J. K i n g Saud U n i v . , V o l . 9, A r c h . & P l a n n i n g , p p . 1-30 ( A . H .

1417/1997)

A Typology of Building Forms

Mohammed H. Ibrahim
Associate Professor, Department of Planning & Urban Studies
College of Architecture & Planning, King Saud University
Riyadh, Saudi Arabia

( R e c e i v e d 5/1/1416 A . H . ; a c c e p t e d for publication 25/6/1417 A H . )

Abstract. B u i l d i n g s are u s u a l l y classified a c c o r d i n g to their function, structural s y s t e m or b u i l d i n g m a t e r i a l s .

A classification of b u i l d i n g s a c c o r d i n g to their forms h a s n o t r e c e i v e d sufficient attention. This is partly d u e to
t h e e x t r e m e difficulty of s u c h a task. All the few attempts that h a v e b e e n m a d e to classify buildings a c c o r d i n g
to their form, suffer from serious s h o r t c o m i n g s . In this p r e s e n t attempt, I h a v e found it n e c e s s a r y to study b o t h
t h e abstract forms of buildings a n d t h e types of their exterior surfaces, in order to arrive at a m e a n i n g f u l
classification s c h e m e f o r b u i l d i n g f o r m s . A m a t r i x o f 8 types o f forms a n d 1 2 types o f surfaces results into 96
p o s s i b l e b u i l d i n g f o r m s . C u r r e n t l y there m a y n o t exist e x a m p l e s o f e v e r y different p o s s i b l e form, b u t t h e
classification s c h e m e p r o v i d e s a useful f r a m e w o r k for s t u d y i n g b u i l d i n g forms that c o u l d be useful for students
a n d practitioners of architectural design.

Introduction

Buildings have been classified in many different ways, depending on the nature of the
study, and the purpose of the classification. In building type studies, for example,
buildings are classified according to their functions. The purpose of building type studies
is to compare the methods by which different architects have responded to similar client
needs (building task), under different economic, social, technical and site constraints.
Hospitals are studied together, and so are schools, houses, office buildings, stadiums and
so on. The differences in the design approach among the designers can be very
instructive.

Students of structure, on the other hand, classify buildings according to their structural
systems, differentiating between load bearing wall systems, post and beam construction,
2 Mohammed H. Ibrahim

cable structures, thin shell structures, etc. Similarly, those interested in the mechanical
aspects of buildings could possibly classify them according to the type of
air-conditioning system used. Architectural historians have found it useful to classify
buildings according to 'stylesi i.e., common physical characteristics that tend to
predominate in certain regions, during particular historical periods. A typical historical
classification of buildings may include for example: Ancient Near Eastern, Greek,
Roman, Early Christian, Byzantine, Islamic, Romanesque, Gothic, Renaissance, and
Modern. Each one of these may be further classified into a number of secondary styles
to take account of the large degree of variation within each style.

All of these classification methods are very valuable for the understanding of different
aspects of architecture. However, one aspect that has not received its full share of
attention from architectural theoreticians is the aesthetics of building appearance and the
visual impact a building has on the observer. Architectural form has been discussed by
countless architectural theoreticians, from the Roman times until the present. However,
no systematic effort has been made, to my knowledge, to classify buildings primarily
according to their visual impact on the outside observer.

A reasonable question could be posed in this regard: What is the usefulness of

building form classification scheme that could justify such efforts? One obvious benefit
would be to expose the readers, whether they are students or practicing architects, to the
full variety of building forms that they could consider while designing their buildings. A
systematic exposure would help them consider additional alternatives to the ones they
are habituated to use through force of habit or lack of exposure. As in the case with all
scientific inquiry, breaking down a complex phenomenon into a number of components
is of great value for understanding the phenomenon. Hence, classifying building forms
will certainly be a useful tool for analyzing building forms and understanding the various
factors that differentiate one building form from another.

In this paper we shall first review the literature related to form classification. Next we
shall discuss the concept of form complexity and the factors that contribute to form
complexity. Building form is discussed next and the factors affecting complexity of
building form: surface factors and form factors. Finally, we shall construct the
proposed classification of building form based on the interaction of surface factors and
form factors.

Review of Literature

Many authors have written on architectural aesthetics and architectural form. Some of
the well known writers who discussed architectural form include the Roman theorist
Vitruvius [1] who in 40 BC wrote the first surviving work on architectural aesthetics,
Alberti [2] who lived during the Renaissance period and was greatly influenced by
Vitruvius, Ruskin [3] whose work appeared in the middle of the 19th century. Among
 A Topology of Building Forms 3

modern authors one can point out Scott [4], Zevi [5], Arnheim [6], Rasmussen [7],
Gauldie [8], Scrutonl [9], to name only a few. Most books on architectural aesthetics
tend to be commentaries on various visual aspects of architecture, such as scale and
proportion, rhythm, texture, light and color and the effect of projections and cavities.
Architectural form is usually discussed in relation to these elements.

On the other hand, very few authors have attempted to arrive at a typology of building
forms. The few authors who wrote on the subject tended to concentrate on abstract form,
that is, the form of any three dimensional object regardless of the material it is made of or
the uses it is put to. Buildings, however, have much more complicated forms because of
the variety of building materials used and the different ways of combing them and
because building form classification is due to many reasons, most important of which is
the extreme complexity of the subject matter. It is very difficult to devise a classification
scheme in which any building, from a simple shelter to an intricate multistory building,
can be logically and easily categorized purely from a visual point of view.

One notable illustration is Ching [10] who attempted a rather elaborate form
classification scheme. He differentiates between regular and irregular forms and later
classifies architectural form into three main categories: platonic solids, additive forms,
and subtractive forms. Platonic solids are simple shapes such as the sphere, the cylinder,
the cone, the pyramid, and the cube. Additive forms result from adding simple forms
together, while subtractive forms are regular forms from which parts have been taken
out. He further breaks down additive forms into five categories: (1) centralized forms
which erequirei the visual dominance of geometrically regular, centrally located forms
such as sphere, cylinder, or polyhedron, (2) linear forms which are a series of forms
arranged along a line; (3) radial forms which are linear forms that extend from a
centrally located core element in a radiating manner; (4) clustered forms which are a
group of forms attached together in different ways; and (5) grid forms which are
repetitions of identical forms along a grid plan.

While the above classification scheme is useful as a general outline, it is not refined
enough to take into account the significant differences among the variety of building
forms covered by each of the above categories. The effect of surface treatment on the
over all appearance of buildings is not given sufficient consideration in this scheme. In
addition this scheme is not exhaustive, i.e. many building forms are not included in this
classification. For example, a building such as a Pompidou Center would not fit into any
of the categories of this scheme. Furthermore, Chingis classification scheme seems to be
based on the horizontal projection of the building (floor plan), while the visual impact of
a building on the viewer is not strongly linked to its floor plan, since an observer can see
only a portion of the exterior mass of the building at any one moment. A passerby will
probably be unable to tell whether a building has a eclustered formi or a 'centralized
form.'
4 Mohammed H. Ibrahim

Martinssen [11] classified buildings into the following categories:

1. The cave, e.g. Egyptian temples carved in rock hill-sides,
2. The crystal, e.g. monuments such as the Egyptian pyramid and the Greek Doric temple,
3. Tunnel and tube, e.g., Romanesque churches,
4. The post (e.g. towers) and the pit (e.g. wells, graves)
5. The box and the cage (most buildings are boxes. They could be cylindrical or
polygonal sided, or in fact any convenient geometrical form or combinations of
forms, but the interior shape must be deduced from the exterior appearance, p. 67)
6. Cages, (a Greek temple is a box within a cage).
7. The hive (free form enclosure such as huts, domed churches) and honeycomb
(modern buildings with repetitive units),
8. The cell and cluster (non-geometric design, e.g. Ronchamp chapel).
9. Scaffold and skeleton, e.g. gothic churches.
10. Bridges (.e.g. Ponte Vecchio in Venice) and barricades (fortresses, prisons,
monasteries).
11. The tent and the canopy, e.g., geodesic hemisphere, tents, timber-vaulted churches,
hangers and sport stadiums.

This classification also does not appear to be systematic. Many different categories of
building are grouped under the heading Box, while the same building (Doric temple, for
example) is classified simultaneously as a cage and a crystal.

A more recent attempt at the classification of building form is offered by Krier [12].
He starts from 18 basic forms (Fig. 1) which results from the intersection of three
primary building types and six primary architectural forms. He then subjects these
forms to 5 operations to arrive at 90 different forms. These operations are (1) kinking,
bending, (2) dividing and breaking, (3) segmentation, fragmentation (Fig. 2), (4)
addition, stringing together, accumulation, stacking, layering, and (5) penetration,
superimposition, interweaving. As in the previous classification schemes, the main
concern here seems to be the layout of the building and not the visual impact of the
building on the outside observer. This is evident from the sketches which Krier uses to
illustrate the different types of building forms. Forms Al and CI in Fig. 2, for example,
are likely to be seen as similar forms by an outsider who does not see the interior layout
of the building. The same observation can be said of forms A3 and C3, A5 and C5. It
seems that Krier uses ebuilding formf to mean building internal layout.

Theories of perception would seem to be relevant to the study of factors that affect the
way we see different forms. There are many theories of perception, perhaps the most
relevant for the perception of architectural form is the Gestalt theory. Norberg-Schulz
[13] work is an attempt to apply Gestalt theory to the perception of architectural form. It
suffices to say Gestalt theory emphasizes pattern recognition, as a full exposition of this
theory is beyond our concern here. Commenting on the speculative nature of perception
 A Topology of Building Forms 5

Fig. 1. Theoretical examples of primary building types, according to Krier [12, p. 56].
 Mohammed H. Ibrahim

Primary architectural forms adaptations from the square, triangle and circle

Solid wall Skeletal Mixed

construction construction construction

Fig. 2. Theoretical examples of building fragments, according to Krier [12, p. 62].

 A Topology of Building Forms 7

theories Lang [14] writes that ithe coexistence of contradictory theories of perception
shows the conjectural nature of our understanding of the perceptual processes. There
are, however, a number of matters on which there is agreement. Perception is
multimodal; movement plays a major part in environmental perception; we learn to
differentiate finer details and broader classes of environmental phenomena with
experience; the Gestalt llawst of visual organization may not be the basis of perception,
but they may well be ways in which we order the environment; the Gestalt concepts of
efield forcesi and eisomorphismi and thus the architectural concepts of the universality
of eexpressivenessi of lines and planes are open to serious question, and the way in
which we look at the environment depends on our purposes and experience.! In
summary, theories of perception as they exist now have some relevance to perception of
building form but they are by no means definitive and easy to apply.

Complexity of Form

Before examining building form, we can arrive at some useful observations regarding
abstract form, particularly the factors that affect its complexity. Complexity of form
refers to the difficulty of comprehension of the form as perceived by the average
observer. It is affected by two main factors: (a) the degree of the observeris familiarity
with the form, and (b) the amount of visual information a form presents to him or her. A
cube might appear to most observers as being less complex than a tetrahedron (triangular
pyramid), even though it has more surfaces and therefore more lines and vertices than a
tetrahedron. This is because people interact more with boxes than with pyramid-shapes
in their daily life. The difficulty of comprehending a form, on the other hand, increases
with the increase in the amount of visual information that it presents to the observer.
When people are equally familiar with two forms, the one that presents more visual
information (.i.e., greater number of surfaces, lines, vertices, textures, colors, details)
will require from them greater mental effort for it to be comprehended.

We can group the factors that affect the complexity of abstract form into two main
categories: factors relating to the two dimensional aspects of form (i.e., qualities of its
surfaces), and factors relating to the three-dimensional aspect of the form (i.e. the way it
occupies space).

Two dimensional factors

The two dimensional factors affecting complexity of the form include the degree of
flatness of the surfaces that make up the form, the amount of visual information (details,
patterns, colors, textures) that is present in these surfaces, and the degree of similarity
among the surfaces of the form.

The degree of flatness of the surfaces

A flat surface is generally simpler than a curving one, all other factors being equal.
This is because it is easier to see a flat surface than a curving one. Also the play of light
8 Mohammed H. Ibrahim

and shade on a curving surface is likely to be more intricate than that on a flat surface.
Curvature increases the amount of interest that a surface presents to the observer,
making it more complex than a flat surface. In addition, a surface with many projections
and/or voids will present more visual information to the viewer than a flat surface.

Surface details, patterns, colors and textures

A sphere whose surface is decorated with some geometric pattern, will appear to be
more complex than a sphere painted in one color with no decoration. Color can add
interest to a surface. Thus, the larger the number of colors present in a surface, the
greater the visual stimulation it offers and the more complex the form is. Similarly, a
textured surface will contain more visual information than a smooth surface and will
therefore appear more complex.

The degree of similarity among the surfaces of a form

Suppose we have two forms, one with identical sides and one with different sides.
The form with identical sides will appear less complex since it offers less visual
information and requires less mental effort to comprehend the form.

Three dimensional factors

The three dimensional factors affecting the complexity of form relate to the number of
surfaces that a form has, the number of identifiable sub-forms present in the form, their
individual complexity and the manner in which sub-forms are combined.

The number of surfaces in the form envelope

The greater the number of surfaces in fortius envelope, the greater the amount of
information it offers to the observer. The number of surfaces also affects the number of
edges (lines where surfaces meet) and vertices (points where lines intersect). As such,
the more surfaces a form has, the more visual information it contains, and the more
complex it becomes.

The number and complexity of sub-forms

When we have two forms in proximity but physically separated by space, we shall
consider them two distinct forms. However, when they are physically combined, they
form a single form, consisting of two sub-forms. A form becomes more complex as the
number of its sub-forms increases. Similarly, the complexity of the form increases with
the complexity of its individual sub-forms.

Methods of combining sub-forms

The cube and the cylinder, for example, can be combined in many different ways.
They can share a point, a line, or a plane, or a volume (becoming interlocked). Each of
these combinations affects the complexity of the form in a different way. In addition,
interlocking of forms can be done in so many different ways, each having a different
impact concerning the overall complexity of the form. If the major axes of the two
 A Topology of Building Forms 9

sub-forms are parallel the level of the complexity is slightly lower than it would be if
they are not. The magnitude of interlocking is another factor. The greater the volume
shared by the two sub forms, the less identifiable they become, until a point is reached
where the resulting form cannot easily be traced back to its original sub-forms. A form
of this type is difficult for the observer to relate to his mental repertoire of forms and is
therefore perceived to be complex.

Complexity of building form

Letis turn now to the more specific topic of building form. In addition to the factors
outlined above which affect the complexity of any form, there are specific factors that
affect the complexity of building form. They relate to the delineation of outside space
and inside space. Before we dwell on these factors, however, we shall first define what
we mean by ebuildingi. A building is a structure whose primary function is to provide
shelter from the elements for humans or for their properties, regardless of the functions
that actually take place inside. For our purposes, a building must have some part of it
visible above ground. This excludes a shelter that is totally underground. To simplify
our task, we shall also exclude buildings whose shape is meant to resemble a specific
object for advertising or anecdotal purposes, such as buildings in the shape of shoes or
hamburgers and the like.

Up to now, we have been considering abstract forms whose visible envelope is made
of solid two dimensional surfaces. Building envelopes, however, are rarely completely
solid, since they must contain openings for lighting and ventilation. Even in cases where
the windows are inoperable, natural light from outside the building penetrates it through
the glazing. There is a certain degree of spatial inter-penetration between a building and
the space surrounding it. The greater the inter-penetration of inside and outside space
the more difficult it is to perceive the form. The boundaries between the building and
the outside can be blurred in many ways. The factors that influence the delineation of
outside space and the spaces contained by the building envelope are numerous. They
include: the degree of physical enclosure, the amount of glazing and the degree of
transparency of glass, wall recessions and projections, and the use of non-enclosing
elements as a building envelope.

The degree of physical enclosure

Buildings come in a wide range of physical enclosure. On one extreme there are
buildings with no walls at all. An example of this type is Pilgrims Terminal at King
Abdulaziz Airport in Jeddah (Fig. 3). Here, the roof is the only space defining element.
Other examples include shaded car parks and green markets. Some buildings have walls
on three sides only; one side (or more) is left without a wall. Sport stadiums belong to
this group and so do many bus shelters. One can also mention enclosures, such as cattle
enclosures, that have walls but do not have a roof. Most buildings, however, are roofed
and fully enclosed from all sides.
10 Mohammed H. Ibrahim

Fig. 3. Haj Terminal, King Abdulaziz Airport by SOM [21].

The amount of glazing, and the degree of transparency of glass

Unlike other building materials, glass allows light rays to penetrate it, thus permitting
people outside a building to see through the glass wall into the inside of the building and
vice versa. This inter-penetration has a profound effect on the visual impression a
building leaves on the outside observer. The degree of visual inter-penetration depends
on the ratio of glass areas to the total area in the walls, the level of transparency of the
glass used, and the difference in lighting level between the inside and the outside of the
building, as well as the presence of curtains, screens and shading devices in the walls.

Wall recessions and projections

Sometime the walls of a building are partially projected or recessed to add interest to
the exterior of the building. The lower floor of some buildings is recessed to provide
some protection to the passerby from the elements. The necessity of supporting the
upper floors requires, in some cases, the existence of a colonnade in the ground floor.
The columns of the colonnade offer a partial definition of ioutsidei and iinsidei space.

Non-enclosing elements as a buildingis envelope

There are buildings, whose visible envelope is not made up of planes. One notable
example is the Pompidou Center in Paris. Here, the visible envelope is dominated by
linear elements such as pipes, struts, conduits, and the like. In some buildings the visible
envelope is dominated by free standing planes that do not contribute to enclosing spaces.
They are like a freestanding sculpture.
 A Topology of Building Forms 11

Typology of building forms

It can be argued that building form results from the interaction of two main factors. The
first factor is the overall three dimensional form of the building (i.e. whether it is a eboxi
or a cylinder or a combination of the two, for example). The second factor is the type of
building envelope, i.e., enclosing surfaces that separated the inside from the outside and
define the form (if the walls are solid or in relief, glazed, textured, etc.). These two factors
are responsible for creating the overall visual impact that a building has on the observer.
Therefore, by studying the interaction of form and building envelope we can arrive at a
reasonable typology of building forms. In section 5.1 we shall attempt to classify building
envelope types, then in section 5.2 we will study types of form and finally in section 6 we
will try to synthesize the two and arrive to a typology of building form.

Types of building envelopes

A buildingis envelope is usually composed of the roof, the walls and the floor. The
floor is normally hidden from the eyes of the outside observer except in the buildings
that are raised on stilts from the ground. Similarly, the roofs of many buildings are not
visible to the passerby. Hence, in the majority of buildings, the walls are visually the
most dominant part of the building envelope.

We can classify building envelopes into two main types: wall dominated and roof
dominated. The first type is the most common. In this type of building envelope (e.g.
buildings with flat roofs), the walls are the most visible part of the building. The roof
does not play a significant role in the overall visual impact of the building because it is
partially or completely hidden from the sight of the passerby below. A building can
have all its walls of the same character or it can have walls of different characters. Of
course, the larger the number of walls types that a building has, the more complex its
building envelopes becomes.

In the second type, the roof dominates the building and is visually prominent. Here,
we can distinguish three different cases. In the first one, the building has no walls at all
(e.g., canopies such as the Hajj terminal in Jeddah airport). In the\secbnd case the
building is partially enclosed either because there are no walls in one or more of the
building facades or because the walls do not reach all the way to the ceiling (Fig. 4). In
the third case the building is fully enclosed but the roof is visually very dominant
because it is huge in comparison with the walls, largely projects over the walls and/or if
more elaborately detailed than the walls (Fig. 5).

Walls can be classified into five main categories with regard to their exterior
appearance: (1) solid walls, (2) transparent walls (usually built of glass or other
transparent materials, (3) recessed walls, composed of surfaces at different levels, some
recessed in relation to others, (4) walls dominated by non-enclosing elements, and (5)
composite walls (composed of two or more of the above wall types). Chart 1 summarizes
types of building envelopes while the following sections explain walls types.
Fig. 5. An example of roof dominated building, fu.l enclosure: Sharja (UAE) Post Office bui.ding.
 A Topology of Building Forms 13

Chart 1: Envelope types

1- Wall dominated
1-1- Solid
1-1- Flat
1-1-1- Plain
1-1-2- Textured
1-2- Relief
1-2- Recessed planes
1-3- Transparent
1-4- Dominated by non-enclosing elements
1-5- Composites
1-5-1- Solid/Glass
1-5-2- Solid flat/Solid relief
1-5-3 Solid flat plain/Solid flat textured
2- Roof dominated
2-1- No walls
2-2- Partial enclosure
2-3- Complete enclosure

Solid walls
A large majority of buildings have a simple interface with the surrounding space.
They have perpendicular walls with few openings for windows and little or no recessions
or projections. These buildings have flat walls. A flat wall could be plain if it does not
contain much surface ornament or it could be textured, if it contains ornaments whether
in the form of painted, patterned, or inscribed patterns. What differentiates a patterned
wall from a plain wall is the existence of greater amount of visual stimulation in the wall
surface. We can distinguish three different sources of surface visual stimulation: (a)
shade/light patterns produced by small projections and recesses as in the case of stone
walls and brick walls, (b) patterns produced by edges and textures that do not project
much from the wall, such as window frames, structural elements, brick and stone
courses, and textures of different materials, (c) decorative patterns painted on the surface
deliberately to provide visual stimulation.

When the textural treatment of the wall involves projections and recessions that create
a relief we have a different effect from that produced by a textured wall. In this case we
shall describe the type of wall as relief wall. Projections and/or recessions must be of
minimum magnitude before a wall is perceived as a relief wall. Naturally, the
proportion of the projections or recessions to the area of the wall is an important factor.
It determines when projections and/or recessions of a certain magnitude cease to appear
as a two-dimensional pattern and begin to take as a three-dimensional relief pattern. A
20 cm projection on the surface of 20 sq. meter wall is likely to be more noticeable than
the same projection on 200 sq. meter wall.
14 Mohammed H. Ibrahim

Recessed walls
As the name implies, in this type of walls, the wall is an elevation is made up of
several planes at different levels. This could be because some floors are projecting
beyond others. Walls of the same floor can also be located al different levels because of
functional or aesthetic reasons. An example of recessed walls is shown in Fig. 6.

Fig. 6. The Mausoleum of King Hassan II in Rabat, Morocco, an example of recessed walls.

Transparent walls
Glass walls usually look rather opaque from the outside during daytime. At night,
however, they assume the appearance of a transparent wall when lit from the inside.
During daytime they have a smooth reflective surface that reflects nearby buildings and
could offer a glimpse of what is happening inside. At day or night transparent walls offer
to the observer a different feel than that of solid walls.

Walls dominated by non-enclosing elements

In this case the wall itself is not clearly seen since it is covered from the outside with
many non-enclosing elements in the form of lines or planes that do not enclose space.
Non-enclosing elements could be structural members such as columns or beams (Fig. 7),
mechanical fixtures such as pipes or conduits (Fig. 8), or purely ornamental elements that
have no specific functions other than decoration (Fig. 9).

Composite walls
A composite wall is made up of different types of walls. Many combinations are
theoretically possible. However, the most important combinations are the following:
 A Topology of Building Forms

dominated by structural non-enclosing elements.

Fig. 8. The Pompidou Center in Paris by Richard Rogers and Ren/.o Piano, a wall dominated by
non-enclosing elements (mechanical and structural) [16, p. 375].
16 Mohammed H. Ibrahim

Fig. 9. A Buddhist Temple in Tokyo. The wall of the tower is dominated by the horizontal lines of the
multiple roofs whose main function is ornament.

A) Solid/glass: parts of the wall are glazed other are solid (Fig. 10)
B) Solid Rat/solid relief (Fig. 11)
C) Solid flat plain/solid flat textured.

This wall exploits the aesthetic qualities of the contrast between plain wall and
textured wall. Traditional Moroccan architecture takes great advantage of this contrast.
(Fig. 12)

Types of form
We can classify forms into four main categories: rectilinear form, curvilinear form,
composite form, and organic form. Rectilinear form can be further subdivided into single,
multiple and combined. Curvilinear forms can also be classified into three similar
categories. Composite form, on the other hand, can be one of several possible combinations.
Chart 2 shows the different types of forms, while the following sections explain Ihem.
 A Topology of Building Forms 17

Fig. 11. A commercial building in Frankfurt, Germany. This is an example of a relief wall, where flat
areas are contrasted with projections or cavities.
18 Mohammed H. Ibrahim

Fig. 12. An example of a wall design utilizing contrast between plain and textured walls.

Chart 2. Form types

1. Rectilinear
1.1 Single
1.1.1 Simple
1.1.2 Modified
1.2 Multiple
1.3 Combined
2. Curvilinear (convex, concave or both)
2.1 Single (sphere)
2 . 2 Multiple
3. Organic forms
4. Composite rectilinear/curvilinear

Rectilinear forms
The most salient characteristic of rectilinear form is its flat surfaces, flat in the sense of
not-curving. Generally, rectilinear forms are regular forms. Regular forms can be
generated by extending or rotating a regular shape such as a triangle, a rectangle or a square
or other polygons. A triangle is a regular shape; therefore, a form extruded from a triangle
such as a triangular prism (e.g.. King Faisal Charity Foundation, Fig. 10) or a pyramid is a
rectilinear form. Rectilinear forms can be classified into single, multiple and combined.

Single rectilinear forms

Single rectilinear forms, as the name implies, are composed of one single mass, such
 A Topology of Building Forms 19

as a cube or a box. In some cases a single form is slightly modified to add interest to the
form; one corner could be slashed, a roof overhang is added, the lower floor is recessed
or extended and so on. In all of these cases and others the identity of the single form is
retained despite the modifications. These forms are modified forms. The unmodified
forms can be denoted as simple forms.

Single forms are easier to comprehend by the observer, especially if they are simple
shapes. On the other hand a simple shape whose surfaces offer little to engage the eye
can be rather boring. Glass box buildings are a prime example of this type of building.

Multiple rectilinear forms

This type of form is a collection of single forms that share one or more planes, (e.g.,
King Saud University buildings (Fig. 13). They can also be interlocked (sharing
volume) as is the case in Habitat, the housing units designed by Moshe Safdie for Expo
67 in Montreal, Canada (Fig. 14).

Combined form
In a form of this type we have a central form appended to which are a number of
forms. These forms are added together in an irregular fashion, without a clear
relationship between the axis of these forms such as being parallel or perpendicular. The
identity of the original form is obscured by the appended forms, to the point that the
resulting form is not easily recognized. The resulting form has an irregular form,
irregular in the sense that it is not easily traceable to its constituent forms. This type of
building form is not very common. The sport center in Belgrade, Yugoslavia (Fig. 15) is
an example of this form.

Curvilinear forms
By curvilinear forms we mean forms with curved surfaces: Since curvilinear forms are
generally more expensive to construct than rectilinear forms, they are less common than
rectilinear forms. Curvilinear forms are very varied and can be sub-classified according
to a number of factors. We can start by differentiating between single forms and
multiple forms. Single curvilinear forms may be defined as the curvilinear forms that
have no inflection points, i.e., there is no change in the direction of the curve. The
cylinder (Fig. 16) and the sphere are the prime examples of single curvilinear forms. The
geodesic sphere at Expo 67 in Montreal (Fig. 17) which served as the US pavilion in that
fair, is one of the rare examples of nearly complete spheres in buildings. It is more
common to see a portion of sphere used as a sport arena or a stadium. An example of
this is the sport arena in Rome that was designed by Pier Luigi Nervi (Fig. 18).

Multiple curvilinear forms include a wide variety of structures. We can differentiate

between convex curvilinear forms, such as domes, and concave curvilinear forms, such
as those of the cable structures in the Olympic Village in Munich, designed by Frei Otto
(Fig. 19). In kenzo Tange's Olympic Swimming Pool in Tokyo, the concave curves of
 Mohammed H. Ibrahim
20
 A Topology of Building Forms

Fig. 15. A sport center in Belgrade, Serbia. This is an exmaple of combined form, where the resulting
form cannot be traced back to its constituent forms.

the roof are combined with the convex curves of the ring wall (Fig. 20). A curving
serpentine structure with several inflection points, such as the Tuwaiq Palace in Riyadh
(Fig. 21), could also be considered a multiple curvilinear form, although an argument
could be made for its inclusion in the organic form category below. Other interesting
and diverse examples of multiple curvilinear forms include the church of St. Francis in
Brazil, designed by Oscar Niemeyer (Fig. 22). The Sydney Opera House by Jorn Utzon
(Fig. 23), and Renaissance Center in Detroit Michigan which is basically a collection of
steel and glass cylinders.

Organic forms
These forms almost defy description, save the fact that they resemble forms found in
nature and that they are generally more complex than the rectilinear as well as the
curvilinear forms discussed above. The mushroom-like house (Fig. 24) is an example of
this. The work of Gaudi in Barcelona (Fig. 25) and many Indian temples (Fig. 26).
which resemble and hills and weathered rocks could also be classified in this category.

Composite forms
This group of forms include a number of possible combinations of different form types
such as organic/rectilinear, combined/curvilinear and curvilinear/rectilinear. The latter
combination is the most common of all composite forms. Many mosques and churches
combine a large curvilinear element (dome) with a rectilinear building (Fig. 27).
22 Mohammed H. Ibrahim

A Typology of Building Form

It is difficult to give varying weights to the different complexity factors outlined in

section 4. However, one can construct a 2 dimensional matrix of building forms where
the rows are envelope types and the columns are form types. In the following table,
complexity increases with the distance from the origin in both directions. We have tried
to give examples, wherever possible, of the building form types that result from

Fig. 16. An example of single curvilinear form, a cylinder and a cone at the Jomo Kenyatta conference
center, Nairobi, Kenya.
Fig. 18. The sport arena in Rome by Pier Luigi Nervi [17, p. 133],
 Mohammed H. Ibrahim
24
Fig. 22. The Defence Exhibition Center in Paris.
 Mohammed H. Ibrahim
26
 A Topology of Building Forms 27

Fig. 25
Fig. 27. The Gand Mosque in Shah Alam, Malaysi
 A Topology of Building Forms 29

intersecting types of forms and types of envelopes. There are 8 columns and 12 rows
resulting in 8 x 12 = 96 cells that represent possible building forms. Of course, not all
'the building forms represented by the cells are significant or have actually built
examples although theoretically it is possible to conceive examples for each cell. Due
to space limitations only a small number of examples are given in the table. We do not
claim that this matrix of building forms is the definitive method of classifying building
forms, but we hope it will engender discussion in this field in which very little has been
written.

References
[I] Vitruvius. The Ten Books of Architecture, (translated by M. Morgan), 1914, reprinted 1960. New York:
Dover Publications, 1966.
[2] Alberti, L.B. De Re Aedficatoria. Florence, 1485, translated by Bartolo and Leoni, London, 1726, as Ten
Books of Architecture, reprinted J. Rykwert (ed.), 1965.
[3] Ruskin, Sir John. The Seven Lamps of Architecture. First published 1849, New York: Farrar, Straus and
Giroux, 1984.
[4] Scott, Geoffrey. The Architecture of Humanism, first published 1914. New York: Scribners, 1969.
[5] Zevi, Bruno. Architecture As Space. New York: Horizon Press, 1957.
[6] Amheim, Rudolf. Art and Visual Perception. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1965.
[7] Rasmussen, Steen Eiler. Experiencing Architecture. Cambridge: MIT Press, 1964.
[8] Gauldie, Sinclair. Architecture. London: Oxford University Press, 1969.
[9] Scruton, Roger. The Aesthetics of Architecture. London: Methuen. 1979.
[10] Ching, Francis, D.K. Architecture: Form and Space. New York: Reinhold, 1979.
[II] Martinssen, Heather. The Shape of Structure. London: Oxford University Press, 1976.
[12] Krier, Rob/Architectural Composition. New York: Rizzoli, 1988.
[13] Norberg-Schulz, Christian. Intentions in Architecture. Cambridge: MTT Press, 1964.
[14] Lang, John. "Fundamental Process of Human Behavior" (Chapter 9) In: Creating Architecture Theory:
The Role of the Behavioral Sciences in Environmental Design. New York: Reinhold, 1987.
[15] "Haj Terminal, King Abdulaziz Airport SOM". Albenaa, 5, No. 26 (Dec-Jan. 1985-86), 58.
[16] Curds, William, J.R. Modern Architecture Since 1900. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1983.
[17] Le Grand Atlas De L'Architecture Mondial. Paris: Encyclopaedia Universalis, 1982.
[18] Hollingsworth, Mary. Architecture of the 20th Century. London: Brompton, 1988.
30 Mohammed H. Ibrahim

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