porosity, is consistently found by the geometric indications of the unwelded

radiographic process. It can occur in zone would be obtained. However, if the

nearly spherical, isolated cases but the radiation source is angularly adjusted, the
tendency is for inclusions to accumulate unwelded joint may not show and the
linearly. Most inclusions consist of anomalies can be evaluated. Inadequate
residual slag from the electrode coatings penetration must be monitored and
or fluxes in welding. The trapped material measured to determine limits.
tends to occur in the welding direction On a radiograph, this indication is
and therefore normally appears in a line. usually a straight sided, dark zone. In the
In building up a weld, a channel effect case of joints welded from one side only,
occurs on both sides of the bead. If the image will be well defined, assuming
through a fault in the process some slag is the detector is on the root side. When
trapped, there could be two affected inadequate penetration occurs in thicker
zones, corresponding to the weld bead joints welded from both sides or piping
width. When such parallel slag lines occur welds, the outlines will not be sharp. This
they are called wagon tracks. unsharpness occurs because (1) the zone
In multipass welding, the slag covering of interest is further from the detector or
will remain on the as welded work piece, (2) the discontinuity is a smaller
just as it does on properly completed percentage of the total specimen
welds, and measures must be taken to thickness.
ensure its removal. The effect of this condition on the
If this interbead slag is not completely weldment can be very serious: a pair of
removed before the next pass, inclusions sharp notches may be present, extending
will result. In a radiograph, this type of for a considerable distance. The joint
slag is not distinguishable from slag would be weak in bending across the
material trapped during single-pass welds. weld, especially for repeating loads or
All the welding processes involving cycles. In these cases, specifications such
flux can exhibit slag inclusions. Just as for as those in AWS D1.13 impose strict limits
porosity, the automatic processes, when on the length permitted.
they go awry, tend to exhibit long, regular
discontinuities.
The spherical type of slag inclusion
may often be distinguished from porosity Incomplete Fusion
because there is a major density difference Incomplete fusion is a discontinuity
between the solid slag and the open void. characterized by unbonded zones in a
When both appear in the same image, weld where weld metal is cast in place but
confirmation is easier. A major slag not bonded to a prepared surface or to a
inclusion may also have a structure that previous bead. The shape may then be
can be resolved in a radiograph and will precisely or roughly linear. In its usual
not be smooth. form, the discontinuity exhibits a gap
The limits on slag are more stringent over some of its width, gradually closing
than for porosity because the linear form to zero. The typical radiographic
of the inclusion can act as a stress riser. appearance shows evidence of tapering
The interpreter is usually directed by the (the image would be longitudinal and
applicable code in determining the shaded across its width). Note that when
allowable length and width of such incomplete fusion comprises only weld
inclusions. metal in complete contact with another
An intermittent slag line is actually a material, the thickness of the
single slag deposit with gaps. The discontinuity could be near zero. In this
accumulated length of the broken run arrangement, the discontinuity might not
plus the gap space may be used to be detectable radiographically unless the
determine the total discontinuity length, beam were directed along the unfused
in some specifications. zone. Radiographic techniques might not
detect this type of discontinuity. In
ordinary weld sampling, with the beam
Inadequate Penetration directed at the weld bead, the result
would be negative. If the radiographic
The discontinuity called inadequate requirements are designed to detect
penetration may or may not constitute a incomplete fusion, a requirement for the
defect.One definition states inadequate appropriate beam direction (Fig. 8) would
penetration of the joint constitutes be included.
Thus it
penetration less than that specified. Incomplete fusion can occur in all
is possible to have an incompletely types of fusion welds. The limits for
bonded (or incompletely filled) joint that incomplete fusion are generally
would still be allowed by specification. equivalent to those for incomplete
This is especially true for partial penetration and specifications might
penetration weld joints, discussed below. group the two conditions together, classed
Should such a weld be radiographed, clear as fusion discontinuities.

Radiographic Testing of Welds 479

 Hot Cracks
Cracks A form of cracking, referred to as hot
A crack may be defined as a split, cracking or hot tearing, is radiographically
exhibiting a sharp tip and typically a very detectable. This discontinuity originates
small opening. Its detectability by during or just after the hardening of the
radiography is a function of the metal when shrinkage is excessive. When
orientation of the beam to the crack. As narrow, deep welds are made, the weld
in the case of incomplete fusion, cracks metal does not stay molten long enough
are ordinarily detectable only by ensuring to fill the normal shrinkage spaces.
that the beam direction is in line with the Hot cracks have some visible width and
crack. Typically, when cracking is are therefore more easily detected with
suspected but cannot be confirmed, more radiography.
radiography will be required to confirm
the indication. When clearly detected in a
radiograph, the typical crack will appear
Crater Crack
as a narrow, irregular line. A variation on the hot crack is the crater
Cracks exposed by radiography are crack. These occur if the electrode is
always considered discontinuities and removed too soon at the point where a
rejection follows, with repair being an weld is terminated. Crater cracks usually
option. They are the most serious form of consist of sets of radial cracks and are
discontinuity because their sharp tip acts recognizable in a radiograph by this
as a severe stress riser. For cyclic loading, typical pattern.
cracks are always dangerous. Note that in
interpreting radiographs, the very Other Separations
presence of a crack is sufficient evidence Other cracks may develop adjacent to the
for rejection; there is no guarantee that weld metal, in the heat affected zone.
the actual limits of a crack will match the Such cracks may be associated with
visible length of its radiographic image. hydrogen in the metal and may appear up
Further portions of cracks can be closed to several hours after the completion of
very tightly because of weld shrinkage the weld. Hydrogen cracking is almost
stresses and no tightly closed crack would always associated with high strength
be detectable. materials because of their susceptibility to
alloy modifications during welding and
inherent ductility. They may not be open
FIGURE 8. Radiography of weld joint based and will generally not be oriented in a
on double U groove; both source positions predictable direction. The radiographic
in line with prepared faces. method should not be used for their
detection.
Source position 1 Source position 2
Other serious forms of separation not
ordinarily detectable with radiography
include (1) the underbead crack (a cold
crack sloped away from the plate surface),
(2) lamellar tearing (separation within the
plane of the plate) and (3) delamination
(opening of an in-plate separation).

Tungsten Inclusion
Tungsten inclusions are particles from the
tungsten electrodes that become deposited
in weld metal through faulty procedures.
The particles may be spherical and appear
much denser than the material being
welded, typically aluminum alloys and
stainless steels. The very high density
serves as positive identification.
Tungsten inclusions are not considered
especially harmful in stainless steel and
are usually counted with porosity. The
condition does indicate some processing
Sensor
or procedural problem and should thus be
monitored. However, in titanium alloys,
such inclusions require removal and
rework.

480 Radiographic Testing