with
special permission or other authorization and
in accordance with the terms of such permission or authorization
(Article 6)
Foundation of all air transport agreements

http://www.infrastructure.gov.au/images/aviation/bilateral.jpg
 Chicago Convention 1944
right of passage
prohibited areas
Chicago Convention (Article 9) allows States to
establish prohibited areas for military or public
safety purposes.

http://www.flytandem.com/airspace.htm
 Chicago Convention
right of passage
closure of airspace
in exceptional circumstances, or during national
emergencies, State may temporarily restrict or
prohibit flights over a portion or all of its territory
(Article 9)
9.45hrs EST, FAA closes US airspace

9.06AM: 3875 flights 12.06hrs: 554 flights

 Sovereignty and air space
Air Defense Identification Zones (ADIZ)

A number of States have established ADIZ,

requiring aircraft to provide identification and
location BEFORE entering air space.
Established claim based on right to self-defence
 Sovereignty and air space
Air Defense Identification Zones (ADIZ)
In November 2013, China claimed a large section of the
East China Sea
China requests ALL flights to provide flight plan and
other information, and reserves right to take action
against aircraft
Overlapping with ADIZ of Japan and South Korea
Strong protests by Japan, South Korea, US and Australia
 Other concepts of sovereignty
UN Convention on the Law of the Sea 1982
(UNCLOS)
State has regulation of Complete freedom of navigation and overflight
territorial sea (UNCLOS Art 58 and 87; Chicago Convention Art 12)
Sovereignty extends to UNCLOS, Article 87:
airspace over territorial 1. The high seas are open to all States... Freedom of the
sea (UNCLOS Art 2(3)) high seascomprises, inter alia,
innocent passage for (a) freedom of navigation;
maritime vessels but (b) freedom of overflight;
NOT for aircraft

http://www.unescobkk.org
 Other concepts of sovereignty
Antarctic Treaty 1959
Several States had claimed sovereignty
over Antarctica
The Antarctic Treaty suspended new
territorial claims
Flights over Antarctica treated as over
high seas
Article IV (2): No new claim, or
enlargement of an existing claim, to
territorial sovereignty in Antarctica
shall be asserted while the present treaty
is in force.
 Other concepts of sovereignty
Outer Space Treaty 1967
outer space shall be free for exploration
and use by all States; (Article I)
outer space is not subject to national
appropriation by claim of sovereignty,
by means of use or occupation, or by
any other means; (Article II)
the Moon and other celestial bodies
shall be used exclusively for
peaceful purposes; (Article IV)
 Chicago Convention
registration and nationality of aircraft
Every aircraft has nationality of the State
they are registered in (Article 17)
Must bear the nationality and registration
marks (Article 20)

http://www.aeroinside.com/item/4424/thy-b739-at-istanbul-on-jul-28th-2014-bird-
strike
 Chicago Convention
registration and nationality of aircraft
States must make sure aircraft flying over their territory
or carrying their nationality mark comply with the rules
and regulations governing flight (Article 12)
State must provide certificate of airworthiness,
certificates of competency and licenses for pilots and
flight crew (Article 31-32)

basis for the intervention and

protection by a State; it is also a
protection for other States for the
redress of wrongs committed by those
on board against their nationals
John Cobb Cooper
 Outcome of the Chicago Conference
Convention on International Civil Aviation
(Chicago Convention)
International Air Services Transit Agreement
(1st and 2nd freedoms)
International Air Transport Agreement
(exchange of 3rd, 4th and 5th freedoms)
standard form of bilateral agreement for the exchange of air
routes
Establishment of the International Civil Aviation
Organization (ICAO)
 Chicago Convention
establishment of ICAO
Chicago Convention not only source of
international air law, but also constitution of
the International Civil Aviation
Organization
Specialised agency of the United Nations,
with 191 Member States
ASSEMBLY
ICAO Assembly
SECRETARY-
COUNCIL GENERAL

PRESIDENT
Air Navigation Bureau

Air Transport Bureau

Air Navigation Commission
Legal Affairs & External Relations
Air Transport Committee Bureau

Personnel Committee Technical Cooperation Bureau

Bureau of Administration
Technical Cooperation Committee
and Services
Committee on Unlawful Interference

Finance Committee

Committee on Joint Support

of Air Navigation Services
ICAO headquarters in Montreal, Canada
 Chicago Convention
ICAOs objectives (Article 44)
Ensure the safe and orderly growth of international civil
aviation throughout the world.
Encourage the development of airways, airports and air
navigation facilities for international civil aviation.
Meet the needs of the people of the world for safe, regular,
efficient and economical air transport.
Ensure that the rights of the Contracting States are fully
respected ...
Avoid discrimination between Contracting States.

Promote generally the development of all aspects of

international civil aeronautics (catch-all mandate of ICAO)
 Chicago Convention
ICAOs objectives (Article 44)

Promote generally the development of all aspects of

international civil aeronautics (catch-all mandate of
ICAO)

Liability of
Environmental Security
concerns air transport
Security in the air
Noise Emissions Air carrier liability
Threats to aviation
 Source of International Air Law

Customary International Law

Multilateral Conventions / Treaties

ICAO Standards and Recommended

Practices (SARPs)
 ICAO Standards and Recommended Practices
(SARPs)
Chicago Convention gives ICAO power to adopt
measures to achieve ICAOs objectives of guaranteeing
safe, regular, efficient and economical air transport
uniformity and harmonise rules in air transportation
Article 37: international standards and recommended
practices (SARPs) dealing with: communications,
airports, rules of the air, registration and identification
etc. etc.
ICAO SARPs Adopted by the
ICAO Council
(Article 54)
Assisted to
develop SARPs
by:

Air Navigation
Commission in
technical matters,

Air Transport
Committee on
economic matters

Committee on
Unlawful
Interference on
aviation security
matters.
 SARPs as a source of international air law
SARPs describe the minimum requirement for international
aviation

States must ensure that their national laws are uniform to the
greatest possible extent with SARPs (Article 12)

States must collaborate to make sure their domestic law,

regulations and procedures reach the highest practicable degree
of uniformity" with SARPs (Article 37)

But, if a State finds it impracticable to comply, they can notify

ICAO and their practices can differ from SARPs (Article 38)

SARPs are binding on ALL flights over the high seas (Article 12)
 Source of International Air Law

Customary International Law

Multilateral Conventions / Treaties

ICAO Standards and Recommended

Practices (SARPs)
 Multilateral Conventions / Treaties
Security
Tokyo Convention of 1963 (addressing offenses on board aircraft)
Hague Convention of 1970 (addressing aircraft hijacking)
Montreal Convention of 1971 (addressing aircraft and air navigation security)
Beijing Convention and Protocol of 2010 (addressing aviation security)
Montreal Protocol of 2014 (amending the Tokyo Convention)

Air carrier liability

Warsaw Convention of 1929 (addressing carrier liability to passengers and shippers)
Rome Convention of 1933 (addressing aircraft operator liability for surface damage)
Geneva Convention of 1948 (addressing aircraft registration)
Rome Convention of 1952 (addressing aircraft operator liability for surface damage)
Montreal Protocols of 1975 (amending the Warsaw Convention)
Montreal Convention of 1999 (addressing carrier liability to passengers and cargo)

financial interests in aircraft

Cape Town Convention of 2001 (addressing financial interests in aircraft)
 Conclusion
There are different sources of (international) air law
Major principles of air law are:
1. Sovereignty over airspace
2. Freedom over the High Seas and other areas.
3. Nationality of Aircraft.

War and security concerns shaped the development of air

law
Paris and Chicago Conventions contain important
provisions on airspace sovereignty and nationality of
aircraft
Chicago Convention provided the legal foundation for
adopting Standards and Recommended Practices (SARPs)
There are various other conventions dealing with issues of
security, liability and financial interest in aircraft