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TABLE OF CONTENTS (HIDE)
1. Getting Started - Write your First Hello-world C Program
2. C Terminology and Syntax
3. The Process of Writing a C Program
4. C Program Template
5. Let's Write a Program to Add a Few Numbers
5.1 Example: Adding Two Integers
5.2 Example: Prompting User for Inputs
6. What is a Program?
7. What is a Variable?
8. Basic Arithmetic Operations
9. What If Your Need To Add a Thousand Numbers? Use a Loop!
10. Conditional (or Decision)
11. Type double & Floating-Point Numbers
12. Mixing int and double, and Type Casting
13. Summary

C programming Tutorial
Introduction to C Programming
(for Novices & First-Time
Programmers)
1. Getting Started - Write your First Hello-world C
Program
Let's begin by writing our first C program that prints the message "Hello, world!" on the display
console:

Hello, world!

Step 1: Write the Source Code: Enter the following source codes using a programming text
editor (such as NotePad++ for Windows or gEdit for UNIX/Linux/Mac) or an Interactive Development
Environment (IDE) (such as CodeBlocks, Eclipse, NetBeans or MS Visual Studio - Read the respective
"How-To" article on how to install and get started with these IDEs).
Do not enter the line numbers (on the left panel), which were added to help in the explanation. Save
the source file as "Hello.c". A C source file should be saved with a file extension of " .c". You should
choose a filename which reflects the purpose of the program.
 1/*
2 * First C program that says Hello (Hello.c)
3 */
4#include <stdio.h> // Needed to perform IO operations
5
6int main() { // Program entry point
7 printf("Hello, world!\n"); // Says Hello
8 return 0; // Terminate main()
9} // End of main()
Step 2: Build the Executable Code: Compile and Link (aka Build) the source code "Hello.c"
into executable code ("Hello.exe" in Windows or "Hello" in UNIX/Linux/Mac).
On IDE (such as CodeBlocks), push the "Build" button.
On Text editor with the GNU GCC compiler, start a CMD Shell (Windows) or Terminal (Mac, Linux)
and issue these commands:

// Windows (CMD shell) - Build "Hello.c" into "Hello.exe"

> gcc -o Hello.exe Hello.c

// UNIX/Linux/Mac (Bash shell) - Build "Hello.c" into "Hello"

$ gcc -o Hello Hello.c

where gcc is the name of GCC C compiler; -o option specifies the output filename ("Hello.exe"
for Windows or "Hello" for UNIX/Linux/Mac); "Hello.c" is the input source file.
Step 3: Run the Executable Code: Execute (Run) the program.
On IDE (such as CodeBlocks), push the "Run" button.
On Text Editor with GNU GCC compiler, issue these command from CMD Shell (Windows) or
Terminal (UNIX/Linux/Mac):

// Windows (CMD shell) - Run "Hello.exe" (.exe is optional)

> Hello
Hello, world!

// UNIX/Linux/Mac (Bash shell) - Run "Hello" (./ denotes the current directory)
$ ./Hello

Hello, world!

Brief Explanation of the Program

/* ...... */
// ... until the end of the line
These are called comments. Comments are NOT executable and are ignored by the compiler. But they
provide useful explanation and documentation to your readers (and to yourself three days later). There
are two kinds of comments:
1. Multi-line Comment: begins with /* and ends with */. It may span more than one lines (as in
Lines 1-3).
 2. End-of-line Comment: begins with // and lasts until the end of the current line (as in Lines 4, 6,
7, 8, and 9).
#include <stdio.h>
The "#include" is called a preprocessor directive. A preprocessor directive begins with a # sign, and is
processed before compilation. The directive "#include <stdio.h>" tells the preprocessor to include
the "stdio.h" header file to support input/output operations. This line shall be present in all our
programs. I will explain its meaning later.
int main() { ...... }
defines the so-called main() function. The main() function is the entry point of program
execution. main() is required to return an int (integer).
printf("Hello, world!\n");
We invoke the function printf() to print the string "Hello, world!" followed by a newline (\n) to the
console. The newline (\n) brings the cursor to the beginning of the next line.
return 0;
terminates the main() function and returns a value of 0 to the operating system. Typically, return value
of 0 signals normal termination; whereas value of non-zero (usually 1) signals abnormal termination.
This line is optional. C compiler will implicitly insert a "return 0;" to the end of the main() function.
2. C Terminology and Syntax
Statement : A programming statement performs a piece of programming action. It must be
terminated by a semi-colon (;) (just like an English sentence is ended with a period) as in Lines 7 and
8.
Preprocessor Directive : The #include (Line 4) is a preprocessor directive and NOT a
programming statement. A preprocessor directive begins with hash sign (#). It is processed before
compiling the program. A preprocessor directive is NOT terminated by a semicolon - Take note of this
rule.
Block : A block is a group of programming statements enclosed by braces { }. This group of
statements is treated as one single unit. There is one block in this program, which contains the body of
the main() function. There is no need to put a semi-colon after the closing brace.
Comments : A multi-line comment begins with /* and ends with */. An end-of-line comment begins
with // and lasts till the end of the line. Comments are NOT executable statements and are ignored
by the compiler. But they provide useful explanation and documentation. Use comments liberally.
Whitespaces : Blank, tab, and newline are collectively called whitespaces. Extra whitespaces are
ignored, i.e., only one whitespace is needed to separate the tokens. But they could help you and your
readers better understand your program. Use extra whitespaces liberally.
Case Sensitivity : C is case sensitive - a ROSE is NOT a Rose, and is NOT a rose.
3. The Process of Writing a C Program
Step 1: Write the source codes (.c) and header files (.h).
Step 2: Pre-process the source codes according to the preprocessor directives. The preprocessor
directives begin with a hash sign (#), such as #include and #define. They indicate that certain
manipulations (such as including another file or replacement of symbols) are to be performed BEFORE
compilation.
Step 3: Compile the pre-processed source codes into object codes (.obj, .o).
Step 4: Link the compiled object codes with other object codes and the library object codes
(.lib, .a)to produce the executable code (.exe).
Step 5: Load the executable code into computer memory.
Step 6: Run the executable code.
4. C Program Template
You can use the following template to write your C programs. Choose a meaningful filename for you
source file that reflects the purpose of your program with file extension of " .c". Write your
programming statements inside the body of the main() function. Don't worry about the other terms
for the time being. I will explain them later.
1/*
2 * Comment to state the purpose of this program (filename.c)
3 */
4#include <stdio.h>
5
6int main() {
7 // Your Programming statements HERE!
8
 9 return 0;
10}

5. Let's Write a Program to Add a Few Numbers

5.1 Example: Adding Two Integers
Let's write a C program called "Add2Integers.c" to add two integers as follows:
Add2Integers.c
1/*
2 * Add two integers and print their sum (Add2Integers.c)
3 */
4#include <stdio.h>
5
6int main() {
7 int integer1; // Declare a variable named integer1 of the type integer
8 int integer2; // Declare a variable named integer2 of the type integer
9 int sum; // Declare a variable named sum of the type integer
10
11 integer1 = 55; // Assign value to variable integer1
12 integer2 = 66; // Assign value to variable integer1
13 sum = integer1 + integer2; // Compute the sum
14
15 // Print the result
16 printf("The sum of %d and %d is %d.\n", integer1, integer2, sum);
17
18 return 0;
19}

The sum of 55 and 66 is 121.

Dissecting the Program

int integer1;
int integer2;
int sum;
We first declare three int (integer) variables: integer1, integer2, and sum. A variable is a named
storage location that can store a value of a particular data type, in this case, int (integer). You can
declare one variable in one statement. You could also declare many variables in one statement,
separating with commas, e.g.,

int integer1, integer2, sum;

integer1 = 55;
integer2 = 66;
sum = integer1 + integer2;
We assign values to variables integer1 and integer2; compute their sum and store in variable sum.
printf("The sum of %d and %d is %d.\n", integer1, integer2, sum);
We use the printf() function to print the result. The first argument in printf() is known as
the formatting string, which consists of normal texts and so-called conversion specifiers. Normal texts
will be printed as they are. A conversion specifier begins with a percent sign (%), followed by a code to
indicate the data type, such as d for decimal integer. You can treat the %d as placeholders, which will
be replaced by the value of variables given after the formatting string in sequential order. That is, the
first %d will be replaced by the value of integer1, second %d by integer2, and third %d by sum.
The \n denotes a newline character. Printing a \n bring the cursor to the beginning of the next line.
5.2 Example: Prompting User for Inputs
In the previous example, we assigned fixed values into variables integer1 and integer2. Instead of
using fixed values, we shall prompt the user to enter two integers.
PromptAdd2Integers.c
1/*
2 * Prompt user for two integers and print their sum (PromptAdd2Integers.c)
3 */
4#include <stdio.h>
5
6int main() {
7 int integer1, integer2, sum; // Declare 3 integer variables
8
9 printf("Enter first integer: "); // Display a prompting message
10 scanf("%d", &integer1); // Read input from keyboard into integer1
11 printf("Enter second integer: "); // Display a prompting message
12 scanf("%d", &integer2); // Read input into integer2
13
14 sum = integer1 + integer2; // Compute the sum
15
16 // Print the result
17 printf("The sum of %d and %d is %d.\n", integer1, integer2, sum);
18
19 return 0;
20}

Enter first integer: 55

Enter second integer: 66
The sum of 55 and 66 is 121.

Disecting the Program

int integer1, integer2, sum;
We first declare three int (integer) variables: integer1, integer2, and sum in one statement.
printf("Enter first integer: ");
We use the printf() function to put out a prompting message.
scanf("%d", &integer1);
We then use the scanf() function to read the user input from the keyboard and store the value into
variable integer1. The first argument of scanf() is the formatting string (similar
to printf()). The %dconversion specifier provides a placeholder for an integer, which will be
substituted by variable integer1. Take note that we have to place an ampersand sign (&), which stands
for address-of operator, before the variable, I shall explain its significance later. It is important to stress
that missing ampersand (&) in scanf() is a common error, which leads to abnormal termination of
the program.
Reading Multiple Integers
You can read multiple items in one scanf() statement as follows:
printf("Enter two integers: "); // Display a prompting message
scanf("%d%d", &integer1, &integer2); // Read two integers
In the scanf(), the first %d puts the first integer entered into variable integer1, and the
second %d puts into integer2. Again, remember to place an ampersand (&) before the variables
in scanf().
Exercises
1. Print each of the following patterns. Use one printf() statement for each line of outputs. End
each line by printing a newline (\n).

2. * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *
3. * * * * * * * * *
4. * * * * * * * * *
5. * * * * * * * * *
6. * * * * * * * * * * *

(a) (b) (c)

7. Print the above patterns using ONE printf() statement.

8. Write a program to prompt user for 5 integers and print their sum. Use
five int variables integer1 to integer5 to store the five integers.
9. Write a program to prompt user for 5 integers and print their product. Use
an int variable product to store the product and operator * for multiplication.
6. What is a Program?
A program is a sequence of instructions (called programming statements), executing one after another
- usually in a sequential manner, as illustrated in the previous example and the following flow chart.

Example (Sequential): The following program (CircleComputation.c) prompts user for the
radius of a circle, and prints its area and circumference. Take note that the programming statements
are executed sequentially - one after another in the order that they are written.
1/*
2 * Prompt user for the radius of a circle and compute its area and circumference
3 * (CircleComputation.c)
4 */
5#include <stdio.h>
6
7int main() {
8 double radius, circumference, area; // Declare 3 floating-point variables
9 double pi = 3.14159265; // Declare and define PI
10
11 printf("Enter the radius: "); // Prompting message
12 scanf("%lf", &radius); // Read input into variable radius
13
14 // Compute area and circumference
15 area = radius * radius * pi;
16 circumference = 2.0 * radius * pi;
17
18 // Print the results
19 printf("The radius is %lf.\n", radius);
20 printf("The area is %lf.\n", area);
21 printf("The circumference is %lf.\n", circumference);
22
23 return 0;
24}

Enter the radius: 1.2

The radius is 1.200000.
The area is 4.523893.
The circumference is 7.539822.
Dissecting the Program
double radius, circumference, area;
double pi = 3.14159265;
We declare three double variables called radius, circumference and area. A double variable,
unlike int, can hold real number (or floating-point number) such as 1.23 or 4.5e6. We also declare
a doublevariable called pi and initialize its value to 3.1416.
printf("Enter the radius: ");
scanf("%lf", &radius);
We use print() to put up a prompt message, and scanf() to read the user input into variable radius.
Take note that the %lf conversion specifier for double (lf stands for long float). Also remember to
place an ampersand (&) before radius.
area = radius * radius * pi;
circumference = 2.0 * radius * pi;
perform the computation.
printf("The radius is %lf.\n", radius);
printf("The area is %lf.\n", area);
printf("The circumference is %lf.\n", circumference);
Again, we use %lf conversion specifier to print a double.

Take note that the programming statements inside the main() are executed one after another,
sequentially.
Exercises
1. Follow the above example, write a program to print the area and perimeter of a rectangle. Your
program shall prompt the user for the length and width of the rectangle, in doubles.
2. Follow the above example, write a program to print the surface area and volume of a cylinder.
Your program shall prompt the user for the radius and height of the cylinder, in doubles.
7. What is a Variable?

Computer programs manipulate (or process) data. A variable is used to store a piece of data for
processing. It is called variablebecause you can change the value stored.
More precisely, a variable is a named storage location, that stores a value of a particular data type. In
other words, a variable has a name, a type and stores a value of that type.
A variable has a name (or identifier), e.g., radius, area, age, height. The name is needed to
uniquely identify and reference a variable, so as to assign a value to the variable (e.g., radius=1.2),
and retrieve the value stored (e.g., area = radius*radius*pi).
A variable has a type. Examples of type are:
o int: for integers (whole numbers) such as 123 and -456;
o double: for floating-point or real numbers, such as 3.1416, -55.66, 7.8e9, 1.2e3, -4.5e-
6 having a decimal point and fractional part, in fixed or scientific notations.
 A variable can store a value of the declared type. It is important to take note that a variable is
associated with a type, and can only store value of that particular type. For example, a int variable
can store an integer value such as 123, but NOT real number such as 12.34, nor texts such
as "Hello". The concept of type was introduced into the early programming languages to simplify
interpretation of data.
The above diagram illustrates 2 types of variables: int and double. An int variable stores an integer
(whole number). A double variable stores a real number.
To use a variable, you need to first declare its name and type, in one of the following syntaxes:
var-type var-name; // Declare a variable of a type
var-type var-name-1, var-name-2,...; // Declare multiple variables of the same type
var-type var-name = initial-value; // Declare a variable of a type, and assign an
initial value
var-type var-name-1 = initial-value-1, var-name-2 = initial-value-2,... ; // Declare
variables with initial values

Take note that:

Each declaration statement is terminated with a semi-colon (;).
In multiple-variable declaration, the names are separated by commas (,).
The symbol =, known as the assignment operator, can be used to assign an initial value (of the
declared type) to the variable.

For example,

int sum; // Declare a variable named "sum" of the type "int" for storing
an integer.
// Terminate the statement with a semi-colon.
int number1, number2; // Declare two "int" variables named "number1" and "number2",
// separated by a comma.
double average; // Declare a variable named "average" of the type "double" for
storing a real number.
int height = 20; // Declare an int variable, and assign an initial value.
Once a variable is declared, you can assign and re-assign a value to a variable, via the assignment
operator "=". For example,
int number; // Declare a variable named "number" of the type "int" (integer)
number = 99; // Assign an integer value of 99 to the variable "number"
number = 88; // Re-assign a value of 88 to "number"
number = number + 1; // Evaluate "number + 1", and assign the result back to "number"
int sum = 0; // Declare an int variable named sum and assign an initial value
of 0
sum = sum + number; // Evaluate "sum + number", and assign the result back to "sum",
i.e. add number into sum
int num1 = 5, num2 = 6; // Declare and initialize two int variables in one statement,
separated by a comma
double radius = 1.5; // Declare a variable name radius, and initialize to 1.5
int number; // ERROR: A variable named "number" has already been declared
sum = 55.66; // WARNING: The variable "sum" is an int. It shall not be assigned
a floating-point number
sum = "Hello"; // ERROR: The variable "sum" is an int. It cannot be assigned a
text string

Take note that:

Each variable can only be declared once.
You can declare a variable anywhere inside the program, as long as it is declared before it is being
used.
Once the type of a variable is declared, it can only store a value belonging to this particular type.
For example, an int variable can hold only integer such as 123, and NOT floating-point number
such as -2.17 or text string such as "Hello".
The type of a variable cannot be changed inside the program.
x=x+1?
Assignment (=) in programming is different from equality in Mathematics. e.g., "x=x+1" is invalid in
Mathematics. However, in programming, it means compute the value of x plus 1, and assign the result
back to variable x.
"x+y=1" is valid in Mathematics, but is invalid in programming. In programming, the RHS of "=" has to
be evaluated to a value; while the LHS shall be a variable. That is, evaluate the RHS first, then assign to
LHS.
Some languages uses := as the assignment operator to avoid confusion with equality.
8. Basic Arithmetic Operations
The basic arithmetic operators are:
Operator Meaning Example
+ Addition x + y
- Subtraction x - y
* Multiplication x * y
/ Division x / y
% Modulus (Remainder) x % y
++ Increment by 1 (Unary) ++x or x++
-- Decrement by 1 (Unary) --x or x--
Addition, subtraction, multiplication, division and remainder are binary operators that take two
operands (e.g., x + y); while negation (e.g., -x), increment and decrement (e.g., x++, --x) are unary
operatorsthat take only one operand.
Example
The following program (TestArithmetics.c) illustrates these arithmetic operations.
1/*
2 * Test arithmetic operations (TestArithmetics.c)
3 */
4#include <stdio.h>
5
6int main() {
 7
8 int number1, number2; // Declare 2 integer variable number1 and number2
9 int sum, difference, product, quotient, remainder; // declare 5 int variables
10
11 // Prompt user for the two numbers
12 printf("Enter two integers (separated by space): ");
13 scanf("%d%d", &number1, &number2); // Use 2 %d to read 2 integers
14
15 // Do arithmetic Operations
16 sum = number1 + number2;
17 difference = number1 - number2;
18 product = number1 * number2;
19 quotient = number1 / number2;
20 remainder = number1 % number2;
21
22 printf("The sum, difference, product, quotient and remainder of %d and %d are %d, %d, %d
23 number1, number2, sum, difference, product, quotient, remainder);
24
25 // Increment and Decrement
26 ++number1; // Increment the value stored in variable number1 by 1
27 // same as "number1 = number1 + 1"
28 --number2; // Decrement the value stored in variable number2 by 1
29 // same as "number2 = number2 - 1"
30 printf("number1 after increment is %d.\n", number1);
31 printf("number2 after decrement is %d.\n", number2);
32
33 quotient = number1 / number2;
34 printf("The new quotient of %d and %d is %d.\n", number1, number2, quotient);
35
36 return 0;
37}

Enter two integers (separated by space): 98 5

The sum, difference, product, quotient and remainder of 98 and 5 are 103, 93, 49
0, 19, 3.
number1 after increment is 99.
number2 after decrement is 4.
The new quotient of 99 and 4 is 24.
Dissecting the Program
int number1, number2;
int sum, difference, product, quotient, remainder;
declare all the int (integer) variables number1, number2, sum, difference, product, quotient,
and remainder, needed in this program.
printf("Enter two integers (separated by space): ");
scanf("%d%d", &number1, &number2);
prompt user for two integers and store into number1 and number2, respectively.
sum = number1 + number2;
difference = number1 - number2;
product = number1 * number2;
quotient = number1 / number2;
remainder = number1 % number2;
carry out the arithmetic operations on number1 and number2. Take note that division of two integers
produces a truncated integer, e.g., 98/5 19, 99/4 24, and 1/2 0.
printf("The sum, difference, product, quotient and remainder of %d and %d
are %d, %d, %d, %d, %d.\n",
number1, number2, sum, difference, product, quotient, remainder);
prints the results of the arithmetic operations, with the appropriate string descriptions in between.
++number1;
--number2;
illustrate the increment and decrement operations. Unlike '+', '-', '*', '/' and '%', which work on
two operands (binary operators), '++' and '--' operate on only one operand (unary operators). ++x is
equivalent to x = x + 1, i.e., increment x by 1. You may place the increment operator before or after
the operand, i.e., ++x (pre-increment) or x++ (post-increment). In this example, the effects of pre-
increment and post-increment are the same. I shall point out the differences in later section.
Exercises
1. Introduce one more int variable called number3, and prompt user for its value. Print
the sum and product of all the three integers.
2. In Mathematics, we could omit the multiplication sign in an arithmetic expression, e.g., x = 5a
+ 4b. In programming, you need to explicitly provide all the operators, i.e., x = 5*a + 4*b. Try
printing the sum of 31 times of number1 and 17 times of number2 and 87 time of number3.
9. What If Your Need To Add a Thousand Numbers?
Use a Loop!
Suppose that you want to add all the integers from 1 to 1000. If you follow the previous examples, you
would require a thousand-line program! Instead, you could use a loop in your program to perform
a repetitive task, that is what the dumb computers are good at.
Example
Try the following program SumNumbers.c, which sums all the integers from 1 to an upperbound
provided by the user, using a so-called while-loop.
1/*
2 * Sum from 1 to an upperbound using a while-loop (SumNumbers.c).
3 */
4#include <stdio.h>
5
6int main() {
7 int sum = 0; // Declare an int variable sum to accumulate the numbers
8 // Set the initial sum to 0
9 int upperbound; // Sum from 1 to this upperbound
10
11 // Prompt user for an upperbound
12 printf("Enter the upperbound: ");
 13 scanf("%d", &upperbound); // Use %d to read an int
14
15 // Use a loop to repeatedly add 1, 2, 3,..., up to upperbound
16 int number = 1;
17 while (number <= upperbound) {
18 sum = sum + number; // accumulate number into sum
19 ++number; // increment number by 1
20 }
21 // Print the result
22 printf("The sum from 1 to %d is %d.\n", upperbound, sum);
23
24 return 0;
25}

Enter the upperbound: 1000

The sum from 1 to 1000 is 500500.
Dissecting the Program
int sum = 0;
declares an int variable named sum and initializes it to 0. This variable will be used
to accumulate numbers over the steps in the repetitive loop.
printf("Enter the upperbound: ");
scanf("%d", &upperbound);
prompt user for an upperbound to sum.
int number = 1;
while (number <= upperbound) {
sum = sum + number;
++number;
}
This is the so-called while-loop. A while-loop takes the following syntax:
initialization-statement;
while (test) {
loop-body;
}
next-statement;
As illustrated in the flow chart, the initialization statement is first executed. The test is then checked. If
the test is true, the body is executed. The test is checked again and the process repeats until the test is
false. When the test is false, the loop completes and program execution continues to the next
statement after the loop.
In our program, the initialization statement declares an int variable named number and initializes it to
1. The test checks if number is equal to or less than the upperbound. If it is true, the current value
of number is added into the sum, and the statement ++number increases the value of number by 1.
The test is then checked again and the process repeats until the test is false (i.e., number increases
to upperbound+1), which causes the loop to terminate. Execution then continues to the next statement
(in Line 22).
In this example, the loop repeats upperbound times. After the loop is completed, Line 22 prints the
result with a proper description.
Exercises
1. Modify the above program to sum all the number between a lowerbound and
an upperbound provided by the user.
2. Modify the above program to sum all the odd numbers between 1 to an upperbound. (Hint: Use
"number = number + 2".)
3. Modify the above program to sum all the numbers between 1 to an upperbound that are
divisible by 7. (Hint: Use "number = number + 7")
4. Modify the above program to find the sum of the square of all the numbers from 1 to
an upperbound, i.e. 1*1 + 2*2 + 3*3 +...
5. Modify the above program to compute the product of all the numbers from 1 to 10. (Hint: Use
a variable called product instead of sum and initialize product to 1. Ans: 3628800.) Based on this
code, write a program to display the factorial of n, where n is an integer between 1 to 12.
10. Conditional (or Decision)
What if you want to sum all the odd numbers and also all the even numbers between 1 and 1000?
There are many way to do this. You could declare two variables: sumOdd and sumEven. You can then
use a conditional statement to check whether the number is odd or even, and accumulate the number
into the respective sum. The program SumOddEven.c is as follows:
1/*
2 * Sum the odd and even numbers from 1 to an upperbound (SumOddEven.c)
3 */
4#include <stdio.h>
5
6int main() {
7 int sumOdd = 0; // For accumulating odd numbers, init to 0
8 int sumEven = 0; // For accumulating even numbers, init to 0
9 int upperbound; // Sum from 1 to this upperbound
10
 11 // Prompt user for an upperbound
12 printf("Enter the upperbound: ");
13 scanf("%d", &upperbound); // Use %d to read an int
14
15 // Use a loop to repeatedly add 1, 2, 3,..., up to upperbound
16 int number = 1;
17 while (number <= upperbound) {
18 if (number % 2 == 0) { // even number
19 sumEven = sumEven + number;
20 } else { // odd number
21 sumOdd = sumOdd + number;
22 }
23 ++number; // increment number by 1
24 }
25
26 // Print the results
27 printf("The sum of odd numbers is %d.\n", sumOdd);
28 printf("The sum of even numbers is %d.\n", sumEven);
29 printf("The difference is %d.\n", (sumOdd - sumEven));
30
31 return 0;
32}

Enter the upperbound: 10000

The sum of odd numbers is 25000000.
The sum of even numbers is 25005000.
The difference is -5000.
Dissecting the Program
int sumOdd = 0;
int sumEven = 0;
declare two int variables named sumOdd and sumEven and initialize them to 0, for accumulating the
odd and even numbers, respectively.
if (number % 2 == 0) {
sumEven = sumEven + number;
} else {
sumOdd = sumOdd + number;
}
This is a conditional statement. The conditional statement can take one these forms: if-then or if-then-
else.
// if-then
if ( test ) {
true-body;
}
// if-then-else
if ( test ) {
true-body;
} else {
false-body;
}
For a if-then statement, the true-body is executed if the test is true. Otherwise, nothing is done and the
execution continues to the next statement. For a if-then-else statement, the true-body is executed if
the test is true; otherwise, the false-body is executed. Execution is then continued to the next
statement.
In our program, we use the remainder operator (%) to compute the remainder of number divides by 2.
We then compare the remainder with 0 to test for even number.
Comparison Operators
There are six comparison (or relational) operators:
 Operator Meaning Example
== Equal to x == y
!= Not equal to x != y
> Greater than x > y
>= Greater than or equal to x >= y
< Less than x < y
<= Less than or equal to x <= y
Take note that the comparison operator for equality is a double-equal sign (==); whereas a single-
equal sign (=) is the assignment operator.
Combining Simple Conditions
Suppose that you want to check whether a number x is between 1 and 100 (inclusive), i.e., 1 <= x <=
100. There are two simple conditions here, (x >= 1) AND (x <= 100). In programming, you cannot
write 1 <= x <= 100, but need to write (x >= 1) && (x <= 100), where "&&" denotes the "AND"
operator. Similarly, suppose that you want to check whether a number x is divisible by 2 OR by 3, you
have to write (x % 2 == 0) || (x % 3 == 0) where "||" denotes the "OR" operator.
There are three so-called logical operators that operate on the boolean conditions:
Operator Meaning Example
&& Logical AND (x >= 1) && (x <= 100)
|| Logical OR (x < 1) || (x > 100)
! Logical NOT !(x == 8)

For examples:

// Return true if x is between 0 and 100 (inclusive)

(x >= 0) && (x <= 100) // AND (&&)
// Incorrect to use 0 <= x <= 100

// Return true if x is outside 0 and 100 (inclusive)

(x < 0) || (x > 100) // OR (||)
!((x >= 0) && (x <= 100)) // NOT (!), AND (&&)

// Return true if "year" is a leap year

// A year is a leap year if it is divisible by 4 but not by 100, or it is divisible by
400.
((year % 4 == 0) && (year % 100 != 0)) || (year % 400 == 0)

Exercises
1. Write a program to sum all the integers between 1 and 1000, that are divisible by 13, 15 or 17,
but not by 30.
2. Write a program to print all the leap years between AD1 and AD2010, and also print the number
of leap years. (Hints: use a variable called count, which is initialized to zero. Increment
the countwhenever a leap year is found.)
11. Type double & Floating-Point Numbers
Recall that a variable in C has a name and a type, and can hold a value of only that particular type. We
have so far used a type called int. A int variable holds only integers (whole numbers), such
as 123 and -456.
In programming, real numbers such as 3.1416 and -55.66 are called floating-point numbers, and
belong to a type called double. You can express floating-point numbers in fixed notation (e.g., 1.23, -
4.5) or scientific notation (e.g., 1.2e3, -4E5.6) where e or E denote the exponent of base 10.
Example
1/*
2 * Convert temperature between Celsius and Fahrenheit
3 * (ConvertTemperature.c)
4 */
5#include <stdio.h>
6
7int main() {
8 double celsius, fahrenheit;
9
10 printf("Enter the temperature in celsius: ");
11 scanf("%lf", &celsius); // Use %lf to read an double
12 fahrenheit = celsius * 9.0 / 5.0 + 32.0;
13 printf("%.2lf degree C is %.2lf degree F.\n\n", celsius, fahrenheit);
14 // %.2lf prints a double with 2 decimal places
15
16 printf("Enter the temperature in fahrenheit: ");
17 scanf("%lf", &fahrenheit);
18 celsius = (fahrenheit - 32.0) * 5.0 / 9.0;
19 printf("%.2lf degree F is %.2lf degree C.\n\n", fahrenheit, celsius);
20
21 return 0;
22}

Enter the temperature in celsius: 37.2

37.20 degree C is 98.96 degree F.

Enter the temperature in fahrenheit: 100

100.00 degree F is 37.78 degree C.

12. Mixing int and double, and Type Casting

Although you can use a double to keep an integer value (e.g., double count = 5), you should use
an int for integer. This is because int is far more efficient than double, in terms of running times and
memory requirement.
At times, you may need both int and double in your program. For example, keeping
the sum from 1 to 100 (=5050) as an int, and their average 50.5 as a double. You need to
be extremely careful when different types are mixed.
It is important to note that:
Arithmetic operations ('+', '-', '*', '/') of two int's produce an int; while arithmetic
operations of two double's produce a double. Hence, 1/2 0 (take note!) and 1.0/2.0 0.5.
Arithmetic operations of an int and a double produce a double. Hence, 1.0/2 0.5 and 1/2.0
0.5.
You can assign an integer value to a double variable. The integer value will be converted to a double
value automatically, e.g., 3 3.0. For example,

int i = 3;
double d;
d = i; // 3 3.0, d = 3.0
d = 88; // 88 88.0, d = 88.0
double nought = 0; // 0 0.0; there is a subtle difference between int of 0 and
double of 0.0
However, if you assign a double value to an int variable, the fractional part will be lost. For example,

double d = 55.66;
int i;
i = d; // i = 55 (truncated)

Some C compilers signal a warning for truncation, while others do not. You should study the "warning
messages" (if any) carefully - which signals a potential problem in your program, and rewrite the
program if necessary. C allows you to ignore the warning and run the program. But, the fractional part
will be lost during the execution.
Type Casting Operators
If you are certain that you wish to carry out the type conversion, you could use the so-called type
cast operator. The type cast operation returns an equivalent value in the new-type specified.
(new-type)expression;

For example,

double d = 5.5;
int i;
i = (int)d; // (int)d -> (int)5.5 -> 5
i = (int)3.1416; // 3
Similarly, you can explicitly convert an int value to double by invoking type-casting operation too.
Example
Try the following program and explain the outputs produced:

1/*
2 * Testing type cast (TestCastingAverage.c)
3 */
4#include <stdio.h>
 5
6int main() {
7 int sum = 0; // Sum in "int"
8 double average; // average in "double"
9
10 // Compute the sum from 1 to 100 (in "int")
11 int number = 1;
12 while (number <= 100) {
13 sum = sum + number;
14 ++number;
15 }
16 printf("The sum is %d.\n", sum);
17
18 // Compute the average (in "double")
19 average = sum / 100;
20 printf("Average 1 is %lf.\n", average);
21 average = (double)sum / 100;
22 printf("Average 2 is %lf.\n", average);
23 average = sum / 100.0;
24 printf("Average 3 is %lf.\n", average);
25 average = (double)(sum / 100);
26 printf("Average 4 is %lf.\n", average);
27
28 return 0;
29}

The sum is 5050.

Average 1 is 50.000000. <== incorrect
Average 2 is 50.500000.
Average 3 is 50.500000.
Average 4 is 50.000000. <== incorrect
The first average is incorrect, as int/int produces an int (of 50).
For the second average, the value of sum (of int) is first converted to double.
Subsequently, double/int produces double.
For the third average, int/double produces double.
For the fourth average, int/int produces an int (of 50), which is then casted to double (of 50.0) and
assigned to average (of double).
Exercises
1. Write a program called HarmonicSeriesSum to compute the sum of a harmonic series 1 + 1/2
+ 1/3 + 1/4 + .... + 1/n, where n = 1000. Your program shall prompt user for the value
of n. Keep the sum in a double variable, and take note that 1/2 gives 0 but 1.0/2 gives 0.5.
Try computing the sum for n=1000, 5000, 10000, 50000, 100000.
Hints:
2. /*
3. * Sum harmonics Series (HarmonicSeriesSum.c)
 4. */
5. #include <stdio.h>
6.
7. int main() {
8. int maxDenominator; // max denominator to sum to
9. double sum = 0.0; // For accumulating sum in double
10.
11. // Prompt user for the maxDenominator
12. ......
13.
14. int denominator = 1;
15. while (denominator <= maxDenominator) {
16. // Beware that int/int gives int
17. ......
18. ++denominator; // next
19. }
20. // Print the sum
21. ......

}
22. Write a program called GeometricSeriesSum to compute the sum of a geometric series 1 + 1/2
+ 1/4 + 1/8 + .... + 1/n. You program shall prompt for the value of n. (Hints: Use post-
processing statement of denominator = denominator * 2 .)
13. Summary
I have presented the basics for you to get start in programming. To learn programming, you need to
understand the syntaxes and features involved in the programming language that you chosen, and
you have to practice, practice and practice, on as many problems as you could.

Link to "C Language References & Resources"

Latest version tested: GCC 4.6.2
Last modified: June, 2013
Feedback, comments, corrections, and errata can be sent to Chua Hock-Chuan
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