THE www.sikkim.gov.

in

GAZETTEER
OF

SIKHIM

SIKKIM NATURE CONSERVATION FOUNDATION

GANGTOK, SIKKIM, INDIA.
 www.sikkim.gov.in

GAZETTEER OF SIKHIM

First Published 1894

Reprinted 1989

PUBLICATIONS OF
SIKKIM NATURE CONSERVATION FOUNDATION
SEEKS TO PROJECT, THE RICH CIVILISATION
AND CULTURAL HERITAGE OF SIKKIM

Printed by Kwality Stores, National Highway, Gangtok. (Sikkim)

 www.sikkim.gov.in

(ORIGINAL TITLE-PAGE)

THE

GAZETTEER OF SIKHIM

WITH AN INTRODUCTION BY

H. H. RISLEY,
INDIAN CIVIL SERVICE, COMPANION OF THE INDIAN EMPIRE
OFFICIER D' ACADEMIE FRANCAISE.

EDITED IN THE BENGAL GOVERNMENT SECRETARIAT.

Calcutta

Printed At The Bengal Secretariat Press

1894.
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CONTENTS.

PAGE.
INTRODUCTION-By H. H. RISLEY, C.I.E
Physical features 1
Early history. 11
The Sikhim Raj
British intervention, 1817 . III
Cession of Darjeeling, 1835 III
Annexation of Morang, 1850 IV
Sikhim mediatised, 1861 . IV
Relations of Sikhim and Tibet. V
Proclamation of 1875 . . VI
Mr. Macaulay's proposed mission VI
Occupation of Lingtu by the Tibetans, 1886 VII
Attitude of Sikhim Raja VIII
The Galing Treaty. VIII
Map of Sikhim . IX
State of parties in Sikhim IX
British policy towards the East Himalayan States Xl
Tibet XI
Bhutan XIV
Nepal XV
Sikhim XV
Tibetans attack Gnatong, 22nd May 1888
XVIII
Final defeat of Tibetans, 24th September 1888
XIX
The future of Sikhim
XXI
GEOGRAPHICAL POSITION AND DESCRIPTION :
Sikhim, where situated and its area.
1
Its boundary described. . .
1
Extent of the Sikhim Raj as described by Dr. OldField and in
Hon'ble Mr. Eden's" Political Mission to Bhutan" 2
Peaks and passes 2
Towns and villages. 4

.
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11 CONTENTS.

PAGE
HISTORY OF SIKHIM AND ITS RULERS
Origin of the early Tibetan Kings, with short descriptions of
their reigns. . . . . . 5
Population, tribes, and chief families of Sikhim 27
Nomenclature of places 39

THE BOOK OF THE LAW By J. C. WHITE, C.E.

History of the laws.. 46
Summary of the sixteen laws
(1) General rules to be followed in time of war 46
(2) For those who are being defeated and cannot fight. 47
(3) For officers and Government servants 48
(4) Law of evidence 48
(5) Grave offences 49
(6) Fines inflicted for offences in order to make people
remember. 49
(7) Law of imprisonment 49
(8) For offenders who refuse to come in, an Orderly has to be
sent expressly to enquire about the case 50
(9) Murder. 50
(10) Bloodshed 51
(11) Oaths required for those who are false and avaricious 51
{12) Theft 52
(13) Disputes between near relatives, between man and wife,
. and between neighbors who have things in common. 53
(14) Taking another's wife, or adultery. 54
(15) Law of contract. .'
54
(16) For uncivilized people. 54
MARRIAGE CUSTOMS-By J. C. WHITE, C.E. 55
NOTES ON GEOLOGY AND MINERAL RESOURCES-By P. N. BOSE:-
Physical Geography. 67
Geology. 60
Economic Geology
Copper. 62
Copper ore locations 67
Iron. 72
Lime. 72
Garnet . . 73
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iii
CONTENTS.

PAGE.
AGRICULTURE-By J. C. WHITE, C.E.
Different kinds of rice enumerated 74
Other crops enumerated. . 74
Mode of brewing marua (chang), a kind of beer 75
Spices 76
Tea. 76
Cultivated fruits 76
Cultivated vegetables 76
Jungle products used for food. 77
Fibres. . . 77
Land measurement. 77
Cattle . . 78
Wages and prices 79

VEGETATION-By J GAMMIE
Its description according to Sir J. D. Hooker 80
Flowering plants and ferns 82
Orchids 85
Palms 88
Bamboos. 89
Rhododendrons 90
Primulas 91
Herbaceous' plants 91
Climbing plants 91
Trees of the" tropical zone" 92
Figs 92
Nettles 93
Jungly fruits, etc, eaten by Lepchas 93
Cultivated crops or the Lepchas 94

VEGETATION OF TEMPERATE AND ALP1NE SIKHIM-By G. A.

GAMMIE :
Definition of Alpine and. Temperate regions 95
Arboreal and shrubby vegetation 96
Lilium giganteum. . 96
Fern Osmunda Claytoniana 97
Woodwardia. radicans 97
Peach, apricot, and crab-apple. 97
Agriculture not pursued in earnest by the people 97
The Alpine region 99
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IV CONTENTS.

PAGE
.
The vegetation of the Singalelah Range and the slopes of
Kanchinjingna described . . . . . 99
Grasses and sedges. . . . . . . . . 100
Rhubarb . . . . . . . . . . 100
Pines and copses. . . . . . . . . 101
Rhododendrons, the glory of the Singalelah Range. . . 101
The Alpine part of the Lachung valley and its surrounding heights 102
Polypodium subamaenum . . . . . . . . 102
Other noteworthy plants. . . . . . . . 103
Fragrant spikenard. . . . . . . . . 103
Vegetation of the Chola Range. . . . . . 107
Table of Dicotyledonous orders of A1pinc Sikhim . . . 108
Few details in the phenomena of vegetation in the Alpine region
briefly noticed 109
Preponderance of shrubby and herbaceous plants with bright
coloured flowers. . . . . . . . . 109
Plants most fitted for the visitation of bees are commonest
at high elevations 109
Many labiates, composites and some primroses devoid of odour . 109
Plants having the divisions .of their inflorescence hidden under
cover lapping bracts. . . 110
Procumbent species of rhododendrons. 110
Orders with soft fleshy fruits 110
BUTTERFLIES-By J. GAMMIE:
Enumeration of butterflies according to Elwes and Muller,
together with the species discovered since 112
Family morphine .. 113
Moths 114

BUTTERFLIES-By LIONEL DE NICEVILLE, F.E.S., C.M.Z.S., &c. :-

Treatment of the subject. . . 116
Family Nymphalidre (Sub-family Danainae) . 117
" ( " Satyrinae) . . . . 119
( " Elymniinae ). . 129
" ( " Morphinae) . 130
" ( " Acraeinae) . 131
" ( " Nymphalinae) 132
Family Lemoniidae ( " Libythaenae) 148
" " .Nemeobiinae) . 149
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CONTENTS. V
PAGE.

Family Lyeaenidre 150

Family Papilionidae (Sub-family Pierinae) 165
" (" Papilioninae) 170
Family Hesperidae
176
REPTILES-By J GAMMIE:-
Lizards. . 188
Venomous snakes
188
Non-venomous snakes
189
Frogs and toads, etc
190
BIRDS-By J. GAMMIE:
Species of birds to be found in Sikhim 109
Wood-peckers 191
Long-tailed honey-suckers 192
Fly -catchers 193
Bulbuls . 194
Common swallow 195
Raven, jungle crow, etc 195
Birds of prey. 196
Pigeons and doves 196
Game-birds 197
LIST OF SIKHIM BIRDS AND NOTES THEREON-By L. A. WADDELL,
M.B.:
Want of local lists . 198
Avifauna well collected but requiring further notes 198
Author's collection. . . 199
The richness of the avifauna 199
The climate. . 199
Geographical position 199
Physical aspect 199
'River system. 200
Variety of climate . 200
Climatic zones. 200
The zoological position of Sikhim 201
Some explanation about the lists ." 202
Vernacular names. . . 202
Rarity or otherwise of the species 202
Inclusion of former records in the list 202
Range 202
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VI CONTENTS

PAGE.
Collecting stations 202
Some explanation about the notes 203
Distribution list of the birds 204
Notes on the above list 221

MAMMALS-By J. GAMMIE:
Classification 235
Monkeys. 235
Tigers, leopards, etc 235
Indian mungoose . 236
Jackal and wild dog. 236
Indian marten (Mustela flavigula) and yellow-bellied weasel
(Putorius cathia). 236
The cat-bear (Aklurus fulgens), the brown-bear, and the black
bear. . . 237
Mole (Talpa micrura) 238
Marmots and porcupine 238
Squirrels. . . 238
Shon (Sikhim stag), serow; (samber stag) and other deers 238

LAMAISM: IN SIKH1M-By L. A. WADDELL, M.B.:

Chapter I.-Historic Sketch of the Lamaic Church in Sikhim

Lamaism the State religion of Sikhim 241
Want of previously published detailed account. 241
Lamaism described as a priestcraft 241
Sources of information. . 241
Buddhism of purely Indian origin and growth. 242
Origin of Buddhism. . . . 242
Its spread in India and outside of it . 242
Its late extension to Tibet. 242
The great schisms . 243
The southern school. 243
The northern school 243
Its leader. 243
Its nature. 243
Addition of mythology 243
Mysticism. 243
Tantricism 243
Its numerous deities, female energies . 244
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CONTENTS. vii.

PAGE.
Growth of image worship by Buddhists 244
State of Indian Buddhism at time of introduction to Tibet. . 244
Acceptance of the doctrine of the Kalachakra or supreme, deity
without beginning or end by the Lamas. 244
The founder of Lamaism. . . . 244
Origin of Lamaism.a century later than the time of King Thi
Srong De-tsan 740-786 A.D. . . . . . 244
Story of the visit to Tibet of its founder, guru Rimpochbe . 244
His route to Tibet and doings en route . . . . 244
"Lamaism" defined. 245
Lilmaic sects (the Kah-dam-pa, Ge-luk-pa, Nying-ma-pa, Kargyupa
with its sub-sects, Kar-ma-pa, Di-kung-pa, Talung-pa, Dukpa, and
Sakya-pa with its sub-sects, Ngor-pa, Jonang-po,
Tarnath, Nying-ma-pa) . . 245
Introduction of Lamaism into Sikhim 248
Legendary account of the guru's visit to Sikhim 248
Lhatsun Chhembo first introduced Lamaism to Sikhim 248
Discovery of the holy sites of Sikhim by him 248
His titles. . 248
His early history 248
His miraculous reconnaissance and entry. 248
His meeting with two other Lamas. 249
Their appointment, and coronation of a king of Sikhim 249
Appearance of Lhatsun 249
His incarnation 250
Religions ousted by. Lamaism, its peculiarities and its sects 250
Description of the Nyingma-pa and its sub-sects 250
Specialities of Nyingma-pa 251
The worship of guru Rimbochhe 251
The guru's eight forms 251
Head monasteries of the Nyingma-pa sect 252
Peculiarities of the Karmapa sub-sect 252
Establishment of their first monastery in Sikhim 252
Their temples 252

Chapter II-General Description of Sikhim Monasteries.

Monasteries of three kinds 253
The four great caves 'Of Sikhim 253
The gompa or monastery proper 253
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VIII CONTENTS.

PAGE.
Its isolation 253
Conditions necessary for its site . 254
General plan of the buildings . 254
Its surroundings . . . 254
The chhortens (receptacle for offerings) 255
The- great Tashiding chhorten . 256
Mendongs . . . 256
Pradakshina mode of passing religious buildings. 256
Lama's throne. . 256
Ransomed animals . 257
Proximity of murwa (Eleusine corocana) fields to monasteries for
the brewing of beer 257
List of monasteries. 257
The older monasteries 258
Pemiongchi and its ta sang or "pure monks" of pure Tibetan
race. . . . 258
Monasteries according to sect 258
Lepcha monasteries. . 258
Nuns admitted to a few monasteries. 259
The names of the monasteries. . 259
Proportion of Lamas to Buddhist population 259

Chapter III.- The Temple and its Contents.

The temple 259
Its names. 259
Its exterior 260
Its entrance 260
Vestibule figures 260
The guardian kings of the quarters. 261
Prayer-barrels. . 261
The door of temple. 262
Its interior . . 262
Central triad of images 262
Other images. 263
Material of images 264
Frescoes and framed paintings . 264
Plan of interior 264
Seats of officers. 265
Decorations 265
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CONTENTS.

IX
Side-chapels PAGE.
265
Upper flat
265
Description of the pictorial wheel of life .
266
The altar. 274
Its tiers. 274
Its accessories . 274
The offerings. 275
Food offering. 275
Candles. 275
The essential offerings 275
Order of offerings .
275
Accompanying worship
276
Special banquet to the host of gods and demons.
276
When given. 277
Its arrangement 277
Other articles on altar 279
The Lama's table. 281
Lamaic rosaries, their origin and uses 282
Description of the rosary and its appendages, vernacular name,
its number of beads 108 282
The head beads 283
283
The counters.
284
Use of counters
284
Material of beads 284
Yellow rosary. 285
. 'White rosary.
Crystal, sandal-wood, coral, human skull, elephant-stone, rak-sha, 285
nan-ga. pani snake spines, and 'lay rosaries
Mode of telling the beads. . 287
Mystic formulas for the beads. 287
Origin of the formula" Om mani " 289
List of the masks 290
291
Dress of masquers
291
Lamaic library 291
Kan-gyur (the translated commandments). 291
Tengyur (translated doctrinal commentaries) 291
Divisions of Kah-gyur
"Bum," "Nyi.thi," "G'ye tong-ba," 'Dorje-chopa, Do-mang,
Pedma kah-thang, "Namthars," Lepcha Scriptures and mis-
cellaneous books.
292
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x CONTENTS.

PAGE.
Chapter IV-Monkhood.
The curriculum 294
Popularity of the Church, one son in a family to become a lama,
course of training . . . . . . 294
Preliminary examination-Physical, age, parentage, physical
294
examination and tutor. . . . . . . .
Probation-Position of probationer, tuition and list of text-books,
some precious maxims on speech, purposes of human gatherings,
eight acts of low-born persons, the ten faults, three improper acts,
and test of results 296
The noviciate-its general character, appraising of descent, pre-
liminary presents, etc formal acceptance of candidate, tonsuring,
baptism, etc, introduction to assembly as a bride, confirmation of
noviciate, his life as a novice, first professional examination, text-
297
books for first examination, penalties of failure to pass the text-
books for second examination, ordinary practice
The monkhood, position and privileges of a junior monk, his further
academic instruction, his sacerdotal functions, penalty for
violation of celibacy 301
Lamaic grades and discipline 302
Lower offices 302
Higher offices. 303
Commissariat officer and provost marshal. 303
U m-dse, Dorje Lo-pon and the Bishop 304

MONASTIC ROUTINE AS A VILLAGE PRIEST:

Night devotion, meditative postures, expulsion of the three original
sins, mummery, ritual, repetition of mantras, further devotion,
offerings at dawn, morning's occupation and evening service.
. . . . . . 304
In monastic residence, monastery routine, morning muster for mass,
service of tea, grace before drinking, service of soup,
celebration of mass, the refuge formula and other services. 306
In hermitage, the meditation of hermits, temporary hermitage and its
exercises. . 312
The worship of Dolma, the deliveress 313
Her popularity 313
Semblance to the Virgin Mary. 314
Origin of her worship 314
Her forms 314
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CONTENTS Xl

PAGE.
The white form 314
The green form 314
Her manual of worship 315
Translation of the manual 315

Chapter V -Some Magic Rites and Charms,

Description of the" mandala" or magic circle, offering of the
universe . 320
The daily offering of the universe 320
The universe according to the Lamas. 320
Its general description. . 320
Its dimensions and the continents 321
Mount Ri-rab (Meru) and its compartments with the heavens
above 322
The eight matris 323
The seven precious things of an Emperor, 323

THE MODE OF OFFERING THE MANDALA;

The ceremony of making the mandala and the mental part of
the process. 324
The daily service of presentation of offerings 326
The eight essential offerings 326 .
The offering of the five sensuous excellent things 327
Ditto of the seven precious things, 328
Ditto of the eight glorious symbols 329

DIVINATION BY LOTS
Lucky and unlucky days and times, omens, divination by cards,
by the rosary . 330
Manipulation of rosary 331
Results.. . 331
Ordinary mode of divination by seeds or pebbles in fifteen,
twenty-one, and twenty-eight 332
Dice used in divination 334
Ordinary ivory dice. 334
Wooden dice, . 335
The gamble of re-birth 336
The grand coup, 337
The Lamaic Zadkiel , 337
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xII CONTENTS.

PAGE.
TALISMANS AND AMULETS CHARMS:
Talismans as curative medicine 338
Amulets. . 338
General form of charm 338
Charm against wounds 340
Other charms. 340
Garuda charm against plague and other diseases 342
Scorpion charm against injury by demons. 343
Charm against dog-bite 348
Charm against eagles and birds of prey 343
Charm for killing ones enemy. 344
Other contrivances for the destruction of the enemy. 346

THE PRAYER FLAGS

The luck flags and. their origin. 347

DIFFERENT FORMS OF THE LUCK FLAG :

The Lung-ta, the Chopen, the Gyal-tsen or "victorious banner,"
and the vast luck flag . 348
Worship for the planting of luck flags 350

Chapter VI.-Demonolatry.
Personal demons, five in number, and designated the male ancestral
god, the mother god, the life god the birth-place god, and the
"da-lha." or enemy god
353
Worship according to season
354
Country gods, the" Black Father Devil" .
355
The mountain god Kang-chhen-dso-nga
355
Local gods . 356
The owner demons of ridges and passes 356
Soothsaying and necromancy . 356
The Lamas and devil worship. 357
The Lamas, the prescribers of the devil worship 357
The prescriptions based on Chinese astrology. 357
Nomenclature of the Chinese system of chronology 357
The conflict of the animals 358
Relationships of the elements 359
General nature of the horoscope 360
The astrologer's board 361
The calculations 361
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CONTENTS. XIII

PAGE.
Symbols of degrees of relationship 361 .
Prescriptions for worship on account of one year's ill-luck-an
annual horoscope. . . . . 362
The enormous amount of Lamaic worship prescribed on account of
current year's demoniacal influences 368
The house demon 369
His movements 369
Ditto according to old fashion 370
His prohibitions inflicted. . 370
Earth demons and their worship 371
Sky demons and their worship. 373

THE MEANS OF PREVENTING THE INJURIES OF THE EIGHT

CLASSES OF DEMONS :
Offerings and prayers. . 374
Exorcising the disease producing demons-the" She " 375
THE DIRECTIONS FORTHE EXORCISM
The offerings and effigies. 375
The exorcism. 376
Death ceremonies. 379
The extraction of the soul 379
Death horoscope. 379
Ditto of a girl 380
Location of corpse, invitation and entertainment of friends, feasting
the deceased. . . . . . . 381
The Litanies for the "'W estern Paradise," for" the Valley of the
Shadow of Death.'" and for extraction from hell 382
Removal of corpse and the funeral procession 383
Ceremony of the exorcising of the demon, 383
A description of the ceremony. . . 384
Offerings of food and drink in connection with the ceremony 385
Enchanted weapon for the conflict 385
Beginning of the act of exorcism 385
Ejection of the effigy of the death demon. 386
Subsequent ceremonies. . . . 386
The Lay figure of the deceased and its rites, effigy of deceased,
the face-paper . . . 387
Duration of the service of the eight' highest buddhas of medicine
and the service of the Western Paradise 388
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XIV COXTENTS.

PAG E.
THE BURNING OF THE FACE-PAPER CALLED CHANG-KU :
The mode of divining the signs of the flames during the burning of
the chang-paper 389
Collection of the ashes of the burned paper to form miniature
chaityas, and the dismantling of the effigy of the dead person 391
Liberty of the widow or widower to remarry after the lapse of
one year from death 391
How to exorcise ghosts 391
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LIST OF FULL PAGE ILLUSTRATIONS

Number of plate Description Facing page

I Genealogical Tree of Lamaic Sects 245

II Diagram showing the affiliation of the sub-sects of Kar- Gyupa 246

III Shatsun Chembo 247

IV Diagrammatic Ground Plan of a Sikhim Temple 262

V Guru Rimbochhe 263

VI Kang-chhen-dso-ngn 263

VII The Pictoral Wheel of Life 266

VIII Key to Plate VII of the Wheel of Life 266

IX Lamaic Rosaries 282

X Chart of the Universe according to the Lamas 320

XI Diagram showing the composition of the Mandala 321

XII Lotus dice- board 336

XIII The General Charm Print entitled Assembly of Lama hearts 337

XIV Garuda charm against plague and other diseases 342

XV Tamdin charm against diseases 343

XVI Scorpion charm against injury by demons 343

XVII Fig 1 Charm against injury by demons 343

Fig 2 Charm against eagles and birds of prey 343

XVIII The Pegasus .Horse of Luck The Lung -Ta -Flag 348

XIX The Flag of Vast Luck 349

XX The Tibetan House God 388

XXI The effigy of the dead person 389

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INTRODUCTION.

PHYSICAL
ON the northern border of the British district of Darjeeling, the main chain ofFEATURES
the Himalayas throws out to the southward two enormous spurs-the Singilela and
Cholet ranges. These almost impassable barriers enclose three sides of a gigantic
amphitheatre, hewn, as it were, out of the Himalaya, and sloping down on its
southern or open side towards the plains of India. The tracts of mountainous
country thus shut in consist of a tangled series of interlacing ridges, rising range
above range to the foot of the wall of high peaks and passes which marks the"
abode of snow" and its offshoots. The steps of this amphitheatre make up the
territory known as Independent Sikhim (Sukhim or new house; the encircling
.
wall of peaks and passes forms on the north and east the
. frontier of Tibet, while
on the west and south-east it divides Sikhim and Darjeeling from Nepal, and' the
' '

Dichu forms the boundary between Sikhim and Bhutan. Pursuing our simile a
little further, we may add that the lower levels of the Sikhim amphitheatre, the
valleys of the Tista and Balasan and Mahanadi rivers, are similar in character to,
and virtually form part of, our frontier district of Darjeeling. The northern hills,
on the other hand, whence the snow. fed torrents of the Lachen and Lachung
struggle down through precipitous valleys to unite in the broader but hardly less
turbulent Tista, are moulded on a grander and more markedly Himalayan scale.
Geographically speaking, these heights are of closer kin to the snow clad giants
which dominate them than to the lower elevations and tamer scenery of Sikhim
Proper. With the latter, indeed, all inter-, course is cut off during five months of
the year, and during this time the people of the highlands dwell apart except for
occasional visits from traders, who find their way over the Kangralama pass in
Tibet.
EARLY HISTORY
Of the early history of Sikhim a few doubtful glimpses reach us through the thick
mist of Lepcha tradition. The Lepchas, or as they call themselves, the Rong-
pa(ravine-folk), claim to be the autoch-thones of Sikhim Proper. Their physical
characteristics stamp them as members of the Mongolian race, and certain
peculiarities of language and religion render it probable that the tribe is a very
ancient colony from Southern Tibet. They are above all things woodmen of the
woods, knowing the ways of birds and beasts, and possessing an extensive
zoological and botanical nomenclature of their own. Of late years, as the hills
have been stripped of their timber by the European tea.planter and the pushing
Nepalese agriculturist, while the Forest Department has set it face
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11 INTRODUCTION

against primitive methods of cultivation, the tribe is on the way to being pushed
out. The cause of their decline is obscure. There is no lack of employment for
them: labour is badly wanted and well paid; and the other races of the Darjeeling
hills have flourished exceedingly since European enterprise and capital have
made the cultivation of tea the leading industry of the district. The Lepchas alone
seem to doubt whether life is worth living under the shadow of advancing
civilization, and there can, we fear, be little question that this interesting and
attractive race will soon go the way of the forest which they believe to be their
original home
THE SIKHIM RAJ.
The legendary account of the founding of the Sikhim Raj connects
.
ththe-establishment of settled government in that country' with" the great
ritualistic schism in the Tibetan Church. Tradition tells how three monks of
the dukpa or red.hat sect, flying from the persecution set on foot by the
reforming party in Tibet, met after many wanderings at the village of Yaksun,
under Kinchinjunga. Here they sent for the ancestor of the Rajas of Sikhim,
Pencho Namgay, an influential Tibetan then residing at Guntuk, and an alliance
was formed, having for its object the conversion of the Lepchas to Buddhism,
and the installation of Pencho Namgay as the Raja of the whole country. Both
objects were attained. The easy-going Lepchas readily accepted the externals of
Buddhism, monasteries and churches rose to preserve the memory of the
missionary monks, and the descendants of the Tibetan settler are recognised to
this day as the rightful rulers of Sikhim. The external policy of the petty
princedom thus formed was determined by the manner of its creation. In the
East religion is still a power, and all things take their colouring from the faith of
the ruler. The chief of a barbarous tribe, raised to power by the ingenuity of
Tibetan monks, must needs, in default of stronger influences, acknowledge the
religious and political predominance of the rulers of Tibet. As the craving for
ritual revived, and the hostility between the rival sects showed signs of abating,
the religious and political bonds linking Sikhim with Tibet began to be drawn
tighter. Doubtful questions of discipline and procedure were referred to Lhassa
for the decision of the Dalai Lama, and his mandate was virtually, if not
statedly, admitted to be the final appellate authority for Sikhim Buddhists.
While this religious rapprochement was going on, the Rajas of Sikhim were
brought within the attraction of a civilization far higher than their own. Wool
silk, tea, all the comforts and ornaments of life, came to them from Tibet; while
intercourse with other countries was difficult. Small wonder, then,. that their
continual effort was to show themselves to be thorough Tibetans; that the
Tibetan language came into use at their court, and that their chief
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INTRODUCTION. 111

advisers were drawn from Tibetan monasteries. In course of time this connection
grew to be closer, and the last three Rajas have married Tibetan wives, and have
held landed property and owned herds of cattle in Tibet. Such marriages
introduced a new and important factor into Sikhim politics. Women brought up
in the dry keen air of Tibet could not stand the moist warmth of the Sikhim hills,
drenched by the immoderate rainfall which prevails on the southern slopes of
'the Eastern Himalayas. Their influence, coupled with the Tibetan proclivities of
their husbands, promoted by the Nepalese invasion of the country, induced the
Rajas to transfer the head-quarters of their Government to the valley of Chumbi,
one march to the Tibetan side of the Jelap pass. The prolonged residence of the
chief in Tibetan territory had the worst effect on the internal administration of
the State. Abuses of all kinds sprung up, while redress was hard to obtain.
Lepcha interests were neglected, and Chumbi became the Hanover of Sikhim
BRITISH INTERVENTION 1817.
Meanwhile a still greater Power was being compelled, in spite of itself, to
enter the field of East Himalayan politics. Already for thirty years the bigoted
and warlike Hindus of Nepal had been harrying their peaceful Buddhist
neighbors with cattle-lifting and slave taking incursions. Before the year 1814
they had conquered and annexed the, Terai or lower hills, lying between the
Mechi and Tista rivers, and now covered by the valuable tea-gardens of the
Darjeelillg Terai. But for our intervention they would probably have
permanently turned the whole of Sikhim and the hills south and west of the
Tista. into a province of Nepal. Peace had to be kept on the frontier, and the
Government of India was the only Power willing or able to keep it. At the close,
therefore, of the Goorkha war in 1817 we restored the Terai to Sikhim, and took
such guarantees as were possible against a renewal of hostilities on our border.
By the treaty of Titalya we assumed the position. of lords paramount of Sikhim,
and our title to exercise a predominant influence in that State has remained
undisputed for seventy years, until recently challenged by the monastic party in
Tibet.
CESSION OF DARJEELING 1835
Following our traditional policy; we meddled as little as possible in the
affairs of Sikhim, and no further negotiations took place until 1834, when
certain Lepcha malcontents, who had sought refuge in Nepal, made a raid on
the tract ceded in 1817. Under pressure from us the refugees returned to Nepal,
and the opportunity was taken by the Government of India to . procure from the
Raja of Sikhim the cession of the hilt-station of Darjeeling and a small tract
immediately surrounding it .Fifteen years afterwards Dr Campbell the
Superintendent of

. "
IV INTRODUCTION. www.sikkim.gov.in

Darjeeling, and Dr. (now Sir Joseph) Hooker, while travelling in Sikhim with
the permission of the British Government and the Raja, were seized and
imprisoned by the influential monopolist, Namguay, popularly known as the
Pagla Diwdn, or "mad Prime Minister" of Sikhim.
ANNEXATION OF MORANG 1850
This treachery was punished by the annexation of the entire Terai and a large area of
the middle hills bounded on the north by the Great Rungeet river. But Namguay,
though ostensibly dismissed from office, continued to exercise great influence
through his wife, an i1legitimate daughter of the Raja. Criminals were harboured in
Sikhim, and British subjects were kidnapped from our own territory for the
purposes of the slave-trade between Sikhim and Bhutan. Having exhausted all
ordinary forms or protest, the Government of India found it necessary in 1860-
61 to order the occupation of Sikhim by force under Colonel Gawler,
accompanied by the Honourable Ashley Eden as Envoy and Special
Commissioner. Our troops advanced to the Tista, the Raja accepted the terms
offered, and in March 1861 a treaty was concluded at Tumlong, the capital of
Sikhim, which regulates our relations with the State up to the present day. Its
chief provisions are the following:
SIKKIM MEDIATISED 1861
"Criminals, defaulters or other delinquents" are to be seized and given up on
demand, and may be followed by our police. The ex-Diwan Namguay and all
his blood relations are for ever banished from Sikhim, and excluded from the
Raja's council at Chumbi. Trade monopolies, restrictions on the movements of
travellers and duties on goods passing between Sikhim and British territory,
are abolished. Power is given to the British Government to make a road
through Sikhim, and the Sikhim Government covenants to protect the working
parties, to maintain the road in repair, and to erect and maintain suitable rest-
houses for travelers. The slave-trade is prohibited. Our suzerainty in questions
of foreign policy is recognised, and Sikhim undertakes not to cede or lease any
portion of its territory, or to permit the passage of troops, without our consent.
Finally, the Raja" agrees to remove the seat of his Government from Tibet to
Sikhim, and reside there for nine months in the year," No more complete
recognition of our supremacy in matters of external policy, and of our right to
prescribe certain essential conditions of internal administration, could well be
demanded.
Up to this time, and indeed for some years afterwards, Tibet appears to
have taken no active interest in the internal politics of Sikhim. The leading
Tibetans, whether lamas or laymen, were unwilling to be mixed up in any way
with Sikhim affairs, and looked with suspicion and dislike on the residence of
the Raja at Chumbi, as likely to lead to dangerous political complications.
Sikhim, again, though
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INTRODUCTION.
acknowledging the religious supremacy
------ of the Dalai Lama, was as far
as possible from posing as a vassal of her Eastern neighbour.
RELATIONS OF SIKHIM AND TIBET
Notwithstanding the close matrimonial and proprietary connections between
the reigning family and Tibet, the Raja had at no time put forward his relations
with that country as a reason for failing to comply with the demands of our
Government, nor had we in our dealings with him made allowance for any
possible claims to suzerainty on the part of Tibet. No difficulty, therefore, was
experienced in carrying out the terms of the treaty of 1861. Europeans
travelling in Sikhim were cordially received by the lamas and people surveys
were commenced without hindrance; criminals were surrendered by the
Sikhimese, or captured with their consent by the police of Darjeeling; freer
intercourse with Darjeeling brought about the extinction of slavery; and many
British subjects acquired landed property in Sikhim and held office under the
Government of that country. The actions of the Raja himself showed a'
tendency to look to us rather than to Tibet. for guidance and support. In 1873
he was permitted to visit Darjeeling, where he had an interview with Sir
George Campbell. The results of this were that the allowance he received from
us was increased from Rs. 9,000 to Rs. 12,000; and in the cold season of 1873-
74 the Deputy Commissioner of Darjeeling was deputed to visit Sikhim and the
Tibet frontier to enquire into the condition and prospects of trade with Tibet,
and the advisability of making a road through Sikhim to the Tibetan frontier. In
the course of this tour the Deputy Commissioner (Mr., afterwards Sir, John
Ware Edgar, K.C.I.E., C.S.I.) visited all the passes of the Chola range, the
eastern wing of the Sikhim amphitheatre, meeting the Raja and his chief
officials and some officers of the Tibetan district of Phari. He discovered that
the Tibetans were very jealous of our attempts to use the Sikhim Government
and country in our efforts to open up trade with Tibet, and that the Chinese
ampa, or Resident of Lhassa, had written to the Raja in the name of the
Emperor of China, reminding him that he was bound to prevent the" Peling
Sahibs" (Europeans) from crossing the frontier of Tibet, and warning him that
if he continued to make roads for the Sahibs through Sikhim, "it would not be
well with him." In deference to this feeling, no attempt was made by the
Deputy Commissioner to cross the Tibetan frontier; but the discussions on the
subject left no doubt as to the tact that the frontier line was the water-parting of
the Chola range, and it was assumed throughout as a matter of course that Tibet
had no right of interference, direct or indirect, in the country to the west of the
frontier. She desired, in fact, nothing more than that her ancient solitary reign
should remain unmolested by the approach of the European trader.
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VI INTRODUCTION.

The following year witnessed a still more striking assertion of our

supremacy. The sudden death of the Sikhim Raja gave the signal for the revival
of an old intrigue to substitute a half-brother for the Raja's brother and heir, who
was disfigured by a hare-lip. At this juncture the Deputy Commissioner of
Darjeeling, acting in anticipation of the orders of the Government of India,
caused the brother, the present Raja, to be proclaimed, and thus finally made an
end of the intrigue. Not a whisper was heard on the frontier of remonstrance
against this vigorous piece of king-making, and Tibet acquiesced silently in an
act which struck at the root of any claim on her part to exercise a paramount
influence in the affairs of the Sikhim State.
PROCLAMATION OF 1875 .
The march of subsequent events was altogether in tune with our proclamation.
In all our dealings with the Raja there never was a question raised as to the
.
claim of Tibet to control him,' while his absolute dependence on our Government
was throughout acknowledged by him and his people. Sir Richard Temple, while
Lieutenant-Governor of Bengal, made several excursions in Sikhim, and during
his tenure of office a road was constructed through a portion of that country to
the Tibetan frontier at the Jelap pass. In this work we received the active assis-
tance of the Sikhim State, and met with no objections on the part of Tibet,
though it was well known that the Government and people of that country
looked on our proceedings with a certain amount of suspicion and uneasiness.
We may even go so far as to credit with some political foresight an old. Tibetan
who said to the Deputy Commissioner while" some blasting operations were in
progress on the road-" Sahib, the sound of that powder is heard at Lhassa
MR .MACAULAYS PROPOSED MISSION
Seven years later, the question of promoting commercial intercourse with Tibet,
which had dropped out of notice during the troubles in Afghanistan, was again
pressed on the Government of Bengal in the general interests of British trade in
the East. Mr. Colman Macaulay, .Financial Secretary to that Government, was
deputed to visit Sikhim and the Tibetan frontier in order to inquire into certain
rumours of the stoppage of trade through Darjeeling by Tibetan officials; to
ascertain whether a direct road could be opened through the Lachen valley
between Darjee1ing and the province of Tsang, celebrated for the quality of its
wool; and if possible to communicate ,through the
..officials at the head of the Lachen valley, a friendly 'message from the
Government of India to the Minister at Tashe-lhunpo, the capital of Tsang. At
Giagong in the north of Sikhim, Mr. Macaulay met the Jangpen or civil officer
of the Tibetan district of Kamba, and collected much interesting information
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INTRODUCTION. Vll

regarding the possibilities of trade between Tibet and India. In the following
year, under instructions from the English Foreign Office, he visited Peking and
obtained from the Chinese Government passports for a mixed political and
scientific Mission to proceed to Lhassa for three or four months to confer with
the Chinese Resident and the Lhassa Government on the free admission of native
Indian traders to Tibet, and the removal of obstructions on the trade through
Sikhim and Darjeeling, it being understood that no proposal for the general
admission of Europeans would be brought forward.
TIBETANS OCCUPY LINGTU 1886
Early in 1886 the Mission was organised, and assembled at Darjeeling with a
small escort of native troops for the protection of the treasure and presents which
it carried. While it was waiting to start, negotiations commenced with China
concerning the north-eastern frontier of Upper Burma, then recently annexed,
and in deference to Chinese susceptibilities the Government of India consented
to forego their intention of dispatching a Mission to Lhassa. This forbearance,
though highly appreciated by China, seems to have been misunderstood by the
monastic party in Tibet, whose desire to promote a policy of exclusion, and to
maintain their own monopoly of trade with India, was connived at by the Chinese
Resident. Arguing in true Asiatic fashion, the monks concluded that we broke up
our mission because we were afraid of them.
.
They assumed a highly aggressive attitude and sent a small body of Tibetan
militia to occupy Lingtu, a point about twelve
'
miles to the" Sikhim side of the
frontier, on the top of a high peak crossed by our road to the Jelap, one of the
passes of the Chola range. Here the invaders constructed, at an elevation of
12,617 feet above the sea, a stone fort blocking and commanding the road; they
warned off one of our native engineers, and announced their intention of
stopping all trade by that route between Tibet and India. This open violation of
territory under our protection was at first looked upon by us as a temporary
outburst of Tibetan Chauvinism, which we could well afford to disregard. It
was confidently expected that the mob of archers, slingers, and matchlockmen
collected on a barren windswept ridge at a height which even Tibetans find
trying, would speedily fall away under stress of cold and starvation; and that
the Chinese Government, moved partly by our diplomatic remonstrances, and
partly by fear lest we should treat the Lingtu demonstration as a pretext for
entering Tibet in force, would compel the Lhassa authorities to adjust their
relations with Sikhim on a basis involving the recognition of our predominance
in that State.
Our expectations were signally disappointed. Not only did the Tibetans hold
their ground at Lingtu with characteristic Mongolian
 INTRODUCTION.
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-----

obstinacy, but their refusal to receive letters or to enter into negotiations with us
soon began to produce an alarming effect in Sikhim.
ATTITUDE OF SIKHIM RAJA
When called upon to visit Darjeeling for the purpose of conferring with the
Lieutenant-Governor concerning the affairs of his State, the Raja of Sikhim, after
exhausting the.standard Oriental excuses, replied in so many words that he and
his people had in 1886 signed a treaty declaring that Sikhim was subject only to
China and Tibet. He was therefore unable to come to Darjeeling without the
express permission of the Tibetan Government. The history of this treaty is
curious. It is alleged that in 1880 one of the Tibetan Secretaries of State,
accompanied by a Chinese military officer, went to Paro in Bhutan, for the
purpose of settling some local disturbance. On their return to Phari, in Tibet, an
attempt, at that time unsuccessful, was made to extract a similar agreement from
Sikhim. Six years later, when our influence in Sikhim had begun to wane, the
subject was reopened, and a formal treaty was signed at Galing, in Tibet, by the
Raja, on behalf of the "people of Sikhim, priests and laymen:"
THEGALING TREATY
The treaty, which is couched in the form of a petition to the two Chinese
Residents at Lhassa set forth that some Europeans, after petitioning the great
officers of China, have, to the detriment of religion, got an order to enter Tibet
for trade.
From the time of Chogel Penchoo Namguay (first Raja of Sikhim), all our Rajas
and other subjects have obeyed
' the .orders of China. . You have" ordered us by
strategy or force to stop the passage of the Rishi river between Sikhim and
British territory; but we are small and the sarkar ( British Government) is great,
and we may not succeed, and may then fall into the mouth of the .tiger-lion. In
such a crisis, if you, as our old friends, can make some arrangements, even then
in good and evil we will not leave 'the shelter of the feet of China and Tibet. . . .
We all, king and subjects, priests and laymen honestly promise to prevent
persons from crossing the boundary."
The ultimate aim of this singular document, in which we are referred to
under the form of one of those composite animals familiar to students of Tibetan
chronology, is illustrated and made clear by a very remarkable map found by a
man of the Derbyshire Regiment in a house at Rinchingong, where a Tibetan
General and Secretary of State were so nearly surprised by our troops that the tea
they had been drinking was still hot in the cups when the house was entered.
This map purports to show the tract of country extending from Phari to
Darjeeling. At the latter place, temples, houses, trees, and a locomotive puffing
smoke at the railway station; are depicted with much display of accuracy.
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INTRODUCTION. IX

In one respect it is even more realistic than the medieval maps to which it bears a
general resemblance; for the houses on either side of the Darjeeling spur are
reversed in relation to each other, so that to bring them into their proper
positions, the map, which is drawn on cloth, must be tilted up from below like
the ridge of a tent.
MAP OF SIKHIM
As a political manifesto, the map is of peculiar interest at the present time; and
one is disposed to wonder that our barbarous neighbours should have been so
ready to adopt one of the characteristic weapons of modern diplomacy. The
Lingtu fort, with its block-house and wall, stands out in conspicuous disregard of
proportion and perspective; while Tibetan territory (coloured yellow) is shown as
extending to the Rishi river, about thirty miles in advance of the frontier hitherto
recognised by all parties concerned. Although the borders of Tibet are to this
extent enlarged, the assertion of her paramount authority over Sikhim is not
indicated on the face of the map. So far at least as colouring goes, that State is
not made out to be a part of Tibet. It is painted red, while the British district of
Darjeeling is shown in a lighter shade of the same colour.
Had this been all-had an aggressive Tibet and a Tibetanising Raja of Sikhim
been the only elements of danger that we were called upon to face-we might
perhaps safely have indulged our national proclivities, and with some loss of
prestige in Eastern Asia, have permitted the tangle to unwind itself. The Raja's
announcement of his change of allegiance might have been looked upon as a
meaningless flourish, to be punished by severe reproof and the stoppage of his
subsidy; while the withdrawal of the Tibetans from Lingtu might ultimately have
been brought about by the tardy action of China, which must sooner or later have
called so unruly a vassal to order. But this door of escape from unwelcome action
was absolutely closed by the state of feeling in Sikhim.
STATE OF PARTIES IN SIKHIM
We may repeat here what has already been indicated above, that from the
commencement of our relations with Sikhim there have been two parties in that
State-one which may be called the Lepcha or national party, consistently
friendly to our Government, and a foreign or Tibetan party, steadily hostile. The
family of the chiefs has generally been by way of siding with the latter, partly in
consequence of their habit of marrying Tibetan women, and partly through their
fondness for Chumbi. Of late years a further complication has been introduced
by the settlement of colonies of Nepalese in parts of Sikhim--a measure favored
by the Lepchas generally .These settlers look to us for protection in case of
danger and are naturally friendly to our government , but their presence is
regarded with disfavor by many
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x INTRODUCTION.

influential lamas, who allege that they waste the forests, allow their cattle to
trespass, and make themselves unpleasant neighbours in other ways. In truth,
however, the unwarlike Sikhimese have a wholesome dread of the fighting races
of Nepal, and fear lest the industrious Newars who have settled along their
southern border should be merely the forerunners of an invading army of
Goorkhas. So long as these three parties maintained what may be, called their
natural relations, there was no fear of our influence declining, and the internal
affairs of the country could be trusted to adjust themselves with the minimum of
interference on our part. But when we came to inquire how things actually stood,
and to look below the surface of the Lingtu demonstration, we were forced in
spite of ourselves to admit that within the last three or four years some
remarkable changes had taken place in the political situation. Tibet, as has already
been pointed out, had assumed an attitude of unmistakable, though probably
cautious, aggression; while the leaders of the Sikhim people, and Nepalese
settlers with influence and property in that country, had begun to ask themselves
seriously whether it might not be necessary for their ultimate safety to cast in
their lot with the Tibetan party. These men, although as anxious as ever to keep
up their former relations, and fully as hostile to Tibetan encroachment, had begun
to doubt our desire or our ability to assist them, and openly expressed their fear of
being" drowned," as they worded it, if they persisted in trying to swim against the
current now running in favour of Tibet. The head of the Nepalese party, himself a
resident of Darjeeling, explained in the clearest language that he would do
anything we told him to do if assured of our support and ultimate protection; but
that failing this guarantee he must make his peace with the Tibetan party as the
only hope of saving his property in Sikhim from confiscation, and his relatives
there from imprisonment or death. The fact that this line was taken by a represen
tative of the Nepalese settlers in Sikhim was of itself the clearest indication of the
extent to which our influence had been undermined. Things must have gone very
far before these settlers-people almost bigoted in their Hinduism, with just
enough Mongolian blood in their veins to make them hate the Mongols-could
bring themselves to contemplate the possibility of coming to terms with their
ancient enemies. Things clearly had gone so far that unless we bestirred ourselves
in a speedy and effective fashion, Sikhim would either become once for all a
province of Tibet, or, if we were not prepared to acquiesce in that solution of the
difficulty, would have to be regularly conquered by us with the people of the
country either actively hostile, or, which is perhaps worse, sulkily and
treacherously neutral. Some months before, representations had been made to
China in the belief that her influence
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INTRODUCTION . xi

would suffice to bring about a peaceful settlement. But it is a far cry from
Peking to Lhassa; the wheels of State move slowly in China, and no effective
action appears to have been taken. In default, therefore, of any means of
introducing the Tibetans themselves to civilised methods of settling international
disagreements, it was decided to send an ultimatum to the troops at Lingtu,
warning them that if they did not abandon the post by the 14th of March they
would be driven out by force of arms. Meanwhile, lest it should be supposed that
even then we were not in earnest, the 32nd Pioneers, a very fine regiment of
low. caste Sikhs, were sent forward to bridge the Rongli river, and His
Excellency the Viceroy addressed a letter to the Dalai Lama, explaining the
reasons which had induced him to take so decided a line of action. .
Now this letter to the Dalai Lama raises, and in some degree answers, the very
questions which the average English politician, with one eye on the fortunes of
our Indian empire and the other on the prejudices of jealous or wavering
constituencies, will naturally be forward to ask, What was there really to fight
for? What is this Sikhim that it should become the Belgium of Asia? Why spend
money and squander lives to maintain our influence in a petty sub. Himalayan
princedom, merely because the chapter of accidents involved us in diplomatic
relations with it seventy years ago? Are treaties so sacred in Europe that they
must be deemed inviolable under the shadow of the Himalayas? If Tibet wants
to have Sikhim, why should we not jump at the chance of cutting ourselves loose
from uncomfortable obligations, and leave our barbarian neighbours to settle
their differences within their own borders in their own way
OUR POLICY AGAINST THE EAST HIMALAYA STATES
The answer to these questions, pertinent enough from certain points of view,
involves the consideration of our general policy towards the East Himalayan
States with which we come more or less into contact. Counting from the east,
those States are- Tibet, Bhutan, Sikhim, and Nepal. In discussing our relations
with them, the ground may be cleared by stating that under no circumstances
now easily conceivable can we desire to annex any of the group.
TIBET
Concerning Tibet In particular, we may add, without much fear of
contradiction, that the Government of India, as such, wishes to have as little to
do with it as possible. It lies on the other side of a great wall, which we, as the
rulers of India, have not the smallest ambition to climb over. But here supposed
commercial interests come in, and it is urged, on the strength of somewhat
conjectural data, that Tibet offers a great market for certain articles of English
manufacture. The Tibetans will take from us, we are told,
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Xll INTRODUCTION.

any quantity of broadcloth, piece-goods, cutlery, hardware, and other odds and
ends which are not worth mentioning. They may also, if their peculiar fancies are
consulted, buy up a good deal of the Indian tea which fails to command a
remunerative price in other markets. In return they will send us wool of
admirable staple but dubious cleanliness, musk, ponies, yaks' tails, borax; and
they may, if they can but get over their superstitious' prejudices against mining,
contribute to the solution of the currency problem by flooding the world with
fresh supplies of gold. These possibilities, no less attractive than indefinite, have
repeatedly been pressed upon the Government of India; and the purely
commercial arguments proper to the question have been coloured by the- halo of
mystery which surrounds the great inaccessible tableland of Eastern Asia. There
lies the modern Brynhilde, asleep on her mountain-top; men call on the Viceroy
of India to play the part of Siegfried, and awaken her from the slumber of ages.
the spirit of adventure and science makes common cause with the commercial
spirit. in urging the most prosaic of Governments, troubled rather for its finances
than its soul, to open up one of the dark places of the earth, and to enable many
Englishmen to go where few Englishmen have been before. Doubtless this view
of the matter is at first sight highly enticing. A gap in the botanical record needs
to be filled; our maps of Tibet are still imperfect; and numerous ethnological
problems crave solution. Tibet, once free to European travellers promises all
these things, and many more, to the scientific world hungering for fresh facts to
assimilate. But who can doubt that the Government of India is right in putting on
the drag and ignoring the few enthusiasts who grumble at its inaction? Who will
deny that it would be a piece of surpassing folly for us to alienate a possible ally
in China by forcing our way into Tibet in the interests of scientific curiosity,
doubtfully backed by mercantile speculation? To meddle with Tibet against her
will .is like touching the springs of some strange machine, or handling a freshly
caught animal. There is no telling what effect such experiments may produce.
this moment we cannot say for certain what set. on foot the feeling of aggressive
hostility which led the Tibetans to invade territory under our protection. Its
outward and visible signs were obvious enough, and appeared, so far as anyone
could tell, to be of comparatively recent origin. Since Sir Joseph Hooker led the
way in his famous journey through Sikhim, a number of Europeans, officials and
others, have visited the passes of the Chola range which the Tibetans claimed as
their own territory. All were more or less inclined to enter the terra incognita
spread out before them; and all were stopped at the crest of the passes by a
Tibetan guard, who displayed a .placard inscribed with Tibetan and Chinese
characters, and intimated by simple but significant gestures
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INTRODUCTION. Xlll

that if the English persisted in crossing the frontier, the throats of its guardians
would assuredly be cut. So clearly, indeed, was the definition of the frontier
understood by the Tibetans in 1849, that when Dr. Campbell was seized by the
Sikhim people just below the Chola, the Tibetan guard, though remonstrating,
could not interfere, because their jurisdiction ended at the crest of the pass. It
may be added that the Tibetan Namguay, the" mad Minister" who was banished
from Sikhim by the treaty of 1861, never ventured, at any rate in his public
journeys, to cross the water-parting of the range, but invariably stopped on the
Tibetan side. Within a few years all this was changed. In theory, at least, the
placards were advanced to the Rishi, and nice scruples as to the exact location
of the frontier gave place to a daring attempt to remove a peaceful neighbour's
landmark.
One asks, almost in vain, what spell thus transformed the scene? Did some
strange wave of religious fanaticism sweep over Tibet, overwhelming on one
side the Roman Catholic Missions of Bathang, and on the other stirring the
monks of Gyantsi and Tashelhunpo to organise an attack on Sikhim? The
pointed reference to religion in the Galing treaty reads as if something of the
sort had been in the air; and indications are not wanting of a tendency to resist
Chinese interference, and to struggle against the policy which seeks to make
Lhassa a Chinese Avignon, and to utilise the spiritual authority of the Dalai
Lama as a check on possible Tartar' outbreaks in Central Asia. On the other
hand, the missionaries themselves, who might be expected to be the first to
recognise a religious revival, do not appear to have observed any such
movement. They affirm, with admirable frankness, that it was the Tibet Mission
of 1886, or possibly the abandonment of the Mission, that troubled the political
waters, and encouraged the monastic party in Tibet to persecute the rival
Church in Bathang, and to interfere in the affairs of Sikhim. No doubt
Monseigneur Biel at Ta-tsien-lu and Father Desgodins at Pedong are entitled to
speak with much authority as to the political springs of action in Tibet; but one
is inclined to question whether things Tibetan move so quickly -as their theory
would require. A cycle of Cathay, whether better or worse than twenty years of
Europe, is certainly less fruitful of results; and it may be doubted whether any
cause that only began to operate in 1886 could possibly, in the region of Tibetan
politics, have produced a tangible effect by 1887. It seems, indeed, more
probably that .we must look further back for the real cause of the present
difficulties: that the making of the Jelap road roused a feeling of suspicion
which went on quietly spreading, and needed only some slight stimulus from
our side to translate itself into action. Such a stimulus may have been given by
the Tibet Mission, or by exaggerated rumours of the strength of the
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xiv INTRODUCTION.

escort provided for it. Conjectures of this sort are, however, mostly vanity, and
they are only mentioned here in order to show how little we know of what
goes on in these regions of mystery, and to indicate the possible dangers of
adopting a forward policy with the object of promoting freer commercial
intercourse with British India. Such intercourse may, we -believe, be trusted to
grow up of itself in no very distant future. The Tibetan, whether monk or
layman, has all the instincts of a born trader, and sooner or later he is bound to
realise in what direction his advantage may be found. We, on the other hand
can well afford to wait an opportunity, and need not risk the substantial gain of
our entente cordiaIe with China by clutching too eagerly at the problematic
chances of Tibetan markets.
BHUTAN
With regard to Bhutan we are in some respects more fortunately situated.
No one wishes to explore that tangle of jungle-clad and fever-stricken hills,
infested with leeches and the pipsa fly, and offering no compensating
advantages to the most enterprising pioneer.Adventure looks beyond Bhutan;
science passes it by as a region not sufficiently characteristic to merit special
exploration. Our policy towards the Bhutanese, therefore, is determined solely
by considerations of geographical position and diplomatic expediency, and has
not to take account of pressure applied in the supposed interests of commerce
or science. In point of fact, only one source of possible complications has to be
borne in mind. Bhutan, as is generally known, is afflicted with a curious dual
system of government, under which the Dharm Raja, or spiritual chief, is
supplied by a series of incarnations which occur in the families of the chief
officers of the State; while the temporal ruler, or Deb Raja, is supposed to be
elected by the council of permanent ministers called the Lenchen. In practice,
however, the Deb is nominated by whichever of the two governors of East and
West Bhutan happens at the time to be the more powerful. The equilibrium
thus arrived at is eminently unstable; rival parties are constantly struggling for
power, and the work of government is lost in a whirl of intrigues and
counterintrigues. This concerns us little, so long as the turmoil does not boil
over into our territory. But the ruling classes of the State are still sore at the
loss of the Duars, or " gates" of Bhutan, a level strip of country running along
the foot of the hills, which we annexed at the close of the Bhutan war in 1865.
Excellent tea land is found in the Duars, which now form part of the Jalpaiguri
district, and a fringe of tea-gardens, giving occupation to a large number of
European planters, extends along a portion of the Bhutan frontier. :Many of
these are within easy reach of a raid from the hills, and any circumstance
which for a time over.clouded our influence in this part of the country might
create a risk of a massacre of our planters or
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INTRODUCTION. xv

their coolies in the Duars, or force us to make an expedition into Bhutan to

avert such a calamity.
NEPAL
Turning now to the western member of the East Himalayan group of States, we
are. struck by a remarkable contrast. Whatever else it may be, the Hindu
kingdom of Nepal is certainly not a weak Government. Its methods are not
exactly our methods, and its ways with political dissenters are exceedingly short.
Nevertheless its officers hold regular trials, record evidence, and. administer a
rough sort of justice, which seems to be on the road to discarding barbarous
punishments in the case of offences which are not of a political character. Nepal
at any rate is civilized enough for us to have concluded with it an extradition
treaty, which on the whole works fairly well; while in matters of revenue
administration it is centuries ahead of Sikhim and Bhutan. Many of the leading
men of the country have been educated in' our schools; they take a just and
intelligent view of Indian politics, and at the present day they are in no way
inclined to underrate the length of the British arm. From the beginning of the
Sikhim difficulty the Katmandu darbar has shown every disposition to make
itself serviceable to us by communicating information and by warning us of
certain maneuvers, such as poisoning springs, making attacks by night, and
constructing booby traps which are supposed to characterize the art of war as
practised in Tibet. It has behaved, in short, in a manner befitting the governing
body of a strong State, occupying country which we have no wish to annex, and
recognising that its interests are in the main identical with ours. As a buffer
between ourselves and the barbarous country beyond, Nepal leaves little to be
desired.
SIKHIM
The peculiar position of Sikhim renders it impossible for us to ignore it as we
ignore Bhutan; or to treat it on terms of comparative equality as we treat Nepal.
Sikhim cannot stand by itself, and if we withdrew our support, it must ultimately
fall either. to Tibet or to Nepal. But for our treaty obligations the latter
consummation would hardly be one to be deeply regretted, but it is difficult to
see how it could be brought about peaceably. The Tibetan party would certainly
try to hold the country for themselves; and although the stronger races of Nepal
would probably win in the long run, the period of transition would be one of
intolerable anarchy. Once let our hold be relaxed, and Sikhim would become the
Alsatia of the Eastern Himalayas, and such a. state of things would react most
formidably on the security of life and property in the great European settlement
of Darjeeling. Every rood of land in that district that is not. expressly reserved
by Government for the cultivation of food-crops has already been taken up for
tea, and a very large capital has been sunk in its cultivation, which gives
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XVI INTRODUCTION.

employment to an enormous number of natives, mostly immigrants from

Nepal On all sides the hills are dotted with Europeans' bungalows; tea-gardens
cover the slopes which face towards Sikhim; and the summer residence of the
head of the Bengal Government is to all appearance within a stone's-throw of
the stream which forms the boundary of British territory. The station of
Darjeeling itself is no doubt adequately protected by the European troops
stationed at the cantonment of Jellapahar but a large number of outlying tea-
gardens are absolutely at the mercy of possible raiders from Sikhim. Nor is it
only the planters and their native labourers that have to be considered. Many
of our subjects, Tibetans settled in Darjeeling, Lepchas, and Nepalese, have
large transactions and interests in Sikhim, about which disputes constantly
arise. For the last twenty-five years our relations with the Sikhim Government
have been so close, and our hold over it so strong, that the Deputy
Commissioner of Darjeeling has, as a rule, found little difficulty in settling
such disputes when referred to him. Processes, both civil and criminal, issued
by the Darjeeling courts, are virtually current in Sikhim, and the Darjeeling
police have free access to the country. Sikhim, in fact, has been treated
substantially as part of British India, subjected for political reasons to the
nominal rule of a princelet of the Merovingian type. An instance of recent date
will serve to illustrate what is meant. In July 1888 a murderous outbreak
occurred in the Darjeeling jail; a warder was killed, and eight convicts
escaped. Some fled to Nepal, others were believed to have taken refuge in
Sikhim. In the case of Nepal no hot pursuit was possible; the frontier was
close, and we could not follow our criminals over it. The utmost that could be
done was to demand extradition through the Resident at Katmandu, sending a
formal record of the evidence against the offenders, with proof of the
nationality of each. In the case of Sikhim no such formalities were necessary.
The Deputy Commissioner sent off a party of armed police with orders to
arrest the runaways, wherever found, and bring them back at once. Now, if
Sikhim were allowed to become a part of Tibet, cases of this kind would give
rise to inconvenient negotiations, and might even become a cause of friction
between our representative at Peking and the Chinese Government. It must
further be remembered that a Tibetan Sikhim would lack the stability, the
common sense, and the capacity for gradual advance towards civilization,
which characterize the Nepal Government. An extradition treaty would hardly
be workable, and every absconding criminal would become the subject of an
irritating diplomatic wrangle. Enough has perhaps been said to show that the
obligation of driving the Tibetans out of Sikhim was imposed on us by the
essential conditions of our policy towards the East Himalayan States; that
 INTRODUCTION. XVll www.sikkim.gov.in

this, policy is a just and reasonable one; and that it involves the assumption on
our part of no more authority than is necessary if we are' to keep the peace in
this particular corner of the Indian empire. To maintain this policy by the
cheapest and most effective means was the sole object of. the military
operations commenced in March 1888, and terminated by the engagement of
the 24th September of that year. For the better understanding of the principles
on which this little war was conducted, a. further glance at the conformation of
the country will be needed. Lingtu, we have already explained, is a peak about
twelve miles to the Sikhim side of the frontier, over the top of which our road
runs to the Jelap pass. The sides of this peak are very precipitous, and the road
could not have been taken along them except at great expense. A force holding
Lingtu can therefore block the road, and can also command the steep downs
below the Jelap, where Tibetan herdsmen pasture their sheep and cattle during
the summer months. Both points probably counted for something with the
Tibetans who have a considerable, if not an excessive, sense of the value of
position' in warfare, and who seem also not to have overlooked the possible
support which the habits of the herdsmen might give to the theory of a pastoral
frontier extending to the Garnei. As a matter of fact, no such theory is at all
tenable. The practice arises partly out of the necessities of the case-the pastures
lie on both sides of the frontier, and cattle are bound to stray-and partly from the
accident that a large part of the property owned in Tibet by the Rajas of Sikkim
and their wives has consisted of cattle tended by Tibetan herdsmen, their
servants. On the Singilela range, where it forms the border between Darjeeling
and Nepal, Nepalese shepherds feed. their flocks on either side of the frontier,
paying grazing fees to our Forest officers-just as the Tibetans pay rent to the
Raja of Sikhim for the period spent by them on the Sikhim side. But no
Nepalese official would be so inconsequent as to make this a reason for asserting
that the whole of the grazing tract belonged to Nepal. .
At the beginning of hostilities, while our troops were being moved up from
the plains, public opinion in India had hardly made up its mind to take the
Lingtu garrison seriously. A turn ,for cheap swagger is prominent trait in. the
Tibetan character, and it seemed not impossible that in invading Sikhim, the
lamas were merely "trying It on," and would withdraw their rabble directly the
advance of our troops showed that we were in earnest. In order to leave open the
door to an early reconciliation, and to make it clear that our only object was to
restore the status quo in Sikhism, and to secure that country and Bhutan from
future aggressive interference on the part of Tibet, General Graham was directed
not to pursue the enemy across the' frontier, unless it was absolutely necessary to
do so for
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XVlll INTRODUCTION.

military reasons. These instructions were carefully observed. In the storming of

the stockade at Jeyluk, a short distance below Lingtu, only thirty-two Tibetans
were killed; and no attempt was made to pursue the Lingtu garrison, who fled
from their fort when Sir Benjamin Bromhead and some men of the Pioneers
reached the gate. The methods of defence adopted at Jeyluk :recall some of the
incidents of medieval warfare. Walls and stockades had been built across the
most precipitous part of the road; the road itself was cut away so as to leave an
impassable chasm; rocks and tree-trunks were piled at favourable points, with
levers to hurl them down on an ascending enemy; and slings and arrows were
freely, but vainly, used as our men advanced. The issue one would think, might
have shown that the weapons of Morgarten avail little against modern infantry.
But the lesson was lost on the fanatical monks of the great monasteries around
Lhassa. Their only answer to our pacific messages was to hasten up to the
frontier all the troops they could collect, and to occupy the Jelap and Pembiringo
passes with a continually increasing force. Meanwhile. we had fortified the more
sheltered and defensible position of Gnatong, about eight miles to the south of.
the Jelap; and lay waiting there for events to develop themselves. The whole of
April and the early part of May were spent by the 'Tibetans in massing their
troops on their own side of the passes.
TIBETANS ATTACK GNATONG 22ND MAY1888
On the 22nd May, encouraged by a promise of victory from the " shaking
oracle" 1 at Naichang, they attacked Gnatong in force, were repulsed with heavy
loss, and retired over the Jelap. In order to avoid needless slaughter, our men
were not encouraged to follow the flying enemy farther than was necessary to
completely break up the attack and convince the Tibetans that they had been
really defeated. This conviction, however, came slowly to those who had taken
no part in the fight. Strange rumours of the prowess of "the Lama army'" that was
gathering at Lhassa found their way across the frontier; fresh troops were beaten
up in all directions; terrible threats were conveyed to the leaders of the force on
the frontier; and everything went to show that the counsels of the monastic party
were still for open war. It is hardly surprising that this should have been so. The
new ampa, despatched by China with instructions to bring about a peaceful
settlement, had not yet arrived, and the lamas lacked the sagacity to perceive that
we were only holding back in order to give him time to make his influence felt.
To their eyes we appeared to forego without purpose our own advantage, and
they

1 This may refer to the use of an arrow as a sort of divining rod, described by Schlagintweit,
.. Buddhism in Tibet," or possibly to divination by the shivering of an animal, for which there
are classical parallels.
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INTRODUCTION. xix

drew from this the conclusions which most Asiatics would draw under similar
circumstances.
Nevertheless, though the lamas knew it not, their obstinacy, wasting itself on
our defensive tactics, was daily bringing us nearer , to the real object of the
campaign. At relatively small cost to ourselves, we were wearing out the
resources of Tibet, and leading her on to strike the blow which should be our
opportunity. The prisoners taken at Gnatong confirmed the reports received from
our officers in Almora and Ladakh, that forced levies had been beaten up from
the most distant provinces, and were fed and kept together with the utmost
difficulty. The Tibetan commissariat is indeed somewhat less elaborate than our
own. Forty pounds of barley-flour, half a brick of tea, half a pound of salt, half a
small sheep's bladder of butter, and 3.5d. to buy meat, are said to represent a
month's rations for a fighting man; and it may be surmised that he gets little or
no pay beyond this. But the simplest supplies are hard to obtain in a barren
region intersected by mountain-ranges, and wanting in all effective means of
carriage; while a militia snatched on the spur of the moment from pastoral and
agricultural pursuits is proverbially unsuited for prolonged hostilities.
As soon, then, as it was clear that Tibetan patience was coming to an end,
and that our forbearance" was still mistaken for timidity, fresh troops were
ordered up and preparations made for bringing the campaign to a close directly
the rains were over. By the middle of August, General Graham had under his
command at Gnatong a wing of the Derbyshire, the 32nd Pioneers (Sikhs), one
or the newly raised Goorkha regiments, and six mountain guns-in all, nearly
2,090 men. After a month of waiting for fine weather, the conclusive
engagement was brought on by the action of the Tibetans themselves. Two
ridges, the Tukola and the Nimla, intervene between our position at Gnatong and
the Kaphu valley, into which, as has been mentioned above the Jelap and
Pembiringo passes open. On the night of the 23rd September our advanced
pickets came in as usual, and reported no unusual activity on the part of the
Tibetans
FINAL DEFEAT OF THE TIBETANS 24TH SEPTEMBER 1888
. . . .
At daylight on the morning of the 24th, the Gnatong garrison became aware
that the enemy had advanced during the night four miles from their camp; had
occupied
' . ridge, 13,550 feet above the sea, and 1,500 feet higher than
the Tukola
Gnatong; and had built a stone wall two miles in length all along the crest of the
ridge. Notwithstanding this marvellous piece of impromptu engineering, the
weakness of their new position was apparent at a glance. The whole of their
large force, numbering more than 11,000 men, was distributed in line along the
wall; no attempt had been made to take advantage of the ground or to
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xx INTRODUCTION.

concentrate troops at points of importance; while the entire position was

enfiladed by the Tukola peak, on which their right flank rested. Once in
possession of this peak, less than a mile and-a-half from. Gnatong, we could
roll up the enemy's line at leisure, and the conformation of the ground was such
that a force retiring towards the Jelap must need suffer terribly during its
retreat. This fact determined the scheme of our attack. Approaching the Tukola
peak by a route which covered them from the fire of its defenders, the
Goorkhas carried the position by a rush, and their attack, combined with the
parallel advance of the Pioneers, swept the Tibetans from the ridge. In their
flight down that fatal hill, and the ascent of the Nimla ridge which lay between
them and the Jelap, the ill-armed, undrilled militia whom the monks had sent
forth as the army of Tibet lost nearly a tenth of their number in killed and
wounded. On our side, Colonel Sir Benjamin Bromhead,. commanding the
32nd Pioneers, was severely wounded in the attempt to take prisoners two
Tibetans, whom he believed to have surrendered; one of the Goorkhas was
severely and two Pioneers slightly wounded. No effort was made by the
Tibetans to rally their broken troops or to keep up a running fight; the rout was
complete. We bivouacked that night in the enemy's camp on the Jelap, and no
resistance was offered to our advance upon Rinchagong next day. Straggling
parties of the enemy were seen. emerging from the Tibetan side of the
Pembiringo pass, but they broke off into Bhutan as soon as they realised that
we were about to enter Rinchagong, and the village was empty when our troops
reached it. The march to Chumbi through the beautiful valley of the Mochu was
a mere promenade, and our troops returned to Gnatong without seeing any
more of the enemy.
There seems to be reason to believe that this unavoidably severe lesson has
been taken to heart by the Tibetans. The force which was dispersed at Gnatong
had been drawn from all parts of the country, and the knowledge of our
overwhelming military superiority must by this .time be so widely diffused that
even the arrogance of the lamas can no longer affect to ignore it. Indications,
indeed, are not wanting that the Tibetan claim to suzerainty over Sikhim had
already been practically abandoned, though the Tibetans tried hard to retrieve
their defeat in the field by a diplomatic triumph of the Fabian type, and seem
for time to have bad the support of China in their ingenious efforts to tire out
our representatives.
The Anglo-Chinese convention of 1890 secures the formal
acknowledgment of our rights which the Gnatong victory entitles us to
demand. At the .close of a costly and vexatious campaign, carried on at an
elevation never before reached by regular troops, and involving transport
difficulties of the most serious kind, it was
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INTRODUCTION. XXI

clearly essential to have something in the nature of a final settlement to show

for our trouble.
But we can afford to be content with a distinct surrender of the indefinite
claim to control the course of events in Sikhim which for the last three years
has troubled the peace of our frontier and stopped all trade between Darjeeling
and Tibet. Above all things, we have no call to irritate the Tibetans and
possibly excite the jealous territorial susceptibilities of China. by introducing
stipulations granting to European traders or travellers the coveted right of
exploiting the commercial and scientific treasures of the interior of Tibet.
Traders would assuredly fall foul of the monopolies reserved to the monks of
the great monasteries; while scientific research, however modest in its aims,
could scarcely fail to come into collision with some form of religious or social
prejudice. Here surely is one of the cases where the half is more than the
whole." Be the treaty never so meagre, we anyhow remain in possession of the
disputed tract, while the roads and bridges made during the campaign ensure us
the command of the passes against Tibetan inroads. Our influence is
predominant in Sikhim; it has been vigorously asserted by the introduction of
essential reforms in the government of the State, and we need not fear that it
will hereafter be permitted to decline.
THE FUTURE OF SIKHIM
Most of all will our position be strengthened by the change which is
insensibly but steadily taking place in the composition of the population of
Sikhim. The Lepchas, as has been stated, are rapidly dying out; while from the
west, the industrious Newars and Goorkhas of Nepal are pressing forward to
clear and cultivate the large areas of unoccupied land on which the European
tea-planters of Darjeeling have already: cast longing eyes. The influx of these
hereditary enemies of Tibet is our surest. guarantee against a revival of
Tibetan influence.Here also religion will play a leading part. In Sikhim, as in
India, Hinduism will assuredly cast out Buddhism, and the praying-wheel of
the Lama will give place to the sacrificial implements of the Brahman. The
land will follow the creed; the Tibetan proprietors will gradually be
dispossessed, and will betake themselves to the petty trade for which they have
an undeniable aptitude.
Thus race and religion, the prime movers of the Asiatic world, will settle
the Sikhim difficulty for us, in their own way. We have only to look on and
see that the operation of these causes is not artificially hindered by the
interference of Tibet or Nepal. The trade with Tibet which the Macaulay
Mission was intended to develop may well be left for the present to take its
chance. Such scanty data as are available do not appear to warrant a very high
estimate of its value. Whatever it may be worth, it is bound sooner
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XXll INTRODUCTION.

or later to seek out .the shortest and cheapest route. The troubles of the last
three years have of course diverted it to Nepal, and some time may elapse
before it finds its way back to its former channel. But the roads made while
hostilities were imminent must ultimately
attract traffic to the railway at Darjee1ing, and in this indirect fashion we shall
realise the only tangible and substantial benefit likely to be derived from closer
int.ercourse between India and Tibet.

H. H. RISLEY.
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SIKH1M.

ITS GEOGRAPHICAL POSITION AND DESCRIPTION.

THE Native State, commonly called Sikhim, is situated in the Eastern
Himalayan Mountains, and is bounded on the north and north-east by Tibet, on
the south-east by Bhutan, on the south by the British district of Darjeeling, and
on the west by Nepal: it lies between 27 5' and 28 10' N. Lat., and between 88
4' and 88 58' E. Long., and comprises an area of 2,818 square miles.
The country may be briefly described as the catchment area of the head
waters of the river Tista, and the boundary with Tibet is thus laid down in the
Anglo-Chinese Convention of the 17th March 1890:
"The boundary of Sikhim and Tibet shall be the crest of the mountain range
separating the waters flowing into the Sikhim Tista and its affluents from the
waters flowing into the Tibetan Mochu, and northwards into other rivers of
Tibet. The line commences at Mount Gipmochi on the Bhutan frontier, and
follows the abovementioned water parting to the point where it meets Nepal
territory."
The continuation of the above range southward as far as the source of the
Rummam stream forms the western boundary.
The Rummam stream, until its junction with the Great Rungeet, and thence
the latter river, separate Sikhim from British territory.
The boundary with Bhutan is ill-defined, but appears to be the Richi.Pangola
range up to the plateau south-east of Lingtu, thence a line north-east to the
trigonometrical station near Gnatong, and thence a straight line to Gipmochi. The
natural boundary should be the river Dichu.
In the reigns of the earlier Sikhim Rajas their realms extended from the Arun
river on the west to the Tegon La range on the east, and thus included the Tambur
and Mochu valleys. In a Sikmm paper, which recites various old works, it is thus
described :-" This sacred country (hBres.mo-kSbong, which lies to the south-west
of Lhassa) is bounded on the north by the' Mon- Thangla' mountain,
:NOTE.-A. uniform system of transliteration has not been followed throughout the Gazetter:
the style adopted by each contributor has been reproduced.
2 ANCIENT BOUNDARIES. www.sikkim.gov.in

which is guarded by the spirit' Kiting.' On the east lies the' ITashGons' mountain,
Its southern gate Is 'Nagsharbhati,' which is guarded by 'Ma-mGon-ICham-Bral-
Yab-1Dud.' Its western gate, 'ITimar mChhod-rTen,' is guarded by the terrible
female spirit , Mamos.' The' mDsod-IN ga' mountains and the spirit 'Phra-Man-
dGe-Man' of Zar guard it on the north."
SKETCHES FROM NEPAL VOL 1 PP 53--54
Dr. Oldfield, writing in 1858, makes the country subject to the Sikhim Rajas
even more extensive :-" The hill , country constituting the basin of the Kosi river
is divided into. two provinces or districts by the Arun river
'
. The district lying on the right bank of the Arun, and extending between it and
the Dud Kosi, is the country of the Kirantis-a hill tribe of low-caste Hindus, who
once possessed considerable power and territory in these eastern hills, but were
speedily reduced to submission by Prithi Narayan after his conquest of Nepal.
The district lying on the eastern or left bank of the Arun, and extending from it
to Sikhim,.ie the Sikhim of 1858 is Limbuana or the country of the Limbus,
another tribe of low-caste Hindus. It formerly belonged to Sikhim, but was
conquered and permanently annexed to Nepal by Prithi Narayan. Previous to the
Gorkha conquest of the valley of Nepal, the territories of the Niwar Kings of
Bhatgaon extended eastward to the Dud Kosi river, which formed the boundary
between the country of the Niwars and the country of the Kirantis."
POLITICAL MISSION TO BHUTAN P 112
The Hon'ble Mr, Ashley Eden in 1864 noticed that" Sikhim, though a very
petty State then, was formerly a fair.. sized country, reaching from the Arun
river on the west to the Taigon pass on the east, from Tibet on the north to
Kissengunge in Purneah on the south."
In dealing with the reigns of the successive Sikhim Rajas it will be
seen how,. by degrees, Sikhim lost the' bulk of its original territory.
The range of mountains that practically bound Sikhim on three sides form a
kind of horse-shoe, which constitutes the watershed of the Rungeet and the Tista:
while dependent' spurs project from this horse-shoe and serve as lateral barriers
to the basins of the Rungeet and the Tista's greater affluents, the' Lachung,
Lachen, Zemu, Talung, Rongni, and Rungpo-Chu. These basins have a
southward slope, being broad at the top, where they leave the watershed, and
gradually contracting like a fan from its rim to the handle, which is the Tista
valley near Pashok.
On or near the outer range, commencing from the south-east, are
the following peaks and passes:
Richila, lO,370.-The trijunction point of Darjeeling, Sikhim,
and Bhutan.
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MOUNTAINS AND PASSES. 3

Pangola, 9,000.-The road from Sikhim via Memo-chen to Assom

Dok in ;Bhutan crosses the ridge here.
Lingtu, 12,617.-The erection of a. fort by the Tibetans at this place in July
1886 led to the Sikhim expedition of 1888; the' fort was captured on the 21st
March of that year and destroyed.
Shalambi, 12,500.-A road to Bhutan starts from this place.
Gnatong, 12,606.- The British fort here is about 12,300 feet above sea level:
was attacked by the Tibetans in force on the 22nd May 1888.
Gipmochi, 14,523.-The-trijunction point of Sikhim, Bhutan, and
Tibet.
Merugla, 15,271.
Pembiringo-la, 14,400.-More properly Pemarmgong-la.-The pass
that leads to the villages of Perna and Rinchingong in the Mochu
valley.
Jendorhi, 15,516.
Jelep-la, 14,390.-Meaning "the smooth beautiful pass," the most
frequented of all the passes opening out into the Mochu valley near
Chumbi.
Chukurchi, 15,283.
Nathula, 14,400.-Pass leading to Pema.
Yak-la, 14,400.-Close to preceding.
Cho-la, 14,550.-Leads more directly to Chumbi than any of the
above, and was formerly the main route from Sikhim to Phari.
Dopendikang, 17,325.
Gna-ri, 17,570.
Thanka-la, 16,000.-Leading out from the Lachung valley east
wards.
Ghora-Ia, 17,000.-Ditto ditto ditto.
Shu-Du-Tshenpa, 22,960.
Kangchinphu, 23,190, improperly styled Powhunri in the map.
This latter name really belongs to a mountain near Dubdi monastery.
Donkia.ri, 20,250.-close to this peak is
Donkia-la, 18,100.-A pass once supposed to lead direct into
Tibet, but in fact only joining the upper tracts of the Lachung and Lachen valleys
of Sikhim.
Bhom-tsho, 18,OOO.-Leading from the Cholamoo-lake district into
Tibet.
Kongra-lamu, 16,OOO.-The direct pass from Sikhim towards Kambagong:
the actual boundary pass, called Sebu-la, is a little further north.
Chomiomo, 22,290.
Nakula, 17,000.
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4 MOUNTAINS AND PASSES.

Choten Nyema, 19,000.-Formerly the direct route to the district of Ser-

'Tinki when that place belonged to Sikhim: now seldom used.
Jonsong-la, 22,350.-Almost unused.
Kanchinjingna, 28,156.
Kabru, 24,015.
Kangla-Nangma-la,16,740.-Leading to Walloon-gola on the Nepalese-
Tibetan frontier.
Kangrangla, 14,770
Chiabhangan or Singali-la, 10,320.-The main pass on the chief
route between Sikhim and Nepal.
Go-cha, 12,130.- Usually, but improperly, called Singa-le-la.
On the main ridge running south-east from Kanchinjingna and
separating the Rungeet from the Talung Chu we meet with the
Guicha-la, 16,500.
Pandim, 22,020.
Narsing, 19,150.
On the ridge running due east and separating the Talung Chu
from the Zemu are
Simolchu (D. 2), 22,300.
Yeumtsola, 15,800.
Lama-anden or Tak-cham (D. 3), 19,210.
Other notable mountains and passes are
Kangchinjhau, 22,550;
Sibula, 17,590; .
Phalung, 16,150;
Chango-Khang, 20,990;
all on the range separating the Lachen-Lachung:
Phieungong, 12,130, on the road to the Chola, and
. Jongri, 15,140, at the junction of the routes from the Guicha-la and Kangla-
nangma-la.
Moinam, 10,637, and Tendong,8675, are conspicuous in the landscape, as
viewed from Darjeeling.
There are no towns or even villages in Sikhim; the nearest approach to the
latter is to be found in the collection of houses near the Raja's palaces at
Tumlong and Gantok, round some of the larger monasteries, such as
Pemiongchi, Tashiding, Phensung, and a few others at the copper mines of
Pache near Dikkeling and thebazars at Rhenock, Pakhyong, the Rungeet and
Rummam.
Round. each monastery will be found separate houses in which the monks
reside, but these are so few that the term" village," if applied to them, would be a
misnomer.
In Sikhim there are some 36 monasteries, whose origin is detailed in
subsequent chapters.
 www.sikkim.gov.in

HISTORY OF SIKHIM AND ITS RULERS.

HISTORY OF SIKHIM AND ITS RULERS.

Before detailing the legendary history of the descent of the Sikhim Rajas, it
may be as well to premise that the al1eged Indian origin of the early Tibetan
kings is without any real foundation, and is in itself a proof of the modern
manufacture of their history, as it is merely an invention in common with the
other Buddhist kings to affiliate themselves on to Sakya's stock. It will also be a
mistake to take earlier accounts as history, as there is no real history of Tibet
obtainable from indigenous sources. previous to Srong-tsan Gampo's time, i.e.,
the 7th century A.D. Insight into pre-historic Tibet is only obtainable from
scattered accounts contained in Chinese records: while even at Srong-tsan's time;
when the introduction of writing made records possible, history is so vague that
the birth of that king himself may be any time between 600 and 627 A.D. The
historical books credited to this epoch were probably written some centuries
later.
It is believed in Sikhim that the Rajas of Sikhim came of Indian origin by
descent through the first king of Tibet, Nah-ThiTsanpo.
The appearance of this monarch in Tibet is usually supposed to have been
as follows.* :- The fifth son of King Prasenajit of Kosala was born with
obliquely drawn #eyes, with blue eyebrows, webbed fingers, and two rows of
full developed, pearly white teeth. His parents, in alarm at such a prodigy,
placed the infant in a copper vessel and set it afloat on the Ganges. A poor
cultivator found the infant and brought him up as his own. On attaining man's
estate the prince felt he had been born to a higher state than that of a cultivator,
and in a spirit of restless ambition set out. northwards over the Himalayas in
quest of some great exploit. With difficulty he reached the lofty snowy
mountains of Lha-ri near the modern town of Tse.thang in Tibet. Descending
into the plains of Tsan-than he was met by many natives of the country, who,
struck with the graceful looks of the stranger, asked him respectfully who he
was and whence he came. Not knowing their language, the prince could only
reply by signs that he was a prince, and pointing up to top of Lha-ri wished
them to understand that he had come from that direction. The Tibetans
misunderstood his meaning, and assumed he was a god descended from heaven,
and accordingly entreated him to become their king. On his assenting, they
placed him in a chair and carried him on their .shoulders in triumph to Yumbu
Lagan, near the site of the present town of Lhassa. From having been carried on
a " chair" on men's" backs," the prince

.* For fuller details see S. C. Das's "Contributions on Tibet," J. A. S. B., No. 9..1881.
#Another version states that the infant winked with the lower eyelids.
 HISTORY OF SIKHIM AND ITS RULERS. www.sikkim.gov.in

obtained his name Nah-Thi-Tsanpo, the chair-borne king; i.e., gNah = back,
Khri = chair, and pTsan-po = powerful one or king.
There may be another interpretation of the word, as applied to himself by the
prince, viz., "the dead one," alluding to his having been rejected by his family, to
whom he was now dead: the northern tribes frequently using the phrase" one
borne on men's shoulder" to express euphemistically 'lone dead."
There is also another tradition in Tibet that Sakya Singh's son, Dachen Zing,
had two sons, the younger of whom married, but had no children; the elder
became a priest. On his death-bed he pointed out that his spirit would go out into
two eggs: these his minister, Chulen Danwa Zangpo, hid in a sugarcane field.
From these eggs sprang two boys: the elder became a priest, while the younger
married and had three sons, of whom Sali-nim-mo went to Nepal, Palgyegel
Zanpo to Kham, and the third Na-lag-chen (i.e., he of the webbed fingers)
entered Tibet and became the progenitor of :Nah-Thi-Tsanpo above.
The date of the birth of :Nah-Thi-Tsanpo is given as 416 .B.C. The twenty-
seventh king in direct descent was Lha-Tho-Tho-ri Nan-Tsan,. # born about
441 A.D*. in whose eightieth year there fell from heaven on the top of the
great palace of Yumbu Lagan a precious chest, which was found to contain
(1) Two books written with jewel water on gold leaves.
(2) A golden miniature shrine set with jewels and enclosing.
(3) A crystal gem and cup.
At that time there were no letters' alphabet in Tibet, but the Tibetans, though not
knowing these books were scriptures, treated them with the greatest faith and
reverence; while the king sitting in council was debating on the value and merit
of the divine gift, a voice from heaven was heard saying that the books were
scriptures, and that in the fifth generation the mystery of their contents would be
revealed The relics were thenceforth placed on a throne set with rubies and other
jewels, lights were kept burning before them, and the people worshipped them
under the appellation Tembosangwa+: to the best of their ability.
The third in descent from Lha-Tho-Tho-ri was the blind king, who
recovered his sight while worshipping the sacred relics at his coronation. As the
first object he saw was an Ovis ammon sheep on the hill Tag-ri, he received the
sobriquet of Tag-ri-nyan-ssig, the beholder (ssig) of a sheep (Nyan) on Tag-ri.

#. Other accounts say that Lha.Tho-Tho-ri gNyan-bTsan is the same as :Nah.Thi.Tsanpo,

and that the name, which means" the god from the high mountains," has reference to the
prince's pointing up to the mountain whence he had come.
* Cs. 262 A.D C.s= Csoma de Koros
+ San- wa Nyanpo.
 HISTORY OF SIKHIM AND ITS RULERS. 7www.sikkim.gov.in

His son was Nam-ri-Sron-tsan, who introduced the knowledge of arithmetic

and medicine from China, and also discovered the great salt mines of Chyan-gi-
tshva.
His son Sron-tsan-Gampo was born A.D. 600-627.+ Up to his time there was
no written language in Tibet, but this monarch, seeing how essential a written
language was both for religious and moral good government, sent his minister,
Sambhota, with sixteen companions to Kasi (Benares) to study carefully the
Sanskrit language and the sacred literature of the Indian Buddhists. In particular
they were instructed to devise a written language for Tibet by adopting the
Sanskrit alpha. bet to the phonetic peculiarities of the Tibetan dialect. On their
return they framed the present two-fold system of Tibetan characters, viz., the" U
-chan" or headed or capital letters, and the" U -med" or headless or running hand;
the former adopted from Devanagari, and the latter from the Wartu. Thus was
introduced a copious system of written language into Tibet. This same monarch
married two princesses from China and Nepal, then two great centres of
Buddhism, and thus great influence was brought to bear for the propagation of
Buddhism: practically his two wives converted him to Buddhism: he also
founded the city of Lhassa and made it his capital.
His great.,great-granason was Thi-Sron-De-Tsan, the most illustrious king
of Tibet, born about 730 A.D.* In his reign the Indian sage Santa Rakshita and
Pandit Padma Sambhava from Udyayana came to Tibet and founded the great
monastery of Samye. He left three sons, one of whom migrated eastwards and
became Gyalpo& (or princelet) of Kham- %Minag-Andong, one of the eighteen
quasi-Tibetan principalities that were seized by China about 1732. This place is
situated to the west of Ta-tsien-loo, between Litang and Dirghe.
Twenty-five generations later there was born a prince, who went with
his.five sons westwards on a pilgrimage to the Guru Chooi-wang at Lho-brag:
owing to this visit he received his first appellation Zhalnga-Guru-Tashe. He
next went to Lhasa where Jo-vo-Rimpoche Sakya. Mooni #foretold to him that
he should proceed south. west, where he would find a country Demo-shong. He
accordingly went to Sakya. In this place the hierarch was then engaged in
building the great

+Cs. 627 A.D.

*Cs 728AD
& It is said that one of his descendants summoned the Sakya. Penchen Rimboche hGromgon hPhags-
pa to Kham Minag, and by his worship and intercession with Guru Thamar-Yese-Ran-bar obtained a
miraculous seal set on one side with a. ruby, engraved with a nine-horned scorpion. This mark of
divine favour made him so famous that he became King of China and of Sho-scr as well as Kham.
%Man Nya. See Rockhills" The Land of the Lamas," pp. 218 and 345. where it is said
this State was from 1864 to 1889 part of the Kingdom of Lhassa.
# Image brought by the Chinese princess, wife of Sron-tsan-Gampo
 www.sikkim.gov.in

8 HISTORY OF SIKHIM AND ITS RULERS.

hall of the hPhrul-pahi;.Lha-khang monastery, which is supported by four

immense wooden pillars,* besides 160 small ones: the building is seven stories
high. These four pillars, that had defied the efforts of several thousand men to
raise, Guru Tashe's eldest son succeeded in erecting in their proper. positions.
For this exploit his name was changed to Jo-khye-Bumsa. #In Sakya Khye-
Bumsa married Gurumo, the daughter of the hierarch. Shortly after the whole
family removed to a place, north-west of Khambagong, called Pa-shi, where
they built a monastery for 400 monks and left one of the brothers in charge: the
others went on to Phari, where they built the Samdub Lhakang monastery: the
father died here. Three of the brothers, Se-shing, Tsendong, and Kar-tshogs,
migrated towards Hah in Bhutan, while Khye-Bumsa proceeded first to Khang-
bu Takloong, on the western branch of the :Mochu, and then finally settled at
Chumbi, where he built a house; the site alone of which now remains, to the
north of the present palace.
From the first three brothers are descended the Bep-Tshan-Gye families
alluded to subsequently.
It may here be mentioned that the worship or ancestors is in some families
incumbent: the descendants of the three brothers continue the worship of their
common ancestor, Guru-Tashe, and are known as the Tashe-pho-la (the
worshippers of the ancestor Tashe), 'while Khye Bumsa's family, being-
separated from the main branch, fell back on the worship of Pa-shi, where their
first temple was, and are now called Pa-shi-pho-la.
Several stories are told of the miraculous strength of KhyeBumsa, and his
victory over Ngag-wang-ge-pu pul-bar, a rival Bhutanese hero, which resulted in
the present worship of Mt. Massong by the inhabitants of Chumbi and Hah. The
Phari people worship Chumulhari.
Being childless, Khye-Bumsa consulted his Lamas and was told to propitiate
the heads of the Lepcha people. Accordingly with a following of seventeen
persons only, he crossed the Yak-la and Penlong and reached Sata-la near
"Rankpo: here he enquired who were the heads of the Lepchas, and was
informed that they were Thekong Tek and his wife, Nyekong-Nal, but where
they dwelt he failed to ascertain. Proceeding towards Gantok, they came across a
very old man quite black from tilling his recently burnt field, but could get
nothing out of him. Suspecting he knew more than he chose to

.* These four pillars are called collectively" Ka-wa-ming-Ches-zhi;" individually

the first pillar, called Karpod Zum-lags (white), came from Khongbu ; the second, Serpod.
Zum.lags (yellow), from the Mochu valley; the third, Marpo.Tag.d Zag (red), hom;Nyanam
(near Nepal); and the fourth, Nakpo-Khun-shes (black), from Ladak.
# Jho.vo.Khyed.hBum.bSags, .. the superior of 10,000 heroes:'
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HISTORY OF SIKHIM AND ITS RULERS. 9

tell, the Tibetan party hid themselves, and when the old man left off work,
followed him secretly to a house which he entered. Obtaining at last an entrance,
they found their old man clad in a robe adorned with animals' heads and seated
in state on a dais, worshipped by the other inmates, and thus discovered that he
was the veritable Thekong Tek they were in search of. Khye-Bumsa offered
him many presents, and finally obtained a promise that he should become the
father of three sons*. With this assurance he returned to Chumbi, where three
sons were born to him. On making a second visit to Sikhim via the Chola,
Thekong Tek met them at the cave of Pyak Tse below Phieungong and did
worship to them. When his boys were growing up, the father asked them what
they wished to be. The eldest replied he should like to trade. on the .foibles of
his fellow. men, the third said he should be content to get his living from the
fruit of the soil, while the second declared that nothing less than the leadership
of men would satisfy his ambition. According to these answers Khye-Bumsa
called the first sKya-bo-rab,& or the swindler; the third son .gLang-mo.rab, or
the ploughman; and the second Mi.tpon-rab, or the leader- of men. Though their
father remained and died at Chumbi, the three sons crossed the mountains and
settled respectively at Living Gantok, and Phodang Takse. At the same period
some of their relatives from Hah arrived via Chumbi.
Kya-bo-rab or his descendants did not long remain at Living, but kept
changing their residence, moving always eastwards: whence they obtained the
family name of "Yul-tenpa," the exiles.
The descendants of "Lang-mo-rab" are known as the" Linzerpa," while
both of these, as well as the descendants of Mi.tpon-rab, are sometimes styled
Pyak-Tsen-tarpa, from the place mentioned above.
Mi-tpon-rab, who had married a lady of Sakya, had four sons: the eldest
was named Zhan-po-tar# because he was born at his maternal uncle's house;
the second Tshes-bchu-tar, because born on the 10th day of the month; the third
Nyi-ma Gyaspa, the chief born on a Sunday; and the fourth Guru-tashe, the
saintly one.@ From these four brothers .the four chief families of Sikhim,
known as the sTong-hDu Rus-bzi, trace their descent; these are Zhang-tar-pa,
Tshes-rGyud-tarpa, Nyi-ma Gyaspa, and Guru-tashe-pa. Tshes.bchu.tar had five
sons and a daughter; the latter had a liaison with her father's orderly and bore a
son. This disgrace so incensed the family of Kya-bo-rab that they murdered the
guilty pair and cut off the ears of the child and

* He also prophesied that Bumsa's descendants should become lords of Sikhim,

while his own people should become their raiyats.
&Rab means" to excel," "to surpass."
# ie, she returned to her famil,. for her first co:lfinement.
@ Because born while the Tasho.rubne worship was being celebrated,
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10 HISTORY OF SIKHIM AND ITS RULERS.

called him .Nyor-spog-pa-Tsho-pa. This outrage led to a long series of

internecine strife, more particularly between the sons of Kya-bo-rab and Mi-
tpen-rab, and their descendants. Gyelpa Achoo, the son of the former, succeeded
by treachery in slaying Guru-Tashe near Sonamse, but some nine years later was
defeated by Gyelpa Apha, Tashe's son, and had to flee from Rongni, where Apha
had settled, to Thunporung, near Dikkeling; but this place was too close to his
enemies, and he was forced successively to retreat to Patheng Ding and then to
Dumsong and Daling. Gyelpa Apha was still not content and wrote to Bhutan for
assistance, whereupon the Bhutanese General" Ari Sethe" attacked Gyelpa
Achoo and his son Tshadoon Raja and killed them both near Ambiokh. From the
other brothers the Y ul-tenpa trace their descent.
At this date all the present subdivision of Kalimpong as far as the Tegonla
range was known as the Mon-Ioong-kha.bzi and belonged to Sikhim.
Owing to this 'blood feud, even now the Zhang-tar-pa will not eat with,
marry, or enter the house of any Yul-tenpa. It is also said that tribute in kind paid
by Yul-tenpas .is kept separate and not allowed to be stored in the Raja's treasure
house.
Guru Tashe's eldest son is called in full Zhal-nga-A-phag*his son was Guru
Tenzing, who was the father of Phun-tsho-Namgyel (Punchoo Namgay) who
became the first Raja of Sikhim or De-jong G'yalpo.

PHUN-tSHOGS rNAM-rGYAL
(Penchoo Namgye) was born in 1604 A.D., and passed his earlier years near
Gantok. The story of his being summoned to Yoksom by the three Tibetan
Lamas, and his being proclaimed the first Buddhist Gyalpo or King of Sikhim,
has been told elsewhere. The date of his accession is given as 1641 A.D.
Very little is known of his reign: but in all probability he was chiefly
engaged in subduing or winning over the chiefs of the petty clans inhabiting ihe
country east of the Arun. It is said that with the aid of Lha-tsan Lama he
overcame one Shintu Satichen, or Mangal Gyelpa; though the latter is
considered to have been a Lepcha, -the name sounds more like a Mangar one:
this tribe occupied the valleys to the south of the Kanchinjingna-Everest range.
The chief disappeared leaving no trace, after vowing he would petition the sun
and moon for the injuries done him.

.* This name was attributed to him by Lama Den-zin-pa of Pemiongchi and Labrong in the
time- of Cho-phoe Namgya.
 HISTORY OF SIKHIM AND ITS RULERS. 11 www.sikkim.gov.in

Penchoo married a relation at. Gantok, who probably belonged to one of the
Bep-Tshan-gye families, as the Tong-du-ru-zi at that time were too near of kin
to' him.
In this reign the monastery at Dubde was built and that at Sangachelling
commenced under the direction of Lha-tsun Chhempoo, who also pointed out
Pemiongchi as a proper site for a monastery for pure monks (Tasongs).

bsTAN (or rTEN)-bSRUNG rNAM-rGYAL

(Tensung Namgye), who was born in 1644, succeeded his father Penchoo
about 1670.
His reign was not an eventful one. Lama Jig-med Gyatsho came from Tibet
and succeeded Lha-tsun Chhempo as .his incarnation: with his assistance the
monastery at Sangachelling was completed: that establishment was open to all
alike, no matter what their descent, so in accordance with the directions of Lha-
tsun a third monastery or building was erected near Pemiongchi for persons of
pure descent (Tibetan) only. This building was erected on a site about half a mile
west of the present Gompa, and the remains of it are still to be seen. The palace
at Rubdentse was also completed.
Tensung married three times: first, a lady from Tibet known by her family
name Nyum-bi-enmo: by her he had a daughter, Pende Arno, destined to play an
important and disastrous part in Sikhim history.
The Raja next married a lady, Deba-sam,.serya, from a family residing near
Tinki-jong to the north-west 'of Sikhim: she bore him a son, Cha-dor Namgye,
afterwards Raja.
He also married a daughter of a Limbu Raja, by name Y o.yohang, whose
jurisdiction was to the west near the Arun river. With this lady came seven
Limbuni maidens, who were married into the leading Sikhim families. By the
Limbuni princess the Raja had two children: a son Shalno-Guru, who resided at
Dingrong, but whose family is now extinct. and a. daughter Pendi Tchering
Gyenu, who married a member of the Nam-Tsang-korpa family.

PHY AG-rDOR-rNAM-rGYAL

(Chak-dor Namgye) was the son by Raja Tensung's second wife.

(Deba..sam-serpa), and was born in 1686. He succeeded his father about 1700,
but his reign was the reverse of his father's.
In his youth he seems to have mortally offended his half-sister Pende Amo
(who also considered that she, as the elder, was entitled to
 www.sikkim.gov.in
12 HISTORY OF SIKHIM AND ITS RULERS.

the throne), so shortly after his accession the quarrel again broke out, and the
latter invited the Bhutanese to invade Sikhim and attack her brother. This
intrigue was for a time completely successful. The Deb Raja of Bhutan, sDe-po-
bZi.rDar, sent a force, under his celebrated General rTa-pa-Nag-dWang Tin-les
and the Dewan Phenlai, which overran Sikhim and seized the palace of
Rubdentse and compelled Raja Chador to flee to Tibet via Ilam in Nepal. The
Bhutanese held the country for some five or six years, and built forts at Ongdo-
phodang near Pakhyong, at Takse-gong and Namgyel Tempoo. *The date of
this Bhutanese invasion. is variously given from 1700 to 1706.
Mr. Eden writes:-" The Sikhim Raja, who was quite a boy, fled to Lhassa,
and the Lhassa Raja, Miung, taught him and supported him, and gave him some
taluks, which the Sikhim Raja still holds in Tibet. When the boy had obtained
sufficient knowledge and discretion, the Lhassa Raja gave him some men and
told him to go back to his country: he sent messengers to raise the Sikhimese,
and on hearing of his arrival the Bhutanese evacuated Sikhim and returned
ignominiously to their own country." But in this account Mr. Eden seems to
have by mistake ascribed some events in the life of the succeeding Raja Gyurme
to his father Chador.
If the Reh Umig (chronicles@) of Yeses DPal hByor is to be trusted, it was
to the court of the Mongol Prince Gyalpo Lha-bZan that Chador fled. Gyalpo
Lha-bZan became Raja of Tibet in 1702-3, and defeated and killed his
predecessor the great Viceroy sDe-Srid Sangs rGyas rGya-mTsho-in 1704,
whereas Phola Thege-bSod-namssTobs-rGyas, otherwise called Gyalpo Mi-
wang, did not become Viceroy of Tibet until 1726-27.
Chador Namgye remained several years in Lhassa, studying hard, and
gradually rose in scholastic eminence, until he became rChi-Tung.yig to the
Dalai Lama (Tshang-dWyans rGya-mTso). This hierarch by some is. said to
have led a gay and dissolute life, and was accordingly summoned to China to
answer for his misconduct. He died or was murdered en route near Lake
Kokonor in 1704 or 1701.# It was perhaps this departure of his patron for China
that influenced Chador to return to Sikhim. However, return he did,
accompanied by, or closely followed by, Lama sJig-med-Paw of Hug-pya-gLing
in Tibet.
On the Raja's return the Bhutanese retired and evacuated all Sikhim west of
the Tista, but they still maintained their position at

*They also constructed a flight or road of stone steps from the Rungeet up to Rubdentse
portions of which still remain..
@Translated by Babu S. C. Dass, J. A.. S. B vol LVII, Part I, No.2, 1889.
# A.ccording to Horace Della Penna (M., p. 320)
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HISTORY OF SIKHIM AND ITS RULERS. 13

Fort Dumsong and retained what is now the Kalimpong district and up to
Tegonla. Thus Sikhim lost the bulk of the Mon.-loong-kha-bzi.
His long sojourn amongst the learned priests at Lhassa had exercised a great
influence towards monasticism in the Raja, and he accordingly on his return
devoted himself to the cause of religion and learning. Aided and encouraged by
Lama Jig-med-Paw, he founded the present monastery of Pemiongchi for
Tasongs, and richly endowed it: the establishment was to consist of 108 monks,
and the Raja himself shaved his head and became one of the first number: he also
appointed 108 tGar-na-pa or lay officials to serve with the lamas and, assist them
in secular business. Among other works the Raja wrote a book on monastic
discipline, called lChags-Yig, composed a religious dance, Rong-Chham, in
honour of Takpoo or warlike demons, and designed an alphabet for the use of his
Lepcha subjects. ,

The Raja's half-sister, Pende Amo, had meanwhile formed a liaison with
mNgah-bDag-Rin-Chhen-mGon, who was the third lama in succession to Lama
mNgah-bDag-Sems-dPah-Chhen-po, referred to in pages 10 and 123, and
married him. The lama by his vows of the Rabjungpa sect, which were very
strict, ought to have maintained the strictest celibacy, and in marrying Pende
Amo had committed a mortal sin. In hopes of mitigating his spiritual
punishment, and as an expiatory offering for her share of the offence, Pende
Amo built the Chos-rGyel Lha Khang monastery at Tashiding and another at
Senan : this was about the year 1716.
The tension between brother and sister still continued after Chador's return,
and culminated in the latter causing her brother to be murdered #about the year
1717. Immediately afterwards Pende herself was strangled by orders of the
Durbar, and her corpse burnt at a place called Pende Laptse near Niamtchi.
Owing to her wickedness and power for evil, she has been looked upon as the
incarnation of gZah-dMar-rGyan, an evil spirit, the wife of gZah-bDud-Ra-hu-la,
who is credited also with causing the solar eclipses. It is not known whether she
left any children.
For his services in the Dalai Lama's household Raja Chador was given the fiefs
of Piahte-gong (Pedi-gong) Jlear Lake Yam-dok-tsho and of hRe-Rin-Chhen-
rTse-Jong near Shigatzi in Tibet. These were enjoyed by his successors up to the
beginning of the present century, when they were resumed by the Tibetan
Government in Cho-phoe Namgye's minority, in the confusion resulting from the
Nepalese-Tibetan war.

# The Raja being unwell had gone to take a course of the hot springs at Raklong, and while in the
bath his physician, at the instigation of Pende Amo, treacherously opened his veins, and he bled to death.
 www.sikkim.gov.in

14 HISTORY OF SIKHIM AND IT S RULERS.

Chador married a lady from the province of U in Tibet, who is known as the
"Lho-gyelma." By her he had a son, afterwa'rds Raja hGyur-Med-rNam-rGyal:
he is also credited with having a liaison with the wife of his Lepcha minister,
Tasa Aphong, during her husband's absence on a mission to Tibet. A comparison
of subsequent dates leads one to believe that the Raja concerned was more
probably Ten-sung Namgye*.. The result of this union was a boy called Yuk-
thing Arub. Mr. Eden thus narrates his history:
"During the war (in Chador Namgye's reign) the Bhuteahs had seized and
confined. at Poonakh a Sikhim Chief named Athoop, the ancestor of the Gantoke
Kazee, who confined Drs. Hooker and Campbell, and again fought with us in
1861. The Sikhim Raja on his return procured his release, and the Bhuteahs on
setting him free bribed him to remain a friend to their Government. He had been
well treated during confinement, and his son Joom-tashi, born during his
captivity, turned out a thorough Bhuteah; he eventually became the most
powerful man in Sikhim, and kept up continual correspondence with the
Bhutanese; and some years later, when there was a dispute between Bhutan and
Sikhim regarding the boundaries of the two countries, he treacherously gave up
to Bhutan all the tract between the present (1865) Sikhim border and the Taigon
pass, including Darling.cote, Jonksa, and Sangbe, which in those days were
richly cultivated tracts
As, however, Joom-tashi is looked up to as the ancestor of the present
leading families in Sikhim, and was the father and grandfather of two of their
famous men, Changzed Karwang and Kazee Satrageet, it is much. more
probable that Joom-tashi found himself unable to expel the Bhutanese from
their position at Dumsong, and so had to accept the situation and the Tista
boundary.

hGYUR-MED rNAM-rGYAL
(Gyurme Namgue) was born in 1707, and ascended the guddee about 1717.
He was at all events eccentric, if not actually weak in intellect.
He married a lady from Ming.do ling, a place south-east of Lhassa. She was
so exceedingly plain that the Raja would not live or have anything to do
with her: accordingly be removed himself to the Di-chhen-ling
monastery. This house no longer exists, but was
*. But the subject is still further obscured, unless Joom-tashi and Changzed Karwan alias Athing
Thi.she are one and the same person, as a deed, bearing Karwang's seal, is in existence dated" the 10th of
the third month of the Fire-bird year," corresponding about to our 1777 A.D. This particular deed is
interesting as showing that at this time I1am (now in Nepal) was then part of Sikhim and that slavery was
in. full force. Unfortunately the genealogies of the Rhenock and Gantok Kazis do not agree.
 HISTORY OF SIKHIM AND ITS RULERS. 15 www.sikkim.gov.in

situated near Gyezing. The Rani continued to reside at Rubdentse near the
Tasongs. The Raja, on the other hand, became more and more inclined to the
Lepchas and their form of worship. Five of their priests, who gave themselves
out to be the incarnation of Tesi (the Lepcha Guru Rimpoche), obtained
immense influence over the Raja, and treated him in a most contemptuous
manner, and arrogated so much to themselves that the Tasongs rose and
successfully expelled them, the Raja himself being convinced they were Mu-
thepa or impostors. Throughout this commotion the Raja a harried and distressed
his Limbu subjects so much by calling them out unnecessarily to fight and again
to build forts and walls, that in despair they threw off their allegiance and joined
Nepal, so thus Sikhim began to lose the Limbuana country.
Worn out by these dissensions and in disgust at having to return to his ugly
wife, the Raja disguised himself as a fakir or religious mendicant and went on a
pilgrimage to Tibet. Noone in that country suspected his royal origin, until he
came before dWangs-Chuk Dorze, the 9th Karmapa Lama. That ecclesiastic
penetrated the king's disguise and treated him royally: in consequence the
Karmapa Lama is much looked up to by the Sikhimese.
Being thus deserted, Rani Ming-do-ling also betook herself to Tibet.
Shortly after Raja Gyurme returned to Sikhim, but his behaviour was still
inconsistent with his position, as he refused to remarry-a decision that gave his
people and court much concern, as there was then no direct heir to the throne.
In 1734 the Raja was taken dangerously ill, and being on his death-bed was
asked to name his heir. He replied, "his ministers need have no anxiety on the
point, as they would find a young nun* tending cattle near Sing-Jyang &the girl
is a daughter of NeerGahden, of the Tak-chhungtar family, and has had a son by
me." This son had been born at Ang-nye-khi-sa, and was called Namgye
Penchoo. The Raja shortly afterwards died.

rNAM-rGYAL PHUN-TSHOGS
Was born in 1733.
At this date the Kazis or, more correctly, the Jongpens (local governors)
were chosen from the fourteen leading families: the head among them was
one Changzed Tamdi (rTa-mGrui) of the Tshe-chutar family: he headed the
opposition and refused to acknowledge the legitimacy of Namgue Penchoo,
and assumed the reins of government. For three years or so Tamdi and his
party were successful, but finally
* Probably of Sangachlling.
& A grazing place near Dubde.
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16 HISTORY OF SIKHIM AND ITS RULERS.

the Lepcha or national party in favour of Namgue Penchoo gained strength, and
Tamdi was forced to flee to Lhassa and lay his cause before the Tibetans. During
the quarrel there were several fights, and blood was shed on either side.
To settle this dispute and the succession, the Tibetans sent a commission
under one Rabden Sher-pa *Gyalpa to make a full enquiry and report. Having
once obtained a footing in Sikhim, Rabden Gyalpa was in no hurry to depart,
and actually reigned for some five years, though pretending all the while he was
still engaged on his enquiry.
During his regency he built forts at Karmie (Raja Tendook's seat) and at
Mangsir at the head of the Chongtong spur.
In these days the Tasong monks of Pemiongtchi had a branch establishment
at Rishehot opposite to Darjeeling, to which they used to resort in the hot
weather and rains- The most celebrated among them was Lama. Kang-
chen.Ralpe-Dorje, a Tibetan from Sher. While at Rishehot he made friends with
Changzed Karwang, described as a Lepcha minister, who was living in exile at
Darjeeling. Karwang besought the Lama's aid and went to Karmie, where
through the Lama's intercession he was introduced to, and pardoned by, the
Regent Rabden, who hitherto had not taken up warmly the cause of Namgue
Penchoo. Now, however, by the influence of Lama Ralpe, the Regent declared
for Namgue Penchoo, and a national agreement or amnesty was drawn up and
promulgated at Mangsir This is known as the Mang-Sher-h Du-ma.
A copy unfortunately in detail is not forthcoming, but apparently under it the
Lepchas obtained a greater share in the administration as Tumiyang or
superintendents of cultivation, and some fixed system of revenue was devised.
The names still survive and are
(1) h Bah-pa.
(2) b Zo-lung, a tax on forest produce.
(3) Tshong-skyed, a custom or income-tax.
After this Rabden formally placed Raja Namgue Penchoo on the throne and
returned to Tibet.
The Regent Rabden's eldest son was one Angel, whose daughter became
Raja Namgue Penchoo's first wife. The lady, however, died from dysentery
without having had any children.
Subsequently Raja Namgue married or, perhaps, more properly engaged
himself to two ladies-(l) a daughter of Pishi-Tergyen of U, and (2) a daughter of
Deba-Shamsher-Khiti-Phukpa. Being in a dilemma which lady to choose, the
Raja sent and consulted the Sakya Pen chen Rimpoche as to which lady he
should marry, and the choice
-* Also Shak-pa.
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HISTORY OF SIKHIM AND ITS RULERS. 17

fell upon Deba-Shamsher-Khiti-Phukpa's daughter. By her the Raja had a son,

Tenzing Namgue.
According to a proclamation dated 1826, Raja Chophoe records that"
Karwang was really a slave, though his mother gave out he was the illegitimate
son of the Raja. Karwang became so great that he put Raja Namgye Penchoo
entirely aside, and gradually turned out all the old Jongpens and put his own
sons in his stead, who began to use red seals and take the law into their own
hands. Karwang finally joined the Limbus, and in this way caused the invasion
of the Goorkhas.This is undoubtedly an exaggeration, as there exist several
deeds stamped by Changzed Karwang, and the colour of the seal has always
been black and not the royal red. Further, his son, Chothup, obtained his
sobriquet of Satrajeet from his victories over the Nepalese.

bsTAN hDSIN rNAM-rGYAL

(Tenzing Namgue) was born about 1769, and succeeded his father
in 1780 about.
He married Anyo Gyelyum, the daughter of Changzed Karwang, by whom
he had a son, Choephoe Namgue born in 1785. About 1767 Deb Judhur rose into
power and became Raja of Bhutan, while from 1765 to 1769 Raja Prithi Narayan
Singh was making himself master of Nepal. With two such restless powers on
either side it was not likely that a buffer State like Sikhim could escape the
ravages of war.
About 1770 the Bhutanese had overrun all Sikhim east of the Tista, while
some of their spies or scouts actually got as far as Mangbru below Barphung.
The whole country, however, rose, and the Bhutanese, who seemed to have
concentrated their main forces above the Ralong Samdong (bridge over the
Tista), were utterly defeated and fled across the Tama-la precipice below Mafila;
here the Sikhimese had prepared an ambuscade above and. spiked the bottom of
the precipice below: thus caught, the straggling forces were cut up to a man and
perished miserably.
In 1775.--76 Raja Sinha Protapa Sah, son and successor of Raja Prithi
Narayan Sah, threatened the invasion of Sikhim; but the Tibetan general, Deba
Patza alias Depon tPal-rTsal, was sent to make a diversion, and the Goorkha
Raja at that time failed in his attempt. The war, however, was waged with
varying success for several years.During this war Changzed Karwang's son,
Changzed Chothup, alias Athingpoi, alias Satrajeet, greatly distinguished
himself: the various names are those given him by the Tibetans, the Lepchas,
and the Goorkhas. Under the first appellation he is known to have negotiated
with the Bhutanese (probably after their defeat at Tama-la), and
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obtained the restitution of the Rhenock ridge and the neighbouring land at Pop-
chu.
The second name was given him by the Lepchas in consideration of his
having visited Pod or Tibet, while the third commemorates his seventeen
victories over the Goorkhas in the Terai and the Morung.
His military colleague was Deba Takarpo, the grandfather of the present
Yangthang Kazi: the name given is merely the family and not the personal name,
which was Jor-den.(hByor IDan), alias Sang Rinzin (Tshang Riu-hZin).
This officer carried on the war successfully for a time and drove back the
Goorkhas from Ilam and the hills; and his forces actually penetrated as far as
Chainpore. Here near Bilungjong the Sikhimese general was defeated and slain,
and his army dispersed, and in consequence of this defeat Satrajeet had also to
retire from the Morung. The date of Deba's death and defeat was about 1787.
Active hostilities seemed to have then died out for a time, and Sikhim was
lulled into a state of false security, when suddenly in 1788--.89 a Goorkha force
under General Jor Singh secretly crossed the Chiabhanjan pass and penetrated
unobserved across the Kalhait. Rubdentse was surprised: there were no means of
.resisting, and the Raja and Rani had to fly precipitately without saving any
property, save a mask of Kanchinjingna, which the Rani snatched from the altar
and carried off in the bosom of her dress. gSol.tPon Tshang rNam.-rGyal,
grandfather of the Phodang lama, took up the Raja's son gTsug-Phud-rNam'rGyal
and bore him on his shoulders via Katong Ghat to the Mo-chu valley, and so
close was the pursuit, that the fugitives had to subsist on turok or wild yams,
which they dug up in the jungles. More troops were sent by the Goorkha General
Damoodar Pande, which overran and held possession of all Sikhim south and
west of the Tista.
In 1790 the Raja went to Lhassa to obtain help, and the Tibetan Government
promised to render help and arranged to send an army towards Nyanam (sMya-
nam). Meanwhile Chothup, Jomgye, and Densa Siring wrote to Lhassa to say
they had recovered Sikhim: the Tibetans in consequence were incensed and
ceased preparations. In 1790 the Raja died, and the Tibet Government apparently
gave his young son" Chophoe Namgye, some presents and sent him back.

gTSUG-PHUD-rNAMGYAL
(Cho.phoe Namgye) was born in 1785, and nominally succeeded
his father in 1790.
In 1791 the Goorkhas made war with Tibet and sacked Tashe lhunpo, but in
the following year were defeated near Katmandu and
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HISTORY OF SIKHIM AND ITS RULERS. 19

had to sign an ignominious treaty. In this war a party of Tibetans are said to have
reached Martam on the left bank of the Tista, but it is quite clear from the sites of
the fortifications near Katong Ghat that the popular party in Sikhim successfully
and without help prevented the Goorkhas crossing the. Tista. In fact, in the
proclamation referred to above, the Raja records that the Tibetans had refused
Sikhim help or to listen to their representations, when peace was being made, on
the ground that though Bhutan had rendered the Tibetans assistance, the
Sikhimese had not. In consequence during the negotiations carried on by the
Chinese General Hosi- Thangthang, Sikhim was not represented, the Raja and his
family were reduced to great straits, the boundary with Nepal was drawn back to
the left bank of the Tista, and Tibet resumed the Raja's fiefs at Piahte Jong and
Samye, and pushed its own boundary up to the Chola-Jelep range.
For some years Pemiongchi and all the South Tista tract paid rent to Nepal,
until in 1815 the Nepalese were expelled by the British Government, who by the
Treaty of 1817 restored all this country together with the Terai to the Sikhim
Raja. But even then the Raja had to be content to see his western boundary
thrown back from the Kankayi to the Phalut range and the Mechi river. This
boundary appears to have been originally laid down by Major Barre Latter, who
was accompanied by Nazir Chaina Tinjin, Macha Timbah, and Lama Duchim
Longadoo. About the year 1814 the Raja commenced building a palace at
Tumlong, which was henceforward to be the capital in preference to Rubdentse,
considered insecure and too far distant from Tibet.
In 1819 a serious quarrel arose between the Raja and his minister, his own
uncle Bho-lod, but was patched up and an agreement made. Another agreement
was made the following year, and a third in 1824, but about that time his wife
and child (the former seems to have been friendly to the minister) died, and the
Raja, freed from all restraint, seemed determined to make away with his
relative: so finally in 1826 Bho-lod was treacherously murdered near Tumlong
by Tung-yik Menchoo, father of Dunya Namgye, better known as the Pagla
Dewan. Bho-lod's cousin, Y uk-LhatGrup alias tkra-thup, fearing a similar fate,
fled from Sikhim and took refuge at Unthoo in Nepal with some 800 of his
Lepcha tribesmen.
Shortly after this disputes arose on the Sikhim and Nepal boundary, which
came under the cognizance of the Governor-General's Agent for the North-
Eastern Frontier and the Resident in Nepal. In 1828 Captain Lloyd was deputed
to the Sikhim frontier in connection with these disputes. He penetrated the hills
in company with Mr. J. W. Grant, the Commercial Resident at Malda, as far as
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20 HISTORY OF SIKHIM AND ITS RULERS.

Rinchingpung These gentlemen, attracted by the position of Darjeeling, brought

it to the notice of the Governor-General, and it was resolved by Government to
open negotiations with the Maharaja of Sikhim on the first convenient occasion
for the cession of Darjeeling to the British Government in return for an
equivalent in lands or money. This opportunity occurred in 1834.-35, when the
Lepcha refugees in Nepal made an inroad into the Sikhim Terai, and Colonel
Lloyd was deputed to enquire into the causes of the disturbance. The refugees
were obliged to return to Nepal, and the negotiation ended in the unconditional
cession by the Maharaja of the Darjeeling tract under a Deed of Grant, dated
February 1835.
In 1841 the Government granted an allowance of Rs. 3,000 per annum to the
Maharaja as compensation for the cession of Darjeeling, and in 1846 a further
sum of Rs. 3,000: in all Rs. 6,000 per annum.
T The settlement of Darjeeling advanced rapidly, its population having risen from
not more than 100 souls in 1839 to about 10,000 in 1849, chiefly by
immigration from the neighbouring States of Nepal, Sikhim, and Bhutan, in all
of which slavery is prevalent. There was free trade in labour and all other
commodities, with forest land enough for all corners to settle in, and every
encouragement given to the new arrivals. The increased importance of
Darjeeling, under free institutions, was a source of early and constant jealousy
and annoyance to. the Dewan of the Maharaja, who was himself the monopolist
of all trade in Sikhim, and this jealousy was shared in by the Lamas and other
principal people in the country, who lost their rights over slaves settling as
British subjects in our territory. The plan pursued was through reports and secret
emissaries to frighten our new subjects, by declaring that they should be
delivered up as escaped slaves to their former masters, and by discouraging the
resort in every way of the Sikhim people to Darjeeling ; added to which' some
British subjects were occasionally kidnapped to be sold into slavery, and there
were frequent denials of aid in capturing and surrendering criminals. There has
always been an arrangement for a mutual exchange of slaves between Sikhim
and Bhutan, and Dr. Campbell, the Superintendent of Darjeeling, was constantly
importuned by the Maharaja of Sikhim and his Dewan to get the British
Government to follow a similar course with Sikhim, which was of necessity
steadily refused.
In 1849 Dr. Hooker and Dr. Campbell, while travelling in Sikhim with
permission of Government and the Maharaja, were suddenly seized and made
prisoners. The object was to force Dr, Campbell to relinquish claims for the
surrender of criminals; to make him, while in durance, agree to the dictation of
the Dewan regarding the giving up of escaped slaves; and to detain him until
these
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HISTORY OF SIKHIM AND ITS RULERS. 21

enforced conditions should be sanctioned by Government. Foiled by the

declaration that whatever concessions might be extorted then would not be
confirmed by, Government, and intimidated by the declaration of the Governor-
General that the Maharaja's head should answer for it if a hair of the head of Dr.
Campbell or Dr. Hooker were hurt, theSikhimese eventually released the
prisoners on 24th December 1849.
In February 1850 an avenging force crossed the Great Rungeet river into
Sikhim. The expedition resulted in the stoppage of the annual grant of Rs. 6,000
enjoyed by the Maharaja, the annexation of the Sikhim Terai, and of the portion
of the Sikhim hills bounded by the Rummam river on the north, tbe Great
Rungeet and the Tista on the east, and by the Nepal frontier on the west. This
new territory was put under the management of the Superintendent of Darjeeling;
the Dewan was ostensibly dismissed from office, and for some years matters
proceeded smoothly and well between Sikhim and our Government. But this man
having worked his way into power again through his wife, an illegitimate
daughter of the Maharaja, the kidnapping of our subjects was resumed without
the possibility of obtaining redress. In April and May 1860. two aggravated cases
of kidnapping were reported to Government. All ordinary efforts to procure
reparation having failed, the Governor-General in Council resolved to occupy the
territory of the Maharaja lying to the north of the Rummam river and to the west
of the Great Rungeet, and to retain it until our subjects were restored, the
offenders given up, and security obtained against a recurrence of similar
offences. On the 1st November 1860 the Superintendent of Darjeeling crossed.
the Rummam with a small force, and advanced as far as Rinchingpung. But he
was eventually forced to fall back on Darjeeling. A stronger force was then
despatched under command of Lieutenant-Colonel Gawler, accompanied by the
Hon'ble Ashley Eden as Envoy and Special Commissioner. The force advanced
to the Tista, when the Sikhimese acceded to the terms dictated by the Governor-
General, and on the 28th of March 1861 a new treaty, consisting of twenty-three
articles, was concluded by the Envoy with Maharaja Sikyong Namgyal, as his
father, Maharaja Cho-phoe Namgye, though alive and in Chumbi, was afraid to
come over. Cho-phoe Namgye died in 1863.

SRID-SKYONG-rNAM-rGYAL
(Sikhyong Namgye) was born in 1819, and practically became
Raja in 1861, though his father did not die until two years later.
The annual allowance of Rs. 6,000 forfeited in 1850 was in 1862
restored, as an act of grace, to the ruling Maharaja Sikyong Namgyal
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22 HISTORY OF SIKHIM AND ITS RULERS.

it was increased in 1868 to Rs. 9,000, and in 1873 to Rs. 12,000 on the
understanding that it was granted without any reference to the increased value of
Darjeeling and purely as a mark of consideration for the Maharaja.
In 1868 the Maharaja solicited permission for the return of the ex-Dewan,
but the request was refused as being contrary to the 7th article .of the treaty of
1861, and likely, to lead to intrigues for the succession.
But to understand this and subsequent events an examination of the family
relations of Raja Cho-phoe Namgyal is necessary, and to explain these the
fol1owing genealogical tree has been drawn out. .
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24 HISTORY OF SIKHIM AND ITS RULERS.

Neither Cho-phoe nor Sikyong Rajas appear to have taken much interest in
the administration, and so in consequence of their relationship by marriage and
birth, first Dewan Namgay and after his banishment, in a lesser degree, Changzed
Kar-po became the really influential personages in the State. Dewan Namgay*.
was anti-English in feeling and conduct, while Changzed, on the other hand,
pretended much sympathy for the English.
In 1873 Raja Sikyong Namgye, accompanied by his half-brother, the present
Raja Thothub Namgye, and his half-sister Seringputti, and Changzed Gelong
Kar-po, visited Sir George Campben, then Lieutenant-Governor of Bengal, at
Darjeeling. .
Raja Sikyong Namgyel died in April 1874;, and unsuccessful intrigues were
attempted to set aside the accession of Thothub Namgye in favour of Tinle
Namgye (born in 1866), but were defeated by the prompt action of the then
Deputy Commissioner of Darjeeling, Mr. J. Ware Edgar (now Sir John Edgar).

mTHU-sTOBS-rNAM-rGYAL

(Tho-tub Namgye) was born in 1860, and on the death of his half-brother
both ascended his throne and married his widow, a lady of Tashelhunpo by
name Pending. She died in childbirth in 1880, leaving three children by
Thothub, viz., a daughter, Namgyel Dumo, born in 1876, and two sons; the
elder Tchoda-Namgye, heir to the Raj, born in 1877, and the younger Chotal,
born in 1879, supposed to be the incarnation at Phodang of Sikyong Namgyel.
In October 1875 Sir Richard Temple had a friendly interview with the Raja
and Changzed Kar-po at Chomnaga near the Cho-la pass. At this interview the
Raja expressed his desire that the British Government should undertake
arrangements for the conservation of the sal, pine, and other forests in his
territory, but nothing was actually carried out. .
The :Maharaja was invited to be present at the Imperial Assemblage at Delhi
on the 1st January 1877, but as he was unable to attend, his banner, medal, and
ring were duly presented to him at Tumlong by Mr. Edgar mentioned above.
Some complications which had arisen as far back as 1872 between one
Luchmee Das Prodhan, the head of the Nepalese Newars in Darjeeling, and the
Lassoo Kazi, the Sikhim Vakil in Darjeeling, but had been smoothed over, again
became prominent in 1878, so that in November of that year the present Raja
and

...* Died in 1888.

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HISTOHY OF SIKHIM AND ITS RULERS. 25

Changzed Kar-po came to Kalimpong to meet the Hon'ble Sir Ashley Eden, the
then Lieutenant-Governor of Bengal. The question of Nepalese settling in
Sikhim was there discussed, and Nepalese settlers were admitted in certain parts
under certain restrictions. This agreement, owing to the intrigues of the exiled
Dewan Namgay, the Dorjee Lopen of Pemiongchi and Norden Gelong, tahsildar
at Kalimpong, did not work well, and events culminated in the disturbances and
fight at Rhenok in 1880. Mr. A. W. Paul was then sent to settle matters at
Tumlong, and a fresh agreement was drawn up and promulgated on the 14th
April 1880. This, with some slight modifications arranged by the Phodang Lama
and the Dorjee Lopen, worked well.
Changzed Kar-po, after a visit to Giantzi, where he met the Chinese Amban
and some of the Tibetan officials, died in 1879. This visit apparently took place
shortly after the interview with Sir Ashley Eden, and appears to have resulted in
some secret agreement with Tibet and the investiture of Thothub Namgye with a
Chinese button of the 1st rank (plain coral).
As stated above, Rani Pending died in 1880, and these two deaths threw the
whole power of the State into the hands of the old Rani Men-chi and Dewan
Namgay, who naturally, from living wholly at Chumbi, favoured Tibetan
interests and the cause of young Tinle, then growing up to manhood.
Raja Thothub meanwhile lived peaeefully at Tumlong and evinced no
disposition to contract a second marriage. However, pressure seems to have been
brought to bear on him, and so having obtained two elephants from the
Government of Bengal in 1881, he sent them to the Grand Lamas at
Tashelhunpo and Lhassa, in charge of Nudup Gyaltsen (brother of the Phodang
Lama) and the Rhenok Kazi. These officers, when at Lhassa, arranged a
marriage between the Raja and the daughter of Shafe Utok, one of the leading
men in Tibet.
Unfortunately the old Rani and her son Tinle, accompanied by Dewan
Namgay, followed shortly afterwards in 1882-83, and, apparently in furtherance
of their design to place Tinle in direct succession to the Raj, broke off this
match, and secured as a wife to the Raja the daughter of an inferior officer .in the
Dalai Lama's court, known as Leden-se. It is said that the old Rani had to
execute a bond, guaranteeing that the Raja of Sikhim would receive the girl as
his Rani; but without the slightest attempt at a show of decency, the girl
immediately went to live with Tinle, and by the time the party returned from
Lhassa to Chumbi, she was very far gone in pregnancy, and in fact bore two
children before Raja Thothub ever saw her. All this helped the intrigues in
favour of Tinle, as his joint marriage
 ""
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26 HISTORY OF SIKHIM AND ITS RULERS.

with Leden-se's daughter is pointed out as proving Thothub and Tinle are
legitimate brothers, and so both of the Royal family, polyandry being permissible
under Tibetan law. The real facts as to Tinle's parentage have been given above.
Raja Thothub up to 1884 remained in Sikhim and refused to have anything to
do with the girl, but in 1885 the influence of Tinle became too great, especially
as the Deputy Commissioner himself approved of his going to Chumbi to learn
what was being done regarding the dispute between Bhutan and Tibet and the
interruptions to trade. Accordingly Raja Thothub went over to Chumbi nominally
to pay his respects to the Shafe Rampa. Subsequently the Raja was requested to
remain at Chumbi, while the Macaulay Mission was in progress in 1886. In that
year, after the stoppage of the Macaulay Mission, the Tibetans advanced into
Sikhim and built a fort at Lingtu which they persistently'refused to evacuate. The
Raja remained at Chumbi, notwithstanding the remonstrances of the Indian
Government and the stoppage of his pension, until December 1887, when he
returned to Gantok, in the meantime having made an agreement with the Tibetans
at a place called Galing. In March 1888 the Sikhim Expeditionary Force was sent
against Lingtu, which the Tibetans were compelled to evacuate, and in
September the campaign ended with the complete expulsion of the Tibetans
across the Jelep.
In December 1888 the Chinese Resident, His Excellency Sheng Tai, arrived
at Gnatong, and negotiations were opened with a view to a settlement of the
Sikhim-Tibetan dispute, but were unsuccessful, and so were formally broken off
on the 11th January 1889.
On the arrival in Darjeeling of Mr. James H. Hart, of the Chinese Imperial
Customs Service, fresh attempts at the solution of our difficulties were made, and
after long interchange of views, negotiations were re-opened towards the close of
1889, and resulted in the convention signed in Calcutta on the.17th March 1890.
In June 1889 Mr. J. C. White, Executive Engineer, was appointed Assistant
Political Officer at Gantok to advise and assist the Maharaja in his.
administration of the country. A representative Council selected from the chief
men in Sikhim was also established with the same view.
Good roads have been opened from Pedong in British territory to tbe Jelep
pass and to Tumlong, properly bridged throughout. Iron bridges have also been
constructed across the Tista, the Rungeet and other streams, and communication
throughout Sikhim has been very greatly improved.
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HISTORY OF SIKHIM AND ITS RULERS. 27

POPULATION, TRIBES, AND CHIEF FAMILIES OF SIKHIM.

A census taken. in Sikhim in February 1891 roughly divides the
population as follows :-
Race or caste. Males. Females. Children. Total.
Lepcha ... 2,362 2.399 1,001 5,762
Bhutea ... 1,966 1,960 968 4,894
Limbu ... 1255 1,159 942 3,356
Gurung ... 1,108 1,047 766 2,921
M urmi ... 801 778 1,288 2,867
Rai, Jimdar, &c. ... 742 691 587 2,020
Khambu ... 726 648 589 1,963
Kami ... 626 464 580 1,670
Brahman ... 521 372 521 1,414
Mangar ... 363 346 192 901
Chetri ... 303 253 273 829
Newar ... 240 183 304 727
Slaves ... 124 99 103 326
Dirzi 102 92 93 287
Miscellaneous, includ..
ing troops ... 350 72 99 521
11,589 10,563 8,306 30.458
Of the above, the Limbus, Gurungs, Murmis, Khambus, and Mangars are more
or less allied, while the others, excepting the Lepcha and Bhutea, are later
immigrants from beyond the Arun in Nepal: thus, roughly speaking, it may be
said that there are three main stocks in Sikhim :
the,oldest and perhaps aboriginal inhabitants of Sikhim were the"
Rong," or, as we know them from their Nepalese title, "the
Lepchas*
the next in importance, if not in antiquity. come the Kham-pa or Kham-
ba, the immigrants from the Tibetan province of Khams; commonly
called Bhuteas ;
while the Sikhim Limbus rank as last and least: these belong to what Mr.
Risley styles the Lhasa Gotra, as they are believed to have migrated
to Sikhim from Shigatsi, Penam, Norpu, Khyongtse, Samdubling,
and Gyangtse, places in the Tibetan province of Tsang, south of the
Tsanpo.
All the families in Sikhim belong to one or other of these strains, or to an
admixture of them, as intermarriages are allowed.

*. Dr. Waddell in a separate article has shown that the Lepchas are probably lndoChinese
cognate with the tribes of the Naga Hills, and entered the Sub.Himalayas vai the Assam valley.
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28 HISTORY OF SIKIIIM AND ITS RULERS.

The royal family belong to the second of the above.

. The descendants of Khye-bum-sar are divided into six families,
viz.
(1) Yul-tenpa or Yul-thon-pa.
(2) Lingzerpa.
Pyak,. Tsen- Tar (3) Zhan-tar-pa or Zhan-po
tar. forming the Tong-du-
Pu-pun-Sum. * ru-zi, or " the four
(4) Tshe-gyu- Tarpa or Tshes
bChu-tar. families of a 1,000
(5) Nyim-Gye-pa. collections. "
(6) Guru-tashe-pa.
But with Khye-bum-sar came other# Tibetans or Kham-pas, who founded the
eight families now known as the hBeps-mTshan-bGyad, or the tribe of "the eight
respectable names."
There is some confusion as to the exact names of these eight sub-families
and the order in which they rank, but the following is fairly correct:
1. Pon-pa.
2. rGan-sTag-Pu.Tshogs or tGon-gSang-pa.
3. Nam-gTsang-sKho-pa or sKor-pa.
4. sTag-Chhung-Tar-pa.
5. tKar-Tshogs-pa.
6. Grong-sTod-pa.
7. bTshun-rGyal-pa or rGyas-pa.
8. mDo-Khang-pa or Kham-pa.
In all there are thus fourteen original main families of Tibetan origin
in Sikhim, if we do not include a fifteenth, the Pu-Tshogs Nier-pok descended
from the illegitimate grandson of Tshe- bChu-tar referred to in page 9 above: the
representatives of this branch have dwindled considerably and are in low
circumstances near Chongpon close to Pemiongchi.
These fourteen main families have the right to be admitted to the Tasong
monastery at Pemiongchi without payment of nuzzur or entrance fees.
The Pon-pa are again subdivided into five, viz.
(a) Nag-lDig. (d) Na-pon.
(b) Lha-bSungs. (e) Pon-Chhung-pa.
(c) Yos-lChags.

* Pu-pun.Sum" means the three brothers,"

# As mentioned above, Khye Bamsa had three brothers, who migrated to Hah in.
Bhutan, whence their descendants migrated into Sikhim.
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HISTORY OF SIKHIM AND ITS RULERS. 29

Besides the above there are other families of Tibetan origin which form Mr.
Risley's Rui-chhung (i.e., little families). These came into Sikhim at various
times since the establishment of the Raj, and are divided into groups (named
after their place or manner of origin). The chief and most important are the
(i) Pu-Tsho-po-pa.
(ii) Lag-l Dingpa.
(iii) rGod-Rong-pa.

(iv) Gyeng-pa. .

(v )sTod-pa.
(vi )Shar- pa..
}
(vii)h Bar- Phong- Pu- Tsha-po (Barphungpuso).
(viii) A lDan.Pu-Tsha.po (Adinpuso).
The above families are admitted into the Pemiongchi monastery, but only on
payment of heavy entrance fees.
Of these the (v) sTod-pa or Tumu-sTodpa, so called from their having first
settled in Tumu or the upper Mo-chu valley, are again subdivided into

(a) Toi Lha-goi.pa or sTod-Lha-rGod.

(b) Toi.Jam Yang-pa or sTod-hJam-tByangs.
(c) Toi-Chhu-khapa or sTod-Chhu-kha-pa.
After all the above come others, such as the
(2) Chombi-pa, immigrants from Kham in Tibet and Hah in Bhutan to the
lower reaches of the Mochu near Chumbi. The following subdivisions are
given:
(a) Lham-tar or Lha-ma-tar.
(b) Gue-ne-pu-Tshogs or tGe-bsNyen-pu-Tsha-pa.
(c) Agon or Ang-.tGon.
(d) Athub-:pu-Tshogs.
(e) Do.Shoi-pa or rDog-Zhod-pa.
(f) Khimbarpa or Khyim-hPar-pa.
In the north the Lachen-Lachung valleys have been colonized by other
immigrants from Hah and Paro in Bhutan, who are now called the
(3) Lopon Lhundub
There are other families also whose names are in many cases derived from
local features: among them are found the
(4) (a) A-som-pa. (c) Na-Mangs.
(b) Mang-sPod'pa. (d) Shag-Tshang-pa.
I
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30 HISTORY OF SlKHIM AND ITS RULERS.

e) rDo-hRob-pa. (k) Ka-gye-pa.

(1) Dobta-po, to whom belong
(f) sGang-rGyab-pa. Dunya Namgue (the Pagla
(g) La-hog-pa. Dewan) and his father,
(h) Man Tshang- pa.
(i)sPa- Thing-pa. Tungyik Menchoo, murderer of
(j) Peng-ri-pa. Bholod.

Among the above, the traditions regarding-the ancestors of the -Lag-IDingpa

(ii) and rGod-Rong-pa (iii) are curious. To the south-east of Pema-kod-chen lies the
country of Lho-tawa, inhabited by cannibals; at their weddings it is customary to kill
and eat the bride's father or mother, should the hunters, sent to forage for the feast,
return empty-handed. Many years ago the sons of Guru Chhod-wang and. of another
learned lama, in hopes of improving their minds, as they were not as clever as their
fathers, went on a pilgrimage to Tsari and Pema-kod. One evening they arrived at an
old woman's hut at Lho-khabta and took shelter there. The woman informed them
that the owner of the hut had gone out hunting in order to procure some game to
celebrate the marriage of his son, and added that if the hunters were unsucessful, she
would be killed and eaten at the first day's feast; while if they continued
unsuccessful, the two lamas would be killed and eaten on the second and third days
of the ceremony. On hearing this the travellers were naturally very much alarmed,
and begged the old woman to show them some means of getting away and so saving
their life. She instructed them that at the distribution of her remains the men of the
house would probably offer the lamas one of her arms to be cooked in a curry: that if
they did so, the lamas should beg for the hand instead, on pretence that in a previous
existence the old woman had been a great hero and the hand was more precious. If
the lamas obtained the hand, then there was hope for them, and they should that very
day at midnight decamp from the house, taking with them the dead hand. Matters
turned out as predicted: the old lady was killed for the feast to welcome the bride's
arrival, and the lamas succeeded in obtaining the hand, and escaping with it that
night. In the morning the men of the house, missing the lamas, followed on their
tracks, tracing them like dogs by the scent. Seeing them coming, the lamas climbed
up a high tree: soon the hunters with their noses to the ground came to the foot of the
tree and there lost all further trace. The others with those hunting by scent got angry
with the latter and threw them down on theirbacks to kill them: in this position the
hunters were obliged to look up and so saw the lamas in the tree, and pointed up
with their fingers; taking this as a sign of resistance, the others cut off the hands,
before' an explanation of the signs could be given. Learning, however,
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HISTORY OF SIKHIM AND ITS RULERS. 31

where the lamas were, the men began to cut down the tree. Rather than fall alive
into the hands of such barbarians, the lamas determined to kill themselves by
flinging themselves off the tree.. They tried to do this, but the one who held the
woman's hand was miraculously wafted through the air, still clinging to the hand,
and safely transported to Lhobrak.The other was transformed into the semblance
of a vulture and flew into some thick forest, whence he subsequently made his
escape. In commemoration of this event the first lama obtained the bame of
Lag.lDing.-pa, "the hand-flyer," and the latter of rGod-Rong-pa, "the wild bird
(the lammergeyer) of the crags."
The first La-ding.pa connected with Sikhim was called Lama Thampa Phur-
gyel, literally the Holy Flying King: he is said to have been able to fly all over the
Tumo valley, Rinchingong and Nyam-nag-tsho. This miraculous power of flight
is attributed to more than one lama at Sikhim. Thus just below Tashiding is
pointed out a rock, called Urgyen-phur-sa, because Padmasambhava is said to
have flown thence.
The Barphungpuso (vii) and Adinpuso (viii) hava hitherto been thought to
be pure Lepcha or Rang families, and General Mainwaring considers that the
first is Bar-fong-mo=" the flowing from on high," and the second A'-den=" the
created, fashioned, formed," the two combined being equivalent to "the
patricians and plebians." The following accounts given by members of the two
families are entirely different :
The original ancestor of Tekong-tek, the old Lepcha chief in the time of Jo-
khye-Bum-sar,came of divine orgin, Tekong tek being the sixth in direct
descent. From Tekong-tek or one of his brothers came one Tasa Aphong some
five or six generations later, who was a leading Lepcha and a minister under
Raja Ten-sung Namgue*. His wife was also a Lepchani. The husband in course
of duty was sent on a mission to Tibet which lasted some time. In his absence
Raja formed an attachment for his Minister's wife, and by him she became the
mother of a son, who was called Yukthing Adub or Arub. This boy grew up and
rose to the office of Treasurer to Raja Chador Namgue. When the latter fled to
Ilam and Tibet on the invasion of the Bhutanese, Adup was in charge of the
palace of Rubdentse, and thus fell into the hands of the Bhutanese, who brought
him prisoner to Hah in Tibet. Here from an incestuous marriage there was born
to him a
.* Tasa Aphong originally held a small post or tahsil ship at his native place hBar.phag,
and his full title was Tumiyang Thekong Tasa Aphong 'of hBar-phag; this was contracted to
Bar-phag A-phong, and thence to Bar-phong: hence his descendants (Pu-tsho) are now
known as the Bar-phong-pu-tsho."
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32 HISTORY OF SIKHIM AND ITS RULERS.

son, called from his birthplace at Dzom-thang near Paro in Bhutan, Dzom-
tashi.*. This man is known by several names, such as Athing Thi-she, Yuk thing
De-si, but is best known by his Tibetan title Changzed Karwang or Karwie.
Some details of his life are given under the reigns of Rajas Chador, Gyur-me,
Namgue Penchoo, and Tenzing Namgue.
Karwang was twice married, viz., to the daughter of one YukDagom of the
Ta-karpo family and to a Limbu or Mangar lady, and had eighteen children: of
these some eight or nine only need be mentioned.
By the second lady we find the following :
(1) Namgyel Tshiring.

(3) Dzomgyel (Jomgye).

(2) Ka-bhi Changzed. (4) Konga.
I
By the first lady:
(5) Athing-poi.
(6) Tateng Athing.
And three daughters:
(7) Afiyong-poi. (8) Afiyo Gyalyum. (9) Anyo Chu-wa.
(1) Namgyel Tshiring was the ancestor of the present Barmik Kazi Dorze
Dadup: he was also called" Den-chap," from having acted as Regent of Sikhim
during the Raja's absence, and the title is said to be still continued in the family.
. (2) Ka-bhi Changzed was the celebrated General Satrajeet or Changzed
Chothup: he had only a daughter, married to Yapa-Tsi.suh of the Ta-karpo
family, who thus became his adopted son; from them is descended the present
Rhenock Kazi, Rinzing Namgyel
(3) Dzomgyel is the ancestor of the three Kazis of Entchi, Ramtik, and
Tatong (Gantok).
(4) Konga was appointed Kazi of Kotah (ie Ilam): he had two children, Da-
thup# (tGra-thup) and Gerong Danen, a lama of Pemiongchi. The former again
had two sons, one the father of the old Lassoo Kazi, who succeeded Tchebu
Lama as Sikhim Vakil in Darjeeling, and the other Namgye, father of Yuk
Sirman Kazi of Kotah, whose son Man Bahadur married Raja Tendook's
daughter. Gerong Danen forsook his vows, and marrying in his old age became
the father of Sinkoop, the old Dharm din Kazi, who was the grandfather of the
present youth Kazi Badur, and of Yuk Sateng alias Bidoor

.* More probably Karwang was the son of Dzom-tashi.

#See p.19.
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Kazi of Ilam, who was also at one time Soobah of Darjeeling. The monument so
conspicuous on the ridge in the Bhutea Busti (Do-chuk) was erected to the
memory of his wife, Yang-chen, half-sister to Raja Tendook.
(5) Of Athing-poi nothing seems to be known.
.(6) Tateng Athing, better known as Changzed Bho-lod or Ba-lu, became
Minister to his sister's son, Raja Chophoe Namgye, and was murdered owing to
the intrigues of Tung-yik Menchoo, father of the Dewan Dunya Namgue, better
known as the Pagla Dewan. Tateng Athing was the father of Gelong, the present
Tateng Kazi, whose grandson, Dorje Tchiring, has married Raja Tendook's
daughter.
Nothing is known of the daughters.(7) and (9), but (8) Anyo Gyalyum was
married to Raja Tenzing Namgye, and became the mother of Raja Chephoe
Namgye.
It will be seen from the above that though the Barphongpuso were made
Kazis or Jongpens of the chief Lepcha districts, their descent is not a purely
Lepcha one.
The Adinpuso have still less claim to the title of Lepcha. Their legendary
history is to the effect that some generations before the accession of Raja
Penchoo to the throne of Sikhim, three brothers from Khams-A-lDan-Chhos-
hKhor-gLing in Tibet came via Lhassa and Tsang down the Lachen-Lachung
route into Sikhim. At Ringon the eldest brother was so terrified at the awful hills
and rocks and the difficulties of the road that he turned back. The two other
brothers persevered until they were stopped near sBas (Be) by a red demon,
called bTsan-rNams-rGyal-mThon-po, who only let them pass on condition that
their descendants should regularly do him worship. The younger brother
subsequently settled at Mangbru and the elder at Barmyak.
The more probable account is as follows:-In the middle of the thirteenth
century the hierarch at Sakya was the great hGromGon-hPhags-pa, who was the
spiritual guide to Prince Khublai, afterwards the Emperor Sa-chhen of China
and the founder of Peking. In 1251 this monarch presented the learned lama
with the thirteen provinces of Tibet, called Khri-sKor-bChu-gSum, in
recognition of his sanctity and ability. A few years later the lama made a
journey to Mongolia (and perhaps China). On his return journey about 1264 he
brought with him from Kham one Na-tWang-Ton-Grub, a native of Kham-
Aden. After some residence at Sakya the latter was advised by the lama to travel
south and seek his fortunes in Sikhim, and so came as far as Talung, which he
made his home. His son, Tse-tWang rNam-rGyal, removed to Tung-sBong
(Ting-bong), where he married a Lepchani wife. Their son, bKra-gShi-Ton-
Grub, and grandson, bSam-hPhel, settled lower down the Talung valley at
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34 HISTORY OF SIKHIM AND ITS RULERS.

Lingthem. The latter's son, Tshe-hPhel, resided at Yul-sBar-Phag. Tse-phel had

two sons, Ye-shes and rDo-rJe, who crossing the Tista settled at Rin-tGon
(Ringim). Dorje's son, Nor-Pu-tWang-hDus, had again two sons, who are the
ancestors of Raja Tendook's and Tchehu Lama's families. The following is their
genealogical tree:
I t will thus be seen how little Lepcha blood there is in the two chief families
of the Adinpuso stock. It is stated that De-Chhen.kyab was one of those who
hailed Penchoo Namgue Raja at Yoksom in 1641.
It may be interesting to note that Doobgye (Tendook's father), though
Jongpen ot Barmie, went to Nagri as captain in the Sikhimese army, fought
there against the Nepalese, and assisted Major Latter to lay down the present
boundary between Sikhim and Nepal. He had two wives: by the elder, a
daughter of the Pad-gLing Lama, he had two sons, Dawa Sring and Yit.tam
Sring, now a Jongpen in Nepal; by the younger wife, who was the daughter of
the hGu-ling Jongpen, a Barphongpuso by family, he had three sons who lived
to grow up, viz., hBrug-brTan-hDsin, Bahadur, and Tendook Pulgor. Doobgye
had also two illegitimate sons, Rabden Tsiring and Rinchen Long-dol, Jongpen
of Pachim, both of whom have served as interpreters to Government.
There are, however, several Lepcha families still existing, particularly along
the banks of the Talung river and its vicinity. Among
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HISTORY OF SIKHIM AND ITS RULERS. 35

them the following may be noted, many of whom derive their patronymic from
the places they settled in :
(1) Singyang-mo, spread over Eastern Nepal: Tekong Solon
was one of their ancestors.
(2) Luksom-mo or Yoksom-mo, from the place of that name.
(3) Si-ming or Sungut-mo, whose head-quarters are near Rungli
Rungliot, and to whom is allied the family of the
Khangsar Dewan and Phodang Lama.
(4) Tuk-nyil-mo live near Cheumthang.
(5) Sambo-mo or Sumba-putsho occupy Namtheng near Chidam.
(6) Turgok-mo live near Rinchingpung.
(7) Rong-gong-mo are a numerous clan and came from Rong'
gong near Ilam.
(8) Kheng-bo, from the place of that name near Ilam.
(9) Nam-chhyo-mo occupy Sidhi and Karmie, and had as their
Jongpen Chado, father of the Phodang Lama, and after
him Lachoo, Chebu Lama's father.
(10) Guling-mo, near Ilam in Nepal.
(11) Samdar-moditto.
(12) Kotha-mo, from Kotah near.Ilam.
(13) Barmyak-mo.
(14) Sungphung-mo, ditto.
(15) Namtchi-mo were formerly subordinate to the Gnabdeh
Lama's people, but subsequently were granted a special
Jongpen.
(16) Sam-ling-mo in Nepal.
(17) Mong-mong-mo near Dentem, whose headman is the
Sing-li Mapen. .
(18) Talong-mo, near Dharm-den.
(19) Sang-pu-mo occupy Lingmo, which was given to the Song
Jongpen, an uncle of Tchebu Lamas.
(20) Song-mo, closely allied to preceding.
(21) Namphak-mo, whose lands were given to the Phodang
Lama.
(22) Re-doo-mo live near Rinchingpung and are under the
Sikhim Raja direct.
(23) Kubbi-mo, from the place of that name near Tumloug.
(24) Fok-ram-mo and.
(25) Rongeu-ram-mo live near Lingthem.
(26) Rangit-ram-mo, near the head of the Rungeet.
(27) Rathong-ram-mo and
(28) Rangbi-ram-mo near the Rathong.
(29 Lo-so-mo at Tassiding.
(30) Kalet-ram-mo from the Kulhait river.
(31) Lingdam-mo are at Ilam in Nepal.
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:36 HISTORY OF SIKHIM AND ITS RULERS.

(32) Rhenok-mo at Rhenok in Sikhim.

(33) Y ong-bi-mo at Kotah in Nepal.
(34) Chong-khey-mo at Phoogurhi near Merig in Darjeeling.
(:35) Lingdong-mo at Mangbru.
(36) Y ok-cho-mo at Phensung.
(37) Re-ma-song near Ramtik.
(38) Na-be-mo in the Dik-chhu valley:
(39) Sangmi-po, though sometimes styled Lepchas, are really
Limbus.
Many of the smaller. families give a mythical origin to their ancestors, and
trace their descent from spirits or demons, the offspring of an alliance between a
rock or tree and a pond. To these they always assign a known location.
The most celebrated of their mythical heroes are reported to have
disappeared from earth through various caves that are still pointed out.
The origin of the LIMBUS is veiled in great obscurity, though the most
received account relates that they came from Kasi (i.e., Benares ).
But the following, taken from an old Limbu manuscript, may be
interesting :
According to Yak-thum (Limbu) tradition, in the beginning existed almighty
god Tagyera Ningwa Puma. His spirit entered into Mubuk Wa-ma and caused
him to create woman out of bamboo ashes and fowls' droppings: she was called
Muzina Kye.ong-ma, and married the wind. They had a son by name Susu-weng
Hara-weng. He went a-hunting one day and met two women whose origin is
unknown. They bore to him respectively a son, Suwangbe-ba, and a daughter,
Laha-dang-ma: these two marrying became the progenitors of the whole human
race. .
After creating woman, Mubuk Wa-ma seated himself on the right side of
Khamba-karma (Mt. Kanchinjingna), and proceeded to invent four different kinds
of alphabets..* These were-(l) Sbyang-bed, (2) Athar-bed, (3) Jajur-bed, all
written on paper, and (4) Riki-bed, written on a doe-skin, and for many eras after
their construction were, however, lost.
The direct descendants of Suwangbe-ba are not known, but one branch
appears at Kasi (Benares) in the persons of four brothers. One of these penetrated
direct into the hills, where there was uninhabited country, and settling there, his
descendants were known as the " Khambung-ba," or "lords of the soil." This may
be the Phedhap or Bhuiphuta branch. Another brother settled in "Sukhi-gang-zi."

.* Dr. Waddell point out that this is merely a clumsy 'way of citing the four Hindu vedas or
scriptures, viz., Sarna, Atharwa, Yajur and Rig veds.
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HISTORY OF SIKHIM AND ITS RULERS

His descendants were called "Kasi-thang. ba," or" the arrivals from Kasi. "
The other brothers travelled east into the hills, whence their descendants
found their way westward at a subsequent. period: hence they were known as
the" Muna-pemba," or "the late comers." They are now better known as the
Lhasa Gotra, from having come from the direction of East Tibet. In this branch
there were again four brothers, the two kings U-ba-hang and Chang-ba-hang,
and Kajung-ma and Gammi-ma: the two first names have evident reference to
the two Tibetan Provinces of U (Lhassa) and Chang (Tashelhunpo);. and in
consequence of this latter, or because they came from the north (Chang, lit.
Pyang), the Limbus derive. their sobriquet of Chang. Dr. Waddell explains that
the name Limbu has been given them by the Nepalis: they call them serves
Yakthumba (or Yak-herds), and the Lepchas and Bhuteas can them Tshong
(which in the vernacular means' a merchant,' and the Limbus were the chief
cattle-merchants and butchers in Sikhim).
It has been mentioned above that Mubuk Wa-ma had invented and hidden
four different kinds of "Bed" (the Limbu for books). These were found the (1)
by Bishu Karma. the protecting deity or ruler of the Kamis; the (2).by Mahisur,
a Bhutea lama; the (3) by Bishun Raja the head of the Brahmans, and forms the
present Deva-nagari; while the (4) was found by the two Limbu Rajas
mentioned above. Unfortunately the doe-skin on which the characters had been
written, had expanded and contracted so much with alternate damp and heat that
the writing was undecipherable, and the Limbu alphabet remained lost. Many
generations later the great Limbu Siri-jungna, .called also the Dorze Lama of
Yangrup, in a vision saw Mubuk Wa-ma, who pointed out where another copy
of the Limbu writings, inscribed on stone, was to be found. The saint thus found
them, and dictated to his eight chief disciples what now remains of Limbu
Literature. Sirijungna was, however, in this betrayed to the Raja of Sikhim and
the Tasong monks. They in jealousy or from fear of the .Limbus, now becoming
a united and separate people, tried to shoot him. In this they failed, as also in an
attempt to drown him; so finally capturing him alive, they filled his mouth with
fowls' dung, whereupon his spirit fled away in the form of a bird. Singha Raja
was at that time King of Nepal. It may be, as Mr. Risley mentions, this Raja was
Prithi Narayan Singh, but in that case it is singular all authentic history. of
Siri-Jungna should have been lost in less than 100 years*.

*
. Babll S. C. Dass in his II Narrative of a Journey to Lhassa," page 6, states that the famous
Srijanga, the deified hero of the Limbus, appeared probably in the 9th century, and is identified by the cis-
Himalayan Bhuteas with an incarnation of Padma Sambhava. It is also said that he was born 95 years after
Bikramjit's era, i.e., about 38 A.D.
38 HISTORY OF SIKHIM AND ITS RULERS. www.sikkim.gov.in

Another interpretation of Kashi and Lhassa Gotras is that the former are
Limbu on both sides, whereas the latter are the offspring of a Limbu father, but a
Tibetan mother.
The country between the Arun and Kankaye was originally peopled by
Limbus, who were distributed over ten districts, each subject to their own
headman, Soubah or petty Raja, who looked on his district as his own property.
From .this division into" ten" (Das), the Limbus are often known as " Das
Limbus," and from their headman derived their title of "Soubah." These ten main
divisions ( or Thums) derive their names either from the name of the locality
itself or from the number of the separate" Thars" or subdivisions, with whom the
Goorkha Government made settlement, after the conquest of the Newar Raja and
submission of the Limbu Soubahs. It seems that the Limbus were not conquered
by the Goorkhas, but voluntarily submitted, and in consequence retain several
privileges; among others,the right to guard .the Walloon passes. .
The Thums named from their locality are-

Yangrup. Mewa or Mai-khola.

Tambarkhola. Phedhap.

The second c1ass comprise the remaining six Thums, viz-.

Charkhola ( four). T erathar (thirteen).

Panch-.thar (five). Atharai (eighteen).
Chothar or Soodap Cha Chaubisa (twenty-four).
I

tharea (six).
The Thars or Septs embraced in these ten Thums are very numerous, but a
full account will be found in Mr. Risley's" The Tribes and Castes of Bengal."
Of other tribes in Sikhim the Newars are the most enterprising and
influential, though their number is small. Their history is,however, in no way
connected with that of Sikhim. An interesting account of the Newars is to be
found in Dr. Oldfield's" Sketches from Nepal."
The Gurungs live chiefly in Western Sikhim, and are well versed in sheep
grazing.
The Mangars formerly occupied parts of the Kangpa-chen and Tambur
valleys, but were expelled, and their power broken by their rivals, the Sherpa
Bhuteas: the last of their chiefs is rumoured to have died near Pomong (in the
Darjeeling Gosvernment Cinchona estate).
 NOMENCLATURE OF PLACES 39 www.sikkim.gov.in

NOMENCLATURE OF PLACES.
The Tibetan names for Sikhim are pronounced Denjong, Demojong and
Demoshong, though actually spelt-hBras-lJongs, hBras-maIJongs and
hBras.gShongs, and mean" the country or valley of rice." In Chinese this same
word has been corrupted into Che-MengHsiung. The great Dutch traveller Van
de Putte, who travelled in Tibet about the year 1730, in his sketch map called
Sikhim " Brama-scjon," which is evidently the" hBras-ma-IJongs" above, while
Horace della Penna in the ,same century speaks of the Kingdom of " Bregion" or
"Bramashon:" the former must be a corruption of " hBras-IJongs."
In Tibetan the people of Sikhim are often called" Rong-pa," or "the dwellers
in the steep country. The term" Mon-pa," or "dwellers in the lower country," is
used occasionally to describe the Lepcha inhabitants.The first appellation must
not, however, be confounded with the similar word by which the Lepchas speak
of themselves; and which means" the squatter in," or " care-taker" of " the
country of caves" (Ne layang).
What the derivation of Lepcha is cannot be ascertained. It must, however, be
remembered - that the English form of spelling the word is incorrect and out of
keeping with the local pronunciation, which is "Lap-cha" or "Lap-che," the
former being the more common and probably the correct one. Dr. Waddell
writes: "As the term' Lapcha' is of Nepalese origin, and the Parbatiya dialect of
the Nepalese consists mainly of pure Sanskrit roots, tbe word 'Lapcha' may
perhaps be derived from' lap,' speech, and' cha,' vile = the vile speakers-a
contemptuous term with reference to their" non-adoption of the Parbatiya
language like the rest of the' Nepalese' tribes." Another autbority enquires
whether it may refer to the Hindi,Lap-thi,' the name of a kind of skate fish, i.e.,
of a flat fish, a term which may have been applied by the Goorkhas to the
Lepchas on account of tbe flatness of their faces. None of these derivations are
convincing, but none are offered by the people themselves.
"The etymology of the modern name of Sikhim," as Dr. Waddell writes, "is
not at all clear.. It is genera\ly alleged by the Lepchas and Bhuteas to be a
Parbatiya name applied to the country by the conquering Goorkhas. As the great
majority of the Parbatiya words are derived almost directly from tbe Sanskrit, I
venture to suggest that its most probable derivation is from the Sanskrit word,
Sikhin = crested. This would characterise the leading feature of the approach
from the Nepal side-a long high ridge with Kanchinjingna 28,O0O feet and
Kabur 22,000 feet in its middle separates this country from Goorkha territory;
and being shut off from Bhutan by another
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40 NOMENCLATURE OF PLACES.

high ridge, the intervening narrow tract which constitutes Sikhim presents within
itself an .unusual number' of ridges (crests) running more or less in N. to S.
direction transverse to the vista from Nepal. This name is not at all likely to be
related to Skt. sek, to wet or moisten, for the climate of Sikhim does not appear
to be more moist than that of the adjoining portion of Eastern Nepal. Nor does
the conjecture seem tenable that it is a Parbatiya translation of one of the vulgar
forms of the Bhutea name for the country, viz., 'Demo-jong,' or 'the happy
country,' :from sukhi, happy, as this word is never spelt or pronounced with' u,
and the country was a most inhospitable one." .
Dr. Waddell, however, is not correct in saying that the word is never spelt
or pronounced with an "u;" on the contrary, it is more often pronounced with an
"u" than with an "i," and so may have been derived from two Limbu words"
Su," new, and" Khim,"a house or palace: and the name was first given to the
country when the Tibetan Penchoo Namgue, the first Raja, built a "new palace"
at Rubdentse and established a new kingdom. Curiously enough in an old map
in Hamilton the place where Rubdentse stands is marked" Sikhim," and it may
be noted that Kirkpatrick, writing in 1793, speaks of 'the town and district of
Sookhim," and of a place Sikhem in the itinerary from Bijapore to Daling, and
this place would fall somewhere near the Rungeet. It is clear, therefore, that the
name was originally given to a place and not a country.
Nearly every place in Sikhim that has a name has been so called from some
special or striking natural feature, or in commemoration of some event that has
occurred there: and connected with all the more conspicuous places there is
often a legend attached. A few of the best known are here given, though the list
of examples might be indefinitely enlarged.
As might be expected, names of Lepcha origin a,re chiefly found in the
southern or lower portions of Sikhim, while Nepalese or Pahariya names are
very rare and modern. The bulk of the derivations are Tibetan.
In Lepcha "Rang or Rung" means" a stream" and" Ung or Ong" "water." In
Tibetan" Chhu " is "water or stream," "Tsho" (properly mTsho) "a lake or
pond," "Ri" "a mountain," "La" "a pass," "Kang" (pro. Kangs) "perpetual
snow," "Chhen "great or full of," " Thang" (vulgarly" Tong" or "Tang") "a plain
or meadow."
Omitting affixes denoting river, mountain, &c, we find the following Lepcha
names for rivers :
"Rang-nyet" (Rungeet) = "the two streams," as there are two main branches,
the Little Rungeet in British territory and tbe
 NOMENCLATURE OF PLACES. 41 www.sikkim.gov.in

Great Rungeet rising from the south-east flank of Kanchinjingna. If, however,
the name is pronounced Rung-nyeet, it means" the good river."
"Rang-nyn" (our Tista) = "the straight river," so called, according to Dr.
Waddell, because" this river, though receiving the full force of the Rungeet at
right angles, still continues in its straight unaltered. course, its direction being
unaffected by this great accession of waters, or more probably because of its
straight course across the plain after-leaving the hills, in contrast to the other
great effiuent river of Sikhim, the Mahaldi Ung )Ang. 'Mahananda)', which
means 'the bent moving water' with reference to this river, as seen from the hills,
taking a very sudden bend to the right on reaching the plains." Another
derivation is from ".A-nyung," "deep," but this seems far-fetched, as there are a
number of shallows even in its lower course. There is 'a third meaning given,
viz., "the great river, " from "A-nyoo." It may also mean" the mother river" from
a tradition that the Tista and Rungeet were born in the Himalayas and started for
the plains, the former carrying a mountain-snake and the latter a pheasant. To
find food for the bird, the Rungeet had to wander hither and thither; whereas the
Tista went straight and arrived at Rangli first: the Rungeet, finding the Tista had
the start, was very angry and threatened to return, whereon the Tista consented
to be his wife and carry him on her back: and the curious way the Rungeet
waters, which are always dark, overrun the white stream of the Tista at the
junction is pointed to as a symbol of this union.
Ratong, "the surging swallowing one," the main source of the Rungeet, a
glacier-fed rapid torrent subject to sudden and destructive flood.
Rilli=Ri-li, "the twisting one," but the name of this stream is often
pronounced Rongli, so the derivation seems doubtful.
Rungneac=" Rung-nyak," the black or dark stream which in Pahariya is
called Kali jhora, an obvious corruption of ".Kala jhora, " an exact translation of
the Lepcha.
Ryott=Ri-yot, "the rapid loosened stream," from its precipitous impetuous
course, falling several thousand feet in a few miles.
In mountain names occur these
Senchal=Shin-shel.hlo. Shin, cloud and mist-enveloped; shel, to be wet or
dank; and hlo, a mountain, "the damp misty hill." This is Dr. Waddell's
interpretation, and to the habitues of Darjeeling no name could be more
appropriate for the highest hill near the station.
Phallut=Fok-lut, "the bare or denuded peak," as it is bare of trees and in
striking contrast to its neighbour.
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42 NOMENCLATURE OF PLACES.

Singalela= Singli-la, "the hill or pass of the wild alder" (Betula Bhojpattra),
because covered with the tree of that name. Near these places is
Subarkum=Sabar-kam," the musk deer hunter's shelter or cave." Quite recently
musk deer were found here.
Sandakphu. Dr. Waddell translates this name to be "the height of the poison
plant:" a translation only natural, when aconite and poisonous rhododendron used
to be so common that sheep and cattle passing over had to be muzzled. The other
classical interpretation, "the height where to obtain meditation," seems very far-
fetched. The' Pahariyas (Limbus) called a neighbouring and conspicuous hill
"Sindok-kok-ma," literally "the high ridge," so it is much more probable that this
name was erroneously transferred to our" Sundukphoo'," which was formerly
known to the Lepchas as "Tam," which means a plateau.
Tendong, "the up-raised horn," is the mountain which the Lepchas assert
arose when all tbe country was under water, and supported a boat containing a
few persons, all other people being drowned. The hill rose up like a horn (hence
its name) and then subsided to its present form. To this day at the commencement
of the rains a monk is sent from the neighbouring monastery of Niamtchi to the
top of Tendong, where he has to remain during the wet season, praying hard that
a second flood may not be sent. This tradition of a flood is traceable in another
Lepcha name.
Rungli Rungliot (lit. Rungion Rung liot), "the waters of the Tista (Rungniou)
have come this far and retired," and a cliff or cutting is pointed out as the channel
by which the waters subsided. But the story has been metamorphosed and now
runs, that the Balasun ,courted the Rungeet, daughter to the Tista,. and at last
persuaded her to elope. The pair got as far as the Ghoom range, which the
Balasun safely crossed. The Rungeet's strength failed her, and.she fell back again
into her old valley. The angry father pursued. the Balasun, but only succeeded in
reaching Rungli Rungliot. .Another version makes out that the Balasun came
over to steal the fish (and not the daughter) of the Tlsta and succeeded; in fact
until very recently no fish could be caught with a line in the latter river. There is
also a tradition of a tower of Babel built at Dharmdin; it had nearly reached the
moon, when word was sent down to send up a hook to throw over the horn of the
moon: this command was misunderstood, and the people below cut away the
foundations, so the building fell and killed numbers: a mound of stones and
potsherds is shown to this day, and the tribe concerned (now extinct) were
called" Na-ong" or "the blind fools."
Pankim. Dr. Waddell tran-slates thisThe Kings Minister supposed to
be an attendant of Kanchinjingna .The Tibetan
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NOMENCLATURE OF PLACES. 43

equivalent is very similar to Pal lDen. It may, however, be of Lepcha origin, and
mean the Hill of the Goddess. It may also mean the conical hill with a point like
a needle.
Phieungong, "the home of the dwarf bamboo" (Thamnoculamus Falconeri),
is a hill covered with the" Phieun," whence one of the finest views in Sikhim is
obtainable.
Rong-li, "the hut of the Lepcha" (Rong), is applied to several Lepcha
settlements.
Pashok=Pa-zok, means a "jungle" or "forest," or the place where bamboos
are split, thus correspondmg to the common Paharia appellation Chatai.bans
given to many places where mats are plaited from strips of bamboo.
Yoksom, the meeting place of the" three Lamas," where they selected
Penchoo Namgue as Raja of Sikhim.
Ramtek was the first place where Penchoo Namgue stopped on his way from
Gantok to Yoksom, before his accession; it was inhabited by Lepchas, who on
being told by Penchoo of his divine mission, called the place after him, "the
departure of the god," reterring to Penchoo's journey.* It may, however, have
reference to the deposition ( departure) of their own kingdom which was to result
from this journey. ,..
Of Tibetan names there are many examples, such as
La-chhen and La-chhung, the big pass and the little pass, whence rise two of
the main streams of the Tista. The Donkhia (hBr Dong-khyags), the real pass at
the head of the latter valley, is very steep, high and dangerous (whence the name,
the pass where even the wild yak is frozen), much more so than the Kongra lama
(Kangdu lama), "the pass of our exalted lady;" hence the names seem in-
appropriate. This is however, explained by saying that La-chhen is a long wide
sloping ascent and descent, whereas the La-chhung is short and steep.
Notwithstanding the present spelling, it is probable the words were Lam-chhen
and Lam-chhung, the highway and the bye way, which exactly hits off the
physical natures of the two routes. The La-chhen village is more often called
Lam-teng.
Nemitzo, pronounced Men-mo-tsho, "the lake of tbe demoness.
" Tsho-la-mo (Cholamoo), "the lake of our lady or the goddess,"
being close to Kongra lama.
Bidang tsho (properly hBri-thang-tsho), "the lake of the cow
yak. "
Tanitzo=Tanyek-tsbo, "the lake of the horse-tail or the horse
hair noose."

.* Penchoo being an educated. intelligent person, was looked upon by the ignorant Lepcha
as a superior being, a deity.
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44 NOMENCLATURE OF PLACES.

The reason for these names is very obscure.

In mountains and passes we have such names as Kanchinjingna =Kang-
chhen, " great snow," m Dzod, " treasury," and lna, "five." The legend has it there
are five treasures to be found in the mountain, but it may have reference to the five
peaks forming- the mountain.
Kanchinjhau, the bearded Kanchin (rGyau the beard), perhaps so called from
the way the lower ice and .snow slip down from its southern face. The fiat near it
is Giaogong (properly- rGyau-gong), "the bearded hill."
Gipmochi, proper1y Gye-mo-chhen the trijunction of the boundaries of
Tibet, Sikhim, and Bhutan.
Chumulhari (properly Jo-mo-1ha-ri), uthe hill of our lady goddess."
Chomiomo (properly Jo-mo-Yum-mo), "the mount of our ladymother," and
said to bb the wife of the neighbouring Kanchinjhau: a small peak between the
two is pointed out as their child.
Cho-la (properly: kTso la), " the principal pass, being the main pass between
Lower Sikhim and Chumbi. Chomnaga should be kTso-nags-go, "the head of the
great forest," - a place at the foot of the Chola pass.
Yak-la, the- pass used by yak-graziers.
Gnatui-la(properly rNa-thos-la), "the pass of the listening ear,
" Jelep-la, "the easy, level pass," a very appropriate name, if this pass is
compared with others.
Pembyringo is usually called gDong-lam, "the road of the face," also very
appropriate if it means one's face is terribly cut up by the winds, that make this
otherwise easy pass inconvenient for several months in the year.
Gnatong is spelt in Tibetan Nags-thang and not Nag-thang: the former
;means the" forest-meadow," as it is situated close to large pine forests; the
latter" black.meadow," which has no local significance, unless it refers to the
black pine trees. .
The British Fort Graham or Fort Gnatong is not really situated at Gnatong,
but at Dulpong, The meaning of this word is "the place of victory or the
subduing," very prophetic of the two crushing defeats of the Tibetans on the -
22nd May and the 23rd September 1888. The word for victory is spelt "hDul."
There is another word rDul, meaning" dust' or" dung," also appropriate, as the
place was crowded with yak. and cattle stations.
Lingtu=Lung-thur, "the descent into the valley."
Phadenchen, "the pigs' wallowing place," from its being damp and muddy.
Sedongcben, full of Se-trees (sDong)," a tree whose leaves caused great
itching and even blisters.
 NOMENCLATURE OF PLACES. 45 www.sikkim.gov.in

Rhenock=Ri-Nag, "the black hill." This is the ordinary accepted spelling,

but it may be a corruption from Ri-sNa,the hill whose outline is like that of a
nose (sNa);there are several places of this name in Tibet, and the same
termination is seen in ." Lho-na" (Hooker's Thlonok), "the south face."
Merig, "the burnt hill."
Gantok, "the high hill."
. Rubdenchi=Rab-gDan-tse; "the height of the chief residence" -(palace).
Barmie=hBar-Nyag, the rough '.notch or ridge." hBar. may also mean burnt. .
Barphung, "the collection of burnings." ""
The following are the names of more than one place:
Laghyap=La-rGyap, "the back-of the pass," i.e., the first halting place on the
other side of the pass.
Byutan may perhaps mean" the meadow of the cow-yak," a place where
.calves are usually tethered.
Sebula=bSil-bu or gSer-bu-la, "the cold pass;" perhaps it is "Sil-bu-la," a
"fragment," a side pass, which exactly describes one or two of the passes called"
Sebula." It may again be Ser-bu-la, "the pass of hail," or Serpala, "the yellow
pass."
Chak-chu=Tsha-chhu, "a hot spring."
Samdong=Zam-gDong; "the bridge.face " (or head), .i.e., the place facing' a
bridge.
Of Pahariya or Nepalese the most striking is Chiabhangan, "the hollow
where one peeps over," referring to the main pass between Sikhim and Nepal.
Bhangan or Bunjang means a hollow or depression in the ridge of a mountain
chain, so is equivalent to the Tibetan la;" thus we have at the head of the Little
Rungeet the pass or dip of Mani.bhangan (mani=tomb or monument), so called
from the monument there.
A Pahariya evidently in good faith explained that the Tista was so called
because it was the boundary of Tibet, i.e., "Tibetstan." . .
As mentioned above, Sundukphoo may be a word of Limbu origin.
 www.sikkim.gov.in
46 SIKHIM LAWS.

SIKHIM LAWS.
The following is a short account of the Sikhim Laws as translated from a
manuscript copy obtained from the Khangsar Dewan. The language used in this
book is difficult, and thanks are due to the Phodong Lama and Lamas Shorab
Gyatsho and Ugin Gyatsho for the help they have given.

HISTORY.

The Sikhim laws are founded on those spoken by Raja Me-long dong, who
lived in India before the time of Budda (914 B.C.). This Raja is mentioned in the
Ka-gyur in the 31st chapter.
They were again written by Kun-ga-gyal-tsan. of Sa kya-pa, who was born in
1182. He was King of 13 provinces in Tibet, and has called the laws Tim-yik-
shal-che-chu.sum or Chu-dug,' there being two sets, one containing 13 laws and
the other 16.These are practically the same. The laws were again written by De'si
sangyeGya-tsho, who was born in 1653 and was a Viceroy of Tibet. They were
called by him Tang-shel-me-long-nyer-chik-pa.
The first set of laws deal with offences in general; the second set forth the
duties of Kings and Government servants, and are simply an amplification of
some of the laws contained in the former.

SUMMARY OF THE SIXTEEN LAWS.

No. l.-GENERAL RULES TO BE FOLLOWED IN TIME OF WAR.

(a) It is written in the Ka.gyur that before going to war the strength of the
enemy should be 'carefully ascertained, and whether any profit will be derived
from it or not. It should also be seen if the dispute cannot be settled by diplomacy
before going to war. Care Should also be. taken that by going to war no loss be
sustained by your Government. Whatever the cause of dispute, letters and
 www.sikkim.gov.in
SIKHIM LAWS. 47

messengers between the contending parties should on no account be stopped, and

messengers should be properly treated. Anyone coming with overtures of peace
should be well received.
(b) Should two or more enemies combine against you, no means should be
left untried to separate them, and if possible to bring 'one over to your side, but
false oaths should not be resorted to, nor the using of God's name.
(c) The lie of the ground should be well examined to see how the roads'run,
and whether your position is strong.
(d) If it is necessary, other methods having failed, to go to war, you should all
combine, and being of one mind should attack. See that there are no sick, lazy, or
timid in the ranks, but only those who fear not death. See that your own soldiers
obey the law, and all should obey the orders of the General. Experienced men
should only be sent, and not those who look after their own interest only.
The army should be divided into three divisions. under the command of
different officers. The General and his staff should be trusted men who can guide
the army: they should do their work thoroughly. Your horses, tents, and arms
should be kept in good order. A doctor, diviner, astrologer, and lama should be
appointed.
The tents should be properly arranged the first day, and this arrangement
adhered to so as to prevent confusion. On moving, the fires should first be put
out, the wounded should be cared for, and in crossing rivers order should be
kept, and those behind should not push forward. Things found should be
returned without asking a reward, and should not' be concealed or kept. Thieves
are not.to be flogged, but only to have their hands tied behind them, but they
may be fined. Should anyone kill another by mistake, he must pay the funeral
expenses. Should any combine and kill another, they must pay twice the fine laid
down by law. Any disputed loot must be drawn for by lots between the
contending parties.
The General should appoint sentries, who must look to the watersupply and
see they become not easily frightened. They should allow no stranger to enter the
camp armed, but should be careful not to kill any messenger. If a sentry kills a
messenger coming to make peace, he shall be sent to his home in disgrace on
some old, useless' horse with broken harness.

No. 2.-FOR THOSE WHO ARE BEING DEFEATED AND CANNOT FIGHT.

When a fort is surrounded, those in the fort should remain quiet ..and should
show no fear. They should not fire off their arms uselessly and with no hope of
hitting the enemy. The well within the fort should be most carefully preserved.
Those within the fort
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48 SIKHIM LAWS.

should not be allowed to communicate with the enemy for fear of treachery.
They should not be lazy. Until peace is declared the messenger, should receive
no reward.
Should you be defeated, you must give up your arms, and those who give
them up must not be killed. Should anyone kill one who has given up his arms,
he must be derided and scoffed at as a coward.
If during a conflict you capture a General or officer of rank, you should bind
his hands in front with a silk scarf; he should be allowed to ride his own horse or
another good horse, and should be treated well, so that in the event of your ever
falling into his hands he may treat you well also. Any other prisoners should have
their hands tied behind them and they should be made to walk. Officers should be
placed on old, worn-out horses with broken harness and rope stirrups. Should an
army be defeated and be obliged to fly, nothing should be .said to them, but they
should not be rewarded or receive any presents, even though the leader be a great
man. The prisoners should receive what is necessary for subsistence and a1so
expenses for religious ceremonies, and men of rank should be treated well and
with consideration.
A man can only make a treaty for himself and his descendants.

No. 3.-FOR OFFICERS AND GOVERNMENT SERVANTS.

These should- leave off their own work and. apply themselves entirely to
Government work,. should obey the orders of the Viceroy and head of the
Church, should not change the shari (hat sects) and Tub-tha (religious sects).
In the fifth month they should kill no animals, and the Raja's store should be
well kept, so that there be no deficiency; They should repair the images, temples
and books, and all passes and- roads. Also on the lOth of this month the" dadok"
ceremony must be performed. *
If a man be sent on private business, the name of Government should not be
used. Debts may be recovered through officers, who should patiently hear the
case and not give arbitrary orders. They should give just judgment and not
favour those who can reward them. They should enquire diligently into all
cases, and leave no case undecided, so that all men can say your work has been
well done.

No. 4.-LAW OF EVIDENCE.

You should listen carefully to what is said by both parties. Equals by birth
should be heard at the same time and place. Those that are

. *This puja is performed in order to send our enemies away.

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SIKHIM LAWS. 49

not equals should be heard separately. Should anyone not agree to your decision,
he can be fined.
If the evidence be false, both parties are fined according to which has given
the most false evidence.
If after a decision has been given the parties wish to compound between
themselves, one-half of the fine only is imposed.

No. 5.-GRAVE OFFENCES.

There are five sins:
(1) Murder of mother, (2) murder of holy men, (3) murder of father, (4)
making mischief amongst Lamas, and (5) causing hurt to good men. There are
also the sins of taking things from Rajas and Lamasfor our own use; causing a
good man to fall through no fault of his own; administering poison; killing
anyone for gain; causing strife in a peaceful country; and making mischief.
For the above offences punishments are inflicted, such as putting the eyes
out, cutting the throat, having the tongue cut out, having the hands cut off, being
thrown from cliffs, and being thrown into deep water.

No. 6.-FINES INFLICTED FOR OFFENCES IN ORDER TO MAKE PEOPLE

REMEMBER.
Certain crimes may. be punished by money fines, varying in accordance
with the gravity of the offence. .
When a number of men have committed dacoity, they may be fined from 15
to 80 gold srang.* For small offences smaller fines are imposed,. and can be paid
.either in money or in kind; the amount to be settled by the officer trying the
case.

No. 7.-LAW OF IMPRISONMENT.

Anyone rioting, using arms, and disputing near the court can be
imprisoned. Thieves and those who destroy property, and those who do not obey
the village headman, those who give bad advice, those who abuse their betters,
can be bound and put in the stocks and fined according to the law, and are only
released if petitioned by some one in authority who makes himself responsible
for his fine.
.* NOTE-One srang = one oz.
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50 SIKHIM LAWS.

No. 8 -FOR OFFENDERS WHO REFUSE TO COME IN AN ORDERLY HAS TO BE

SENT EXPRESSLY TO ENQUIRE ABOUT THE CASE.
A messenger who is sent off at a moment's notice should receive 3 patties* of
barley per diem for food and a small sum in money, according to the importance
of the case in which he is employed, but the messenger's servants should not be
fed. The messenger is allowed one-fourth of the fine for his expenses.
Should an agent not settle a case properly, he must return to the villagers
what he took, otherwise the villagers will have much trouble given them.
The agent should report having received the fine on penalty of forfeiting
one.fourth what he has taken. When a fine is imposed, it should be at once
collected, no excuse being taken. If an agent is sent to collect rent, he should be
fed twice by the headman.
Of stolen property recovered by an agent, the Government receive one-tenth
value.

No. 9.-MURDER.
For killing a man the fine is heavy-even up to many thousands of gold
pieces. In the Tsalpa law book it is written that if a child, a madman, or animal
kills anyone no fine is taken, but that money must be given by the relations of
the first two for funeral expenses, and one-fourth of that amount must be given
by the owner of the animal towards these expenses.
Should one man kill another and plead for -mercy, he must, besides the fine,
give compensation and food to the relative of the deceased.
Should a man kill his equal and the relatives come to demand compensation,
he must give them 180z. of gold in order to pacify them. The price of blood
should never be too much reduced, or a man may say, "If this is all I have to
give, I will kill another."
The arbitrator must take the seal of each party, saying they will abide by his
decision, and they must each deposit 3oz. of gold as security.
Fines can be paid in cash, animals, and articles of different kinds.
The priThe price for killing a gentleman who has 300 servants, or a superintendent of a
distDistrict, or a Lama professor, is 300 to 400oz. gold srang. For full Lamas or,
GoGovernment officers, and gentlemen with 100 servants the fine is 200oz. of gold.
For killing gentlemen who possess a horse and 5 or 6 servants, working
Lamas, the fine is 145 to 150oz. of gold.

. *17 patties = 1 maund or 821bs.

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SIKHIM . LAWS. 51

For killing men with no rank, old Lamas, personal servants, the
fine. is 80oz. of gold.
For killing a man who has done good work for Government the
fine is 60 to 70oz. of gold.
For killing common people and for villagers the price is 30 to
40oz. of gold.
For killing unmarried men, servants, and butchers -the price is
30 gold srang.
And for killing blacksmiths and beggars 10 to 200z. of gold.
These prices can also be paid in- grain. The prices for funeral expenses must
be paid within 49 days.
On the fines being paid, a letter must be written and a copy given to each
party, saying that everything has been settled. If a case is re-opened, a fine must
be paid by him who opens the case The murderer must write to the effect he will
not commit such a crime again. Part of the fines can be given towards the funeral
expenses of the deceased.

No.10.BLOODSHED.
In the old law it is written that for any drop of blood shed the price varies
from one to one-quarter zho. *. A man may even be beheaded for wounding a
superior. For wounding his own servant a man is not fined, but he must tend the
wounded man. Should two men fight and one wound the other, he who first drew
his knife is fined, and he who is wounded must be tended by the other till his
wounds be well. The fines are payable in money or kind. Should one man wound
another without any fight, he is fined according to the law of murder.
If in a fight a limb or an eye is injured, the compensation to be given is fixed
by Government.

No. 11-FOR THOSE WHO ARE FALSE AND AVARICIOUS THE FOLLOWING OATHS
ARE REQUIRED.
If it is thought a man is not telling the truth, an oath should be administered.
At the time of taking an oath powerful gods should be invoked, and those who
are to administer the oath must be present. It is writen in ancient law that the bird
of Paradise should not be

. *The word shomeans a drachm. or as a coin two.thirds of. rupee.

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52 SIKHIM LAWS.

killed, the poisonous snake should not be thrown down, the raven should not be
stoned, and the small turquoise should not be defiled. Thus pure Lamas and
monks should not be sworn.
Magicians, shameless persons, women, fools, the dumb and children
should not be sworn.
. Men should be employed who know both parties and are intelligent
.. and truthful. Those willing to take an oath should be of equal rank. When all are
present, the case should first be settled, if possible, by arbitration. If this fails,
the ordeal either by hot stones or boiling oil is resorted to. That by oil: The oil
must be supplied/by Government and must be pure. It is. boiled in a pan at least
3 inches deep. In the oil a black stone and a white stone are placed of equal size
and weight. He who has to take the oath must first wash his hands in water, in
milk, and in widow's urine. His hand is then bound ina cloth and sealed. This is
done a day or two before the ordeal in order to give him a chance of confessing.
The vessel with the boiling oil is then placed so that the stones cannot be seen,
and he has to take one out. If he takes out the white one without any burn, he
wins his case. He who gets the black stone is sure to be burnt and loses his case.
Should he who gets the white stone be slightly burnt, it means he has partially
spoken the truth and. wins half his case.
That by hot stone: The stone is made hot by the blacksmith, taken out of the
fire with tongs, and placed on a brass dish. The man's hands are washed as
before, examined to see what marks there are on it produced by labour, and the
hot stone placed in the palm. With the stone he must walk 4 to 7 paces. His hand
is then bound up and left for 3 to 7 days. On examination if there are no marks, or
if there is a long mark called rdo-,lam, he wins his case. He also wins his case if
the stone bursts three times in being heated. It depends on the number of marks
how much of his case he wins.
A cloth and a rug have to be paid as expenses, and the brass vessels go to the
blacksmith. In order to test the oil for boiling, a grain of barley is thrown in: if it
flies into the air, the oil is ready.
Whilst placing his hand in the oil or holding the hot stone, a statement in
writing of the case is placed on .the person's head.
The ordeal by oil may be gone through without using the stone.
Mud and water can be used in place of oil. Hot iron used to be employed in
place of the stone, but is now discontinued.

No. 12.-THEFT.
For taking a Jongpen's or other great man's things, 10,000 times their value
has to ba given in return. For taking a Lama's things
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SIKHIM LAWS. 53

80 times their value has to be given, a neighbour's things 9 times, and a villager's
7 times. For taking a stranger's things 4 times.
Beggars who steal from hunger have only to give back what they took.
Should one man accuse another falsely of stealing, he must give
him as compensation what he accused him of stealing.
Should a man find anything on the road and without telling take it for
himself, he must be fined double its value; but should he tell, he receives one-
third the value. Should anyone recover stolen property, but not be able to catch
the thief, he receives half of the property recovered.
Should anyone find a horse, any cattle, yaks' or sheep and keep them for a
year without finding the owner, he receives one-fourth the value, provided he has
not in the meantime used the animals for his own benefit.
Should anyone wound a thief he is not fined.
If a thief whilst running away be killed by an arrow or stone, a small fine
only is taken.
Should anyone having caught a thief kill him, he is fined according to the law
of murder. The reward for catching a thief is from 1 to 50z. of gold, according to
the amount. of the property stolen.

No. 13.-DISPUTES BETWEEN NEAR RELATIVES. BETWEEN MAN

AND WIFE AND BETWEEN NEIGHBOURS WHO HAVE
THINGS IN COMMON.
If a husband wishes to be separated from his wife, he must pay her from 18
zho, the amount varying in accordance with the length of time they have been
married. .
If the wife wishes to leave her husband, she must pay him 12 zho
'. and one suit of clothes. The wife on separation also receives the clothes given to
her at her marriage, a list of which is always taken, or its equivalent in money.
Should there be chitdren, the father takes the boys and the mother the girls;
the father paying from 5 to 15 zho for each son, called the price of milk. If the
woman has committed no fault, she receives her ornaments.
Should a family wish to separate, a list of the whole property should be
taken and divided according to circumstances. The father and mother are asked
with whom they would like to live,and if there is any dispute about it, lots are
drawn. The married children's property is first separated.from the rest, and if
any children are going to school, their expenses must be taken from the whole
before decision.
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54 SIKHIM LAWS

No. 14.-TAKING ANOTHER'S WIFE OR ADULTERY;

The old law runs that if anyone takes a. Raja's or Lama's wife, he may be
banished, have his hands cut off, or his penis cut off. He may also have to pay a
weight in gold equal to his penis and testicles. For violating a woman of different
position 3oz. of gold have to be paid to the woman's relations and 4 gold srang to
Government, besides many things in kind.
For violation of a woman of the same position, 2 or 3 gold srang and several
kinds of articles have to be paid.
If the woman goes of her own accord to the man, he has only to
pay 1 gold srang and. three kinds of articles.
Should one man's wife entice another married man to go with her, she has to
pay seven things in kind.
Should a man and woman cohabit on a journey there is no fine.

No. 15.-LAW OF CONTRACT.

Should anyone take a loan of cattle, yaks, sheep, &c., and they die in his
charge, he must pay for them. Should they die one night after being returned, it
is the owner's loss. If they die before midnight of the night they are returned, the
borrower has to pay.
Should a horse die whilst on loan from a wound, one. fourth to one. third its
value will have to be paid.
Should anyone having made an agreement to take anything refuse to take it,
the articles being good, he must pay one.fourth its value. If there be any mistake
in an account, it can be rectified up to one year.

No. 16.-FOR UNCIVLIZED PEOPLE.

Such as Bhuteas, Lepchas, Mongolians, who know no law, therefore what is
written below is not required in Tibet. The Mongolians also have their own law,
written by Raja Kesar, of which we know little.
Any Government messenger must be supplied with what he wants (such as
horses, food, &c.), and if not provided he can take them. Also whilst halting he
must be supplied with food and fire. But the messenger must not draw his sword
or use his bow, or he will be liable to a fine, and he must only take what is
necessary to the performance of the Government work.
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MARRIAGE CUSTOMS OF THE SIKHIMESE. 55

MARRIAGE CUSTOMS OF THE SIKHIMESE.*.

[These customs bave been gathered from actual observation, and are the customs now observed
amongst the Bhuteas.]

If the eldest brother takes a wife, she is common to all his brothers
. If the second brother takes a wife, she is common to all the
brothers younger than himself.
The eldest brother is not allowed to cohabit with the wives of the
younger brothers.
Should there be children in the first case, the children are named after the
eldest brother, whom they call father.
In case 2, after the second brother, &c.
Three brothers can marry three sisters, and all the wives be in common, but
this case is not very often seen. In such a case the children of the eldest girl
belong to the eldest brother, &c., if they each bear children. Should one or more
not bear children, then the children are apportioned by arrangement. Two men
not related can have one wife in common, but this arrangement is unusual.
A man occasionally lends his wife; to a friend, but the custom is not general
and uncommon.
If a girl becomes pregnant before marriage and afterwards marries the father
of the child, the child is considered legitimate, but the man is fined a bull or its
equivalent, which go to her relatives. Should the man by whom the girl was made
pregnant not marry her, and should she afterwards marry another, the child
remains with the woman's brothers or relatives. A woman is not considered
dishonoured by having a child before marriage.
The marriage ceremony consists almost entirely in feasting, which takes
place after the usual presents have been given to the girl's relations. These
presents constitute the woman's price, and vary in accordance with the
circumstances of both parties.
The only religious ceremony is performed by the village headman, who
offers up a bowl of marwa to the gods, and presenting a cup of the same marwa
to the bride and bridegroom, blesses them, and hopes the union may be a fruitful
one. Lamas take no part in the ceremony.
The marriage tie is very slight, and can be dissolved at any time by either the
man or the woman.
A man may marry his mother's brother's daughter, but he can marry none of
his other first cousins till the second generation. Their system of relationship is
peculiar and interesting, and is given below.

.* Sikhim, Tibetans and Bhutanese.

66 MARRIAGE CUSTOMS OF THE SIKHIMESE. www.sikkim.gov.in

. Regarding succession the following order seems to be generally,

though not always, used:
1. Son.
2. Grandson, &c., through the males.
3. Brother by same mother.
Father's brothers
. ' son
4 " sister s son . .
. Mother's brothers son .
" sister's son
5. If only distant relatives, they only receive a portion, a portion
going to the Lamas and the remainder to Government.
6. If no relatives, funeral expenses, &c., to the Lamas and the
remainder to Government. .
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GEOLOGY AND MINERAL RESOURCES' OF SIKHIM. 57

NOTES ON THE GEOLOGY AND MINERAL RESOURCES OF

SIKHIM.
By P. N. BOSE, B.SC. (LONDON), F.G.S., Deputy Superintendent, Geological
Survey of India.

(i) PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

SIKHIM is essentially a mountainous country without a flat piece of land of
any extent anywhere. The mountains rise in elevation northward. The high
serrated, snowcapped spurs and peaks culminating in the Kanchanjinga, which
form such a characteristic and attractive feature in the scenery of Sikhim, are
found in this direction. The northern portion of the country is deeply cut into
steep escarpments, and, except in the Lachen and the Lachung valleys, is not
populated. Southern Sikhim is lower, more open, and fairly well cultivated.
This configuration of the country is partly due to the direction of the main
drainage, which is southern. The Himalayas on the Indian side must have sloped
to the south from the earliest geological times when the gneiss which constitutes
their main body was elevated. For all the later rocks-the submetamorphic slate
group, the coal-bearing Damudas and the tertiaries-which fringe the outer
Himalaya are evidently formed of detritus carried from the north.
The physical configuration of Sikhim is also partly due to geological
structure. The northern, eastern and western portions of the country are
constituted of hard massive gneissose rocks capable of resisting denudation to a
considerable extent. The central and southern portion, on the other hand, is
chiefly formed of comparatively soft, thin, slaty and half.schistose rocks which
are denuded with facility, and it is this area which is the least elevated and the
best populated in Sikhim.
The trend of the mountain system, viewed as a whole and from a distance,
is in a general east-west direction. The chief ridges in Sikkim, however, run in a
more or legs- north-south direction, as, for instance, the Singalela and the Chola
ridges. Another north-south ridge runs through the central portion of Sikhim
separating the Rungeet from the Tista valley; Tendong (8,676 feet) and Moinam
(10,637 feet) are two of its best known peaks. This north-south direction of the
principal ridges is due, no doubt, to the original southern slope of the Himalaya.
The Rungeet and the Tista which form the main channels of drainage, run nearly
north. south. The valleys cut by these rivers and their chief feeders are very
deep. The valleys of the
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58 GEOLOGY AND MINERAL RESOURCES OF SIKHIM.

Rungeet, of the Tista, and of their chief tributaries are generally not less than
5,000 feet in depth. They are rather open towards the top, but usually attain a
steep gorge-like character as we approach the beds of the rivers. As a
consequence of this, and also-of the comparative insalubrity of the lower portion
of the valleys, all the monasteries and principal villages are situated at an
elevation ranging from 4,000 to 6,000 feet.
The snowcapped jagged ridges in the northern portion of the country send
down glaciers.* which at present usually come down to about 13,500 feet; those
from the Kanchanjinga appear to descend about a thousand feet lower. The
perpetual snow line in Sikhim may be approximately put down at 16,000 feet,
so that the glaciers descend 3,500 to 2,50O feet below that line. Formerly they
used to descend much lower than at present. Lachung, for instance, of which the
elevation is 8,790 feet, stands at the foot of an immense terminal moraine. The
Bidangcho lake, on the road between Gnatong and Jalep pass, at an elevation of
12,700 feet, is dammed at the southern end by a bank of boulders which are
distinctly of .glacial origin. Moraines occur also about Thangme in the Pragchu
valley, north of Jongri, at an elevation of about 13,000 feet. The retreat of -the
glaciers backwards towards their gathering ground or the neve in these cases
has been recent, and the ancient moraines witnessing their advance are still in
situ. But the excessive rainfall of Sikhim, amounting annually to probably no
less than 200 inches, makes the removal and rearrangement of the glacial
boulders a question of very short time; and once brought within the action of
the torrential streams, the boulders soon lose all traces of their glacial origin.
The peculiar configuration of the hills passed .over by glaciers is also soon lost
owing to pluvial denudation. The glacial valleys, as for instance the Pragchu,
the Lachen, and the Lachung valleys, are open and bowl shaped; and this shape
is one of the most reliable evidences of their origin. But after the retreat of the
glaciers, the streams taking their place cut the. valleys down deeply into V -
shaped gorges, and the striking distinction between glacier and river valleys is
soon effaced. Thus owing to the excessive rainfall, traces of past glacial action
are liable to extinction in Sikhim; and it is impossible to tell how far the glaciers
extended in comparatively remote times. The lowest height of glacial extension,
for which I found unmistakeable evidence, is that of Lachung (8,790 feet).
Below Lachung also down to a height of about 7,000 feet, the valley is open
and has a glacial look about it.

. *The writer has described some of the Sikkim glaciers visited by him in a paper containing
extracts from the Joumal of a trip to the glaciers of the Kabru, Pandim, &c. published in the
.. Records of the Geological Survey of India," Vol. XXIV, pt. 1.
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GEOLOGY AND MINERAL RESOURCES OF SIKHIM. 59

Valleys to which glaciers come down, or whence these have but recently
retired, abound in small lakes or tarns which are dammed in at the outlet by
moraines. The Bidangcho lake, 3 miles northeast of Gnatong, is the best instance
I came across of a glacial lake in a valley whence the glacier has recently retired.
It is 1 1/3mile in length, and its greatest breadth is 1/2 mile.
The following hot springs are known in Sikhim :
1. Phut Sachu-On the east side of the Rungeet river, 2 miles north-east of
Rinchingpong monastery, situated amongst dark coloured massive siliceous
limestones. Hot fetid water bubbles up at several spots. Temperature at one
spring 100 .4F. The springs are situated in the bed of the river which at the time
I visited them (March) was dry. These springs are referred to in Dr. Oldham's
"Thermal Springs of India " (Vol. XIX, pt. 21, p. 32) as " Phugsachu."
2. Ralong Sachu-On the west bank of the Rungeet river, about 2 miles N.N.W.
of Ralong monastery. Elevation about 3,100 feet. Situated amongst finely
laminated phyllites with abundance of vein quartz, at a height of about 100 feet
above the bed of the river. Hot water flows out through fissures at several
places. The temperature of the hottest spring close to where it comes out is
131F.; in a reservoir constructed for bathing purposes, it is 118.4F. The
temperature of another spring close to where the water flows out is 114.8; in the
reservoir it is 107'6. [The temperature of a stream close by was found to be
53'6.A whitish deposit, which effervesces strongly on the application of
hydrochloric acid, is formed at the mouths of the springs. It is stained green in
places with carbonate of copper, due, no doubt, to the springs passing through
cupriferous ores. It is very likely these springs that are referred to in Dr.
Oldham's list as "Puklaz Sachu, ahout one day's journey from .the monastery of
Pemlong" (op. cit, p. 32). Probably" Pemlong " is meant for Ralong.
I heard of a hot spring about half a mile north of Ralong Sachu, which I had
no time to visit.
3. Yeumtang-On the east bank of the Lachung river, half a mile below
Yeumtang. Though I passed the springs 1 could not get at them owing to the
bridge over the Lachung not having been constructed. at the time of my visit.
(May). They are described in Dr. Oldham's list (op. cit., p. 32) :-" The
discharge amounts to a few gallons per minute ; the temperature at the source is
112 1/2 and in the bath 106. The water has a slightly saline taste; it is
colourless, but emits bubbles of sulphuretted hydrogen gas, blackening silver."-
(Hooker, Him. Journ., 1855, Vol. II, p. 126.)
4. Momay.-" Hot springs burst from the ground near some granite rocks on
its floor, about 16,000 feet above the sea, and only a
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60 GEOLOGY AND MINERAL RESOURCES OF SIKHIM.

mile below the glacier of Kinchinjhow], and the water collects in

pools: its temperature is 110, and in places 116."-(Hooker, Him. Journ., 1855,
Vol. II, p. 140; see also Dr. Oldham, Ope cit.-,. p. 33.)
(ii) GEOLOGY.

I.-The Gneissic Group.

The rocks belonging to this group are the oldest, and constitute the main
body of the Himalayas. From near Kurseong, south of Darjeeling, to the
northern frontier of Sikhim it is uninterruptedly traced over a distance of some
75 miles in a straight line; whereas all the later rocks-the submetamorphic slate
group, the Damudas, and the tertiaries-together cover an area in the outer
Himalayas nowhere more than six miles in width.
Two forms of the gneiss are met with :
(a) In Southern Sikhim, approximately south of the paranel of Jongri
and Boktola (about lat. 27 250'), the gneiss is highly micaceous
and frequently passes into mica schists. Both muscovite and
biotite occur, the former predominating. Hornblende, garnet, and
schorl are the chief accessory minerals. Bands of quartzite are
common. Veins of calcite occur at places, as near Lingtu by the
road to Gnatong. The gneiss is well foliated, and exhibits strongly
marked features of disturbance, in that it is much folded and
crumpled, especially in the extreme south about Darjeeling. The
prevailing strike is WNW-ESE.
(b) In Northern Sikhim, as north and south. west of Jongri, about
Lachung, &c., the gneiss is not quite so micaceous. Muscovite is
either rare or is entirely absent. Schorl and hornblende are the
chief accessory minerals. Intrusive granitic rocks occur as dykes
and sheets; in some of them muscovite is well developed.
The northern gneiss agrees in some of its petrological characters with the
central gneiss of Stoliczka. As the southern gneiss, however, was
uninterruptedly traced into it, and as no physical break was perceptible
anywhere, they are very likely of the same age. Mr. Medlicott takes the same
view in the "Manual of Indian Geology."*
The relation between the gneissic group and the next group (the Dalings),
which includes submetamorphic slates, phyllites, &c., is far from clear. At the
eastern boundary between the two groups which passes by Gantok, the present
capital of Sikhim, the latter apparently

.*Op. cit., pp. 597-614.

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GEOLOGY AND MINERAL RESOURCES OF SIKHIM. 61

underlie the gneiss, the dip o.f both being north-eastern. So. do. they also. at the
western boundary, which passes by Pemiongchi, the first monastery in Sikhim,
the dip there being north-western. At the southern boundary, which is in the
Darjeeling district, and which appears to. be faulted, the dips of both the groups
are southern. Wherever the junction between the two. groups is observed, the
Dalings appear to. underlie the gneiss; and the fact that the former pass into mica
schists at places near the junction makes it appear as if there was a passage from
the one to the other group. Indeed, Mr. Mallett considered the gneiss as more
recent than the Dalings.* But the former being presumably the older rock, it
would be preferable to find some other explanation for the apparent underlie of
the Dalings.
The fact that near the junction everywhere the gneiss dips in the same
direction as the Dalings, shows that the former was largely affected by the
disturbing forces which tilted up the latter.
2.-The Dalings.
This name was given by Mr. Mallet to a group of submetamorphic racks
after a place called Daling in the Darjeeling district. Phyllites form the
predominant rocks in this group. At the boundary between it and the gneissose
rocks, they pass into silvery mica schists; in fact, in this position the passage is
sometimes so gradual, that it is difficult to say where the one group begins and
the other ends. Dark clay slates with thick quartzite bands prevail near Chakang,
Pachikhani (south of Pakyang), &c.; the workable copper ores invariably occur
amongst these rocks. Gritstone is sometimes met with as just south of Namchi;
but conglomerate never. Impure siliceous limestone is found north-east and
northwest of Namchi, and highly carbonaceous shales occur in the Mangpur
jhora just south of Namchi, by the Rungeet east of Chakang, and by the
Rummam near Gok (south of Chakang).
Igneous rocks. are rare. A rather thick band of gneissose granite was met
with between Murtam and Ramtpek which continues for some distance
northward as well as southward, forming the serrated peaks D: 5 and Maphila. It
is. probably of intrusive origin. An unquestionably intrusive dioritic-looking rock
was encountered. penetrating through slates by the road between Song and
Tikobu.
The Sikhim Dalings occur somewhat in the form of a dome shaped
anticlinal. On the south side the dip is southern; east of the Rungeet it is chiefly.
E.N. E.; west of that river the inclination is

. * Memoirs. Geological Survey of India, Vol. XI,pt. I, p. 42.

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62 GEOLOGY AND MINERAL RESOURCES OF SIKHIM.

north-western; and on the north side, as near Ralong, the dip is mainly northern.
The southern boundary between the Dalings and the gneissose rocks which
passes a little north of Darjeeling was shown by Mr. Mallet to be faulted. The
eastern boundary passes by Gantok, and the western by Pemiongchi. As in the
case of the Damuda-Tertiary and the Daling-Damuda boundaries in the Sub-
Himalayas, both of these boundaries may represent" lines of original contact,
possibly modified by subsequent faulting.* The Daling rocks would in this case
have to be supposed as deposited in a lake of which steep gneiss escarpments
formed the sides: the lower gorge of the Tista below its junction with the
Rungeet which, except close to its debouchure, is composed of Daling rocks,
forming the outlet of such a lake. The Dalings, it should be noted in this
connection, unquestionably bear the impress of lacustrine, rather shallow water
deposits, false bedding being noticeable at places. In fact, they recall to one's
mind the micaceous clays and sandstones of Tertiary age in the outermost fringe
of the Sub-Himalayas. By subsequent tangential pressure which caused their
disturbance, the Dalings would be tilted up against the original gneiss
escarpments in such a manner as to present an appearance of conformable
underlie and of faulting. The greater metamorphism of the Dalings at the
boundary between them and the gneissose rocks (a fact which has been noted
before) may be accounted for by the greater pressure to which they would be
subjected there owing to the resistance offered by the older gneissose rocks.
..
The Dalings have suffered considerable disturbance. The slates and phyllites
frequently exhibit crumbling and contortion; and the dips are, as a rule, rather
high, being seldom below 45.
The following sequence of strata in ascending order is met with
near Chakang:
(a) Massive, coarse quartzites or quartzite sandstones with a
lenticular band of carbonaceous shales.
(b) Dark slaty shales which are cupriferous at places.
(c) Phyllites passing into micaceous schists at places.

(iii) ECONOMIC GEOLOGY.

I.-Copper.
General remarks.-Copper ores are very widespread in Sikhim,
and constitute the main source of its prospective mineral wealth.

..*. Memoirs, Geological Surrey of India," Vol. III, pt. 2, p. 102 : Vol. XI, pt. 1 P 48,
.. Records, Geological SUrvey of India," Vol. XXIII, pt. 4. p. 244. ,. .
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GEOLOGY AND MINERAL REEOURCES OF SIKHIM 63

The following generalisations arrived at by Mr. Mallet with regard to the

copper ores of the Darjeeling district generally hold true for Sikhim also:
(1) "All the known copper-bearing localities are in the Daling beds. Some
are, it is true, situated in the transition rocks between the Dalings and the gneiss,
but none in the genuine gneiss itself.
(2) "The ore in all is copper pyrites, often accompanied by mundic.
Sulphate, carbonate, and oxide of copper are frequent as results of alteration of
the pyrites, but they occur merely in traces.
(3) "The ore occurs disseminated through the slates and schists themselves,
and not in true lodes.*
With regard to tbe first genera1isation, it may be noted that copper ores
have been found at several places noted below, in the gneiss itself, though
usually within a short distance of its junction with the Dalings. The gneiss ores,
however, do not appear to be so rich as those in the Dalings, and have never
been worked. With regard to the third generalisation, the are in one case at least,
that of Pachikhani, appears to occur in true lodes.
Within the Dalings, the richest ores (those of Pachikhani and Rathokhani,
for instance) occur amongst greenish, rather soft, slaty shales. The gangue in
this case- consists of the shale, much hardened by infiltrated quartz, or of quartz
alone.
The method of copper-mining adopted in Sikhim is very similar to that
generally pursued in India in most native operations, and has been fully
described by Mr. Mallet in his geological account of Darjeeling. His
description#, with some additions, is, however, repeated here for easy reference.
The Sikhim mines greatly resemble magnified rabbit-holes: meandering
passages are excavated with little or no system beyond following, as far as
possible, the direction of the richest-lodes; and although some precaution is
taken to support the roof in the more shaky places by timber props, the number
of galleries fallen in or abandoned show how inefficiently this is done. The
shafts are always driven vertically in from the face of a cliff or declivity, as no
attempt at systematic pumping is ever made. Should the shaft become flooded or
too damp to permit of the water being kept 'down by gravitation or simple
bailing, it has to be abandoned. Poor shafts are immediately deserted if richer ore
is found near, long before the former, under a better system, would be worked
out.
The passages vary according to the height and thickness of the lode, and
average about three to four feet in height and width; but

*.. Memoirs, VoL XI, pt. 1, p. 72. #Op cit., p. 69.

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64 GEOLOGY AND MINERAL RESOURCES OF SIKHIM.

where the rock has not yielded a paying proportion of ore, they are contracted to
a size barely sufficient to admit a man's body. Access to the interior of the
mines, therefore, is gained by crawling on "all fours," and in the narrowest parts
by lying flat on the face and progressing after the manner of serpents. As a
natural consequence of such a primitive system, the excavations cannot be
carried beyond a very trifling depth, as compared to European mines.
The ore is got out by manual labour, no machinery or even blasting being
resorted to. The tools generally used are an iron hammer and an ordinary wedge
or 'chisel (cheni), which is held by a strip of split bamboo twisted round it. Small
picks are also sometimes employed. 'the lights used are torches made of thin
strips of bamboo about a foot long, which burn for a minute and-a-half or even
less. This necessitates the presence of two men, one to hold the light, while the
other chisels out the ore.
Mallet says the smoke from the bamboo is less irritating to the eyes than that
from other kinds of wood. No explosion from gas has ever been known; blasting
by powder is very seldom resorted to.
The miners are all Mangars by race, and called Agris: the men excavate the
ore in large lumps and the women carry it to the surface in very small bamboo
baskets about 9 inches by 12 inches, which are called " jak;" they are of
elongated form so as to be readily taken along the narrow passages. Further, the
jaks are taken out by relays of men or boys, who push or carry them from one to
the other. From the pit's mouth women carry the ore away in ordinary baskets to
the nearest streams and wash it.
After a preliminary breaking up of the larger pieces and rejection of the
refuse, the picked ore is broken up small on flat stones with hammers of iron,
and not now-a-days by hammers formed of quartzite or other hard rock, tied into
forked 'sticks as described by Mallet. This pounded ore is called" dhan." This is
roughly sorted, small pieces of nearly pure copper are taken direct to the miner's
home, while the more impure pieces are taken to a shed near a stream, where it
is beaten into coarse powder by heavy round hammers or in stone handmills
called " jhatoo."
Near a convenient watercourse a succession of troughs called " khali" are built
up: the troughs are made of rough planks fixed on the ground, one forming the
bottom, which has a slight incline, and the others fixed on edge. In form and size the
troughs resemble small coffins, but the top and lower end are open: water from the
stream is conducted into these troughs, which are placed one just above another in a
continuous straight line. The quantity of water allowed to flow into the trough is
regulated by a clay dam at the
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GEOLOGY AND MINERAL RESOURCES OF' SIKHIM. 65

upper end, the surplus water flowing off in a parallel channel. In the case of very
dirty" dhan" the powdered ore is put through a wooden sieve, the refuse called"
maddam" being thrown away, while the other portion, chan chamru, is again
ground in the jhatoo" and afterwards washed.
The powdered ore is now washed in these troughs, and continually agitated
by the hand: in this way the dust and lighter particles containing but little ore get
washed down the troughs by the flowing stream, leaving only the heavier
particles containing copper ore.
These copper particles are taken to the blacksmith's house, where the
smelting operations are carried out. These blacksmiths belong to the" Muhur"
branch of the" Kamis."
The ore, whether in pure lumps or in powder as above mentioned, is taken to
the smelting house (afur), in which there is a furnace (" tora") built down into the
floor and lined' with some neatness with refractory clay, about 18 inches deep, a
foot square at the top, and tapering a good deal towards the bottom. Small
charcoal is first filled in to a depth of about a foot and beaten .down by a wooden
rammer
till a saucer-shaped floor of coarsely powdered charcoal is formed. sufficiently
compact to prevent the products of the smeltings sinking into it. These protect.
it from the blast, and it is besides too compact to burn easily. There is no orifice
in this part of the furnace. Two clay tuyeres dip nearly vertically about three
inches into it from the top, and are respectively connected with skin bellows by
horizontal tubes about a yard long. The tubes are formed of clay mixed with
chopped straw, and are moulded on a straight stick, which is subsequently
withdrawn.
The furnace thus prepared is lighted up with charcoal, and the bellows at
each side worked alternately. 'When at its full heat the powdered ore is
sprinkled in at short intervals, until a sufficient amount of regulus or chakhoo,
as it is called by the smelters, has collected at the bottom of the furnace,
covered by the lighter slag. The charcoal is then raked away and the surface of
the slag(" keet") cooled with a whisp of wet straw tied to a stick. The solidified
cake is removed and the fresh surface cooled: in this way the slag is taken off
in two or three successive cakes, leaving the heavier and more perfectly fluid
regulus behind, which is afterwards cooled and -extracted.
The regulus is then pounded and ground in the jhatoo, mixed with an equal
amount of cowdung, and made into balls about the size of oranges, often called"
paira." After drying, a quantity of these are spread on a layer of charcoal in a
place surrounded by stones and covered with charcoal, then a second layer of
balls, and then more charcoal. The whole is then ignited, and the regulus thus
roasted with free access of air; this roasting lasts nearly twenty-four hours.
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66 GEOLOGY AND MINERAL RESOURCES OF SIKHIM.

The roasted balls are subsequently broken up and ground, and the powder
sprinkled into the furnace (tora) in the same way as the original ore.
The copper was formerly exported to Nepal, but for the last two years
importation has been stopped by the Nepalese Government, for what reason is not
known; in consequence the Newar lessees have a large stock of copper in hand,
the cost of manufacture being estimated at Rs. 23 a maund, while the price in
Calcutta is only Rs. 20. It will not pay to export, and consequently the stocks are
held over for a rise in the market or the reopening of Nepal. It is suspected that
the closure of Nepal was carried out with a view to prevent emigration of the
Kami class. At present Russian copper is used here, chiefly in sheets: the price in
Calcutta is Rs. 29 a maund. It does not requireto be re-infused before being
wrought into manufactured articles, whereas Sikhim native copper does, and
loses 20 per cent. in weight in the operation.
The usual transit charge in Nepal is one anna per dharni (2 seers) (here a
dharni is 3 seers, but in Nepal it is 2 seers 10 chitaks).
In Nepal there are several copper mines, much drier than those in Sikhim.
Deep mining is not practised, owing chiefly to the want of suitable apparatus
for draining the mines. At Pachikhani, the only place where copper ores are
worked on a tolerable scale in Sikhim, the deepest mine goes down only to about
55 feet; and I found water had collected to such an extent even at this depth that
the miners were talking of abandoning it, though the ore is very rich. Many
mines, as, for instance, those of Tukkhani (south of Namchi), have beEm
abandoned owing to the difficulty of draining the water with the primitive
appliances used by the miners. As the ore almost invariably gets richer with
depth,* deeper working at the abandoned mines with improved appliances may be
reasonably expected to yield good results. Mining under the present conditions
may be said to be abandoned just when it begins to be most profitable.
The miners are all Nepalese, and belong to the caste of Mangars.
The men and boys work in the mines, and the women dress the ore.
Smelting of the dressed ore is performed by the caste of Kamis or blacksmiths.
This is considered a very low caste; and a Kami would not be allowed to enter
the house of a Mangar or any other Hindu of a higher social status. The houses
of the Mangars run north-south, whereas those of the Kamis have their length
directed east-west; so that in a

* This was unquestiona.bly found to be the case at Pachikhani, the only plaoe where I
could compare surface with comparatively deep-seated ores. A specimen of picked ore from
the surface yielded on assay 14..06 per cent. of copper, whereas one taken at random from a depth of about
50 feet from surface gave 20.81 per cent.
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GEOLOGY AND MINERAL RESOURCES OF SIKHIM. 67

mining village like that of Pachikhani it is easy to distinguish the house of a

miner (belonging to the caste of Mangar) from that of a smelter (Kami). Scarcely
any mining work is done during the rains, and even in the working season, which
extends from October to June, an occasional heavy shower often puts a stop to it
for days. On the occasion of my last visit to the mines (11th April 1891), I found
only a few women dressing the ore, and there was no one working at the mines
owing to the heavy rainfall of the previous day. The number of men, women, and
children who find employment one way or another-mining, dressing the ore,
smelting, &c.-probably does not exceed 300 any day.
The miners work in gangs on their own account and not for hire, each gang
under a headman. For every five seers of copper turned out, one goes to the Kami
or the man who conducts the smelting, and four remain as the share of the
miners. The whole of the copper turned out must be sold to the party who has the
lease of the mines, called taksari, at a price fixed by him. The average annual
outturn at Pachikhani is estimated at about 6,000 dharnis, or 450 maunds of
copper, valued at Rs. 12,000, at the rate of Rs. 2 per dharni, which is the price
paid by the lessee to the miners. If we take the average number of the men,
women, and children maintained by the mines at 200, Rs. 60 falls to the share of
each individual; which, considering that but little mining work is done- during
the rains, is a very fair wage. Indeed, the mining people here are probably better
off-than in most other parts of India. They are well housed, well clad, and well
fed, and the women make a fair show of trinkets.
2.- Ore locations.
Copper ores occur at the following localities :
1. Pachikhani-The only place besides Rathokhani where copper ores are
worked at present. The old mines, which. are now deserted, were situated
close to the junction of the' Rorochu and the Rahrichu just by the Gantok
road. The mines worked at present occur a mile further north, about 3 miles
south of Pakyang, also close to the Gantok road. The roofs of the galleries in
the old Pachikhani have fallen in, as is the case with all deserted mines. At
the entrance of one of the galleries I found stalactitic and stalagmitic deposits
stained green by carbonate of copper, also traces of copper pyrites in slaty
rocks. The dip is north-eastern; but, on the cast side of the Rorochu, it is
E.S.E. The stream probably marks the position of a fault.
The new Pachikhani stands on slaty shales which have a greenish hue when
wet, but appear grey when dry. These are superposed by
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68 GEOLOGY AND MINERAL RESOURCES OF SIKHIM.

schistose quartzite, in which very thin slighty greenish foliae of shaly matter
occurs. The strike varies between NW -SE andWNW -ESE, and the dip :is north-
eastern, about 35.
There are five principal galleries. The drift which was being worked at the
time of my visit was found to be about 4 feet in height and 3 feet in width. The
roof is supported by timbering on a large scale Chips of bamboo are used as
lights. The gangue consists of quartz and much hardened shale; soft slaty shale is
the country rock. The ore is extracted from the veinstone by chisel and hammer.
The richest ore occurs at the deeper and suddenly sloping end of this drift, below
40 feet; but the miners were there in water and were talking of ceasing to go any
further down. If the water were let out-and this could be done without serious
difficulty by proper contrivances-I have no doubt the ore would be found to go
down much deeper. Here we have to all appearance a true lode. It is about 4 feet
in thickness and nearly vertica1.
The ore is, as usual, copper pyrites mixed with. a little mundic The analysis
of a sample taken at random from this deeper part gave 20--31 per cent. of
copper. I was informed at the mines that one maund of ore yielded 20 seers of
cheku (regulus), and that 4 seers of cheku gave one seer of copper, so that from a
maund of ore there is obtained about 5 seers, or 12 per cent. copper. The copper
is sent from the mines in flat pieces. It is again refined by those who work it up
into vessels. Five seers of mine copper yield four on being refined.
2. Rhenock.-About Ralf-way between Pachikhani and Rhenock, on the south
side of the Rungpo (orthe Rarhichu as it is called on map) and close to the bridge
over it, there is exposed a fine section of the Dalings in which indications of
copper are found. The cupriferous rocks in descending order are
Slaty shales with bands of segregated quartz in which traces of copper
pyrites are found.
3" quartz with copper pyrites.

1 slaty shales. Dip ENE about 45.

6" quartz with copper pyrite shales.

Here the ore apparently occurs in segregated veins parallel to the

bedding.
3. Lingu About two miles to the east of the last-named locality, and a mile
south of Lingui monastery at the junction of the Rungpo and the Ronglichu,
copper pyrites occur in highly quartzose gneiss dipping NE about 45. The
cupriferous band was found to extend about 100 yards and is about 6 feet in
thickness.
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GEOLOGY AND MINERAL RESOURCES OF SIKHIM. 69

4. Ronglichu.-About three miles.* east-north-east of the Ronglichu rest

bungalow, at the junction of a stream coming down from Pangola. with the
Ronglichu, I picked up a few pieces of schistose quartzite in which copper
pyrites and bornite (?) are disseminated along foliation planes. I did not find the
ores in situ. I have no doubt. they occur some distance up the stream towards
Pangola. In this case the ores occur in the heart of the gneissose group.
5. Lindok.-About half-way on the new road between Gantok and 'Tumlong,
close to the village of Lindok, there occurs interstratified with gneiss talcose
schists with pyrite, chalco-pyrite, bornite, copperas and; blue vitriol with small
traces of epsomite. The thickness of the cupriferous.band in a stream just by the
road was found to be about 2 feet, and it' was traced for about 38 feet: dip 40
degrees ENE. A little. to the south-east of the stream, also by the road, there is
similar 'schist, with copper ores in the gneiss, but the thickness here is not more
than 7 inches.
6. Bhotang.~Situated about 6 miles east-south-east of Pachikhani, close to the
junction of the Tista and the Rungpo, along a precipitous scarp of slaty rocks
overlooking the Tista. The mines here were worked for about 20 years and
abandoned only last year. Lachmi Das, proprietor of Pachikhani, was the
lessee. The average annual outturn was about 300 dharnis, or 225 maunds of
copper. "The ore as usual is chalco-pyrite, occurring in a hard jaspery-looking
rock; but it is much mixed up with iron pyrites, more so than at Pachikhani.
There are two ore-bands parted by 10 or 12 feet of slaty shales, which too are
more or less impregnated by ore. Of these two bands, the upper averages about
3 feet in thickness, and the lower 2; feet 6 inches. They run parallel to bedding
and appear to be what are called segregated veins. The dip is about 45 E. to
ESE. Levels are driven along the courses of the ore-bands. One I entered has
gone for about 54 feet and then stopped owing to water filling in. 'If the water
were let off, there is no reason why the ore should not be found workable
deeper down.
The ore-bands can be traced with the eye for some 200 feet along the strike
on the north side. South,of the levels they run for about 25 feet, and are then
faulted against greyish and greenish 'soft slaty shales dipping north-eastward.,
On the south side of the fault the ore-bands are met with at a height of about
100 feet above those on the north side.
An average sample from tbe old working yielded on assay 12.21 per cent. of
copper.

*It may be obser'ved that distances throughout this paper are. measured as the crow flies.
70 GEOLOGY AND MINERAL RESOURCES OF SIKHIM. www.sikkim.gov.in

7. Barmiak.-Near Barmiak, just south of the new bridge over the Tista at a
place called Lingyathang, I found on the east bank of the Tista, traces of copper
ore in some detached blocks of quartzite.
There is also copper ore near the head of a stream south of
Barmiak, called Kalok jhora.
8. Namphak.-There were found minute traces of copper pyrites in a detached
block at this village, close to the Tumlong road between it and the Tista.
9. Dajong.-Close to the head of the Rangpochu, about 3 miles north-west of
Yangong monastery, steep scarps of the Dalings are seen from a distance to be
stained green by carbonate of copper at places. The place is almost inaccessible,
and I could not explore it well within the time at my disposal. At one spot about a
mile and-a-half east of Dajong there were met with chalco-pyrite along with
peach and iron pyrites in some profusion in quartzitic rocks. The percentage of
copper, however, appears to be too low to pay for working.
10. Temi.-About three miles west-north-west of this village, close to the
source of a stream called Rimpichu, there was found copper pyrites in some
abundance in very hard quartzitic rocks.
Trial pits were opened both here and at Dajong last year by a Nepalese
named Parsa Sing, but have been abandoned.
11. Tukkhani.-These mines are situated along a feeder of the Mangpur
jhora, a tributary of the Rungeet, three miles due south of Namchi. They were
deserted some time ago owing to the excavations filling in with water. The ore
is said to have been of excellent quality, better even than that of Pachikhani,
though now but little is seen of it, the galleries having fallen in. Deep mining
here would, I have no doubt, give good results. The annual outturn of Tukkhani
used to be about the same as that of Pachikhani-about 450 maunds.The lessee
was Luchmidas.The country rock is slaty shales similar to those of Pachikhani.
12. Mik.-Two miles north-east of Tukkhani, close to the village of Mik, just
by the Namchi road, copper pyrites were found disseminated in some very hard
quartzites.
13. Mongbru.-A mile north-east of this village, and about three miles south-
south-west of Ralong monastery, close to the junction of a stream flowing from
Rabongla with tbe Rungeet, there occur copper pyrites in clay slates with
segregated quartz.
14. Rinchlinpong.-Copper ores occur near this place, close to the "Source of
a feeder of the Kulhait. The rock as usual is clay slate. The ores were worked on
a small scale last year, but have been given up, as they did not pay.
15. Bam.-Two miles and a half south-south-west of Rinchinpong monastery,
close to the village of Bam, .there occur, by the Risi, copper
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GEOLOGY AND MINERAL RESOURCES OF SIKHIM. 71

ores in slaty shales with segregated quartz. The ore bearing band was found only
6 inches in thickness at one place. The ore is found in traces on both sides of the
river. The dip here is NW about 65.
16. Rathokhani.-Close to tbe village of Chakang. The mines here are the
oldest in Sikhim, and were in working at the time of Mr. Mallet's survey of the
Darjeeling district.* The ore (copper pyrites) occurs in slaty shales as well as in
lenticular bands of segregated quartz, especially in the latter. Mr. Mallet found
9.1 per cent. of copper in a carefully selected average sample; it is not,
therefore,nearly so rich as that of Pachikhani. The ore is confined to the east side
of a ravine which apparently marks the position of a fault: east of it the strata are
inclined south-east to north-north-east, whereas west of it the strata exhibit the
normal dip of these parts, viz., north-west. The workings extend for about 100
yards on the east side of the strike of the strata. The main drifts run parallel to
the bedding; but meandering passages across it in all directions also exist. The
ore here appears to occur in segregated veins parallel to bedding, and there did
not appear to be any indication of a true lode. Still the oriferout beds may, I
think, be advantageously followed deeper down. The difficulty of drainage has
led to their abandonment; and at present the miners burrow here and there on a
small scale.
Masses of quartz rock containing copper pyrites are found in the bed of the
Ratho, a short distance below the mine. An average sample yielded on analysis
6.38 per cent. of copper.
3.-Summary and concluding observations.
The following is a summary of the copper localities mentioned
above:

(A)In the theDalings .

( 1) Mines now worked... Pachikhani, Rathokhani
(on a very small scale).
(2) Mines recently abandoned ... Old Pachikhani, Bhotang.
Mines abandoned and wholly choked up Tukkhani.
Localities where trial openings have
been made and abandoned. Dajong, Rinchinpong,
Temi. .
Localities not yet tried.,. ... Rhenock, Bam, Mongbru,
Barmiak, Namphak, Mik.
(B).In the Gneissic rocks.
Localities not yet tried ... Lindok, Lingui, Ronglichu.
The Nepalese miners have a very keen eye for copper ores; and
the localities 'where they have been mining or rather borrowing
. *Op. cit., p. 75.
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72 GEOLOGY AND' MINERAL' REBOURCES 'OF SIKHIM

Tuk .,Bhotang,Ratho,and Pachi-are certainly the most promising in all Sikkim

.They work , however,in a primitive fashion ,and the depts. of the drifts which
they run for the ore is limited by the water level of the nearest stream .As soon as
a drift fills in with water which cannot be easily let out ,it is abandoned .The
deepest mine scarcely goes below 70 feet from the surface ;that at Pachikhani has
scarcely reached this depth ,and the miners tend abandoning it already,owing to
the difficulty of draining it ,though the ore is found to get richer with depth .It
was chiefly this difficulty of draining that led to the abandonment of Tukkhani ,
Bhotangkhani, and also partly of Rathokhani .I have no doubt Pachikhani will be
deserted as soon as.the surface ores have been worked out. Deep, mining on
modern method at these.places, especially at ::Pachikhani is likely to yield a
very 'fair return
Of the four places.just mentioned Pachikhani' aeppeared to .me
the most promising. This may partly be due:to .the fact that, owing to the works
here being in progress, ,I could see for ,myself the exact mode' of. occurrence 'of
the ore. However, as, the existence of at least one good lode here is kn'own this
place, ought- to be. tried first, in case Sikhim should attract mining enterprise
:whicn it is likely to do in the near future. There are' other reasons also in' favour
of Pachikhani. A sample' taken, from the' lode just mentioned yielded 20-31 per
cent. of copper; and from what the, miners told me the average yield from the
entire mine is about 12 'per cen't;. (five seers of copper from one maund of ore).
On the other hand, the picked ore from Rathokhani was found by, Mr. M.al1et to
contain not more than 8 or 9 per cent. of copper. At Bhotang, the ore appeared to
me to contain rather too much mundic. From what the miners who had worked at
Tukkhani told me, the ore there at the point where it was given up was richer even
than that of Pachikhani. 'I would not place much reliance upon such a statement
uncorroborated by samples. Still from all accounts, Tukkhani would be a very
favourable place for trial, after Pachikhani.
Of the other localities the surface indications at Rhenock appear to be rather
favourable.
IRON
Occurs chiefly as pyrites in association with chalco-pyrite. It is
most plentiful at Bhotang, where magnetite also occurs. The iron ores have
nowhere been put to any economic use.

LIME.
There is a vein of calcite in the gneiss at Lingtam, about three miles
north.east of the Ronglichu rest bungalow. Lime was
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GEOLOGY AND ,MINERAL RESOURCES: OF SIKHIM. 73

experimentally made from it, but, it did not, turn out quite satisfactory,
being rather dark:coloured.There are beds of limestone in the Dalings north-east
and north.west of Namchi, but it is as a rule too impure' to' 'yield good lime.
Lime in Sikhim is invaria'bly made from' tufaceous deposits which abound in the
vicinity of the limestone, beds especially at Vok ,near Namchi whence :large
'quantities of; lime used at one time to go toDarjeeling

GARNET
Is abundant in :the gneiss and mia schists at places.'But it 'does
not appear to be fit for'the market

" [
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NOTE ON AGRICULTURE IN SIKHIM.

Rice, chum, unhusked rice, rad. There are 12 kinds' of rice grown in Sikhim
1, hbras-chung, grown in damp land, in which it will mature, but is better for
being transplanted when about 12 inches high into irrigated ground. It is the
earliest crop, being sown in December and harvested in March.
2 and 3, la-dmar and san-kha, are grown in the lower valleys, and seldom
seen above 4,500 feet. The cultivation is similar to that in the plains: the plants
are sown in nurseries, and transplanted when large enough into irrigated ground.
These are sown in August and cut in December.
4 to 12, rang-ldan, tso-hbras, dbang-hbras, khab-hbras, hdam hbras, phag-
hbras, kho-smad, kha-hzis and rtsong-hbras, are grown on dry.land, that. is, not
irrigated. The best ground is that which has lain fallow for some years, and on
which there is a heavy under growth of jungle.- This is cut, burnt and carefully
dressed, and excellent crops are obtained. These are sown in March and cut in
August.
From one measure of seed in good ground the yield varies from twenty to
fiftyfold.
La-dmar, san-kha and hbras-chung are considered the best varieties. Paddy
husking is only done by each house as required, and is carried out in a most
primitive fashion. The paddy unboiled is placed ina hollow piece of timber called
htsom, and pounded with a long wooden mallet called htsom-phu. '

The preparations made from rice are-1, marwa; 2, dbyon, a kind of rice-cake
fried in butter; 3, a-rag, a spirit; 4, hbras-sgnos, parched rice; 5, hbo-dker, boiled
and parched rice; 6, hbras-su, chura.
Other crops- ,

Bhoota, kin-rtsong, of which there are four kinds, distinguished

by their colour-viz., white, red, yellow, and black. Almost any soil will do and
any elevation up to 6,200 feet. This is the staple food of the Paharias. In low-
lying land it is sown in March, and according to elevation in the high grounds as
late as May and June.
The quantity obtained varies from twenty to hundredfold.
Marwa, me-chag, a millet. There are 13 kinds-Bsam-shing,shags.chag, sga-
ser, mang-dkar-ma, bze-hbogs, tsigs-nag-ma, phags,.hgyugs, dung.dkar-ma,
gong-tses-ma, dker-hjom-la, sla-gsum-ma, ser rgyug-ma, ma-la.dkar-mo.
These are sown in March and cut in July and August. The yield varies from
forty to one hundred and fiftyfold.
 AGRICULTURE IN SIKHIM. 75www.sikkim.gov.in

Me-chag is rised almost entirely in the preparation of chang, marwa, but is

occasionally ground and made into chupatties, and the flour is also used to eat
with tea.
Hbog-ma, a millet, of which there are four kinds-dkar, dmar,
khyimn-shig, spre hjug.
These are used for making chang, a-rag, and are used, when boiled, for food.
Bra-hu, buckwheat, of which there are five kinds-dkar-hgor-ma, bra-nag,
bgya's-ra, kha-hjug-ma, bra.-chung-used for making chang, a-rag and chupatties. .
Sla-sum-ma, a kind of me-chag, used in the same manner.
Na, wheat, five kinds-dkar, dmar, nag, spre.hjug-ma, mgo-rog-ma.
Gyo, barley, only one kind. Both wheat and barley are only grown in small
quantities on account of the danger of the crops beingdestroyed by hailstorms,
which are very prevalent in March and April just as the crops are ripening.
Rdo-gson, dhal, three kinds-dkar, nag, and one other, no name
only grown in small quantities; sown in September and cut in January.
Mustard, three kinds-yung-dkar, yung-nag and pad-sgang grown for oil.
Ko.ko.la,cardamom, grown in irrigated ground with plenty of shade and
good drainage; that is, the plants generally grow in running water. The crop is
much prized and of considerable value, varying from Rs. 30 to Rs. 45 a maund.
The cultivation of cardamom is increasing rapidly, many new plantations having
been laid out this year
Marwa, chang, is a kind of beer brewed by everyone in Sikhim,and might
be called their staple food and drink. It is prepared from a great variety of seeds
and plants. The following is a list of most of them, both cultivated and wild:
Cultivated: me-chag, wheat, barley, bra.hu, rice, rkang-ring, shum-hbem,
tsong, and Indian-corn.
Wild: elephant creeper, yams of all kinds, ra-ling, hbar-neg, spa-sko two
kinds, spa-lo-hi, dun, and hbyam.
This drink is universal, very refreshing and sustaining, and very slightly
intoxicating. It is drunk, warm generally, from a bamboo through a straw or thin
hollow bamboo.
The preparation is as follows :
The seed is soaked in water for two nights, then husked, washed and boiled;
the water is then drained off and the seeds kept for half an hour in the vessel.
The seed is then spread on a bamboo mat, and in winter the spice, &c., added
before the seed is quite cold; in summer when cold. The" spice" is first well
mixed, then spread on a bed of ferns covered with plantain leaves and in winter
with a blanket.
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76 AGRICULTURE IN SIKHIM.

After 48 hours the fermentation is ready; this is known by,the smell, and the
marwa is stored in baskets lined with half-dried plantain leaves. It is ready to
drink in 3 days, but is better kept for' 8 days

Spice consists of spen- hgram leaves of a tree,.chilly, ginger, chiretta,

kag-hbim, are used according as the marwa is r'equired to taste sweet, bitter, sour,
or hot.
The spices are used in the following proportions Mix one seer rice flour with
2oz. of spice. This is mixed wet and, 'dried and it depends on the strength of this
how much is used, but approximately one ounce is used to a maund of seed.
Tea.-This varies from our mode of making it" inasmuch as it is churned with
butter and salt, till the bu:tter is 'so mixed with the 'tea leaves, hot water, and
salt'that there is no grease floating on the surface. The tea plant is only grown in
very small quantities, and no systematic cultivation is resorted to. The leaf
usually made into tea comes from Tibet in the form of brick tea. Tea is made
from the following plants.
Tea, hdong-rna-mchogs, dbya-li, rang-spo-mchu-dog, phi-chungskyag-ko,
chestnuts, rtsi, sim-rtsi, aru, skyi-hdabs, shing-skyur, spem po-rdo-hkyabs, cha-
ru, mi-tog-dbyang-hzin, and rgem-mtsen.ldan.
The .following is a complete list of the wild and cultivated' fruits,
vegetables, edible roots, &c., obtained in Sikhim. and used by the inhabitants as
food:
.1
:

Fruits cultivated
Orange.
Bread.fruit. Apple.
:Mango. Citron. Pear. .
.'

Peach. Lemon. Pomegranate. ,

Walnut. Guava. Pineapple.
Plantain, 2 kinds.
Vegetables cultivated
Sugarcane, 3 kinds. Radish.
Pumpkin, 2 kinds. Turnip.
Chilly, 5 kinds. Garlic.
Brinjal, 3 kinds. Onion.
Cucumber. Hu-si (spice).
Tomatos, 2 kinds. Ginger, 2 kinds.
Hsbrul-tsod, 2' kinds (a kind Potatoes, 2 kinds.
of cucumber}. Yams, 6 kinds.
Khag-tig, 2 kinds. Do-hu (a, kind of yam).
Mustard, 3 kinds.
 AGRICULTURE IN SIKHIM; 77 www.sikkim.gov.in

,
Jungle products; used for food .

La' spa;.mchod-ma. Ra-mje-dong

Ting..'ku;-mchod ma. Stag kya-dong

Wild figs 2 kinds Dos mo;dong elephant creeper
Phang-ski Ding hbram dong
M u-si. Yams, 11 kinds.
,

Spom si 4 kinds. .Fungi, 18 kinds.

Ken-dang. Nettle 6 kinds.
Spag ko 2,kinds. Hbah-mcho'd.
Ga-dho;-spes (wild mango) Rdum:.rug.
Lta-si. Sken-tung.
Sung-lum. Chu-ten.
Nyor chung Kang. ki rig
No -shel Mgo -med:.
Cha tses :raspberry 5 kinds Mus-la.
Chestnut. 3 kinds. Bta'ng-sku.
Hbrom -kes . .Sug.
Chi-chung-sdong-nyel, 2 kinds. Si-khag.
Rtseg:-rtseg-ru bhi.. Pha.ru.
Hber-heg. Dbu-'shul.
, Ske skyum Bam-chag. i

Hbah. .Chu. ,(a water' weed).

Hum-.pa do -rog ,2 kinds., : Ben..spu..dog.
Kling-shu. Na res
Gues.chung-spes .
Khung-rug.
A-um-la. Dugig s.
A ru-ra, ,2 kinds. . La-sgog, 2 kinds (wild onion).
Ltog-tos Spyan-res. .
Khum-dgos. .B.a-sho kha.
Mu ti spes . Gua-Ihag (wild plantain)
Cane shoots, 2 kinds Hzas-bhag.,
Bamboo shoots, 15 kinds. Tig-bhig 5kinds (a bean,).

Fibres Cotton is' grown in small quantities in:the lower valleys.

(See "Statistlcal Account of Bengal vol: X, page 96.) Jute is not grown in
,
,
,

Sikhim
'Wild 'fibres The natives 'employ the large nettle (so-ris) for making
cloth, which is said to be very durable.
Land. measurement.-The land is usually measured for cultivation
by the number of pattis of ,seed that can be sown in it. Amongst the
Paharias the ,'rent recoverable is calculated by the number of patties sown
. See Statistical Account of Bengal. vol. X, page 99, from "In: the hills" to " a
small field of 1 1/4bighas.
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78 AGRICULTURE IN SIKHIM.

Cattle.-There are three kinds of cattle in Sikhim

1. Ba glang.-These are the larger cattle, and are by :far the best. They are owned
chiefly by the Lepchas and Bhuteas. -Many of this cattle are driven up to 13 and
14,000 feet for grazing.
A good cow fetches from Rs. 30 to Rs. 45.
An ox or bull from Rs. 20 to Rs. 25.
2. Nam-thong (Paharia cattle).-These are much smaller, and fetch
from Rs. 15 to Rs. 25 only.
3. Thang (plains cattle).-These are considered the worst of all,. and only fetch
from Rs. 12 to Rs. 15 each.
Yaks.-There are three kinds
1. Lho-gyag.-These are the large yaks found only in Sikhim and Chumbi. They
are considered the best, and fetch from Rs. 25 to Rs. 30 each. Yak milk is of
excellent quality, containing a very large proportion of butter fat.
The males are used for pack animals, but not to such an extent as
in Tibet.
2. Bod-gyag.-These are similar to the above, but are very much smaller. The price
varies from Rs. 20 to Rs. 25.
3. A-yu.-These are polled yaks, and some very fine specimens have been
seen in the higher valleys of Sikhim. There are also half-breed cattle from bull
yaks and cows. These are considered the best of all the cattle for giving milk.

Sheep, 5 kinds
1. Ha-lug.-A black sheep comes from Bhutan, the wool of
which is coarse.
2. Bod-lug.-The ordinary Tibetan sheep, small, but much prized
for its wool, which is of excellent quality.
3. Byang-lug.-Also from Tibet.
4. Sog-lug.-The large-tai1ed sheep, very seldom seen in Sikhim.
5. Phe-dar.-The Paharia sheep, a much larger animal, which
lives low down. The wool is coarse.
The price of sheep varies considerably, being from Rs. 3 to Rs. 9, according
to size and kind. The Paharia fetches the highest price.
Goats, 2 kinds
1. Ra.-The small goat, smaller than that in the plains.
2. Bod-ra.-The small long-haired Tibetan goat. It does not do well down in
the hot valleys.
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AGRICULTURE IN SIKHIM. 79

Wages
Coolie, 2 annas to 8 annas a day.
Mason, 8" 1 rupee"
Carpenter, Rs. 30 to Rs. 50 a month, and are almost
impossible to get.
Prices
Rice, Rs. 4-8 to Rs. 5-8 per maund.
Marwa, 8 seers per rupee.
Bhoota, Re. 1 to Rs. 3-4 per maund.
Dhal, 8 seers per rupee.
 www.sikkim.gov.in
80 EGETATlON.

VEG ETATION.
NOTE:The works consulted for this paper are Hooker's .. Himalayan Journals
Hooker andTThomsons "Flora Indica;" .. Hookers Flora of' India;" Clarke's" Ferns of Northern India;" King's"
Annals of the Royal Botanic Garden, Calcutta. Gamble's '''Trees, Shrubs and Large' Climbers
found in the Darjeeling District," and Watt's "Dictionary of Economic Products." .,

.' .J. G.AMMIE 19-9-91

..

SIR J. D. HOOKER, who is the greatest authority onthe vegetation of

Sikhim, in his Introductory Essay to the Flora Indica, divides the country into
three zones. The lower, stretching from the lowest level up to 5,000 feet' above
the sea, he called the tropical zone; thence to 13,000. feet, the upper limit of tree
vegetation, the temperate; and above, to the perpetual snow line at 16,000 feet,
the Alpine. In describing the aspect of the country he says that up to an elevation
of 12,000 feet, Sikhim is covered with a dense forest, only interrupted where
village clearances have bared the slopes for the purpose of cultivation." At the
present time, however, this description does not apply below 6,000 feet, the upper
limit at which Indian-corn ripens; for here, owing to increase of population,
almost every suitable part has been cleared for cultivation, and trees remain only
in the rocky ravines and on the steepest slopes where no crop can be grown; but
above 6,000 feet the face of the country still remains comparatively unaltered. He
continues"The forest consists everywhere of tall umbrageous trees; with little
underwood on the drier slopes, but often dense grass jungle; more commonly,
however, it is accompanied by a luxuriant undergrowth of shrubs, which render it
almost impenetrable. In the tropical zone large figs abound, with Terminalia,
Vatica, Myrtacere, Laurels Euphorbiacere, Meliacere, Bauhinia, Bombax,
Morus, .Artocarpus and other Urticacere and many Leguminosre; and the
undergrowth consists of Acanthacece, Bamboo, several Calami, two dwarf
Arecea,Wallichiaa, and. Caryota urens. Plantains and tree-ferns, as well as
Pandanus, arc common; and, as in an moist tropical countries, ferns, orchids,
Scitamniae and Pothos are extremely abundant. Few oaks are found at the base
of the mountains, and the only conifers are a species of Podocarpus and Pinus
longifolia, which frequent the drier slopes of hot valleys as low as 1.000 feet
above the level of the sea, and entirely avoid the temperate zone. The other
tropical Gymnosperms are Cycas pectinata and Gnetum scandens, genera which
find their north-western limits in Sikhim.
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VEGETATION 81
.

"Oaks, of. which '(including -, chestnuts) there are. 'upwards of

eleven species in, 'Sikhim ,become abundant at about 4,000 feet, and at 6,000
feet .the temperate zone begins, the vegetation varying with the degree' of
humidity. On the outermost -ranges, and. on northern exposures, there is a
dripping forest of cherry, laurels,'oaks and' chestnuts, Magnolia, 'Andromeda,
Styrax, Pyrus, maple and birch, with . an underwood' of (Aralia cere,
Holibollia,. .Limonic., Daphne, Ardisia,Myrsine,Sumplocos, Rubi "and a
prodigious variety of ferns.- "
, "Plectocomia and Musa ascend to ,7,000 feet. On drier exposures bamboo
and tall 'grasses form the underwood. Rhododendrons appear' below 6,000
feet,at which elevation snow falls occasionally. From' 6-12,000 feet there is no
apparent diminution of. the humidity, the air being-near saturation during.a
great 'part, of the year; but the decrease of temperature effects a marked change
in the vegetation. Between 6,000 'and 8,000 ft 'epiphytical orchids are
extremely abundant, and they do not entirely disappear till a height of 10,000
feet has been'attained. Rhododendrons become abundant'at 8,000 feet, and from
10,00.0 to 14,000 feet they form in many places the .mass of the shrubby
vegetation. Vaccinia, of which there are ten species, almost all epiphytical, do
not, ascend so high, and are most abundant at elevations from 5,000 .to 8;000
feet;
The flora of the temperate zone presents' a remarkable resemblance to that
of Japan, in-the mountains of which island we have, a very similar climate,
both being damp and cold. Helwingia, Aucuba, -Stachyurus,and, Enkianthus
may be ,cited as instances of this similarity;'which ,is more interesting because
Japan is the nearest, cold damp clima'te to Sikhim with whose vegetation we
are acquainted. At 10,000 feet (on the summit of Tongloo) yew makes its
appearance, but no' other conifer except those of the tropical belt.isfound'nearer
the plains than the mountain of Phalut, on which Picea Webbiana is found, at
levels above 10,000 feet..- Abies Br unoniana and the larch are found;
everywhere in the valleys of the Lachen and Lachung rivers, above 8000 feet..
.
"A subtropical vegetation penetrates ;far into the interior of the country
'along;the banks of .the great rivers,; rattans, treeferns, plantains, screw pines,
and other tropical plants occurring in the Ratong valley:almost at ;the 'foot :of
'Kanchinjinga, and 6,000 feet above the level' of the sea. With the pines
,however in the temperate zone, a very difierent kind of vegetation presents
itself. Here those great European families which are almost entirely'wanting in
the outer temperate zone become common, and the flora :approximates in
character to that of Europe. Shrubby Leguminosae such
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82 VEGETATION.

as Indigofera and Desmodium, Ranunculacere (Thalictrum, Anemone,

Delphinium, .Aconitum, etc), Umbelliferae Caryophyllere, Labiataae and
Gramine increase in numbers as we advance into the interior. The air becomes
drier, and from the increased action of the sun the temperature does not diminish
in proportion to the elevation, the summers being warmer, though the winters are
colder. - The forests at the same time become more open, and are spread less
uniformly over the surface, the drier slopes being bare of trees, and covered with
a luxuriant herbaceous vegetation. It is only in the upper part of the valley of the
Tista, however, above the junction of the Lachen and Lachung, that this change
becomes marked; and from the rapidly increasing elevation, not only of the sur-
rounding mountains, but of the floors of the valleys, it proceeds with great
rapidity, and the temperate soon gives place to an Alpine flora.
"The sub.Alpine zone in Sikhim scarcely begins below 13,000 feet, at
which elevation a dense rhododendron scrub occupies the slopes of the
mountains, filling up the valleys so as to render them impenetrable. Here the
summer is short, the ground not being free of snow till the middle of June. It is,
however, comparatively dry, and the Alpine flora very much resembles that of
the Western Himalaya and (in generic types at least) the Alps of Europe and
Western Asia; while as we advance towards the Tibetan region we have a great
increase of dryness, so that a Siberian flora is rapidly developed, which at last
entirely supersedes that of the sub-Alpine zone, and ascends above 18,000 feet."
Sir J. D. Hooker's own conection of Sikhim plants amounted to 2,920
species, of which 150 were ferns. Assuming that he :failed to get 25 per cent. of
the plants during his short residence, the total of about 4,000 species of
flowering plants and ferns together for Sikhim will be arrived at, and be very
near the real number. Owing to the humid climate of Sikhim, and the absence of
excessive cold at any season of the year over the greater part of it, the prevailing
vegetation is of an evergreen character. A few trees, and two tree ferns growing
at elevations under 6,000 feet, have the- abnormal habit of shedding their
leaves and remaining bare during part of the warmest and wettest seasons when
their neighbours are making their most vigorous growth; whilst other trees,
chiefly of higher elevations, have the ordinary habit of shedding their leaves
towards the "end of autumn and remaining bare till spring. The vast majority,
however, of the Sikhim trees and shrubs are evergreen. As might be expected
from the dripping nature of the climate, ferns are a predominating. feature of the
vegetation generally, but more specially of that 'of the extra dripping and misty
region lying
 VEGETATION. 83 www.sikkim.gov.in

between 5,000 and 9,000 feet, where they are to be seen on every rock, on the
stems of trees, and growing on the ground. Mr. C. B. Clarke, in his valuable
paper on the Ferns of Northcrn India, published in the Linnean Society's Journal
for 1879, enumerates eight species of tree. ferns and 248 of stemless and sub-
arborescent sorts found between Nepal and Assam. Probably over 200 of them
are indigenous to Independent Sikhim. There are, besides, several species of
Lycopodium and Selaginella, which are usually associated with the true ferns.
Above 5,000 feet the European club-moss (Lycopodium clavatum) is in great
abundance and luxuriance on the ground and rocks in open spaces, and several
handsome tasselled species of the same genus are pendent on the limbs of trees.
Of the eight species of Sikhim tree. ferns noted by Clarke, five are found
between the lowest levels and 4,000 feet, and three between 3,500 and 7,000
feet. They are all most graceful objects and form a striking feature in the
landscape wherever they occur, but more especially so in the moister, unculti.
vated valleys, where, undisturbed, they attain: their full luxuriance, and are
found either as isolated individuals, in small groups, or in extensive groves.
Their average height is about twenty feet, but plants of forty and fifty feet are
not very uncommon. The eight species are included in two genera, viz., two in
the genus Hemitelia and six in Alsophila. The sori are placed on cup-shaped
receptacles in the former, whilst in the latter they are exinvolucrate as in Poly
podium, from which the genus Alsophila is separated more on account of the
gigantic size of its component species than. by any very definite character.
Hemitelia decipiens ranges from low elevations to 4,000 feet, where it is
replaced by its congener H. Brunoniana, which ascends to 7,000 feet, the limit
of tree. fern vegetation in Sikhim. Both the Hemitelias, but especially
decipzens, have stipes densely armed with short, stout wrickles. For ready
identification the Alsophilas may be divided into two groups; one comprising
t.he species with single or rarely once. forked stems, and the other those with
many branched stems bearing numerous heads of fronds at different heights on
the same plant. To the first group belong A. glauca, which grows at elevations
under 4,000 feet, and is distinguished by the bluish-hue of its stipes and
grayish under-surface of the fronds, and A. latebrosa, closely resembling
Hemitelia Brunoniana, and with tbe same distribution, but distinguished by its
exinvolucrate sori. The species falling into the second group are A. glabra, the
most tropical of the tree-ferns, recognized by the V -shaped arrangement of the
sori; A. Andersoni, growing generally in dense shade by banks of. streams
below 3,500 feet, resembles A. glabra in growth, but is of a dull dark green
colour, and its sori are in almost parallel lines ; and A. Oldhami and A. 0rnata,
both of the upper forests lying between 4,500 and 6,000 feet.
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84 VEGETATION.

A. Oldhami;. which grows gregariously, is; 'p'erhaps, the most elegant of all
the Sikhim tree-ferns, and is common, but A,". ornata is rather rare. Both have
the strange,habit of shedding 'their frods in the wettest and 'warmest, season of
the year and remaining:bare' for several weeks. The pith of the stems of three
species, H.decipiens, A Oldhami, and A. Andersoni, .is eaten by. the Lepchas
when there is ;dearth of: other and more wholesome-food. They.also use the
same, substance for making their marwa beer when the supply Of the Elusine
or marwa grain is exhausted. It is dried in the sun,fermented, and afterwards
put in a. bamboo cylinder with water in the usual way of making marwa beer,
and the liquor sucked. through a-thin reed placed in the middle. Of the'other
kinds of, ferns, the genera more abundant in species are Davallia Pteris,
Asplenium, Nephrodium, Polypodium, and Acrostichmn. ,Osmunda regalis, the
Royal fern of Europe, is .to be found, as are also the. European.Moonwort and
Adder's-tongue ferns. Angiopteris evecta which-is found from the hottest parts
up to 6,000. feet, attains to 'gigantic proportions, especially in the cool forests,
where its:massive 'bonds grow to more than five yards in length and three in
breadth, with,a "spread over all,; measuring from tip to tip of opposite fronds,
of;eight yards. At. the bases of the fronds are succulent appendages which the
Lepchas cook and eat in times of scarcity. They also habitually use the young
fronds' of several species as a vegetable, and very excellent they are when,
properly cooked. There are four Adiantums or Maidenhairs,. two of which,
lunulatum and candatum, cover the banks of the roads in many places at the
lower elevations in the rainy season, and pedatum and venustum grow at the
cool heights of 6-10,000 feet. In ,the valley of the Rungeet.a handsome
climbing fern, Acrost'chum palustre clothes the trunks of tall trees, and a
Lygodium which climbs on grasses and the smaller shrubs is common up to.
4,000 feet. The two Gleichehias found in Sikhim are also of a scandent nature.
The largest one,glauca, which has a: superficial likeness to the ubiquitous
Bracken forms almost .impenetrable thickets, 15 or 20 feet in height, in places
at 6,000 feet and above. Of the kinds .found growipg on rocks und trees the
most delicately.beautiful are the Hymenophyllums and Trichomanes,
popularly known as Filmy ferms. There are' 8 sorts of them,mostly confined. to
the cool, moist forests over 5,000 feet. The Irish Filmy (Trichomanes radicans)
is the largest,. covering the faces of large. rocks. under. dense shade, and. its
fronds growing to over a foot in length; whilst those of Hymenophyllum Lev
ingii barely exceed an inch or an inch and a-half-in length. Many of the
Davallias, Polypodiums ,and Aspleniums are very beautiful and graceful on the
rocks and trees during the rainy season, and 'the bird's-nest. fern (A'splenium
nidus) and Drynaria coronans, with their large; massive fronds, are always
,conspicuous objects; the former
 VEGETATION. 85 www.sikkim.gov.in

mostly growing on rocks and stems of trees under shade, and the latter encircling
the trunks of trees under full exposure to the scorching sun of the lowest
elevations up to 4,000 feet. Of the large and more remarkable of the species
growing on the ground, none excel Polypodium ornatum in beauty or elegance.
Its fronds are sometimes small, but usually about six or seven feet long, and
sometimes as long as 20 feet and of proportionate width, but whether large or
small it is always an object of admiration. It hardly ascends over 4,000feet
elevation.
The orchid family is also extensively represented in Sikhim, there being
from 350 to 400 species out of an estimated total of 5,000 for the whole world.
Although none of the Sikhim orchids have flowers equal in size or colour to
many of the South American species, yet several are hardly second in beauty or
in popular estimation. They may be divided into two classes, viz., the epiphytal,
which attach themselves to rocks and trees but do not derive any nourishment
from them and the terrestrial, which grow on the ground. A few are parasitical
on roots of trees. In Sikhim the first-named class is the more numerous and
better known; and the more important of its genera are Dendr.obium,
Coelogyne, Cymbidium, Vanda, Arachnanthe, Saccolabium, AErides, and Pha
loenopsis. Among the terrestrial sort are Culanthe, Goodyera, Pogonia,
Anreetochilus, Arundina, Habenaria, Satyrium, Diplomeris, and Cypripedium,.
and of the parasitical the most notable are the Galeolas, which grow on the
decaying roots of trees and have flowering stems over six feet high. Their
flowers are yellow and the seed-pods not unlike those of the Vanilla..
Perhaps the most popular genus of the orchid family in Sikhim is
Dendrobium, of which there are about 40 species; one-third of them having
large, showy flowers, and the remainder are mostly pretty, but small and rather
inconspicuously flowered. The best known, and at the same time the finest, is
nobile, which is common from 1,000 up to 5,000 feet, growing on trees and
rocks. Its flowers are borne on erect stems, and are variable in colour, but
usually white, broadly tipped with purple. Densiflorum, which grows at the
same altitudes, is equally common and has dense bunches of yellow flowers.
Calceolaria, the largest both in growth and in flower, of the Sikhim
Dendrobiums, smells strongly of Gregory's powder. Its flowers vary in colour
from white and pinkish to golden yeIlow, and the lip is pouch-shaped.
Amcenum is common on trees from 3,000 to 4,000 feet and is slender
stemmed, with very numerous smallish flowers, white tipped with violet and
purple, and .smelling strongly of violets. Other showy Dendrobiums are
Hookeriana, whose flowers are golden yellow with a deeply fringed lip spotted
with purple; chrysanthum, Gibsonii, Ruekeri, and fimbriatum, all also yellow,
and amplum, Farmeri,
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86 VEGETATION.

Piecardi, longicornu, and sulcatum. The next genus in importance, Caelogyne

(including the section Pleione, popularly known in Europe as Himalayan
crocuses), comprises about 20 species, of which cristata is the most in favour
with orchid fanciers in Europe. It has eggshaped bulbs on long trailing stems,
and very large snow-white flowers with a yellow stained lip, on long racemes. It
may be seen clothing rocks and the stems of large trees between 4,000 and 6,000
feet. Coryrnbosa and ochracea are similarly coloured, but much smaller, the
former being found up to 9,000 and the latter to 7,000 feet. Both are very
common. There are four species of the section Pleione, all of them pretty. They
are stemless, their flowers springing from a pseudo bulb, usually when bare of
leaves. The most abundant is prcecox, which has large rosy-purple flowers, and
is found between 5,000 and 8,000 feet. It flowers in the autumn. Maculata,
which flowers at the same season, is white spotted with purple, and is not
uncommon on the stems of sal trees between 2,500 and 3,500 feet. Humilis
flowers in the spring at elevations from 6,000 feet upwards,and is white,
streaked brown on the lip. The fourth species, Hookeriana, ascends as high as
10,000 feet, and produces rosy-purple flowers about the begining of the rainy
season. There are about 10 sorts of C,ymbidium, the most of them with long
grassy leaves and many-flowered drooping racemes. The majority of them
belong to the cool forests above 5,000 feet, but a few are natives of the hottest
valleys. Eburneun, which is one of the hot valley sorts, has large ivory coloured
flowers, faintly stained with peach on the lip, and sweet scented. Giganteum and
grandiflorum are very fine sorts of the cooler forests. Arachnanthe Cathcartii,
which was considered by the great botanist, Lindley, to have the most
remarkably shaped flowers of all orchids, grows on trees, in densely shaded
places, between 2,000 and 4,500 feet. It has thick, fleshy flowers, of 2 1/2 inches
diameter, whitish, closely barred with chocolate, and the lip curiously hinged.
Rhynchostylis retusa and .AErides affine, of the hot valleys, have both bottle-
brush spikes of flowers of a purplish colour; and AEridcs odoratum and.
Saccolabium ampullaceum, of the same parts, are favourite species.
The terrestrial species, on the whole, do not at present hold a high place in
popular estimation, but many of them are well worth cultivating. Phajus
Wallichii, which grows in marshy places, below 4,000 feet elevation, has large,
richly coloured flowers on spikes over 2 feet high, and Arundin a bambuscefolia
exceeds 6 feet in height., and flowers more or less during the greater part of the
year. Its flowers, which are large, are of a pinkish colour with a bright purple lip.
Anoectochilus Roxburghii is a small plant with velvety leaves netted with golden
nerves, and grows under shade between 2,000 and 4000 feet; and
 VEGETATION. 87 www.sikkim.gov.in

several other species have also exceedingly pretty foliage although their flowers
are inconspicuous. One lady's-slipper orchid (Cypripedium venustum) is found
from 1,000 up to 4,000 feet, and two others at over 10,000 feet. Nowadays few
of the Sikhim orchids have much commercial value in Europe, as the greater
number of the species con.sidered worth growing by orchid fanciers are already
common in collections, and can be bought from the English nurserymen at a
cheap rate. But few of the species can survive the Calcutta climate for more than
two or three years, and still fewer will flower satisfactorily there a second year.
There are, however, several sorts that do thrive well in Calcutta, and Phajus
Wallichii, the finest of all the Sikhim ground orchids, is one of them. At the
Botanical Gardens it has continued to multiply and flower to perfection for many
years, and Arundina bambusoefolia has also flowered there fairly well for
several years when treated as a semi-aquatic. Of the epiphytal sorts Vanda teres
is most at home at Calcutta, and even there requires full exposure to the sun to
flower freely. Dendrobium Pierardii also thrives well, as might be expected from
the fact of its being found in parts of the plains of Bengal as well as in Sikhim.
Dendrobiums calceolaria does well too, either as a basket plant or planted in
ordinary soil if well drained and raised above the surrounding ground. A few of
the other Dendrobiums, such as Farmeri, nobile, and fimbriatum, var oculata,
struggle on for several years, but, generally speaking, the Sikhim orchids are dis-
appointing in Calcutta unless arrangements are made for their frequent renewal.
The natural order Scitamineoe is largely represented by both wild and
cultivated species. It includes the gingers, turmerics, plantains, cardamoms,
Hedychium, Costus, Alpinia, etc. Ginger and turmeric are cultivated for
consumption in the country but not for export. One cardamom, the Bara
Elainchi (Amomum subulatum), is cultivated extensively under the chequered
shade of trees and shrubs, at low elevations, in places capable of being irrigated
at the proper seasons. It is a most profitable crop, and there appears to be a
market in Bengal for all that can be produced. The seeds of one or two of the
wild sorts are also used, but for home consumtion only, and they make rather
indifferent substitutes for the cultivated one. The fibre of an Alpinia is
occasionally used for making floor mats of a durable quality, and Phrynium
leaves form the water-proof layer of the Ghums, or rain mats, so useful as rain
protectors in field work and in load carrying. The Hedychiums are all showy,
and a yellow and a white-flowered variety of the species coronarium are almost
the only indigenou,s plants cultivated by the natives for the sake of 'their sweet-
scented flowers. Gardnerianum, which is common between 4,000 and 7000
feet, is the most conspicuous of the genus, having large hold
, 88 VEGETATION. www.sikkim.gov.in

spikes of yellow flowers formally arranged in seven or eight vertical rows. All the
family, but especially the two above named species, are a great attraction to the
Sphinx moths which visit them freely after dusk. A Curcuma, which sends up
flower spikes with bright pinkcoloured bracts in spring, is a. striking and
abundant plant on dry ridges below 4,000 feet. There are five species of wild
plantains, all very common; but their fruits are of but little economic value, being
a mass of black seeds embedded in a little sweet pulp and enclosed in a skin. One
of the species, in the young stage, has, occasionally, prettily variegated leaves.
The Arum family is also an important one in Sikhim, and one of its members,
the gigantic Pothos, perhaps the noblest of all climbers, is among the most
prominent objects of the cool forests where it clothes the huge trunks of trees
with its handsome foliage. Fortunately for th.e lover of the beautiful, its leaves
are uneatable by cattle, and it is thus enabled to develop its full beauty; but a
smaller leaved sort, associated with it, is periodically denuded of its leaves for
cattle fodder, ,and its use is said to cause a considerable increase in the yield of
milk, and to rapidly bring calves into good condition. The leaf stalks of a wild
Caladium are largely used, in a cooked state, for feeding pigs; and ten or a dozen
sorts are cultivated for their tubers as ordinary articles of food. The roots of
several Arisoemas of the high levels are eaten by the poorer inhabitants of those
infertile parts after they have been fermented for some days, and then boiled to
ensure the dissipation of their poisonous matter. But at the best they are
unwholesome food, and Hooker remarks that they cause bowel-complaints and
loss of hair and skin. A few of them have elegant foliage and strange looking
flowers with tendrils, of half a yard in length, from the tops of the spadices; and
in autumn and winter they brighten up the roadsides with their large bunches of
shining red fruit, which are greedily eaten by the Crimson Tragopan pheasant.
The flower of an Amorphophallus which grows below 4,000 feet, and flowers at
the beginning of the rainy season, has a disgusting and farreaching odour of
carrion.
The palms are but sparingly represented, and that mostly by the rattans. One
of them, Calamus montanus, was formerly much used as suspending ropes of the
foot-bridges across the large rivers, for which it was admirably adapted on
account of its lightness, great length, and enormous strength, but owing to the
spread of cultivation it is now scarce. From Calamus inermis are got the best
alpenstocks of the district, and C leptospadix is a favourite plant with palm
cultivators on account of its light feathery foliage, which is very elegant. Plecto-
comia himalayana, another rattan, ascends to 6,500 feet, often forming
impenetrable thickets in the forests. By means of its strongly incurved
 VEGETATION. 89 www.sikkim.gov.in

spines it climbs to the tops of the tallest trees, from which, in autumn, depend its
enormously long clusters of fruit. It is used for making baskets and tying fences.
A stemless date (-Phoenix acaulis) of the hottest valleys bears a poor sort of
edible fruit; and the leaves of Wallichia densiflora are a good cattle fodder, and
from their midribs are made the coarse hair brooms used by the natives. Caryota
urens is a large tree of over 40 feet in height, bearing huge fronds of wedge-
shaped leaflets, resembling some of the maiden-hair ferns on a gigantic scale. In
Ceylon it is tapped for its juice, which yields jaggery, and sago is made from its
pith. In Sikhim its juice is not extracted, but the Lepchas cut down the large trees
to procure the pith, from which a kind of sago is made, and make walking-sticks
and knifehandles out of the wood. They do not appear to make any use of the
fibre which it yields in abundance, but Gamble says:-" The leaves gives the kittul
flbre, which is very strong, and is made into ropes, brushes, brooms, baskets, and
other articles; the fibre from the sheathing- petiole is made into ropes and fishing
lines." And, according to Watt, it is expected that the fibres sewn closely
together in bands will be an excellent substitute for whalebone in corset-making.
Watt also says of it, quoting Roxburgh :-"This tree is highly valuable to the
natives of the countries where it grows in plenty. It yields them, during the hot
season, an immense quantity of toddy or palm wine. I have been informed that
the best trees will yield at the rate of-100 pints in the 24 hours. The sap in some
cases continues to flow for about a month. When fresh the toddy is a pleasant
drink, but it soon ferments, and when distilled becomes arrack, the gin of India.
The sugar, called jaggery, is obtained by boiling the toddy. The pith or
farinaceous part of old trunks is said to be equal to the best sago; the natives
make it into bread, and boil it into thick gruel; these form a great part of the diet
of those people, and during famine suffer little while those trees last. I have
reason' to believe this substance to be highly nutritious. I have eaten the gruel,
and think it fully as palatable as that. made of the sago we get from the Malay
countries." As the tree is of most luxuriant growth, at suitable elevations in
Sikhim it may yet be found of considerable economic value to, the inhabitants.
Of bamboos there are about twenty species. Those. growing at elevations
exceeding 5,000 feet have thin stems, but several of the lower level species have
stems of great girth and length. Of them Dendrocalamus Hamiltonii (Po, Lep.) is
the commonest and as useful as any. It is used for building huts, &c., and
carrying. water, and its leaves are a good' horse fodder. Its young shoots when
about a foot long are cooked and eaten. Dendrocalamus Sikkimensis (Pagriang,
Lep) has large brown stems which are equally useful, and by many is considered
the handsomest of the Sikhim bamboos. Bambusa,
90 YEGETATION. www.sikkim.gov.in

nutans (Mahlu, Lep.) also grows to a great size, and has a nearly solid stem which
is much prized in hut building for its lasting qualities, and for prayer flagstaffs.
Arundinaria Hookeriana (Prong, Lep.) of the upper forests has often stems of a
beautiful bluish colour, a.nd A. racemosa, the Maling of the Nepalese, yields the
best pony fodder of all the bamboo tribe, and from its stems the best roofing mats
are made. Of the smaller sorts several grow so. thickly together, over con-
siderable areas, that even a small dog cannot make its way through them; and the
most of the species flower simultaneously at intervals of about a quarter of a
century, and then die. The more noteworthy of the large grasses which are very
conspicuous objects in the autumn are a few species of Arundo with large, loose,
cottony panicles, and several of Saccharum and Imperata with smaller' compact
panicles of similar composition. They are rare in forests, but are apt to become
troublesome pests in land that has been cleared for cultivation. Their leaves are
extensively used for thatching houses. Thysanolana acarifera is a tall tufted grass
with broad, bamboo-like leaves and spikes of minute flowers arranged in large
s'preading panicles, which are much used as brooms. Anthistiria gigantea and a
reed (Phragmitis) abound in swampy places on sunny slopes up to 5,000 feet.
Small herbaceous forms are few in species and in individuals in the tropical and
lower part of the temperate zones, but are common in the interior at higher
elevations. Poa annuta, an English grass, following the tracks of men and
quadrupeds in all temperate regions, grows from the perpetual snow line down to
4,000 feet, and is abundant on cleared camping grounds .and. by roadsides. The
Dutch clover, another European introduction, is often associated with it.
The rhododendrons may be called the glory of Sikhim, so grandly beautiful
are they, and also so abundant; so much so, in fact, that they abound in places to
the exclusion of almost everything else. There are about thirty species, varying in
size from the gigantic R. grande, a tree of 30 to 40 feet in height, and trunk
girthing up to 5 feet, down to the prostrate R. nivale,. barely rising two inches
above the ground. A few species are sparingly found as low as 6,000 feet, but the
majority of them grow between 9,000 feet and 14,000 feet, and four species
(lepidotum, nivale, setosum, and anthopogon) ascend so high as 15-16,000 feet.
At about 6,000 feet the large flowered Dalhousice begins to appear. It is a small
straggling shrub, and as it is usually epiphytic on the tops of tall trees, it is hardly
noticed till the fallen flowers direct attention to it. Falconeri is a large
gregarious shrub, growing between 9,000 and 13,000 feet, with big leathery
leaves felted on the underside with rusty-coloured hairs. The widely distributed
species, arboreum, is common up to 10,000 feet. Only one species, R.
cinnabarinum, is said to be poisonous.
 VEGETATION. 91www.sikkim.gov.in

Hooker.mentions that" many of his young goats and kids died after eating it,
foaming at the mouth and grinding their teeth. .When the wood is used as fuel it
causes the face to swell and the eyes to inflame;" and he notes that the honey of
the wild bee is much sought after, except in spring, when it is said to be poisoned
by rhododendron flowers. A small tree, Pieris ovalifolia, is interesting on
account if its wide altitudinal distribution, ranging from a little above sea level to
10,000 feet elevation.
Sikhim is almost as famous for its Primulas as for its rhododendrons, and
they also affect high elevations. There are from 30 to 40 species; the majority of
them growing at altitudes from 12 -15,000 feet, two or three only being found
below 10,000 feet, and about an equal number so high as 16 17,000 feet. P.
Sikhimensis which is found from 11-15,000 feet, and resembles a gigantic cow-
slip, is one of the very few Sikhim primroses which really thrive in England,
where the majority of them merely survive long enough to flower once in a
miserable sort of way and then die. This is to be regretted, as all are beautiful,
and they are very varied in colour, some being white, and others yellow, blue,
pink, or purple, which is the prevailing colour.
Among numerous notable herbaceous plants are several species of
Meconopsis, fritillaries, deadly aconites, gentians, violets, geraniums, potentillas,
saxifrages, balsams, many species of Pedicularis, Crawfurdia, Didymocarpus
Chirita, Smialacina, jatamansi, and rhubarbs, one of which, Rheum nobile, was
considered by Hooker the handsomest herbaceous plant in Sikhim, and he thus
describes it :-" On the black rocks the gigantic rhubarb forms pale pyramidal
towers a yard high, of inflated reflexed bracts, that conceal the flowers, and
overlapping one another like tiles, protect them from the wind and rain; a whorl
of broad green leaves edged with red spreads on the ground at the base of the
plant, contrasting in colour with the transparent bracts, which are yellow,
margined with pink. It is called' Tchuka, , and the acid stems are eaten both raw
and boiled; they are hollow and full of pure water: the root resembles that of the
medicinal rhubarb, but is spongy and inert; it attains a length of four feet and
grows as thick as the arm. The dried leaves afford a substitute for tobacco; a
small kind of rhubarb is., however, more commonly used in Tibet for this
purpose." It may be mentioned that in the late military expedition to the Tibetan
frontier a batch of plants of this rhubarb growing in a sequestered valley were
mistaken in the distance, one misty morning, for a surprise party of the Tibetan
army.
Among the more remarkable of the climbing plants of the "tropical zone "
are one or more species of each of the fol1owing genera, viz., Thunlergia,
Beaumontia, Bauhinia, Choncmorpha, Aristolochia,
 www.sikkim.gov.in
92 VEGETATION.

Vitis Porana, Uvaria, Hibiscus, Aspidocarya, Mucuna, Entada, Rubia,

Argyreia; Clematis , Hodgsonia, etc.and of. the" temperatezone" Edgaria,
Stauntonia, Thunbergia, Clematis, Rubus, Cissus, Porana, Rosa, Mucuna,
Hedera, Lonicera, Rubia, Jasminum, etc. Among the "tropical zone" shrubs are
Osbeckia, Oxyspora, Plectranthes, Clerodendron, Buddleia, Desmodium, Rubus,
Polyg,ala, Saurauja, Leea, Indigofera, Trevesia, Mussoenda, Ixora, Coffea,
Morinda, Tabernoerrtane Doedalacanthus, Barlaria, Phlogocantlzus, Justida,
Pavetta, etc.; and of the "temperate zone" Daphne, Edgeworthia, Luculia,
Leycesteria, Ardesia, Buddleia, Hydrangea, Vaccinium, Rubus, Hypericum,
Saurauja, Reinwardtia, Skimmia, Melastoma, Helwingia, Brassaiopsis, Aucuba,
Mussoenda, Polygonum" Strobilanthes, etc.
The trees of the" tropical zone" more worthy of mention for their useful or
ornamental properties belong to the genera Shorea, Cedrela, Morus, Quercus,
Castanopsis, Artocarpus, Bombax, Canari'um, Talauma, Schima, Ficus,
Gynocardia, AEsculus, Mangifera, Albizzia , Bauhinia, Terminalia, Eugenia,
Duabanga, Bassia, Alstonia, Wightia, Callicarpa, Gmelina, Cinnamomum
Bischoffia, Mallotus, Betula, Alnus, Iuglans, Engelhardtia, Salix, Populus,
Phyllanthus, Symplocos, Phoebe, Cordia, Podocarpus, Pinus, etc.; and of the
"temperate zone," Magnolia, Michelia, Quercus, Bucklandia, Ficus, Ilex, Acer,
Cornus, Andromeda, Prunus, Taxus, Abies, Larix, Juniperus,. Betula, Machilus,
etc. .
Dr. King in his Annals of the Royal Botanic Garden, Calcutta, describes
about 17- species of figs from Sikhim, ten oaks, and four chestnuts. Several of
the figs are mere shrubs a few are climbers, and the others lofty trees. The
leaves of many of them are prized as fodder for milch cows', and are said to
cause an increased yield of milk, Ficus elastica yields rubber of excellent
quality when care is taken to collect it free from impurities, but the tree is not
abundant enough naturally to render it of much commercial importance. The
fruits of several species are eaten, but are insipid and greatly inferior to the
ordinary cultivated figs. Several of the oaks and chestnuts yield excellent
building timber, and the seeds of the chestnuts, although small, are good to eat.
The sal (Shorea robusta) is one of the best known and durable of timbers in
India. Formerly there were magnificent forests of it along the Rungeet, but they
have had to give way to the cultivator, and but little of their former
magnificence now remains. :Magnolia Campbelli is unsurpassed as a flowering
tree. It is a large deciduous tree, producing magnificent rosy-purple flowers in
spring, before the leaves expand, calling to mind the flowers of some of the
water-lilies, which they strongly resemble. Michelia excelsa produces white
flowers in great profusion, at the same season of' the year, and its timber is one
of tne most useful for general purposes. From the seeds of Gynocardia odorata,
a common tree of the lower
 VEGETATION. 93 www.sikkim.gov.in

forests, is got the chalmugra oil, which is of good repute in the treatment of
leprosy and other skin diseases. A large mulberry (Morusloevigata) yields a
timber second to none in Sikhim for its lasting and other good qualities, and its
leaves, and those of the small species (Morus indica), are good for feeding
silkworms. . A large proportion of the Sikhim trees yield very inferior quality
timbers, and care has to be exercised in their selection for building purposes.
For instance, the timbers of Bombax, Duabanga and a Canarium are so
unenduring that tea boxes made of them occasionally crumble to pieces within
two years, and sometimes in less than one.
Many of the woody nettles (Bohmeria, Villebrunea, Debregeasia, &c.),
yield excellent fibre, but as yet their extraction has been found too slow and
expensive for them to be commercially remunerative, but the Lepchas make
fishing-lines, &c., out of them for their own use. Urtica crenulata is the most
dreadful of all the nettle tribe. I t is found in the warm valleys up to 4,000 feet,
and grows to 12 or 15 feet in height with large, glossy, innocent-looking leaves
which are seemingly devoid of stinging hairs, but are extremely virulent, their
stings causing great pain which lasts for'several days and may bring on serious
illness. Rubbing the affected parts with opium liniment has been found to give
almost instantaneous relief. One or two of the cinnamons produce bark and
leaves with aromatic properties, and are used for home consumption and
sometimes sold in tbe local bazars. The leaves of Callicarpa are said to be
useful in asthmatical complaints. A coarse, strong paper is made from the bark
of Daphne cannabina and Edgeworthia Gardneri, two handsome flowered
shrubs growing in the forests over 5,000 feet, and the root bark of a Morinda is
used at home, and also exported to a small extent for dyeing. Several of the
raspberries yield large crops of fairly good fruit. The fruit of the wild mango is
eatable, and that is the best that can be said for it. Wightia gigantea is an
extraordinary epiphytic tree, of great size, which embraces its foster parent
with its numerous horizontal roots and ultimately strangles it. Gamble
mentions that the Lamas make their idols out of its wood. The wood of
Gmelina arborea is used by the Nepalese turners for making bowls and other
domestic utensils, and the leaves are largely given to cattle. Among tbe
flowering sbrubs epiphytic on trees are Vacciniums of sorts, several species of
Hoya, AEschynanthus, Hymenopogon and misletoe, and there are several
species of tbe parasitical Loranthus.
The Lepchas find innumerable things to eat in the jungles in the shape of fruits,
leaves, piths of stems, roots and flower buds. They also eat an enormous
variety of fungi, and seldom make a mistake in collecting them, but
occasionally a whole family does get poisoned. Some of tbe sorts resemble
those commonly eaten in Europe and grow
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94 VEGETATION.

on the ground, but others, and they the best flavoured sorts, grow ondead trees, and
are slimy, unwholesome-looking things.
The principal cultivated crops of the Lepchas are their own peculiar varieties of
rice, which require no irrigation, and several wet sorts, millets of various kinds,
maize, buckwheat, mustard, radishes, turnips, potatoes, climbing beans, yams,
caladiums of sorts, pumpkins, cucumbers, plantains, capsicums, ginger, turmeric,
cardamoms, cassava, cotton, &c., &c.
 THE VEGETATION OF TEMPERATE AND ALPINE SIKHIM. 95 www.sikkim.gov.in

THE VEGETATION OF TEMPERATE AND ALPINE

SIKHIM.

By GEORGE A. GAMMIE.

THE following account of the vegetation of a restricted area of Sikhim is

based on observations made during journeys through the interior of the country
and its frontier tracts in the summer of 1892. Some portions of this paper are
verbatim extracts from a report submitted. to the Government of Bengal after
my return. I have not hesitated to avail myself of information from Sir J. D.
Hooker's invaluable" Himalayan Journals" whenever I consider that the opinion
of a botanist of world-wide experience, even in such an early period of his
career, would throw a clearer light on many questions which one with innnitely
less knowledge and grasp of details would, perhaps, attempt to answer by the
use of vague conjectures.
All tracts above an elevation of 10,000 feet are treated of as Alpine. Under
the term" Temperate Region" is included only the country contained in the
Lachen and Lachung valleys with their ramifications up to 10,000 feet.
It is true that many parts of Sikhim, such as the higher levels of the spurs
proceeding from the Singalelah and other ranges, are temperate in their
thermometric conditions, but the region to which the designation is strictly
confined is called so on botanical considerations. Its climate, drier and more
sunny in summer, favours the existence of a vegetation in many ways radically
different from that of the moist outer ranges. As the botany of these has already
been dealt with in a former chapter, it will be only alluded to for the sake of
comparison when such a course becomes necessary for the more perfect
apprehension of any subject under discussion.
The Temperate Region.-The hamlet of Cheongtong (Choongtam), at the
junction of the Lachen and Lachung rivers, marks the entrance to this
exceedingly interesting botanical area. The two valleys through which these
head waters of the Tista flow, run northwards to the stupendous masses of the
Himalayan axis which divides Sikhim from Tibetan territory. They are separated
by a lofty range extending southwards from Kinchinjhow, and even at its
termination it is 10,000 feet in elevation. The floors of both valleys are nowhere
broad, and their flanks rapidly attain high altitudes, so that the area in which
temperate forms of plants flourish is circumscribed in extent.
The Lachung Valley-The trade route up the Tista valley passes through
tropical forests and cultivation as far as Cheongton, where
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the air becomes appreciably cooler and where plants unknown to an inhabitant
of the lower valleys attract our notice. The first indication of the transition of
the flora is the presence of a tall Anemone (A. v itifolia ), a taller thistle (Cincus
involucratus), a leguminous plant (Astragalus pycnorhizus) creeping over the
sand, a composite (Eupatorium cannabinum) and a common fragile climber
with pretty blue flowers (Leptocodon gracilis). All these, with many more
which could be enumerated, prevail as far as the village of Keadom. This is
situated on a large open expanse which enjoys such a balmy climate in summer
that, although it lies at an elevation of 6,600 feet, cereals such as Indian-corn,
Eleusine, &c are successfully grown. On the outer ranges, owing to the
humidity and want of sunshine during the rains, these crops cannot be
profitably cultivated above 5,000 feet.
The dense forests of tall trees terminate some distance above Keadom, and
are replaced by grassy slopes on which grow more scattered trees. The
character of the vegetation completely alters, and an abundance of species of
plants unknown in other parts of the country flourish in profusion, their many-
hued flowers endowing the landscape with a bright and cheerful appearance,
contrasting strongly with the- dark green wealth of foliage whose monotonous
aspect at lower levels tires the travellers eye with its unbroken uniformity.
The arboreal and shrubby vegetation consists of Xanthoxylum, Hydrangea,
Rosa macrophylla and R. sericea, Prinsepia utilis, Pyrus, Rhus, Pieris
ovalifolia and P. formosa, Rhododendron arboreum, R. setosum, Maples, Oaks,
Poplar, Holly, Hazel, &c. Others are Leycesteria formosa, Buddleia
macrostachya and B. Colvillei, Berberis of several species, Rubus niveus with
palatable fruits and the box-like Sarcococca pruniformis. The most
conspicuous climbers are Aristolochia ,Griffithii with strongly-ribbed
cylindrical fruits, Hollboellinq latifolia, a Polygonum and a few species of
leguminous and. cucurbitaceous plants. Of herbaceous plants, Euphorbia
Sik.imensis is most abundant, but the variety of composite and umbelliferous
plants is the most prominent feature. Aster Sikkimensis, Erigaon multiradiatus,
Eupatorium, Saussurea, Inula Hookeri, Lactuca, and Senecio are most
common.
Lilium giganteum grows on the verges of streams, fully deserving its
specific name by attaining a height of ten feet; a smaller congener, Lilium
roseum, with pink flowers is rarer. Roscoea alpina is seen everywhere, and the
flat tops of many rocks are brightened by the yellow flowers of Spathoglottis
ixioides. Saturium nepalense, a pink-flowered orchid, most sweetly scented,
accompanies it, and there are many species of Habenaria. Other plants worthy
of mention are tall Balsams, Thalictrum, Halenia, Swertia, Geranium, Thistle,
Wormwood,
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THE VEGETATION OF TEMPERATE AND ALPINE SIKHIM. 97

and Polygonurn molle. Aconitum uncinaturn, remarkable in its genus

by its scandent habit, is extremely localized, and does not exist beyond
a radius of two miles from :Lachung village.
The handsome fern Osmunda Claytoniana overruns large areas in the
manner of the bracken at lower elevations. Two species of Leucostegia with
hay-scented fronds, L. Hookeri and L. membranulosa, and a large form of
Pleopeltis simplex grow in a wood about 8,000 feet in elevation.
Goniophlebium ebenipes occurs in dense clusters on the tops of many of the
numerous rocks.
Woodwardia radicans, Cheilanthes albornarginata, Pteris dactylina,
Adiantum pedatum, Botrychium ternatum, all rarer in other parts, are common
along the course of the Lachung, as is also the ivy, which has a very restricted
distribution in this country. Here it rambles up the stems of trees in a simple
unbranched manner, which gives it a widely different appearance from the
same plant in Europe which clothes trees, old walls, and buildings so densely.
The peach and apricot, said to have been introduced from Tibet, are
cultivated by the villagers. Pyrus Sikkimensis, the Sikhim crabapple, is
common. Agriculture is not pursued in earnest by the people, their only crops
being scanty fields of barley, radishes, and turnips. The temperate region is
eminently distinguished by its variety of coni.ferous trees. Picea Morinda and
Tsuga Brunoniana are found between 8 and 11,000 feet. The former is a tall,
conical tree, with thick trunk and dark green pendulous branches; the latter has
spreading branches drooping at the extremities, and bears very small cones.
Larix Griffithii, the only Himalayan larch, grows only in Eastern Nepal,
Sikhim, and Bhutan, and previous to its rediscovery by Dr. Hooker, its
existence was known only from a note in Griffith's Journals. Young trees of
this are commonly gregarious, and remind one of the gigantic Lycopodia
which once grew. on the earth. Full-grown specimens are pyramidal in outline,
and attain a height of sixty feet. The branches are long and pendulous,
supporting erect, cylindrical cones resembling those of Picea Morinda. It first
appears at 8,000 feet, becomes plentiful at 9,500 feet, and ascends to 12,000
feet. It is the only deciduous conifer in Sikhim, the leaves falling in autumn to
be renewed in tbe succeeding summer. All these conifers are often infested
with a lichen, Usnea barbata, which hangs in long grey streamers, giving the
scenery a quaintly antique appearance. . I was told that, when reduced to straits
for food, the Tibetans boil and eat this uninviting plant, finding it to be as
nourishing and satisfying as flesh diet.
As I did not visit the Lachen valley, I can give no detailed account of its
vegetation; but, judging from Sir J. D. Hooker's descrip.tions, its flora is in
most .ways identical with that of the Lachung valley. I may, however, safely
conclude this part of my paper by
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98 THE VEGETATION OF TEMPERATE AND ALPINE SIKHIM.

quoting the remarks which this illustrious traveller makes concerning the
variety of the vegetation in the temperate region from a geographical
standpoint. These remarks relate primarily to the flora of the Lachen valley at
Lamteng, but they are equally applicable to that of Lachung.
"At first sight it appears incredible that such a limited area, buried in the
depths of the Himalaya, should present nearly all the types of the flora of the
north temperate zone; not only, however, is this the case, but space is also
found at Lamteng (and Lachung also) for the intercalation of types of a
Malayan flora, otherwise wholly foreign to the north temperate region. A few
examples will show this. Amongst trees the conifers are conspicuous, and all
are of genera typical both of Europe and North America: namely, silver fir,
spruce, larch, and juniper, besides the yew; there are also species of birch,
alder, ash, apple, oak, willow, cherry, bird-cherry, mountain ash, thorn, walnut,
hazel, maple, ivy, holly, Andromeda, Rhamnus. Of bushes, rose, berberry,
bramble, rhododendron, elder, cornel, willow, honeysuckle, currant, Spiroea,
Vilurnum, Cotoneaster, Hippophoe. Herbaceous plants are far too numerous to
be enumerated, as a list would include most of the common genera of European
and North American plants. As an example, the ground about my tent was
covered with grasses and sedges, amongst which grew primroses, thistle,
speedwell, wild leeks, Arum, Convallaria, Callitriche, Oxalis, Ranunculus,
Potentilla, Orchis, Choerophyllum, Galium, Paris, and Anagallis, besides
cultivated weeds of shepherd's purse, dock, mustard, mithridate cress, radish,
turnip., Thlaspi ttrvense and Poa annua. Of North American genera not found
in Europe, were Buddleia, Podophyllum Magnolia, Sassafras? Tetranthera,
Hydrangea; Diclytra, Aralia, Panax, Symplocos, Trillium, and Clintonia. The
absence of heaths is also equally a feature in the flora of North America. Of
European genera not found in North America, the Lachen (and Lachung)
valleys have Coriaria, Hypecoum, and various Cruciferoe. The Japanese and
Chinese floras are represented by Camellia, Deutzia, Stachyurus, Aucuba,
Helwingia, Holbelliaa, Hydrangea, Skimmia, Eurya, Anthogonium, and
Enkianthus The Malayan by Magnolia, Talauma, many vacciniums and
rhododendrons, Kadsura, Daphniphyllum, Marlea, both coriaceous and
deciduous leaved, Coelogyne, Oberonia Eulophia, Calanthe, and other orchids;
Ceropegia, Parochetus, Balanophora, and many Scitamineoe; and amongst
trees by Engelhardtia, and various laurels." To those interested in problems
connected with geographical botany this statement supplies ample food for
reflection. When the surrounding unknown countries shall have been explored
and their botanical characteristics detailed, it may be possible to trace back the
march of these far reaching genera of plants to their starting points.
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THE VEGETATION OF TEMPERATE AND A.LPINE SIKHIM. 99

The Alpine Region.-This region extends from 10,000 feet to 19,000 feet,
.above which elevation plants of even the most humble and degraded forms are
altogether absent. The included tracts are the Singalelah ranges and slopes of
Kanchinjingna, the upper levels of the Lachen and Lachung valleys, with their
flanks, and the Chola Range.
The Singalelah Range and the slopes of Kanchinjingna.-The Singalelah
Range, forming the political boundary between Sikhim and Nepal, springs from
Kanchinjingna and extends southwards to the plains of Bengal. The Nepal
frontier road terminates at the staging bungalow of Cheabhanjan, and from
thence the only path available for marching is the sheep path running onwards
to the grazing grounds which lie towards Jongri. The only large trees existing in
the country travelled over are Abies Webbiana, Juniperus 'Pseudo-Sabina, and
Juniperus recurva. The silver fir extends to 13,000 feet, the junipers to 15,000
feet. Where the former is only a small, stunted; weather-worn tree, the other, a
prostrate, intricately branched shrub. For many miles the path runs through
woods of Rhododendron arboreum, R. cinnabarinum, R. Falconeri, R.
barbatum, R. campanulatum, and R. Hodgsoni, Acer caudatum, Betula utilis,
Pieris ovalifolia, Prunus Rufa Pyrus foliolosa, P. macrophylla, &c. Here also
are seen the last examples of the Bamboo tribe, Arundinaria spathiflora (so
named from the spathe-like sheaths on the divisions of its inflorescence), and A.
racemosa, not the large form so common at Tongloo and near Darjeeling, but a
small variety rarely exceeding a height of three feet. The young culms of these
bamboos are used as food by the Bhutias and the Gurung shepherds of Nepal
who frequent the whole range with their flocks during summer. The upper limit
of these bamboos is 13,000 feet, from thence upwards only small tufted species
of grasses abound. The shrubby vegetation already enumerated grows so
densely that few herbaceous plants can exist beneath it. Beautifully green moss
carpets the boulders, and Saxifraga ligulata, Potentilla, Clintonia, Polygonum,
and two species of ferns are the commonest plants. On open knolls, which
occur but rarely, Gaultheria nummularia, small willows, and the heather-like
Cassiope fastigiata cover the ground with their dense growths. Towards the
termination of the range rhododendrons and other shrubs grow more sparsely,
thus favouring the existence of a greater variety of herbaceous plants. Two
remarkable gentians attract our notice: Gentiana stylophora, with large,
terminal, greenish-yellow, lily-like flowers, and Swertia Hookeri, conspicuous
by its brown leaves and inflorescence growing together in whorls on a stem
often six feet high. Primroses become more abundant, the prevalent species
being the water-loving P. Sikkimensis and P. reticulata, and also those growing
on dry ground, such as
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P. Stuartii, P. denticulate &c. . In shallow streams various species of Sedum of

the section Rhodiola, and the golden Chrlsosplenium alternfolium are common
in the clefts of stones, partly submerged in the water. Near the camping-ground
of Megu can be found a quantity of Polypodium clathratum, a fern .separated by
Clarke from P. lineare which it superficially resembles. It is thin and flacid in
texture and dries black; the peculiarly-shaped scales covering the sori, which
suggested the trivial name, alone serve to readily distinguish it from its
congeners. Woodsia lanosa affects the same habitat. The latter is by no means
a common fern, and its minute size assists to make it more difficult to find.
Cryptogramme crispa is another equally interesting fern which is abundant in
most parts of Sikhim between 13 and 15,000 feet.
On leaving the Singalelah Range properly so called and emerging under the
stupendous masses of rock which extend in all directions from Kanchanjingna,
a remarkable change of scenery is experienced. For a short distance the terraces
are covered with a thick turf of grasses and sedges, amongst which are
innumerable plants of Primula Stuartii and Anemone. The faces of many rocks
are covered with cushions of saxifrages growing in hard, moss-like clusters,
spangled with white and yellow flowers. Further on, the ground is covered with
enormous accumulations of boulders which support no vegetation except
humble mosses, which are perennially moist from the water which trickles over
the whole surface of the slopes. Sir J. D. Hooker, in his admirable account of
the Physical Geography of Sikhim, thus explains the cause of this barren
desolation :-" Glaciers again descend to 15,000 feet in the tortuous gorges
which immediately debouch from the snows of Kanchinjingna, but no plants
grow on the debris they carry down, nor is there any sward of grass or herbage
at their base, the atmosphere immediately around being chilled by enormous
accumulations of snow, and the summer sun rarely warming the soil"
The presence of one plant alone in this and other similar places prevent the
imputation of almost absolute sterility which they would otherwise deserve.
This is the truly remarkable and unique plant Rheum nobile, the gigantic
rhubarb of Sikhim. It thrives best on inaccessible ledges of precipices. As Sir J.
D Hooker says, "it forms pale pyramidal towers a yard high, of inflated reflexed
bracts that conceal the flowers, and, overlapping each other like tiles, protect
them from the wind and rain; a whorl of broad green leaves edged with red
spreads on the ground at the base of the plant, contrasting in colour with the
transparent bracts which are yellow, margined with pink."He considered it to be
the handsomest herbaceous plant in Sikhim, and mentions that the acid stems
are eaten both raw and boiled, that they
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are hollow and full of pure water, and that, although the root resembles
medicinal rhubarb, it is spongy and inert. The dried leaves are used as a
substitute for tobacco; according to the same authority. The plant is, in all truth,
beautiful to close inspection, but the thought of it will recall to the traveller's
mind the barren crags where it delights to grow, and where it heightens the
depressingly weird effect of such scenery by its cadaverous stove-like stem.
A short reprieve' from views of desolat.ion is granted by a steep descent
into the valley of the Runghi river at Gambothan. The sheltered position of this
place favours the growth of large pine trees, and copses of Salix Wallichiana
fringe the river banks. A steep ascent to the summit of the ridge beyond
terminates on a broad open plateau called Bokto, which, being covered with
grass, is a favourite sheep-grazing station. Another descent and ascent follow
over the valley of the Yangsap through dense growths of rhododendrons, Abies
Webbiana, Pyrus foliolosa and P. rnicrophylla, &c. Beyond are two small
plains and low ridges bearing only closely-cropped grass, with thickets of small
rhododendrons here and there in sheltered hollows. Another valley, the Ratong,
again intervenes, and we emerg'e in the elevated tracts close to the eternal
snows. The ground is covered thickly with grassy turf. On the high knolls other
vegetation is scanty, comprising, however, amongst a few others, a plant of
doubtful affinity- Oresolen Watiiispinose-stemmed Astragali and Anemone. The
celebrated col1ecting ground of J ongri is a good type of the more sheltered
situations. Here many plants constitute a luxuriant herbage, such as Potentilla
peduncularis, P. microphylla, P. coriandrifolia, P. albifolia, Geum elatum, Primula
reticulata, P. Stuartii, P. pusilla, P. glabra, Pedicularis siphonantha, Geranium
polyanthes, Ranunculus affinis, Meconopsis simplicifolia and Phlomis sp. Here
also can be found that intensely bitter-rooted plant Picrorhiza kurrua, of repute
as a febrifuge and tonic amongst the Tibetans; and Chrysanthemum Atkinsoni,
bearing golden flower heads, and worthy of note as being the only
representative of its genus in Sikbim. Various species of Primula not known to
exist elsewhere have been discovered by several collectors at Jongri and in its
vicinity. Another fact worthy of record is that a majestic species of poppy is
cultivated near the huts. It is a Meconopsis near M. :simplicifolia, but grows in
dense clusters two to three feet high. The flowers vary in diameter from five to
seven inches, are an intensely vivid blue on opening, and change before fading
away into purple.
The superabundance of rhododendrons is the glory of the Singalelah Range.
The equally moist Chola Range also possesses them in the same abundance, and
the whole Alpine region of Sikhim can boast of them in a lesser degree. One, R.
nivale, a humble soil-embracing plant inhabiting the desolate slopes of Donkia
and Kinchinjhow,
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between 17 and 18,000 feet, bears the honour of being the most Alpine 'woody
plant in the Himalayas.
For miles and 'miles the traveller trudges by sheep paths through
impenetrable scrubs of rhododendrons. Their flowers are of varied colours, but
none are blue. They are devoid of strong perfume, with the exception of R.
Anthopogon, R. setosum and R. nivale. These three when bruised or trodden
upon, exhale an overpowering scent from the superficial glands with which
they are crusted, aggravating the headaches suffered by everyone at high
elevations. The discomfort is intensified in bright weather, as the warmth
engendered by the sun causes the vapours to rise in greater volume. Many loads
of their twigs are annually collected and taken to the Buddhist temples of
Sikhim, ,where they are burned as incense. They are also of much service in
camp, as they burn readily when lighted, a consideration of extreme importance
in a country where the wetness of ordinary wood causes such delay in obtaining
brisk fires.
By comparison with the drier regions of Upper Sikhim, the chief
characteristics of the vegetation along the Singalelah Range are its poverty in
variety of forms, and its wealth in individual species of rhododendrons. Sir J.
D. Hooker, in his appendix on the Physical Geography of Sikhim, thus explains
the cause of this peculiarity:-" The banks (of rivers between 8,000 and 14,000
feet are generally covered with rhododendrons sometimes to the total exclusion
of other wooded vegetation, especially near the snowy mountain, a cool
temperature and great humidity being the most favourable conditions for the
luxurious growth of this genus Such conditions prevailing throughout the
Singalelah Range, due to its proximity to Kanchinjingna, account for the
overwhelming abundance of rhododendrons, and may also be accepted as
probable reasons for the comparative absence of variety in herbaceous plants,
most of which would be unable to ,maintain a struggle for existence in such an
adverse climate and against such formidable competitors. .
Tlte Alpine part of tile Lachung Valley and its surrounding heights.The
first quickly obtainable introduction to the flora of this district can be had by
visiting the Tankra mountain which overlooks the eastern bank of the river. A
magnificent forest of enormous pine trees extends without a break from 9,500
to 12,500 feet.
Polypodium subamoenum, P. Hendersoni, P. hastatum, and P. erythro-
carpum depend gracefully in large clusters from their stems. A great variety of
plants grows along the banks of the rapidly flowing Tunkra river, a tributary of
the Lachung. Here, as elsewhere, edible fruits are few in number, the only
plants yielding them being Fragaria Daltoniana, a strawberry with long oval
fruits, and Fragaria vesea, the wild strawberry of Europe, both possessing the
well known and appreciated
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THE VEGETATION OF TEMPERATE AND ALPINE SIKHIM. 103

flavour; various species of Ribes bear racemes of red and yellow fruits
reminding of red currants. No species of Rubus, strange to say, grows above
3,000 feet.
Other noteworthy plants were two species of Cremanthodium, Polygonum
vaccini'folium, Oxyria digyna Pedicularis of several species, all with purple
flowers, Potentilla fruticosa, yellow and white saxifrages, Epilobium, Lactuca
macrantha, Parnasia, and aconites. Above the region of trees is a dense low
growth of Rhododendron campanulatum, the unfolding leaves of which colour
the landscape with a dark glaucous tint. The bladder-headed Saussurea
obvallata thrives on the damp verges of water-courses, and bumble bees affect
its foetid flower-heads which are enclosed in white inflated papyraceous bracts.
Equally remarkable plants are the woolly Saussurea.(S.gossypiphera), delight-
ing to grow in sandy debris, appearing at first sight as balls of white fleecy
wool. The young flower-heads are completely enveloped in their soft protective
covering; but when tho florets expand, a ring opens on the top disclosing the
inflorescence inside. In similar situations is found Crepis glomerata, whose
carrot-like stem buried in the ground is flattened on a'level with the surface and
bears a broad bead of yellow flowers surrounded by small radiating leaves
pressed closely to the soil. Rheum nobile is common, and ascends to 17,000
feet. Between the minor pass of Kanko and the glacier below Tankra La, there
are multitudes of bright-hued flowering plants mostly confined to the sloping
banks of the streams. On the Kanko La itself there are three small localized
primroses-Po uniflora P. muscoides and P. soldanelloides-Ligularia, brown
and yellow Chrysosplenium, yellow saxifrages, blue and yellow forms of
Corydalis, several species of Pedicularis and blue gentians. Dr. Hooker
enumerated the plants to be found on the bleak pass of Tankra :-" A pink-
flowered Arenaria, two kinds of Corydalis, the cottony Saussurea, diminutive
primroses, Leontopodium, Sedunm, Saxifraga, Ranunculus hyperborea,
Ligularia, two species of Polygonum, a Trichostomum, Stereocaulon ,and
Lecidea geographica, not one grass or sedge. In additipn to these I found
Meconopsis horridula, a lovely plant belonging to the Papaveraceoe, an order
with notoriously delicate flowers. It affects the most inclement situations,
sheltering itself under the shade of large rocks.
The fragrant spikenard (Nardostachys Jatamansi) is plentiful in the
depression below the Tankra peaks, and Picrorhiza Kurrooa, intensely bitter
when chewed, is abundant about 14,000 feet, as are species of. Lagotis which
bear a superficial resemblance to the latter. The only woody plant beyond the
Kanko La is the humble Diplarchs pauciflora.
Another interesting Alpine tract of comparatively easy access from Lachung
is the Lebu valley, through which runs the scarcely
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104 THE VEGETATION OF TEMPERATE AND ALPINE SIKHIM.

used trade route to Tibet over the Ghoro La, the second highest pass in Sikhim,
being at an elevation of 17,000 feet. The northern side of this valley is enclosed
by an almost continuous precipitous spur, broken in one place only by a deep
forest-clad depression; the range on the other flank is more gently sloped, and
is covered with forest a.nd succeeding smaller vegetation, and. is more
diversified by ravines. From 13 to 15,000 foet there is an impenetrable growth
of rhododendrons and willows, with numerous small trees of Pyrus foliolosa
and P. microphylla; and intermingled with grass under these bushes is an equal
luxuriance of herbs, such as aconites, Senecio, Saxifraga, Prunela, Potentilla,
Polygonum, and thistles. Cnicus eriophoroides, which is moderately common
in most valleys, is so abundant as to be a perfect pest. From 14 to 15,000 feet
the vegetation is more sparse and scattered, being chiefly Rhododendron
campanulatum and R. anthopogon.
From 15,000 feet to the pass the floor of the valley is broad and swampy.
Sedum of many species are common amongst the stones, and Rheum nobile,
descending at last from what would be its more congenial perches. in other
valleys, is found in numbers over the level surface. Dense. stiff growths of
Ephedra vulgaris, a plant of the order Coniferoe, abound on steep banks. Its
presence is always a certain witness of the proximity of the dry, arid regions of
Tibet. Saxifrages, Allardia, Meconopsis horridula, Cyananthus, gentians,
Saussurea of three spiecies, Rhododendron nivale, some grasses and sedges
almost complete the scanty details of the vegetation. Saussurea tridactyla,
growing at the foot of the ascent to the pass, is the last flowering plant seen,
and the rocks above, suffering continual denudation by the weather, do not bear
either mosses or lichens.
Numbers of yaks are grazed in this valley up to 17,000 feet, cattle range up
to 13,000 feet. These animals possess sufficient instinct to avoid eating the
poisonous aconites, which at their highest attained levels grow only to the
height of the accompanying low herbage. Goats and Tibetan ponies, from the
information I gathered, share in the same knowledge; while sheep, strange to
say, must be muzzled or driven quickly through areas infested with these plants.
One of the rhododendrons, also, is equally poisonous to animals. The species
known to possess this property is Rhododendron cinnabarinum. Honey, which
is collected in spring, but at no other time of the year, is said to be rendered
deleterious by the admixture of nectar from rhododendron flowers.
By travelling up the main Lachung valley one arrives at the flat of
Yeumtong, standing at tbe entrance to. the Alpine zone extending northwards
to Tibet. A thick turf of grass covers the surface of the flat, and on it grows a
yellow Anemone (Anemone obtusiloba) with
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THE VEGETATION OF TEMPERATE AND ALPINE SIKHIM 105

leaves appressed to the ground, a surculose saxifrage, the dandelion

(Taraxacum officinale), the aromatic yellow Elsholtzia) eriostachya, and
groups of Senecio diversifolius. Other plants are Pedicularis tubiflora, a small
floating Ranunculus, Meconopsis simplicifolia and M. .Nepalensis, Salvia
glutinosa, Lychnis nutans, Cucabalus baccifer, and Asarum himalacium.
Aroids of the genus Arisoema are common. In early summer their tuberous
roots are prepared and used for food according to the method described by Sir
J. D. Hooker. As the people neglect agricultural pursuits, they depend almost
entirely on the milk and its products from the yaks and cattle for their
sustenance. When this source of nourishment is withheld in the early part of
the year, they are driven to utilize the nauseous food obtained from Aroids,
which causes disastrous results if continued for a time.
In this and all other valleys, every range facing a. southerly direction, in
even the least degree, is, in summer, exposed to the full force of the southerly
winds, laden with mist and drizzling rain, which blow with increasing violence
as the day advances, to die away only at night. These continuous currents
rapidly denude the surface, wash down the superincumbent earth, and wear
away rocks which become precipices or crags of fantastic shapes. Vegetation,
therefore, cannot find permanent foothold under such adverse circumstances,
and its abundance, of trees especially, is confined to the sheltered flanks on the
opposite side where a copious rainfall is absorbed by the deep and fertile soil.
At the highest elevations where vegetation is naturally more scanty, the
valleys are broader and their bounding spurs are comparatively lower in
altitude. The currents, therefore, act equally in all directions, causing the
whole area to assume an uniformly bleak and desolate appearance.
From Yeumtong to Momay Samdong an ascent of four thousand feet has
to be effected. The distance is not great, but the steepness of the intervening
tract rapidly discloses a radical change in the aspect of the country and of its
vegetation. A forest of silver fir, maples, birch, Pyrus, rhododendrons,
willows, and other trees and shrubs extends to 13,000 feet; for a few hundred
feet farther some scattered black juniper trees occur; an equal distance
upwards is occupied by smaller rhododendrons and willows; above, the valley
is broad with enormous rocks on its surface and supports low-growing plants
only. .
Of this place Sir J. D. Hooker gives the following description :" It was a
wild and most exposed spot; long stony mountains grassy on tbe base near the
river; distant snowy peaks, stupendous precipices, moraines, glaciers,
transported boulders and rocks rounded by glacial action, formed the dismal
landscape which everywhere
 106 THE VEGETATION OF TEMPERATE AND ALPINE SIKHIM. www.sikkim.gov.in

met the view. There was not a bush six inches high, and the only approach to a
woody plant were minute creeping willows and dwarf rhododendrons with a
very few prostrate junipers and Ephedra. The bottom of the Lachung Valley at
Momay is broad, tolerably level and grassy. The ground was marshy and
covered with cowslips, Ranunculus, grasses and sedges, Cyananthus, blue
asters, gentians, etc. Wild clover, shepherd's purse, dock, plantain, and
chickweed are imported here by yaks; but the common Prunella of Europe is
wild, and so is a groundsel-like Senecio Jaeobcea, Ranunculus, Sibbaldia and
200 other plants." In addition may be noted some small species of Pediecularis
and Draba; also Mandragora cauelescens (belonging to the same genus as the
well-known mandrake of scripture, to which in former times many magical
virtues were ascribed). It is difficult to obtain perfect specimens of this plant as
yaks are so partial to it.
The Donkia Pass, at an elevation of 18,000 feet, is situated seven miles above
Momay, and the path to it runs over a broad, boulderstrewn valley, with shallow
streams meandering through it. Some lakes are passed, all surrounded by marshy
bogs where many plants grow. During the ascent the vegetation becomes more
and more scanty, and the rocky heights rising steeply on either side from the pass
are sterile. One Arenaria ascends to the summit, and a woolly Saussurea and
Delphinium glaciale are last seen at the base of the steep path winding a few
hundred feet up to the pass. The last-named smells most disagreeably and
strongly of musk, and the natives assert that the musk-deer derives its scent from
feeding on this plant-an absurd belief, as the plant grows only at high altitudes far
above the habitat o'f the animal. The shallow waters of the stream flowing from
Kinchinjhow and Donkia to Momay support quantities of reddish-brown Sedum
and Rheum nobile. Gentians predominate, and all have bright blue flowers which
unfold in every brief glimpse of sunshine. Allardia glabra, an aromatic plant with
large flowers like purple Chrysanthemums, grows in low dense tufts. Aconitum
napellus, which gradually decreases in size as it ascends, is here reduced to a
minute plant with two or three leaves and one flower. Other plants are-
Ranunculzes loetus, Cyananthus of two species, the Edelweiss (Leontopodium
alpinum ), Erigeron, Crermanthodium reniforme, Lactuca, Dubyoea, Crepis
glomerata, Saussurea, and the curious lichen-like Antennaria muscoides.
The prevailing feature of the vegetation growing from 17,000 feet upwards
is the variety of plants growing in dense, hard, hemispheric tufts, such as
Arenaria, Saxifraga, Sausssurea, Astragalus,. and Myosotis Hookeri. The flora
on the moraines of the Kinchinjhow glacier at 16,000 feet furnishes an instance
of what may be expected in such situations. Eriophyton himalaicum is
common. It is a white, woolly Labiate, rooting in loose sandy debris, with
bright blue flowers
 THE VEGETATION OF TEMPERATE AND ALPINE SIKHIM. 107 www.sikkim.gov.in

peeping from under the leaves. The other plants are a minute Saxifraga with
extensive runners, a small gentian with quadrifarious leaves, Pedicularis of
three species, Festuca and Carex. Potentilla fruticosa also exists here but I have
never seen it elsewhere in such an inclement situation. It is in its largest and
most developed form, covered with leaves and flowers.
The Chola Range.- This range commences from the Donkia :Mountain and
runs southward, forming the political boundary between Sikhim and the Tibetan
province of Chumbi. The hills intervening between it and the plains are of low
elevation, few exceeding 7 to 8,000 feet, so that there is no barrier in front to
prevent its receiving the full brunt of the rainy monsoon.
It is, therefore, exposed to the same. influences as the Singalelah Range,
and its climate being identical, the features of the vegetation are also similar.
We have already seen that the drier air of the Lachen and Lachung valleys is an
important factor towards the existence of an unique flora; here, we find, at
temperate elevations, a vegetation in every way the same as that of like tracts
on the outer hills; and, as the plants of the Singalelah Range have been
mentioned in some detail, it is scarcely necessary to reiterate for tbe sake of this
district.
To reach the Chola Pass, the best route to take is the road followed by the
Sikhim rajas on their annual journeys to Chumbi, where they used to go to
escape the heavy rains of Sikhim so disliked by Tibetans, who are denizens of
an almost rain less climate.
After crossing the river Ryott below Tumlong, the path leads up a
continuously steep ridge as far as Pheunggong-12,130 feet. Up to 10,000 feet.
there is a dense forest of temperate trees and shrubs. Gamblea ciliata, a well-
marked Araliad, is common, as is also Quercus semicarpifolia, an oak occurring
but rarely in other parts of the country. At 7,000 feet are plants of Decainea
insignis, a remarkable plant of which Sir J. D. Hooker gives an excellent
description. From 6,000 feet upwards, on this ridge, can be found every species
of rhododendron existing in Sikhim with the exception of Rhododendron nivale.
Such a specific concentration of the genus has absolutely no parallel in any
other part of Sikhim. The rainfall of the whole range must be excessive, judging
from the manner in which these plants grow.
At Pheunggong the long continuous ascent terminates, and for a short
distance the path runs along the level summit. Abies Webbiana is first seen here.
The two junipers also grow on the range, but no other conifer accompanies
them. A descent to the river Rutto follows, and the track runs along its course to
the pass. It is a broad grassy valley with scattered pine trees, and is bounded by
rocky hills, towards the head -being bleak and stony with scanty vegetation. At
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108 THE VEGETATION OF TEMPERATE AND ALPINE SIKHIM.

Barfonchen is a quantity of Scopolia lurida, Aconitum Napellus, Elsholtzia

strobilifera and many other plants. On rocks near the river are plants of
Cathcartia villosa, a papaveraceous plant of localised distribution. The Chola
Pass itself is a barren depression, overlooking a precipitous defile. Between
Chamanako and Nathu La to the eastward, are two spurs covered with an
almost uninterrupted scrub of rhododendrons. Immediately below the pass is a
large extent of pasture land, marshy in many places. The most striking plants
are Chrysanthemum Atkinsoni, with finely divided foliage and bright yellow
flowers; Saussuerea of many species. some with fern-like leaves resembling
small Alpine Asplenium; a large Senecio; Parnassia, Calathodes, primroses and
others. Beyond Nathu La is a long transverse trough-like valley terminating
under Zeylap La. It contains several lakes with marshy banks; before reaching
the small plain of Kapup, a deep ravine, which has to be crossed, discloses a
view of a magnificent lake whose surface appears black from the reflection of
extensive pine forests which grow down to it from every side. A great part of
the area on this march is covered with Polygonum campanulatum and the
spikenard (Nardostachys Jatamansi) is extremely common. Kapup,
immediately at the foot of the valley leading up to Zeylap La, is like an oasis in
the desert, as the hills above are rocky and bare. The plants seen during the
ascent are those characteristic of the elevation 13 to 14.500 feet
The following. is a table of the Dicotyledonous orders of Alpine Sikhim,
with tbe numbers of their component species:
Ranunculaceae ... 38 Capriifoliaceae ... 19 Scrophularinerae 43
Magnoliaceae .. 1 Rubiaceae 7 Lentibulariaceae 2
Berberidae ... 4 Valerianaceae ... 3 Gesneraceae ... 2
Papaveraceae .. 5 Dipsaceae ... 7 Acanthaceae ... 4
Fumariaceae ... 9 Compositae ... 110 Selagineae ... 2
Cruciferae 29 Campan ulaceae... 14 Labiatae 22
Caryophyllaceae ... 29 Vacciniaceae ... 2 Chenopodiaceae ... 3
Tamariscineae .. . 1 Ericaceae . . . 35 Polygonaceae . .. 24
Hypericineae ... 5 Diapensiaceae ... 1 Aristolochiaceae ... 1
Geraniaceae. ... 11 Primulaceae ... 40 Laurineae ... 6
Leguminosae ... 16 Styraceae ... 1 Santalaceae ... 1
Rosaceae . .. 40 Oleaceae ... 2 Euphorbiaceae ... 2
Saxifragaceae 36 Asclepiadaceae 4 U rticaceae .. . 10
Crassulaceae 13 Loganiacerae 1 Cupuliferro ... 5
Onagraceae ... 7 Gentianaceae ;. 26 Salicineae ... 12
,Umballiferae 29 Boragineae ... 13 Coniferae ... 8
Araliaceae . 6 Solanaceae ... 2

An analysis of the list proves that this region does not possess any
Dicotyledonous order pecular to itself. Twenty-four of the orders are
represented more or less all over the world, generally in temperate
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THE VEGETATION OF TEMPERATE AND ALPINE SIKHIM. 109

regions; nine are confined to the North Temperate zone, one-Selaginece-is

South African, with the exception of the Globularia of Europe and Lagotis, a
Himalayan, Arctic, and Alpine genus.
A further examination brings to light the fact that every order in this region
(likewise in all others where they prevail) abounds in plants having brightly-
coloured flowers, excepting- the Apetalce, and, even in those, the high level
Euphorbias are differentiated sufficiently by their showy involucral leaves;
therefore, to apply the case shortly without putting forward an absolute
assertion, of the 50 orders named above, only seven can be characterized by
having inconspcuous flowers.
There are a few details in the phenomena of vegetation in theAlpine region
of Sikhim which are deserving of a brief notice.
The first is the preponderance of shrubby and herbaceous plants with
bright-coloured flowers. For these the only fertilizing agents are apparently
bees, of which there are a great variety of species, belonging to the kind known
as bumble bees in England. Other orders of insects are rare; and butterflies,
flying as they do in countless multitudes at lower levels, are here too
uncommon for their agency to be taken into serious consideration.
As the higher orders of plants require the aid of insects for their
propagation, it naturally follows that, as bees are here the commonest group of
insects, the flowers from which they extract nectar and pollen for honey, will
enjoy most opportunities for the due perpetuation of their race, those which
require specialized forms of insects, such as flowers with elongated and narrow
corollas, will be entirely absent, dicecious forms with inconspicuous flowers
will share the same fate; and the only species adapted to survive this restricted
method of existence will be plants with bright shallow flowers, with coloured
bracts surrounding a less apparent inflorescence, or with broad corolla tubes
into which bees can enter with ease.
The structure of the prevalent orders shows that the plants most fitted by
nature for the visitation of bees and similar insects are the commonest at high
elevations. As plants with brightly-coloured flowers will naturally first attract
the attention of insects, it would appear that they have become so for no other
definite reason, although the greater intensity of light consequent on a more
attenuated and clearer atmosphere has also been advanced as an explanation of
the fact.
With the exception of the musk Delphiniums, many labiates, composites,
and some primroses, all the plants are remarkably devoid of odour. No
rhododendron has scented flowers, and the species of that genus abounding in
aromatic glands over their whole surface are low-growing bushes, extensively
gregarious, which may have acquired
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110 THE VEGETATION OF TEMPERATE AND ALPINE SIKHIM.

their peculiar character to guard them against cattle and other herbivorous
animals.
The second class of noteworthy plants are those manifestly endowed with
protection from the moisture and inclemency of the climate As examples, the
following may be cited: Rheum nobile, Eriophyton Himalaicum, Saussurea
obvallata, and Saussurea gossypiphora. Rheum nobile has the divisions of its
inflorescence hidden under overlapping bracts; the leaves of Eriophyton are of
the same service to its flowers; Saussurea obvallata has flower heads enclosed
in a hollow ball of inflated papery bracts; while Saussurea gossypiphora is
completely enveloped in a woolly covering. Were all the plants found in
company with these furnished with similar or equally efficacious protection, the
fact would admit of easy solution; but the majority are absolutely naked as
regards vestiture, and no reason can be advanced to prove why a few species,
belonging to widely different orders, should be invested with safeguards against
climate and other circumstances,while most of their congeners are destitute of
such aids for successful existence. Although these protected plants are
seemingly more adapted to their environment, they certainly cannot show, by
numerical superiority, that they have gained any advantage in the struggle for
life.
The last class of vegetation to be noted is composed of the procumbent
species of rhododendron (R. nivale), with Diplarche multiflora and D.
pauciflora, and many plants of diverse genera (some formerly enumerated)
growing in dense, hard, hemispheric tufts. The situations in which these plants
are found produce numbers of others, of normal form, distinctly Siberian in
character. Two reasons may explain these curious methods of growth-one, that
plants growing so closely to the ground benefit from the heat absorbed by the
stony soil, their density of growth assisting them to conserve the warmth thus
obtained; another, that their humble stature saves them from being broken by
the winds which blow continuously over this .region. Their habit, together with
their small harsh leaves, may also save them from being browsed on by
animals.
Grasses and sedges form a close herbage over many tracts, and the same
winds, which probably force the bulk of high Alpine vegetation to creep on the
soil, assist in the scattering of their pollen and seeds. The pollen and seeds of
Coniferce and the light feathery seeds of willows are carried hither and thither
by the same means. The fructification of Alpine plants is another subject which
would well repay a more than casual investigation.
The list of orders with soft, fleshy fruits is short; for instance,
Berberidece, Rosacce (Pyrus, Fragaria), Saxifragacece (Ribes), Capri
foliacece, Vacciniacece, Ericacece: (Gaultheria),Solanacece, Laurinece, are
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THE VEGETATION OF TEMPERATE AND ALPINE SIKHIM. 111

nearly all that could be comprised in this section. The remaining orders and a
part of those already given yield dry, uneatable fruits with usually numerous
and small seeds. How the distribution of the lighter seeds is effected is a
question easily answered when we remember the power of the ever-blowing
gales. Of birds, which are everywhere known as active agents for the dispersal
of plants, the finches, so numerous at high elevations in summer, must bear a
large share in the task of aiding the spread of plants with large seeds.
Enough has been said to point out the infinite variety of the vegetation of
the Sikhim Himalaya, which contains in its whole extent types of every flora
from the tropics to the poles, and probably no other country of equal or larger
extent on the globe can present so many features of interest or so many
problems for the solution to the thoughtful naturalist.
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112 BUTTERFLIES.

BUTTERFLIES.

N OTE.-The works consulted for this paper are" The Butterflies of India. Burmah and Ceylon," by L.
de Niceville, and" Catalogue of the Lepidoptera of Sikhim," by H. J. Elwes and Otto
Moller.
J. G.UMMIE-21-9-91.

BUTTERFLIES are extremely abundant in Sikhim. In the Catalogue of the

Butterflies of Sikhim, published in 1888 by Elwes and Moller, 536 species are
enumerated, besides 8 more they were doubtful about. But probably the species
discovered since, and others still to be discovered, will bring the number up to
about 600, and this in a small country of only 1,800 square miles. In the warmer
val1eys butterflies are to be found in every month of the year, but are com-
paratively scarce from the end of November till after the middle of March.
Some of the species which are abundant at the lowest elevations are also found
more or less sparingly over a wide range of altitude; as high as 8---9,000 feet.,
but the majority of the cool-forest loving species never by any chance go down
to the hot valleys. In the lower valleys the collector should start soon after the
middle of March and keep on till the end of November if he wishes to make a
full collection. At these low elevations the warmth alone, without sunshine, is
sufficient to keep the insects in movement; but in the cool forests of the higher
altitudes few are to be seen unless the sun is shining; and the season begins a
month or two later and ends as much earlier. The genus Papilio is strikingly
represented in Sikhim by no fewer than 42 species. About one-half of the
species remain always below 5,000 feet, at which height they are few in
numbers, the majority keeping below 3,500 feet, and are most numerous thence
to the bottoms of the valleys. They all frequent flowers, but several of them are
oftener to be seen feeding on the roads and riversides, especially on damp spots.
Of the well-known green species, with longish tails and blue or green spots. on
the hind wing, there are four species, of which paris and ganesa are the
commonest, but they keep to the lower slopes, hardly ascending above 4,000
feet. Krishna and arcturus which resemble them, but have a distinguishing
yellow bar across the forewing and lower part of the hindwing, have a much
wider range, ascending to 9,000 feet, but rarely being found in the hot valleys.
Machaon, a European species, is not found below 10,000 feet or so, and gyas
keeps above 5,000. Glycerion and paphus have semi-transparent wings of a
lace-like pattern, with long slender tails to the hindwings, and are of a very
elegant shape. They are found from low elevations up to 4,000 and 9,000 feet
respectively. Teinopalpus imperialis and
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BUTTERFLIES. 113

two Ornithopteras, which belong to the same order as the Papilios, are among
the most splendid of the known butterflies. The former is never found below
5,500 feet and seldom lower than 7,000, and is commonest over 8,000 feet,
where it frequents cleared grassy spots within heavy forest. On the upperside it
is green with yellow spots on the hindwing, and the long tails are tipped
yellow; on the underside the middle part of both wings is green and the outer
part of the forewing brown barred with black; the outer part of the hindwing is
spotted yellow as on the upperside. The Ornithopteras measure from 6 to 8
inches across, and their coloration is both bold and pleasing, the forewing
being wholly of a velvety black, and the hindwing golden-yellow scolloped
with black. They keep mostly to the warmer slopes under 4,000 feet, where
they ,frequent flowering trees.
Of the family Morphince, two species of Thaumantis (diores and ramdeo),
believed to be seasonal forms of one and the same species, are most
gorgeously coloured, being black with large spots which cover a great part of
both fore and hind wings, of a brilliant metallic, changeable blue, and measure
4 3/4 inches across the outspread wings. They avoid the direct sunlight and
dodge about among the scrub growing under the deep shade of tall trees in the
hottest and moistest valleys. Frequently associated with them is Stihophthalma
camadeva, of similar habits and among the largest of the Sikhim butterflies,
being from 5 to 61/4 inches in expanse.It is more soberly coloured on the
upperside than the Thaumantis, being chiefly white and brown, but the
underside is showier, having a row of five red ocelli with black irides on each
wing and other pretty markings. Kallima inachus, one of the oak-leaf
butterflies, has a marvellous resemblance to a dead leaf when it is at rest with
its wings folded over the back and showing the underside only, the leaf-stalk,
veins, &c., being excellently mimicked. This mimicry is supposed to be
protective to the insect, but this is doubtful as, when flying about, and
protection most needed, it exhibits its upperside, which is a deep violet. blue
with a conspicuous yellowish bar across the forewing, apparently quite as
much designed to attract attention as the underside is for concealment. The
Lepchas, with better discernment than the Europeans, call it the chestnut-leaf,
to which it bears a. closer resemblance than the oak-leaf. At times immense
crowds of butterflies, composed of many species, may be seen feeding on
certain spots by river-sides in the lower valleys, probably where large animals
go nightly to drink; and many species may be caught on a single tree when
covered with its scented flowers, but these are the common sorts; the rare ones
have to be hunted for in more out.of the-way places and prized when found.
Among the smaller sorts there are about 100 of the Hesperiidae or "skippers,"
chiefly dull.
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114 BUTTERFLIES.

coloured. The Lycaenidce or "blues" are represented by no less than 125

species, many of them of surpassing beauty. The males of three common
species of Ilerda are beautifully marked with changeable metallic hues on the
upperside of the forewing: epicles with violet, androcles with green, and
brahma with golden-bronze. They are all abundant at elevations varing from 3-
9,000 feet, and are an inch and-a-half or less across. Others are blue of many
shades, and many have long slender tails. The male of Zephyrus duma, which is
found from 7,000 feet upwards, is altogether of a brilliant gold-green on the
upperside, but the female is a dowdy brown. The periodical occurrences of
many of the" blues," and also of some of the other butterflies, is perplexing;
one year a species may be in the greatest abundance everywhere, and then for
several years be very scarce without any apparent cause. Other genera,
comprising large or remarkable species, are Danais, Euploea, Zophoessa,
Elymnias, Melanitis, Discophora, Enispe, Cethosia, Cynthia, Helcyra, Sephisa,
Apatura, Junonia, Neptis, Stibochiona, Hypolimnas, Argynnis, Limenitis,
Athyma, Euthalia, Vanessa, Cyresti's, Charaxes, Dodona, Abisara, etc.

MOTHS
.
The moths are not yet so well known as the butterflies, notwithstanding
they are the more interesting race from an economic point of view. Sikhim is
exceptionally rich in species. Already about 1,500 haye been classified, but
many are still undescribed, and probably their number will ultimately be found
to exceed 2,000. The majority of the Sikhim moths are rather small in size, but
several are among the largest of the insect race. The largest of them all is the
Atlas-moth (Attacus atlas), which is sometimes nearly a foot across. Its
caterpillars feed on many kinds of leaves, but those of the sal tree are their
favourite food. Next in size come several species of the genus Actias, of which
selene is the most common. It is of a pale green colour with a pinkish spot
partly edged with a black crescent on each wing, and has long slender tails. It
measures about eight inches across the forewings, and nearly as much from the
shoulder to the tip of the tail. Several species spin tussur-like silk cocoons, but
as yet none have been procured in sufficient quantity to enable their
commercial value to be tested. They are well worth enquiring into, however,
and may yet prove a source of income to the inhabitants. The more promising
species appear to be one or two species of Antheroea which yield, to the non-
professional eye, a thread of excellent quality and colour, and in considerable
abundance. Their caterpillars feed on oaks and Engelharrltia spicata (mahwa
of the Nepalese), a common tree of a wide range, being found from the bottoms
of the lower valleys up to 5,000
 BUTTERFLIES. 115 www.sikkim.gov.in

feet. Theophila Huttoni, whose caterpillars feed on the leaves of Artocarpus

chaplasha, spins a cocoon not unlike the domesticated silkworm, Bombyx mori,
of Europe and Asia. Bombyx mori itself is not recorded from Sikhim, and
probably does not occur there in a wild state. Attempts are now being made to
introduce it on a commercial scale, and if successful must prove of great
benefit to the Lepchas, who are sadly in need of some such cottage industry.
Other insects numerously represented in Sikhim are beetles, bugs,
grasshoppers, leaf-insects, praying-insects, walking-stick insects, dragon-flies,
ants, lantern-flies, Cicadce, etc.
It might be noted that the Lepcha collectors of Sikhim are most skilful, and
would compare favourably with those of any country in the world: they are the
only race in Hindostan who have names for the different species of butterflies.

N.B.-.Attacus cynthia and Cricula trifenestrata are also hopeful species and are very
common. .... A cynthia is more than a hopeful species, it = ..4.. ricini or the" ende " silkworm
of commerce. Cricula trifenestrata has no silk worth the trouble of reeling. .A. hand-book on
the Indian Moths is now in course of preparation by Mr. G. F. Hampson.
116 BUTTERFLIES. www.sikkim.gov.in

A LIST OF THE BUTTERFLIES OF SIKHIM.

By LIONEL DE NlCEVILLE, F.E.S., C.M.Z.8., &C.

THE list of the butterflies of Sikhim here given is largely based on a

somewhat similar list by my friends Messrs. H. J. Elwes and the late Otto
Moller, which appeared in the Transactions of the Entomological Society of
London for 1888, pages 269-464, and is illustrated with four plates, Nos. viii-
xi. I have added many (94) species to the list, which then numbered 537
species, and have brought up the nomenclature to date. The notes on the times
of appearance and the actual spots where the various species occur are largely
taken from the above cited paper, but I have not thought it necessary to give
these notes in quite such detail, and occasionally I have found it advisable to
add to them from my personal experience of Darjeeling and its neigh-
bourhood, which extends over 15 years, during which time I have visited it
annually and at nearly all seasons of the year. This list is probably now nearly
complete, as Sikhim has been most thoroughly explored for butterflies, and
not more than 50 species at a maximum await discovery. As regards the order
adopted in this list, I have followed that of Mr. F. Moore in "Lepidoptera
Indica" as far as the book has been published; afterwards I have taken the
sequence of the species adopted in my own work, "The Butterflies of India,
Burmah and Ceylon," which at present endsat the family Lycoenidoe; finally,
for the family Hesperiidoe I have followed Lieutenant E. Y. Watson's
Classification and Revision of the Genera, as given in the Proceedings of the
Zoological Society of London for 1893, pp. 3-132, and plates i-iii.
As the atmospheric effects in that part of Darjeeling which lies to the east of
the Tista river, and which is included in the Daling Division of that district, are
so different from those of the whole of the rest of the district, it might be
expected that the fauna should also vary. The part of the Daling Division
referred to is bounded on the north by a very high continuous ridge of hills,
running in the fonowing order from west to east :-Songchongloo (6,264 feet),
Lolagaon (6,000 feet), Sichoor (5,836 feet), Nankfloo (7,108 feet), Labah
(7,000 feet), Pankasarri (8,112 feet), and Richila (10,400 feet), and continued
thence by a series of unnamed peaks along the south bank of the Ne Chu to
Namchala (7,852 feet) and the Jaldoka River, or De Chu, from the east bank of
which the ridge rises again to be continued far into Bhutan. This ridge Stems to
form a natural breakwater for rain clouds coming from the plains, and the
average annual rainfall is more than double that of the station of Darjeeling.
The measured rain taken
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BUTTERFLIES. 117
-

for the last seven years on a ridge opposite Daling Ma and on the west bank of
the Chel River or Che Chu yields an annual average of 224 .42 inches; while,
had.a record been kept of the rainfall on those spurs directly under Pankasarri
and Richila, it would be found to far exceed this. On this account and by
consequent causes the development of some species of butterflies is more
favoured in this part, and many species, which have hitherto been found rarely,
or have not been recorded from Sikhim and from Darjeeling to the west of
the Tista, occur more plentifully in Daling. Although it might be argued that
the fauna of this part of the country should be more appropriately included with
that of Bhutan, of which country it was formerly a part, yet, as it is now placed
in the Darjeeling district, it must be taken along with it.
To make the list as complete as possible I have added all the species which
are known to me to occur in Bhutan, that country and Sikhim being
conterminous. The species recorded from Bhutan only are few in number, and
most of them may be expected to occur in Sikhim also: Indeed, in the case of
many of them, as they have been procured by native collectors' only, it is a
little doubtful whether they really came from Sikhim or from Bhutan.

Family NYMPHALIDAE.
Subfamily DANAINAE.
1 . DANA IS (Tirumala) LIMNIACE, Cramer.
Rare in Sikhim; occurs only in the Terai at the foot of the hills, and in the low
hot valleys in May and June.
2. DANAIS (Tirumala) SEPTENTRIONIS, Butler.
A common species at low elevations, where it is found throughout the year. It
occurs also in Western China.
3. DANAIS (Limnas) CHRYSIPPUS, Linnaeus.
Not very common, and occurs only in the lower valleys. The aberration or
sport" named D. alcippus by Cramer and D alcippoides by Moore, and which is
found in Africa right across India to Burmah, in the Malay Peninsula, and in
Sumatra, has never been recorded from Sikhim.
4. DANAIS (Salatura) GENUTIA, Cramer.
A very common species at low elevations, occurring throughout the year. It is
not known if in Sikhim it has the habit of "swarming " or "assembling," as I have
observed it to do in mid-winter in Calcutta. It is found in Western and Central
China.
5. DANAIS (Parantica) MELANOIDES, Moore.
Occurs commonly at low elevations throughout the year.
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118 BUTTERFLIES.

6. DANAIS (Caduga) MELANEUS, Moore.

Less common at low elevations only than any of the species previously named
except D. limniace, Cramer. It is found in Western and Central China. '

7. DANAIS (Caduga) TYTIA, Gray.

The rarest of all the species Of the genus occurring in Sikhim except D.
limniace, and is found at a higher elevation than any of them, flying as high as
9,000 feet above the sea in native Sikhim.
8. EUPLEA (Crastia) CORE, Cramer.
A butterfly more of the plains than of the hills, found somewhat commonly at
low elevations throughout the year. Mr. Moore gives Crastia vermiculata,
Butler, from Sikhim instead of E. core, but Sikhim examples are typical E.
core; and even were they typical E. vermiculata, I am not prepared to admit
that species as distinct; at best it is but a " local race," and may be only a
seasonal form. Further, the Tronga nicevillei described by Mr. Moore in Lep.
Ind., p. 77, pl xx, figs. 1, la, male; 1b, 1c, female (1890), from the Sunderbuns
near Calcutta, is not only in my opinion of the same subgenus as E. core, but is
at best a local race (possibly a seasonal winter form) only of that species.
9. EUPLCEA (Penoa) DOUBLEDAYI, Felder.
Heer P. C. T. Snellen has recently pointed out that the Euplma
alcathoe of Godart, by which name this species is usually known, is an
Amboina butterfly and does not occur in India, so Felder's name must be
adopted for the species. It is very rare in Sikhim, though quite common in
Assam. In the Indian Museum, Calcutta, there is a single male example
obtained by Schlagintweit, and in 1889 Major C. A. R. Sage obtained another
specimen. These are all the examples I know of from Sikhim.'
10. EUPLCEA (Penoa) DEIONE, Westwood.
Rather rare, and only occurs in the low valleys. In Daling it is found more
commonly. .
11. EUPLCEA (Trepsichrois) LINNlEI, Moore.
This species is more generally known as E. midamus, Linnreus.
It is the commonest species of the genus occurring in Sikhim, and actually
swarms at times in the low valleys. It is found in Western and Central China.
12. EUPLCEA (Danisepa) DIOCLETIANUS, Fabricius.
A somewhat rare species, occurring only at low elevations, I have seen it
flying once only in Sikhim. Mr. Moore in "Lepidoptera Indica" has given a new
name, Danisepa ramsayi, to the Nepal and Sikhim form of this species, which
is the whitest of all. The Assam,
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BUTTERFLIES. 119

Burmah, Malay Peninsula and Sumatran form he calls Danisepa rhadaman

thus, Fabricius, and places" Papilio" diocletianus, Fabricius, which was first
used of the two names for this butterfly, as a synonym. I am unable to draw any
line of division either between the specimens themselves (as they gradually
grade the one into the other) or geographically between. the whitest form of the
species from Nepal. and the darkest form from Sumatra, so the oldest name is
here adopted for the species; which may, .however, to be precise, be known as
E. diocletianus, local race ramsayi.
13. EUPLOEA (Pademma) KLUGII, Moore.
A very rare species in Sikhim, occurring only in the Terai and in the low
outer valleys. I have recently pointed out (Journ. Asiat. Soc., Bengal, vol. lxi,
pt. 2, page 237, 1892), how excessively variable this species is. Two local races
are found and meet in Sikhim, E. kollari, Felder, and the typical form, E. klugii,
Moore. The former is but slightly blue-glossed on the upperside, the latter
brilliantly so. There is every gradation between the two forms. Colonel
Swinhoe has recently added to the very extensive synonymy of this species by
describing a Pademma .hamiltoni, var. nov., from the Khasi Hills. This" new
variety" is not ,only an inconstant form of E. klugii, but it is more than that,
being an absolute synonym of Pademma regalis, Moore.
14. EUPLOEA (Isamia) ROGENHOFERI, Felder.
Very rare, and occurs only in the low outer valleys and in theTerai from
April to November. It is found more commonly in Daling and Bhutan.
15. EUPLOEA (Stictoploea) HARRISH, Felder.
This is another protean species, as I have pointed out recently in
the Proceedings Asiat. Soc., Bengal, 1892, page 158. The Sikhim form is fairly
constant, and may be known as a local race as E. binotata, Butler. It is by no
means common in Sikhim, and is found only in the lowest valleys.
SubfamilySATYRINAE.
16. ANADEBIS HIMACHALA, Moore.
Wholly a forest butterfly, occurring only at low elevations rather locally. It is
found also in Assam and Upper Burmah.
17. M YCALESIS (Virapa) ANAXIAS, Hewitson.
Not uncommon at low elevations. Seasonal dimorphism occurs in this species,
but not to a very marked extent.-
18. MYCALESIS (Gareris) SANATANA, Moore.
The dry-season form of this species (true M. sanatana) occurs commonly in
forests at low elevations in the spring, while the wet-season form (.M gopa,
Felder) is found in the same places during the
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120 BUTTERFLIES.

rains. Intermediate forms are found when there is heavy rain at the
commencement of the year. It occurs commonly in the Khasi Hills and in Upper
Burmah.
19. MYCALESIS (Orsotriaena) MEDUS, Fabricius.
Occurs at low elevations only, and is fairly common. M. medus is the wet.
season, ocellated form; while M. ,runeka, Moore, is the dry. season, non-
ocellated form. This latter is found with or without the median white band on
the underside.
20. MYCALESIS (Calysisme) PERSEUS, Fabricius.
RRare in the low valleys. M. perseus is the dry-season form,while M. blasius,
Fabricius, is the wet-season form.
21. MYCALESIS (Calysisme) MINEUS, Linnaeus.
Mr. Moore record& this species from Sikhim. The wet-season form is M.
mineus, while the dry-season form is M. otrea, Cramer.
22. M YCALESIS (Calysisme) VISALA, Moore.
This is the commonest species of the genus occurring in Sikhim, and is found
up to about 5,000 feet elevation above the sea. .M. visala was named from a
dry-season form; the wet-season form has not been named. Mr. Moore thus
describes the male secondary sexual characters of M. mineus and M. visala:

M. mineus. M. visala.
Upperside, hindwing, with a sub. Upperside, hindwing, with an elongated
basal tuft of pale ochreous hairs over- glandular patch of pale yellow scales,
lapping a glandular patch of blackish overlapped by the subbasal yellow tuft;
scales. these scales being of exactly the same size,
form, and disposition, as those present on
the patch on the underside of the forewing,
the overlapping hairy tuft consisting of long
straight filaments, each arising from a
distinctly visible minute round pore.

Underside, forewing, with a glandular Underside, forewing has the glandular

patch of blackish scales on the middle of patch on the submedian nervure two-thirds
the submedian nervure. The patch, as larger than that in M. mineus, extending
seen under the mioroscope, is composed from the middle of the vein to the transverse
of densely-packed but loosely raised, discal pale band, and is composed of pale
overlapping, large, broad, oval scales yellow. scales; these scales (as seen under
with even front edges. Compared with the microscope) are very densely packed,
the patch of yellow scales on the overlap each other, are slightly raised, are
forewing of M. visala,that of M. mineus large and rather long, broad and somewhat
is two-thirds less in size, the scales are broadest anteriorly, with evenly-rounded
less closely packed, are more laxly front edge, and very short peduncle; no
raised, and are narrower both anteriorly slender intervening scales present ;-this
and posteriorly. patch in M. mineus being short, situated on
the middle of the vein, and composed of
differently-shaped blackish scales
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BUTTERFLIES. 121

23. MYCALESIS (Pachama) MESTRA, Hewitson.

Has frequently been brought into Darjeeling from the neighbourhood of
Buxa in Bhutan by the Lepcha collectors employed by Messrs. Otto and F. A.
Moller, A. V. Knyvett and G. C. Dudgeon. It may be found in Sikhim proper
also, as it flies at Daling in May and August from 5,000 to 7,000 feet
elevation. It does not appear to occur under two seasonal forms.
24. MYCALESIS (Pachama) SUAVEOLENS, Wood-Mason and de
Niceville.
Like M. mestra, Hewitson, this species appears to have only an ocellated
form. It is very rare in Sikhim, being found by the late Otto Moller on a single
spot on the Tukvar spur below Darjeeling at 3,000 feet in thick forests during
April and May. Mr. G. C. Dudgeon has specimens from Sivoke and Bhutan
taken in March, April, May, and July.
25. MYCALESIS (Samanta) MALSARA, Moore.
Occurs at low elevations only. It has very distinct seasonal forms, the rainy-
season form being true M malsara, the dry-season form is M. rudis, Moore.
26. MYCALESIS (Samanta) NICOTIA, Doubleday and Hewitson.
The rains-form, true M. nicotia, is very much rarer than the dry season
form, M. langi, de Niceville. It is found from 3,000 to about 5,000 feet on paths
through the forest, as are all the species of the genus.
27. MYCALESIS (Samanta) MISENUS, de Niceville.
A very rare species, occurring in Sikhim in April and May at low elevations
only. It .appears to possess an ocellated form only. It is found in the Khasi Hills
also. Mr. Leech has described a local race from Western China as M. misenus,
var. sericus.
28. MYCALESIS (Samanta) HERI, Moore.
Occurs not uncommonly near Buxa, Bhutan; a few specimens have been
brought in by the Lepcha collectors from Sikhim, and it is found in Nepal and
Kumaon. I have seen an ocellated form only.
29. NEORINA HILDA, Westwood.
A rather high elevation butterfly, occurring in heavy forests in the rains at
7,000 to 9,000 feet. It swarms on Songchongloo in the Daling division of
Darjeeling.
30. LETHE (Rangbia) SCANDA, Moore.
This lovely butterfly is confined to Sikhim, Bhutan, and the Khasi Hills. It occurs in
dense forests at from 6,000 to 8,000 feet elevation.
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BUTTERFLIES.

31. LETHE (Rangbia) BHAIRAVA, Moore.

Rare in Sikhim and Bhutan, occurring from 6,000 to 8,000 feet elevation. It
is found commonly in Daling on Labah and Rissoom; and the female, unlike L.
scanda, Moore, is almost as plentiful as the male.
32. LETHE (Rangbia) GULNIHAL, de Niceville.
Described from Bhutan, but may also be .found in Sikhim. It is a very rare
species, and the male only is known.
33. LETHE (Rangbia) LATIARIS, Hewitson.
Double-brooded, appearing in April and May and again in October at low
elevations. Mr. Dudgeon records it only from Daling from 6,000 to 8,000 feet.
34. LETHE (Debis) KANSA, Moore.
A common species in the forests, and is found in the low hot valleys and up
to 9OOO feet from April to October.
35. LETHE (Debis) SINORIX, Hewitson.
Rare in Sikhim, but occurs more commonly to the eastwards in Bhutan and
Assam. It is found from Sivoke up to Rissoom (6,600 feet). I have lately
rediscovered the allied L. samio, Doubleday and Hewitson, in Java. It was
described from" East India."
36. LETHE (Debis) MEKARA, MODre.
A common species at low elevations wherever bamboo grows, on
which its larva feeds. It occurs throughout the wa!mer months. The sprillg
broods are lighter and brighter coloured than the broods emerging in the rains.
37. LETHE (Debis) CHANDICA, Moore. .
Rarer than L. mekara, Moore, but occurs at the same times and places. Mr.
Leech has described a local race from Western, Central and Eastern China as L.
chandica, var coelestis.
- 38. LETHE (Debis.) DISTANS, Butler.
An excessively rare species in Sikhim. The writer possesses a single
female example from Sikhim, and a single male from the Khasi Hills. Mr.
Moore suggests that L. distans may ultimately prove to be the dry -season form
of L. chandica. The latter species is by no means rare, and it is highly
improbable that the dry-season form of it should occur so extremely seldom as
L. distans does.
39. LETHE (Debis) VINDHYA, Felder.
Very rare in Sikhim, more common to the east in Bhutan and Assam. It has
been taken at Mongpoo at 3,800 feet in August. The species exhibits slight
seasonal variation, the specimens flying in the spring being lighter coloured,
more red, than those flying in the rains. The wet-season form is true L. vindhya,
the dry-season form is L. dolopes, Hewitson.
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BUTTERFLIES. 123

40. LETHE (Debis) SERBONIS, Hewitson.

Occurs only at high elevations, 7,000 to 9,000 feet elevation, from
June to September, in heavy forest.
41. LETHE EUROPA, Fabricius.
Occurs rarely in the low outer valleys and Terai. It is found also
at Foochau in China.
42. LETHE DYRTA, Felder.
At low elevations only, and is rather a scarce insect in Sikhim I have taken
it in the Duars in dead winter at an elevation but a few hundred feet above the
sea. It is far commoner in the Western Himalayas. It occurs right across China
to Foochau.
43. LETHE ROHRIA, Fabricius.
Common almost throughout the year at low elevations. The spring brood is much
more brightly red-coloured on the underside than the broods occurring later on in
the year. It is a common species in Western, Central, and Eastern China.
44. LETHE DINARBAS, Hewitson.
Occurs in forests at 7,000 to 9,000 feet, and- is not particularly rare, swarming
all along the ridge from Songchongloo to Pankasarri in Daling. Mr. Moore in
"Lepidoptera Indica," vol. i, page 266, refers the figure I gave of this species in
Journal. Asiatic Soc., Bengal, vol. lv, pt. 2, page 250, pI. xi, figure 4, female
(1886) to L. hyrania, Kollar. Mr. Moore quite correctly limits that species to the
Western Himalayas, and L. dinarbas to the Eastern Himalayas and Assam,
though Colonel Swinhoe (as I believe quite erroneously) records both from the
Khasi Hills. My figure was taken" from a specimen from native Sikhim in Mr.
Otto Moller's collection," and is a true L. dinarbas.
45. LETHE BRISANDA, de Niceville.
Described from near Buxa in Bhutan. It is not improbably a Sikhim species
also.
46. LETHE (Dionana) MARGARIT2E, Elwes.
A rare species obtained by the native collectors only near Buxa, Bhutan. It is,
I believe, the largest known species of the genus Lethe. I
47. LETHE (Tansima) VERMA, Kollar.
Distinctly rarer than L. rohria, Fabricius, which it most .closely resembles.
It is found from 4,000 to 8,000 feet almost throughout the year. It is recorded
from Western China by Mr. Leech.
48. LETHE (Sinchula) SIDONIS, Hewitson.
A common species from April to November on the road round Birch Hill in
Darjeeling, and on the cart road betweeu Ghoom and
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124 BUTTERFLIES.

Kurseong through the forest, but is rare to the east of the Tista river. It flies in all
weathers, and settles on ordure on the roads.
49. LETHE (Sinchula) VAIVARTA, Doherty.
Originally described from Kumaon. Mr. Otto Moller's collectors brought in a
pair of specimens in August from Bhutan.
50. LETHE (Sinchula) NICETELLA, de Nice'ville.
Found at high elevations only, 7,000 to 8,000 feet; where it occurs it is
found in thousands. This is one of the few species which become rarer to the
east of Darjeeling.
51. LETHE (Sinchula) SIDEREA, Marshall.
A very rare species, recorded by H. J. Elwes from Tendong, native Sikhim,
7,000 feet, in the rainy season and November, and by :Mr. Dudgeon from
Daling. It is found also at Moupin in Western China.
52. LETHE (Sinchula) MAITRYA, de Niceville.
Occurs in enormous numbers from 9,000 to 12,000 feet on the Singalela
range in July and August. Elwes records it also from Bhutan, and it was first
discovered in the W estern Himalayas.
53. LETHE (Sinchula) NICETAS, Hewitson.
Far rarer than L. nicetella, de Niceville, and is found at 7,000 to 8,000 feet
in the rains. Occurs less rarely on the Daling hills at the same elevation in May
and June.
54. LETHE (Sinchula) VISRAVA, Moore.
Excessively rare in Sikhim, more common to the eastwards in Bhutan. It
occurs at Pankasarri in the Daling division. I have only seen one female, which
was in Otto Moller's collection; that sex was described by Hewitson as a distinct
species under the name of " Debis " deliades.
55. LETHE (Kerrata) TRISTIGMATA, Elwes.
Very rare, and occurs on the Singalela range at 9,000 to 10,000 feet in June
and July.
56. LETHE (Putlia) BALADEVA, Moore.
Rather rare. Elwes records it from Tonglo in July, Ghoompahar in June, and
Tonglo and Tendong in August. It swarms in Daling at 8,000 feet. I do not think
the genus Zophoessa, Doubleday and Hewitson, of which Z. sura, Doubleday
and Hewitson, is the type, can be maintained as distinct from Lethe. Until
recently, baladeva has always been placed under that genus.
57. LETHE (Putlia) RAMADEVA, de Niceville.
Very rare; occurs at Tonglo in July and August, and in Bhutan in June.
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BUTTERFLIES. 125

58. LETHE (Zophoessa) SURA, Doubleday and Hewitson.

I have taken this species in the Birch Hill Park, Darjeeling, in October; it is
found from 5,000 to 8,000 feet in forests from June to November, and is rather
common. In May it swarms on the dark forest roads in Daling, and is always
found at a higher elevation than L. dura, Marshall.
59. LETHE (Zophoessa) DURA, Marshall.
The type specimen was ticketed by Colonel G. F. L. Marshall, R.E.,
"Lower Thoungyeen forests, Upper Tenasserim, May." I cannot help thinking
that there is some mistake with regard to this locality. No other species of
Zophoessa is known to occur in Burmah at practically the level of the sea; the
type specimen is unique, and its capturer, Major C. T. Bingham, has never
obtained a second specimen, though during the last ten years he has collected
over and over again through these forests. The type specimen agrees absolutely
with examples from Bhutan, and my impression is that it came from thence and
not from Burmah. Anyhow, Mr. Moore's Zophoessa gammiei. (Lepidoptera
Indica, vol. i, page 294, pI. xci, fig. 3, male, .1892), from Bhutan, is an absolute
synonym of Z. dura, Mr. Moore had only the original description and figure of
Z. dura to guide him when he described Z. gammiei. He may have been further
misled by Mr. Elwes' figure of this species, which was taken from a female
example, not from a male as stated. Other synonyms are" Debis" moupinensis,
Poujade, and Zophoessa libitina, Leech, from Western and Central China.
Z. dura is a somewhat rare species, and has been obtained by native
collectors in Bhutan in September, and by Mrs. Wylly at Kalimpong. It is local
and swarms in May -on the Nim ridge in bamboo jungle at an elevation of
4,500 to 5,000 feet. It has the same habits as L. sura.
60. LETHE (Zophoessa) GOALPARA, Moore.
Native collectors bring in this species in thousands. It occurs in the interior
at from 6,.000 to 8,000 feet. Mr. G. C. Dudgeon has never noted a specimen
from east of the Tista river or from .Bhutan. Nor have I seen a female, though I
have constantly looked for it amongst the numerous males that have passed
through my hands.
61. LETHE (Zophoessa) ATKINSONIA, Hewitson.
Occurs at high elevations, 8,000 to 9,000 feet, in July and August.
It is not common, but occurs throughout Sikhim and Bhutan as far as the
Sankosh river.
62. LETHE (Zophoessa) ELWESI, Moore.
Occurs commonly on the Singalela range from 9,000 to 12,000 feet elevation
in July and August. Mr. Moore considers this species to be sufficiently distinct
from the Western Himalayan form
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126 BUTTERFLIES.

(Z. falaurida, de Niceville) to constitute a local race. Mr. Leech records Z.

falaurida from Western China.
63. LETHE (Zophoessa) MOELLERI, Elwes.
Far rarer than L. elwesi, Moore. Occurs on the Singalela range from 9,000 to
11,000 feet in July.
64. BLANAIDA BHADRA, Moore.
This species is usually placed in the genus Neope, Moore, which is
preoccupied through Neopus, a genus of birds. B. bhadra occurs in the hot low
valleys from 1,000 to 4,000 feet from May to December. It flies through dense
bamboo jungle; on which its larva feeds. .
65. BLANAIDA PULAHA. Moore.
Occurs on the Singalela range, 9,000 to 11,000 feet, in July and
August, rather commonly. Mr. Leech has described a local race from Central
China as "Neope pulaha, var. ramosa.
66. PATALA YAMOIDES; Moore.
Better known as Zophoessa yama, Moore, which Mr. Moore now
restricts to the Western Himalayas. It is rare in Sikhim, and is found only in the
interior at Tendong, 6,000 to 7,000 feet, in June and July. In Daling in suitable
places it is perhaps the commonest butterfly in May, swarming at 6,000 feet; it
also occurs in Bhutan. Mr. Leech has described a local race of "Neope" yama
as var. serica from Western and Central China.
67. ORINOMA DAMARIS, Doubleday.
Rare. I have taken it twice only, once in the bed of a "jhora" or hill-stream,
once in forest. It occurs from 2,000 to 6,000 feet.
68. RHAPHICERA SATRICUS; Doubleday.
Not very common. Found in forests at 6,000 to 8,000 feet. It occurs also in
Western China.
69. RHAPHICERA MOOREI, Butler.
In Sikhim it occurs only in the interior, from 9,000 to 11,000 feet, in July.
70. CHONALA MASONI, Elwes.
Until recently, this butterfly has always been placed in the genus Lethe. It
is found only far in. the interior at great elevations, and in Bhutan, and is rare.
71. AULOCERA BHAHMINOIDES, Moore.
This is the Sikhim form of A. brahminus, Blanchard. It occurs at high
elevations in the interior only.
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BUTTERFLIES. 127

72. AULOCERA CHUMBlCA, Moore.

This is a recently described species from the" Chumbi Valley, Sikhim- Tibet."
73. AULOCERA LOHA, Doherty.
IIIn Sikhim Mr. Elwes took this species on the Singalela range at from 10,000 to
12,000 feet in July. It occurs also in Kumaon and Western China.
74. AULOCERA PADMA, Kollar.
Mr. Moore does not record this species in his" Lepidoptera Indica" from Sikhim, but
only from the Western Himalayas. . I believe it does occur in Sikhim, though I
possess no specimen from thence. It is found actually in the station of
Darjeeling, (all the other'species of the genus are only found in the interior), Mr.
Elwes and I having both seen a specimen on the north side of Birch Hill. There
is one specimen from Sikhim in Mr. Otto Moller's collection. It occurs also in
Bhutan and in Western China.
75. AULOCERA SARASWATI, Kollar.
Restricted to the Western Himalayas by Mr. Moore. It certainly occurs far in the
interior of Sikhim also; many specimens from thence have passed through my
hands.
76. PARCENEIS SIKKIMENSIS, Staudinger.
This butterfly has hitherto been recorded from India as (Eneis pumilus,
Felder. Mr. Elwes (Trans. Ent. Soc. Lond., 1893, page 459) says that it "is
unquestionably an Aulocera." However, Mr. Moore has made a new genus for
it, which may perhaps stand, as P. pumilus, and its numerous named forms
differ greatly in facies from the butterflies hitherto placed in Aulocera. P.
sikkimensis is excessively rare, and I believe has only been obtained twice by
some plant collectors sent into the Chumbi valley by Messrs. J. Gammie and
H. J. Elwes in 1881 and 1884.
77. YPTHIMA. BALDUS, Fabricius.
Hitherto known from India as Y. philomela, Johanssen. It is common in
Sikhim at low elevations. The ocellated, wet-season form is true Y. baldus; the
dry-season form is Y:. marshallii, ,Butler.
78. YPTHIMA METHORA, Hewitson.
The rainy-season form of this species has alone been named. It is very rare in
Sikhim, occurring probably at rather low elevations at Pashok and in the
interior. Mr. Dudgeon has captured it at 3,000 feet.
79. YPTHIMA SARRA, Moore.
The commonest species of the genus occurring in Sikhim, found
everywhere from 2,000 to 8,000 feet elevation. It has only one (ocellated)
form. Mr. Leech records it from Western Chiila.
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128 BUTTERFLIES.

80. YPTHIMA AVANTA, Moore.

This species has two seasonal :forms: Y ordinata, Butler, is the
wet-season form; true Y. avanta the dry. season :form. I possess a single large
female specimen only of this species from Sikhim, captured by my friend the
late Otto Moller in the Terai on 10th July, 1881. It is found in Central China.
81. YPTHIMA HUEBNERI, Kirby.
The ocellated form occurring in the rains is true Y. huebneri; the dry-season,
non-ocellated form is Y. howra, Moore. In Sikhim it is confined to the Terai,
being a butterfly of the plains rather than of the hills.
82. YPTHIMA NEWARA, Moore.
Occurs locally in Sikhim from the Terai up to about 5,000 feet
from May to September, and is not common. Mr. Leech describes a local race
from Central China as Y: newara, var. chinensis.
Hemadara narasingha, Moore, was originally described as an " Ypthima"
from Sikhim, but it almost certainly does not occur there. It has recently been
rediscovered at Bernardmyo in Upper Burmah at 5,400 :feet elevation above
the sea.
83. CALLEREBIA ANNADA, Moore.
Occurs only in the interior, and has been obtained occasionally only by the
native collectors in native Sikhim and Bhutan. Mr. Moore has (erroneously I
believe) recorded Dallacha hyagriva, Moore and Callerebia scanda, Kollar,
from Darjeeling.
84. ZIPOETES SCYLAX, Hewitson.
Neither rare nor common. It occurs at low elevations only throughout the year
except in the three coldest months. I have recently received it from Upper
Burmah. It frequents dark places near water.
85. RAGADIA CRITO, de Niceville.
Has only so fat: been obtained by native collectors near Buxa,Bhutan, but
possibly occurs in Sikhim also. It is a local species, and is found commonly
where it occurs in August. Mr. Elwes records it from Margherita in Upper
Assam.
86. MELANITIS ISMENE, Cramer.
A very common species; occurs from the level of the Terai up to 7 000 feet.
I t is highly seasonally dimorphic, the wet-season form being usually referred to
as M. leda, Linnaeus, but Messrs. Butler and Moore both declare that true M.
leda is a distinct species from Amboina. That being so, the wet-season form will
stand as M. determinata, Butler, and the dry season form as tru e M. ismene,
Cramer.
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BUTTERFLIES. 129

87. MELANITIS BELA, Moore.

Rather rare in Sikhim, and occurs only at low elevations. The wet-season
form is M. aswa, Moore, and M. tristis, Felder; the dry season form is true M
bela.
88. MELANITIS ZITENIUS, Herbst.
Commoner than M. bela., less common than M. ismene. In Sikhim it is found
at low elevations. It is seasonally dimorphic as usual, though less markedly so
than the other species in the genus; the wetseason form has not been named;
the dry-season form is the true M. zitenius, as is also M. duryodana, Felder.
89. CYLLOGENES SURADEVA, Moore.
Very local, occurring at Singla at about 2,000 feet, from April to
June. I suspect it is single-brooded.
90. CYLLOGENES JANETAE, de Niceville.
A very rare species, which has hitherto only been obtained by native
collectors at or near Buxa in Bhutan, and by Mr. W. Doherty in the Naga Hills.

Subfamily ELYMNIINAE
91. ELYMNIAS UNDULARIS, Drury.
Occurs in the Terai and at low elevations only in the outer valleys, where it is
common.
92. ELYMNIAS MALELAS, Hewitson.
Usually known as E. leucocyma, Godart, described from Java, but Heer P.
C. T. Snellen has recently pointed out that the description of E. leucocyma
refers to a butterfly allied to, if not identical with, E. undularis, Drury, and
does not at all apply to the present species. That being the case, the name
given to it by the late Mr. Hewitson is adopted. It is not a rare species in
Sikhim at low elevations, and is generally found where plantains are growing,
on which the larva feeds.
93. ELYMNIAS TIMANDRA, Wallace.
It is more than probable that the name given to this butterfly by Mr. A. R.
Wallace should fall before E. lais, Cramer, the two species hardly at all
differing, and Cramer's name being the older,. It is excessively rare in Sikhim. I
have seen only two specimens from thence, both females, which were taken in
the low hot valleys. Mr. Dudgeon's collection also contains three females, one
from the Tista valley, and two from the Geet valley (2,000 feet).
94. ELYMNIAS (Dyctis) PATNA, \Vestwood.
Not very common in the low valleys up to 3,000 feet from April to October;
in the latter month I have captured it in the Runjit valley.
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130 BUTTERFLIES.

95. ELYMNIAS (Dyctis) VASUDEVA, :Moore.

Rather rare at low elevations throughout the hot months, but it
seems to extend to a greater altitude than any of the others of the same genus.
Subfamily MORPHINAE.

96. AMATHUSIA PORTHEUS, Felder.

Rare everywhere. Here included on the strength of a single male from Sikhim
in the collection of the Indian Museum, Calcutta.
97. DISCOPHORA CELINDE, Stoll.
Occurs in the low valleys only throughout the warm weather. A freshly caught
male is "a thing of beauty," but the splendid indigoblue colour of the upperside
soon greatly fades. The males of the Indian species of this genus as well.as
those of the genus Enispe have a very strong and unpleasant scent when first
caught.
98. DISCOPHORA TULLIA, Cramer.
Commoner than D. celinde, Ston, and occurs at the same seasons and in the
same places. I have bred the larva; it feeds on bamboo.Dr. Staudinger has named
the Indian form" Var indica."
99. DISCOPHORA SPILOPTERA, de Niceville and Moller.
I am not at all happy about this species. Otto Moller believed it to be distinct,
and wrote out a MS. description of it. This description I re-wrote and sent it to
Mr. Elwes, who published it under our joint names. The species looks very
distinct, but I greatly fear that it is only a spring (dry-season) form of D. tullia,
Cramer. Lieutenant E. Y. Watson has similar specimens from Tilin in the Chin-
Lushai Hills, also taken in the early spring. 'The Sikhim specimens came from
Singla, 2,000 feet, and were taken in :March.
100. ENISPE EUTHYMIUS, Doubleday.
Not uncommon at low elevations from April to October. On the wing it has
the habits of a Discophora, and is often seen on ordure on roads at low
elevations. L. lunatus, Leech, from Western China, is a closely allied species.
101. ENISPE CYCNUS, Westwood.
Very rare in Sikhim, more common to the eastward in Bhutan.Occurs at 5,000
feet in Daling.
102. .AEMONA AMATHUSIA, Hewitson.
Mr. Otto .Moller possessed a male, and :Mr. A. V. Knyvett a male
and two females of this rare species, all from Bhutan. The wetseason ocellated
form has been named AE. pealii by the late Mr. WoodMason; the dry-season
form is the true .AE. amathusia according to Mr. W Donerty.
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BUTTERFLIES. 131

103 THAUMANTIS DIORES, Doubleday.

A species of the heavy forests, occurring at low elevations only. Nearly
always seen in couples or more in dense jungle flying short distances when
disturbed and sitting with wings closed. It is probably seasonally dimorphic;
the lighter, larger form, T. ramdeo, Moore, occurring in the dry-season, April
to June; the smaller, darker form,true T. diores, in the rains, from August to
October.
104. STICHOPHTHALMA CAMADEVA, Westwood.
Tbis is one of the most lovely butterflies in the world. Fortunately, it is not
rare, and occurs in forests at low elevations from May to September. It is
probably single-brooded, the specimens taken late in the year being much worn
and broken. Mr. Dudgeon has never seen it east of the Tista river, nor has he
ever received specimens of it from Bhutan.
105. STICHOPHTHALMA NOURMAHAL, Westwood.
A very rare species. Mr. A. V. Knyvett has obtained through native
collectors three males and a female in native Sikhim in two successive years in
August.
106. STICHOPHTHALMA NURINISSA, de Niceville.
Obtained annually in fair numbers by native collectors near Buxa
in Bhutan.
107. CLER0ME ARCESILAUS, Fabricius.
Very rare in Sikhim, but quite common in the adjoining country
of Bhutan.

Subfamily ACRAEINAE.
108. PAREBA VESTA., Fabricius.
Immensely common in Sikhim, and found from 2,000 to 7,000 feet elevation,
and is' certainly double, if not treble brooded. The black, spiny larvre may be
seen in hundreds in clusters by every road-side from October throughout the
winter, at which time they are in a dormant state. Birds do not seem to eat them
though they are most conspicuous; probably their compound spines are a
sufficient protection. The larvre appear to be polyphagous, eating any kind of
weed. It is found in Western and Central China.
109. TELCHINIA VIOLEA, Fabricius.
A butterfly of the plains rather than of the hills. I have seen only two or three
properly authenticated Sikhim specimens. In tbe Western Duars at the foot of
the hills it is quite common. Mr Dudgeon has himself taken specimens in
Daling at 3,000 feet.
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132 BUTTERFLIES.

Subfamily NYMPHALINAE
110. ERGOLIS MERIONE, Cramer.
A common species at low elevations. The larva feeds on the castor-oil plant,
Ricinus communis, Linn.
111. ERGOLIS ARIADNE, Linnaeus.
Rarer than E. merione, but occurs like that species from March to
November. The larva feeds on Tragia involucrata, Linn., a hairy, stinging,
climbing plant.
112. EURIPUS CONSIMILIS Westwood.
One of the rarest of the butterflies of Sikhim; a few specimens have been taken
in the low outer valleys, in the Terai, and as far south as Jalpaiguri. The male is
always rarer than the female.
113. EURIPUS HALITHERSES, Doubleday and Hewitson.
The males are common, the females rarer. It occurs in the low valleys from
March to November. The female, wherever the species is found, is a persistent
mimic of the species of Euploea (which are greatly protected butterflies)
occurring with it. In Sikhim the first form of the female, which has been named
E. isa by Moore, is a beautiful mimic of E. diocletianus. Fabricius (=ramsayi,
Moore); while the second form of the female, which has been named E.
nyctelius by Doubleday (=cinnamomeus, 'Wood-Mason) is a perfect mimic of a
blue Euplaea, such as E. linnoei, Moore (=midamus, Linnaeus, auctorum).
114. CUPHA ERYMANTHIS, Drury.
Never common in Sikhim but appears to occur at low elevations throughout
the warmer months. I once captured a few specimens at Kalimpong in October.
In Daling it is local at 3,000 feet.
115. MELITAEA ORIENTALIS, Elwes.
Mr. H. J. Elwes and Otto Moller have o'btained this species at high elevations
on the Sikhim-Chumbi frontier. It is a local race of sindura, Moore.
116. ATELLA SINHA, Kollar.
Not very common; found from 2,000 to 3,000 feet from May to October. I have
never seen a female of this species, though hundreds of males have passed
through my hands. Mr. Dudgeon reports it as occurring more commonly east of
the Tista river at the same elevations. He has observed the female in June
laying eggs at 2,500 feet.
117. ATELIA PHALANTHA, Drury.
Much more common than the preceding, though by no means a common
species in the hi1ls. It is. found throughout the warm months from the level of
the Terai to about 5,000 feet. In Sikhim the pupa is
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BUTTERFLIES. 133

dichroic; one form is green, red and golden; the other is white, black and golden;
the latter is very beautiful.
118. ATELLA ALCIPPE, Cramer.
Appears to occur only in the outer valleys debouching on to the plains, such
as Sivoke, from whence the natives bring it in considerable numbers. I have
never seen it alive in Sikhim. It occurs almost throughout the year except in the
winter.
119. CETHOSIA CYANE, Drury.
Common in Sikhim from April to December at 5,000 feet and below. The
larvae of this and the next two species feed in such numbers on the common
white and blue passion-flower as to become a veritable nuisance.
120. CETHOSIA BIBLIS, Drury.
Also common, occurs up to 7,000 feet, and is found almost throughout the year.
It is found in Western and Central China.
121. CYNTHIA EROTA, Fabricius.
Common from the Terai to 6,000 feet elevation almost all the year round. I
have bred this species, Cethosia biblis, Drury, and C. cyane, Drury, from larvre
taken in numbers from the same passion-flower (Passiflora sp.), in October. The
specimens of C erota which emerge in the early spring from larvre fed up in the
late autumn are much smaller, and the females much lighter coloured, than the
later broods of the year. In this species, as indeed in most tropical and subtropical
species of butterflies, brood succeeds brood in regular succession throughout the
year. These broods are more or less interrupted in the plains of Northern India
where the rainfall is scanty, the intensely dry weather of the early summer acting
like the cold winter of other regions in entirely stopping the further development
of the species in any stage of its existence; but as soon as the rain falls at the
burst of the monsoon, butterfly life resumes its activity, and fresh broods are
rapidly developed. Single-brooded species are excessively rare in tropical and
subtropical India, and my impression is that their occurrence at all arises from the
fact -that the larvre have very weak jaws, and being able only to eat the youngest
leaves of their respective food-plants. Single-brooded species in India, as far as I
know, always occur in the early months of the year, when usually deciduous trees
assume their new annual covering of leaves. The butterflies emerge from
hibernated pupae just before the young leaves are developed, lay their eggs on
the leaf-buds or young twigs, the larvre quickly emerge, feed up rapidly on the
juicy and succulent young leaves, turn into pupre in the course of a month, and so
remain for 11 months till the following spring comes round, when they emerge as
buttertlies, and the cycle of their existence is completed
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134 BUTTERFLIES.

122. HELCYRA HEMINA, Hewitson.

A very rare butterfly, which occurs singly during the summer. It is less rare in
the Daling division of Darjeeling, where it occurs at 4,000 feet. Mr. Dudgeon
once took a specimen himself at 3,000 feet in Darjeeling, and found that it flies
very swiftly, which may help to account for its scarcity in collections. Nearly all
species of butterflies have their head-quarters somewhere where they are
common, however rare they may be elsewhere, but H. hemina seems to be rare
everywhere. Perhaps its day is over, or nearly so, and the species is gradually
dying out. Or its head-quarters still have to be discovered. H. superba, Leech,
from Western China is an allied species.
123. SEPHISA CHANDRA, Moore.
The males of this species are not very common and are found at low
elevations in the summer. The females are exceedingly rare and very variable,
and appear to be in process of mimicking some species of Danainae. The larva
of the Western Himalayan. species, S. dichroa, Kollar, feeds on oak. S princeps,
Fixsen, from Corea, is an allied species, a local race of which from Western and
Central China has been described by Mr. Leech as S: princeps, Val'. albimacula.
124. DILIPA MORGIANA, Westwood.
Mr. A. V. Knyvett's collectors have obtained this species in Bhutan. I have
not heard of its being captured in Sikhim, though it certainly occurs there. It has
a very wide range, from the extreme end of the Himalayas to the west, through
the Naga Hills and Shan Hills to the Black River in Upper Tonkin on the east.
D. fenestra, Leech, from Western China (=" Apatura " chyrus, Oberthiir) is said
to be allied to D. morgiana.
125. APATURA NAMOUNA, Doubleday.
Males not rare at low elevations throughout the summer; females
very scarce, as is usual in this genus.
126. APATURA CHEVANA, Moore.
A rare species at low elevations. It is a perfect mimic of some species of
Athyma-say of A. opalina, Kollar; so much so, that it was originally. described
in the genus Athyma. I have specimens from Upper Burmah, and it is found in
Western and Central China.
127. APATURA SORDlDA, Moore.
Also rare, and occurs at low elevations only. It is one of the few
species which appears to be found in Sikhim and nowhere else. Mr. Dudgeon
has three males and three females from native Sikhim taken in October and
November.
128. APATURA PARVATA Moore.
Has been obtained by Mr. T. A. Hauxwell at about 4,000 feet in October below
the station of Darjeeling, but it is very rare in Sikhim,
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BUTTERFLIES. 135

far commoner at Daling at 5,000 feet and in Bhutan. The opposite sexes are very
similarly coloured and marked, which is not the rule in this genus as represented
in India.
129. APATURA (Rohana) PARYSATIS, Westwood.
The males occur not uncommonly from 6,000 feet down to the bottom of
the valleys, from April to November..The females are much rarer and are
splendid mimics of the two species of Ergolis occurring in Sikhim, these latter
butterflies being, I believe highly protected.
130. HESTINA NAMA, Doubleday.
Occurs as high as 6,000 feet, but is more common from 2,000 to 4,000 feet.
The females are much rarer .than the males. It is, I think, a beautiful mimic of
Danais tytia, Gray, but Mr. Elwes does not see the resemblance, as the flight is,
he says, so different that he could distinguish it at once. The butterfly has a wide
range, from Cashmere through the Himalayas to Siam, Western China, Burmah,
the Malay Peninsula, and Sumatra.
131. HESTINA PERSIMILIS, Westwood.
The males are rare, the females still more so. It probably occurs at low
elevations, but little is known about it. Mr. Dudgeon reports that it is not
uncommon at the foot of the hills in Daling. At Mussoorie the larva feeds on
Celtis australis, Linn.
132. HERONA MARATHUS, Doubleday and Hewitson.
Not uncommon at low elevations. It has the habit, when disturbed, of
settling head downwards with dosed wings on the trunk of a tree, in which
position it is particularly difficult to catch with a butterfly net. Like many other
butterflies of this subfamily (Euthalia , in its broadest sense, Hestina, &c.), it is
very fond of over-ripe, strong-smelling fruit.
133. PRECIS IPHlTA, Cramer.
This plain, sober-coloured butterfly is one of the commonest occurring in
Sikhim, and is found up to about 8,000 feet almost throughout the year. The
larva in Sikhim feeds on a species of St'robilanthes. The butterfly is found in
Western and Central China.
134. JUNONIA ALMANA, Linnaeus.
I do not think there can be any doubt about J. almana being the dry-season and
J. asterie, Linnaeus, the wet-season form of one and the same species. In
Sikhim it is found at low elevations throughout the year. It is, however, rarer
west of the Tista river than it is on the eastern side, and it does not appear to
occur in the inner valleys.
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136 BUTTERFLIES.

135. JUNONIA ATLITES, Linnaeus.

A plains' rather than a hill butterfly, common in the Terai, rarer
in the outer low hot valleys.
136. JUNONIA LEMONIAS, Linnaeus.
Occurs up to 5,000 feet, and is not rare.
137. JUNONIA HIERTA, Fabricius.
Occurs somewhat rarely at low elevations west of the Tista river,
but is very common at 1,500 feet to the east.
138. J UNONIA ORITHYIA, Linnaeus.
The commonest species of the genus occurring in Sikhim, and is found from the
level of the Terai up to 10,000 feet elevation. He is a lively little fellow, loves
paths and roads, up and down which he continually flies.
139. NEPTIS "(Rahinda) HORDONIA, Cramer.
A common species throughout the year at low elevations. It is seasonally
dimorphic, true N. hordonia being the rains' form, N. plagiosa, Moore,
occurring in the dry. season.
140. NEPTIS RADHA, Moore.
A very rare species in Sikhim, and I have only caught it once at about 4,000 feet
elevation in October. Probably occurs throughout the warm months. Mr.
Dudgeon has captured it several times at 5,000 feet, and finds that it is
extremely fond of pitching on the same bush for several consecutive days. Its
elevation extends to 7,000 and 8,000 feet, and he doubts its occurrence below
3,000 feet.
141. NEPTIS MIAH, Moore.
The males are very commonly met with sucking up the moisture from the
sand in the beds of the hill streams at low elevations throughout the warm
months. Found also in Western China.
142. NEPTIS ANANTA, Moore.
Very local iu Sikhim, where I have never seen it on the wing. Mr. Elwes
says it is found in the forests at 5,000 to 6,000 feet and at lower levels. He took it
on the road to Pashok above Lopchu in June. Very common at 4,000 feet and
upwards in Da1ing. It is found also in Western China both typically and as a
local race which has been named var. chinensis by Leech.
143. NEPTIS VlRAJA, Moore. .
Very rare, occurs in the Terai and low valleys, probably through
out the summer.
144. NEPTIS ZAIDA, Doubleday and Hewitson.
Rare. Mr. Elwes took it in June and July in the forest above Ranghi, at about
6,000 feet.
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BUTTERFLIES. 137

145. NEPTIS NANA, de Niceville.

Occurs at Tonglo and in Bhutan in April and June, but is a very rare species.
It is near to, but quite distinct from, N. zaida.
146. NEPTIS NYCTEUS, de Niceville.
This is No. 131, Neptis manasa, Moore, of Mr. Elwes' list. He took a single
male in the forest near tbe Ranghi jhora, on the road to Serail, at 6,000 feet, in
June. The type specimens were obtained in June and July at Tonglo on the
Singalela range at about 12,000 feet. Found by Mr. Dudgeon at 7,000 feet in
Daling.
147. NEPTIS SANKARA, Kollar.
I have examined the type specimen of this species, which is a female, in the
collection of tbe natural history museum at Vienna. Before it must fall N. amba,
Moore, N,. carticoides, Moore, and probably N. ambo'ides, Moore. It is a rare
species in Sikhim at 3,000 feet, but is far commoner in the Western Himalayas.
Mr. Leech records it from Western and Central China as N. amba, but the Chinese
form differs greatly from the Indian one in having all the bands and spots of the
upperside yellow instead of white.
148. NEPTIS CARTICA, Moore.
Certainly not a common species in Sikhim, though it is more often met with
than N. sankara, Kollar. It is found in the lower valleys throughout the warm
weather.
149. NEPTIS VIKASI, Horsfield.
The commonest species of this group in Sikhim, and occurs at low
elevations almost throughout the year.
150. NEPTIS LEUCOTHOE, Cramer. .
Cramer figures this species well in his Pap. Ex., vol. iv, page 15, pl. ccxcvi,
figs. E, F (1780), and records it from Java, China, and the Coramandel Coast of
South India. It has received many names,N. eurynome, Westwood; N. varmona,
Moore; N. disrupta, Moore (a "sport" or aberration); N. adara, Moore; N. meetana,
Moore; N. swinhoei, Butler; N. kamarupa, Moore; N. eurymene, Butler; N.
andamana, Moore; N. nicobarica, Moore; N. mamaja, Butler; N. sangaica, Moore,
&c. My impression is that none of these will stand. If the European N. aceris,
Lepechin, is admitted by the best entomologists to extend from Europe through
Northern Asia to Corea and Japan, there can. I think, be little doubt that N.
leucothoe, Cramer, has a similar extended range, being found throughout India
(except in tbe desert tracts) from Bombay on the west, Ceylon on the south,
through Burma, the Malay Peninsula, Siam, Cochin China, &c., South, Central,
and Eastern China, and all the Malay Islands to the west of Wallace's line, and in
Formosa and Hainan. In those portions of
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India which have a well-marked dry- and wet-season, seasonal forms occur, the
wet-season form being true N. leucothoe, and the dryseason N. kamarupa; the
other names can be fairly evenly divided between these two forms. In Sikhim,
as elsewhere, it is a very common species, and occurs everywhere at from 7,000
feet to the level of the plains throughout the warm months.
151. NEPTIS ASTOLA, Moore.
N. cmodes, Moore, cannot I think be maintained as a species distinct
from N. astola. It is perhaps hardly a less common species in Sikhim than N.
leucothoe, Cramer, and occurs at the same time and in the same places.
152. NEPTIS NANDINA, Moore.
It has recently been discovered that the type specimens of N. nandina and
N. soma, both described by Mr. Moore, represent one and the same species, the
name N. soma, by which the species is generally known, having to fall before
the older name, N. nandina. What has hitherto in India passed as N. nandina,
has been named N. yerburii, by Butler. In Sikhim N. nandina occurs at low and
medium elevations throughout the summer months. It is found also in Western
China.
153. NEPTIS YERDURII, Butler.
Generally known in India as N. nandina, Moore. Not uncommon in Sikhim
up to 4,000 feet from April to December. In Mussoorie the larva feeds on Celtis
australis, Linn.
154. NEPTIS ADIPALA, Moore.
A somewhat rare species in Sikhim. Occurs in Western China also.
155. NEPTIS SUSRUTA, Moore.
A common species, occurring throughout the warm months up to 5,000 feet
elevation. Found also in Western China.
156. NEPTIS OPHIANA, Moore.
Common at low elevations from March to December.
157. CIRRHOCHROA AORIS, Doubleday and Hewitson.
Common up to about 6,000 feet from April to December.
C. abnormis, Moore, and C. jiraria, Swinhoe, are both
probably synonyms of C. aoris, though till these two species are figured it is
impossible to say this with certainty.
158. CIRRHOCHROA MITHILA, Moore.
Much rarer than C aoris; occurs in the same regions and in the same months
as that species. It is not uncommon at Sivoke and east of the Tista river .at low
elevations. It has a very wide range, and
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BUTTERFLIES. 139

has recently been obtained in the rains at Bankipur in Behar, by Mr. S. Robson.
159. PSEUDERGOLIS WEDAH, Kollar.
Not uncommon at the level of the Terai to about 6,000 feet, from March to
November. In the Western Himalayas this species occurs almost entirely in the
beds of hill streams, in Sikhim it is found there commonly, less frequently in
forests. In Mussoorie the larva feeds on Debregeasia bicolor, Wedd. It is found
also in Western and Central China.
160. STIBOCHIONA NICEA, Gray.
Occurs throughout the warm months at low elevations. It is found also in
Western China.
161. HYPOLIMNAS BOLINA, Linnaeus.
A low-level butterfly occurring nearly all the year round commonly. It is
found in Western China.
162. HYPOLIMNAS MISIPPUS, Linnaeus.
Very rare in Sikhim. The only females from thence that I have seen have
been of the first form (named diocippus by Cramer).
163. ARGYNNIS NIPHE, Linnaeus.
Occurs almost in every month in the year, most usually at an elevation of
4,000 feet. I have bred the larva at Tukvar, where it was found feeding on wild
violets amongst the tea bushes.
164. ARGYNNIS CHILDRENI, Gray.
Occurs commonly at Tonglo at 9,000 to 12,000 feet, about midsummer. It is
found also in the Khasi Hills, and in Western, Central and Eastern China.
165. ARGYNNIS LATONA, Linnaeus.
Very common in the interior, and has been taken as low as 5,000 feet in the
station of Darjeeling during the winter. It occurs all along the road from
Kalimpong to Pedong, and is found also in Western China.
166. ARGYNNIS GEMMATA, Butler.
Apparently very common in July at high elevations in native Sikhim. Mr.
Elwes has seen it on the high Chola Range.
167. ARG.YNNIS (Brenthis) CLARA, Blanchard.
Mr. J. Claude White obtained a single specimen at a high elevation in native
Sikhim in 1891.
168. ARGYNNJS (Brenthis) ALTISSIJ'fIA, Elwes.
Very rare; has only, I believe, been obtained on two occasions by Mr. Elwes'
native collectors in native Sikhim at an even higher elevation than that at which
A. gemmnata is found.
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140 BUTTERFLIES.

169. ARGYNNIS (Brenthis) PALES, Wiener Verzeichniss.

Mr. Elwes had three bad specimens brought him by natives from
Chumbi and Bhutan, where it, doubtless, occurs at high elevations. I
have never seen an example of this species from Sikhim.
170. DWHORRAGIA NESIMACHUS, Boisduval.
This species has a wide range, from Kulu, Kumaon, Nepal, Sikhim,
Bhutan, Assam, Burmah, the Malay Peninsula, Sumatra, Java, Borneo, the
Philippine Isles, Celebes, to China and Japan. In Sikhim it occurs somewhat
rarely throughout the year at low elevations. Mr. Grose Smith has recently
described an allied species from Western China as D. nesseus.
171. CALINAGA BUDDHA, Moore.
One of the rarest of the Sikhim butterflies, and has never, I believe, been
caught by a European in that. region. Mr. A. Grahame Young has, however,
captured seven himself in the Western Himalayas; and seen at least fifty on the
wing. It appears to be single-brooded and to occur in the spring in native
Sikhim.
172. PENTHEMA LISARDA, Doubleday.
Occurs in thick forest. Major J. F. Malcolm Fawcett has taken it at 2,000
feet at Singla in May, and Mr. Dudgeon at 1,500 feet in Daling during May and
June commonly. It is single-brooded. I possess specimens from Upper Burmah.
173. NEUROS1GMA DOUBLEDAII, Westwood.
Rare in Sikhim and Bhutan at low elevations, and is apparently
double-brooded, occurring in April and May and again in October, The species
is better known perhaps as N. siva, Westwood.
174. LEBADEA ISMENE, Doubleday and Hewitson.
Not rare up to the 3,000 feet throughout the warm weather.
175. LUIENITIS DANAVA, Moore.
rrhe male is rather I'are, but is found from April to October from
1,500 to 7,000 feet. The female is excessively scarce. It occurs also in Western
and Central China.
176. LIMENITIS DARAXA, Doubleday and Hewitson.
Occurs from 1,000 to 8,000 feet, and throughout the warm months.
The female is very rare, and does not differ from the male except in
the green macular band on the upperside of both wings being somewhat
broader, and the submarginal series of oval black spots (especially those on
the hindwing) being more prominent. Found also in Sumatra.
177. LIMENITIS ZAYLA, Doubleday and Hewitson.
Occurs 'not uncommonly in dense forests at 6,000 to 8,000 feet from June
to August. It swarms on tne Labah range in Daling.
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178. LIMENITIS ZULEMA, Doubleday and Hewitson.

Very rare in Sikhim, less rarely found at Daling in May and June from 1,500 to
5,000 feet;" also at Sivoke in April. It occurs also In
Assam and Upper Burmah.
179. LIMENITIS DUDU, Westwood.
Found from 5,000 to 8,000 feet from June to August in dense forests. Flies
round tops of trees on the highest points of ridges.
180. LUIENITIS (Moduza) PROCRIS, Cramer.
Common at low elevations from March to December.
181. ATHYMA PERIUS, Linnaeus.
This species is found from Cashmere to Formosa and Hainan,and probably in most
of the Indo-Malayan islands. It is common in Sikhim at low elevations, and flies
all through the summer. The eastern Darjeeling and Bhutan form is unusually dark,
the ground colour of the underside being suffused with brownish.
182. ATHYMA .JINA, Moore.
Rare, and confined to the zone of heavy forests between 6,000 and 8,000
feet, where Mr. Elwes has taken it in July. It also occurs in
April. I t is found in "Western and Central China.
183. ATHYMA MAHESA, Moore.
Common in the low valleys from March to December. Mr. Leech has
described a very dark local race of this species occurring in Western China as var.
serica.
184. ATHYMA OPALINA, Kollar.
This species is at least double-brooded, and is found from 2,000 to 7,000
feet elevation from April to October. It is also seasonally dimorphic; the form
which occurs in the dry-season (spring) is quite typical A. opalina, while that
found in the wet-season is much darker, richer-caloured, and narrower-banded,
and has been named A. orientalis by Mr Elwes. Colonel Swinhoe says that the
latter" appears to be a good constant form," which it certainly is not. He records
A. opalina also from the Khasi Hills, but puts two other species of Athyma
between it and A. orientalis A. opalina occurs in Western and Central China,
and Alpheraky has described a variety of it from Choui-tchin-pou as A.
orientalis, var. constricta.
185. ATHYMA SELENOPHORA, Kollar. .
Males common, females rare at low elevations throughout the summer. The
female was described as a distinct species by Mr. Moore under the name of A.
bahula.
186. ATHYMA ZEROCA, Moore.
Males common, females rare. Occurs from the level of the Terai up to 4,000
feet from March to December.
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142 BUTTERFLIES.

187. ATHYMA CAMA, Moore.

Males common, females rare. Found at the same time of the year and at the
same elevation as the two preceding species.
188. ATHYMA INARA, Doubleday and Hewitson.
A. inarina, Butler, may be dropped, that species probably being a fictitious one.
A. inara is common in Sikhim at low elevations all through the summer.
189. ABROTA MIRUS, Fabricius.
Whether this species (= A. ganga, Moore) is really distinct from the next
cannot, I fear, be conclusively determined until one or the other or both have
been bred. In the male of .A. mirus the four black bands on the upperside of the
hind wing are at equal distances apart. Dr. J. G. Pilcher once had brought to him
a pair of this species which had been caught in copula. The female was olive-
green on the upperside. Both sexes are much rarer than A. jumna, Moore.
190. ABROTA JUMNA, Moore.
In this. species the male has the two median black bands on the upperside of the
hind wing placed close together, the two outer bands far removed from them. Its
female has the bands yellowish on the upperside. Both species occur together in
Sikhim at low elevations from May to August, are by no means common, and
appear to be confined to Sikhim. The only other known species in the
genus is .A. pratti, Leech, from Western China.
191. EUTHALIA (Symphaedra) NAIS, Forster.
A butterfly found commonly in the plains, but very rarely in the hills. It occurs
very sparingly in Sikhim, but Mr. G. C. Dudgeon has taken it on the outer spurs
in Daling facing the Western Duars.
192. EUTHALIA (Lexias) DIRTEA, Fabricius.
Has been recorded from Nepal, and is common in Bhutan, but is very rare
in Sikhim, which lies between the two. "Symphoedra" khasiana, recently
described by Colonel Swinhoe from the Khasi Hills, is an inconstant varietal
form only of E. dirtea.
193. EUTHALIA (Dophla) IVA, Moore.
This species was originally described from Sikhim. No specimen
has of recent years been obtained in that well-worked region, except a single
example in Mr. Dudgeon's collection from Daling, 6,000 feet, taken in August.
I have lately purchased a pair from Manipur.
194. EUTHALIA (Dophla) NARA, Moore.
This species was described from a female, its male being subsequently
described as "Adolias" anyte by Hewitson. It is very rare in Sikhim, and is
probably found only in the heavy forests. It
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BUTTERFLIES. 143

is less rare east of the Tista river, where it occurs in July and September at 6,000
feet elevation.
195. EUTHALIA (Dophla) SAHADEVA, Moore.
Originally described from a male. I described its female for the first time in
the Proceedings of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, 1892, p. 145. It is a very rare
species in Sikhim, where it is found at 5,000 feet in August and September, but
seems to be more common to the east in Bhutan and in the Khasi Hills, and
occurs in Western China. Mr. Leech has described and figured the female as E.
pyrrha.
196. EUTHALIA (Dophla) DURGA, Moore.
Of recent years owing to the great destruction of the forests for the
cultivation of tea, this species has become very scarce in Sikhim. Otto Moller
obtained it from June to August from 3,000 to 5,000 feet elevation. It is still
fairly common in Bhutan. It is the largest known species in the subgenus.
197. EUTHALIA (Dophla) DUDA, Staudinger.
Probably the rarest species of the genus occurring in Sikhim. I possess a
single pair only, the female from Bhutan, the male from the Khasi Hills. Dr.
Staudinger described it from two males; Mr. Elwes also possesses two males,
and Mr. Dudgeon one male-all from Sikhim.
198. EUTHALIA FRANClAE, Gray.
Common in Sikhim and Bhutan at 5,000 feet; it is found also in Nepal, the
Naga, Khasi, Chin-Lushai, and Karen Hills. It probably flies about midsummer
in the heavy forest zone in Sikhim.
199. EUTHALIA TELCHlNIA, Menetries.
Occurs in the low valleys from 2,000 to 3,000 feet from April to October,
rather rarely. The female was described as a distinct species under the name of
"Adolias" aphidas by Hewitson.
200. EUTHALIA APPIADES, Menetries.
The commonest species of the genus occurring in Sikhim. It is
found throughout the year at low elevations.
201. EUTHALIA JAHNU, Moore.
Rare at low elevations; probably found throughout the warm
months. I ts male was described by Mr. Moore as a distinct species
under the name of (I Adolias" sananda.
202. EUTHALIA GARUDA, Moore.
A common species in the low valJeys and Terai, where it is to be found all
the year round. It is a variable species, the dry-season forms being much
lighter coloured than the wet, and the white spots on the forewing in both
sexes differing greatly in different specimens in number and size. Colonel
Swinhoe has recently described one of these
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varietal forms as E. merillia from the Khasi Hills. His E. delmana from
Cheerapunji is the same species as. my E. eriphyloe, which I possess from the
Khasi Hills as well as from Tenasserim. :My type specimen is very pale, and
evidently belonged to the dry-season form, while E. delmana probably
represents the rains' form. The species occurs in Sumatra also.
203. EUTHALIA PHEMIUS, Doubleday and Hewitson.
Not uncommon in Sikhim at low elevations from April to December. The
female sex was described by Mr. Moore as a distinct species under the name of "
Adolias" sancara.
204. EUTHALIA JAMA, Felder.
Very rare in Sikhim, probably found at low elevations throughout
the summer.
205. EUTHALIA LUBENTINA, Cramer.
Rare (the female commoner than the male) at low elevations from
April to October.
206. EUTHALIA ANOSIA, Moore.
Extremely rare; has been obtained at Singla in April and Octo.
bel'. It is found generally in river-beds, where it is fond of resting with outspread
wings on the face of large boulders, from which it is then scarcely
distinguisbable.
207. EUTHALIA (Felderia) LEPIDEA, Butler.
I have taken this species in the hot valley below Badamtam in October; it is
fairly common in the Terai and in Bhutan and probably flies all through the
summer.
208. EUTHALIA (Nora) KESAVA, Moore.
One of the commonest species at low elevations, 2,000 to 3,000 feet, and
flies from April to December.
209. PYRAMEIS CARDUI, Linnreus.
At low elevations this cosmopolitan butterfly is found throughout
the year, but more commonly in the winter, in the summer it is found
up to 12,000 feet.
210. PYRAMEIS INDICA, Herbst.
Has the same times of appearance, and is found in the same places
as P. cardui, Linnaeus. It occurs also in China, Amurland, Corea, and Japan.
211. VANESSA CANACE, Linnaeus.
Never common, but occurs up to 6,000 feet throughout the warm
months. Found in Western and Central China.
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BUTTERFLIES. 145

212. VANESSA ANTIOPA, Linnaeus.

Obtained by native collectors only in Chumbi or Bhutan in July
and August. It occurs in Western China as well as in Japan.
213. VANESSA CASCHIMIRENSIS, Kollar.
Occurs from 2,000 to 12,000 feet, and at low elevations flies in
every month of the year. The larva as usual feeds on different species of nettle.
214. VANESSA RIZANA, Moore.
A few specimens have been obtained from time to time at very high
elevations in native Sikhim by native collectors.
215. VANESSA LADAKENSIS, Moore.
Obtained by native collectors only, probably on the other side of the passes,
in Tibet.
216. VANESSA XANTHOMELAS, Wiener Verzeichniss.
Recorded by Mr. Moore from Darjeeling, but confined in India as far as I
know to the Western Himalayas.
217. VANESSA (Grapta) C-ALBUM, Linnaeus, var. TIBETANA, Elwes.
Obtained only by native collectors in Chumbi and north-west Bhutan. Mr.
Leech records this ocal race from Ta-chien-lu in Western China in July.
218. SYMBRENTHIA HIPPOCLUS, Cramer.
Common in Sikhim all through the warm months up to 6,000 feet
elevation. The larva feeds on Girardinia heteJ'ophjlla, Dcne. The butterfly is
found in Western and Central China.
219. SYMBRENTHIA COTANDA, Moore.
More generally kllown as S. hypselis, Godart, but that species appears to be
confined to Java. I have recently described the Indian, Burman and Malay
Peninsula species as S sinis, but S. cotanda is an older name. It is, next to S
hippoclus, Cramer, the commonest species in the genus occurring in Sikhim,
and is found up to .4OOO feet almost throughout the year.
220. SYMBRENTHIA NIPHANDA, Moore.
A rather rare species, occurring up to 5,000 feet from March to October.
Mr. Dudgeon has taken it several times at 3,500 feet on the Tukvar spur; it is
also plentiful at Sivoke in March.
221. SYMBRENTHIA SILANA, de Niceville.
Still rarer than 8. niphanda, Moore, and has been found at low
elevations only in March and May. It occurs in Bhutan also.
222. SYMBRENTHIA ASTHALA, Moore.
Has been brought in considerable numbers in April, May, and
October from native :Sikhim by native collectors. It is very plentiful
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at Sivoko in March. Found also in Western and Central China according to Mr.
Leech, but the specimen he figures as S. asthala is a typical male of S.
hippoclus, Cramer.
223. CYRESTIS THYODAMAS, Boisduval.
Occurs commonly from March to December up to about 6,000 feet.
I t is found in Western China, .Japan, and in the Loochoo Islands. The larva is a
queer object; it .has two long horns on the bead, a still larger one on the middle
of the back (on the fifth segment), and a similar one on tho twelfth segment.
The pupa has two very long processes projecting forwards from the head and
slightly upwardly curved containing the palpi, which remind one of the long"
snout" of the imagines of the genus Libythea. The larva feeds on the leaves of
various kinds of figs (Fi'cus Indica, Linn., F. nemoralis, Wall, &c.)
224. CYRESTIS COCLES, Fabricius.
Extremely rare in Sikhim, which is probably the westernmost limit of its
range. Single specimens have been taken at Singla and Sivoke, at low
elevations, in the spring and autumn. The difference in coloration observed in
this species may be due to seasonal causes. Mr. Dudgeon has observed that the
green form occurs in March, and the brown one in August and September.
225. CYRESTIS (Chcrsonesia) RISA, Doubleday and Hewitson. Occurs
somewhat commonly at low elevations throughout the warm months of the year.
226. KALLIMA INACHUS, Boisduval.
Common at low eleyations from March to November. It is found also in
Western and Central China. When frigtened it invariably settles, as far as I have
noticed, with closed wings on a twig or branch. It sometimes, as Elwes points
out, settles with open wings, but on these occasions it has, I feel sure, no
thought of enemies. It is particularly fond of the juice from the bark of certain
trees, and eagerly sips up the "sugar" of moth collectors. Stale beer, also old
beer casks, are an irresistible attraction to these butterflies. Mr. G. C. Dudgeon
has bred the larva in Bhutan on a common blue.flowered plant named
Strobilanthes capitatus, T. Anderson. It may be interesting to note that while the
Sumatran and Javan species of Kallima have yellow-banded males and bluish-
white-banded females, the Bornean species is yellow-banded in both sexes like
K. inachus.
227. KALLIMA KNYVETTII, de Nicevil1e.
Brought from near Buxa in Bhutan year after year, but never in large
numbers, by native collectors. Mr. Elwes records it from the Naga Hills at about
5,000 feet.
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228. DOLESCHALLIA POLIBETE, Cramer.

A common species up to 4,000 feet from April to December.
The larva is said by Mr G. C. Dudgeon to feed on various species of nettles, and
is very conspicuous and common on the Tukvarspur at 3,500 feet.
229. CHARAXES (Eulepis) DOLON, Westwood.
Apparently single-brooded, and occurs at low elevations only in
April and May. FEMALE. EXPANSE: 4. 3 inches. DESCRIPTION : Larger
than the male, but agreeing with it in every respect, except that the tails are
about one fourth longer , a little broader, especial1y at the tips, which are
bluntly rounded instead of being gradually produced to a point. I have only seen
one specimen of this sex, taken in Bhutan on 2nd May, 1892, and now in the
collf,Jction of Mr G. C. Dudgeon.
230.CHARAXES (Eulepis) EUDAMIPPUS, Doubleday.
A much commoner species in Sikhim in the spring than C. dolon,
'Westwood. Occurs from April to August according to Otto Mul1er. Found at
low elevations only. The female has the anterior tail of the hindwing widest at
its end, where it is obliquely truncated; the male has this tail quite narrow
throughout, and ending in a point.
231. CHARAXES (Eulepis) ATHAMAS, Drury.
The commonest species of the genus occurring in Sikhim, and found from
April to December from 6,000 feet to the level of the Terai. The larva feeds on a
species of' plant very like a prickly Mimosa. Colonel Swinhoe gives C. bharata,
Felder, as a distinct species from the Khasi Hills, and places as a synonym C.
arja, de Niceville (nee Felder). He is altogether in error, and cannot have studied
the descriptions of these two species carefully as I did when writing
"The Butterflies of India, Burmah and Ceylon." Since the second volume of
that work appeared dealing with the genus Charaxes, I have visited Vienna,
and find that C. 'bharata, Felder, and C. arja, Felder, have been correctly
identified by me, as proved by an examination of the types in Dr. C. Felder's
collection.
232. CHARAXES (Eulepis) ARJA, Felder.
Common at low elevations in Sikhim throughout the year, though
less so than C athamas, Drury. It may be known from that species by the
discal band of both wings and the subapical spot of the forewing on the
upperside being white instead of green. The green colour of C. athamas is
much brighter in freshly-caught specimens than in old cabinet ones, as it fades
very quickly.
233. CHARAXES FABIUS, Fabricius.
A butterfly of the plains, but stragglers have been taken in Sikhim at low
elevations from May to July. The larva feeds on the leaves of the tamarind tree.
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148 BUTTERFLIES.

234. CHARAXES (Haridra) MARMAX, Westwood.

Oocurs from April to October at low elevations commonly. The
female, as usual in the genus, is much rarer than the male.
235. CHARAXES (Haridra) LUNAWARA, Butler.
Much rarer than C. marmax, Westwood; occurs at the same
seasons and elevations as that species.
236. CHARAXES (Haridra) ARISTOGITON, Felder.
Occurs with the two preceding species. I have examined the type specimen in
Vienna, and find that I have correctly identified the species. I have had no
difficulty in discriminating C aristogiton, C. lunawara, and C. marmax
287. CHARAXES (Haridra) HIERAX, Felder
Distinctly rare in Sikhirn, and occurs at low elevations only.
238. CHARAXES (Haridra) HIPPONAX, Felder.
Much commoner than C. hierax, Felder, with which it is -found
239. CHARAXES (Haridra) JALINDER, Butler.
Recorded by the describer from Darjeeling, but I have not been
able to recognise the species from thence with certainly.
240. CHARAXES (Haridra) HINDIA, Butler.
Was originally described from Sikhim.
241. CHARAXES (Haridra) PLEISTOANAX, Felder.
Common in Sikhim throughout the summer months at low elevations. The
five last-named species are very doubtfully distinct. The extreme forms can be
instantly recognised, but numberless intermediate forms occur which. connect
the extreme forms together into one continuous chain. In the Khasi Hills even
more named forms occur, Colonel Swinhoe citing eight in addition to the three
first named Haridras which I believe to be distinct, making eleven tawny
Charaxes in all from one limited area.

Family LEMONIIDAE.
Subfamily LIBYTHAEINAE.
242. LIBYTHE MYRRHA, Godart.
Found commonly at low elevations throughout the warm months.
The first brood appears in June. Occurs also at Moupin in Western China.
243. LIBYTHEA LEPITA, Moore.
Much rarer than L. 'myrrha, Godart, and occurs at similar places and
seasons. Found also in Western and Central China. and in Japan.
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BUTTERFLIES. 149

Subfamily NEMEOBIIN E.
244. ZEMEROS FLEGYAS, Cramer.
Excessively common from 1,000 to 6,000 feet almost throughout
the year. The larva feeds on several species of Moesa. It occurs right across
China to near Ningpo on the east coast.
245. DODONA DIPOEA, Hewitson.
Common from 6,000 to 10,000 feet, from April to December,
in forests.
246. DODONA OUIDA, Moore.
Occurs in Sikhim from 3,000 to 10,000 feet, and is not rare, flying
throughout the warm months from March to September. Occurs in Western
China.
247. DODONA ADONIRA, Hewitson.
A forest butterfly, found between 5,000 and 9,000 feet, never commonly east of
the Tista river. I have caught it in October; it probably flies all through the
summer. It is much less rare in Bhutan and Daling.
248. DODONA EGEON, Doubleday-and Hewitson.
Recorded by Otto Moller at 1,000 feet in May. Very rare in Sikhim,
commoner in Bhutan.
249. DODONA EUGENES, Bates.
Found at the same times and places with the much commoner D. dipoea,
Hewitson. Mr. Leech has named a local race of this species from Western and
Central China, D. eugenes, var. maculosa.
250. STIBOGES :NYMPHIDIA, Butler.
Occurs, but not commonly, in Bhutan in the summer and autumn. As usual with
this species, the males seem to be rarer than the females. It is found also in
Western China commonly.
251. ABISARA FYLLA, Doubleday and Hewitson.
Occurs commonly at low elevations throughout the warm months.
Found also in Western and Central China.
252. ABISARA NEOPHRON, Hewitson.
Met with at low elevations only from March to November.
253. ABISARA CHELA, de Niceville.
Rarer than A. neophron, Hewitson; occurs at the same seasons and
elevations, and perhaps at a little higher elevation.
254. ABISARA SUFFUSA, Moore.
Mr. Otto Moller obtained three specimens of this species in the
Terai, and Mr. Dudgeon has taken it in Daling in May and September;. It is a
plains' rather than a hill butterfly.
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Family LYCAENIDAE.
255. GERYDUS BOISDUVALI, Moore.
Not uncommon at low elevations from April to October. When
flying it has the appearance of a sombre.coloured geometrid moth
. 256. PARAGERYDUS HORSFIELDI, Moore.
Recorded doubtfully from Sikhim by Elwes. The nearest point
to Sikhim that I have received the species is Chittagong. I very much question
its occurrence in the Eastern Himalayas.
257. ALLOTINUS DRUMILA, Moore.
Very rare; has been recorded at low elevations from March to May. Mr
Dudgeon has received a good many females from the Leesh river in Daling in
March, but no males. Herr J. Rober has proposed the genus Miletographa for
this species.
258. ALLOTINUS MULTISTRIGATUS, de Niceville.
Even rarer than A. drumila, Moore, and occurs in the same localities with it.
The males are more frequently obtained than the females. Both species occur in
the Khasi Hills.
259. PORITIA HEWITSONI, Moore.
Occurs throughout the year up to 4,000 feet. I have never seen it alive. Mr.
J. Gammie tells me that at Mongpoo in the middle of November it can be taken
in thousands, both males and females, and occurs. from the bottoms of the
vaIleys up to nearly, if not quite, 4,000 feet. It is fond of setlling on bamboo
leaves, where it exhibits a .flash of the most superb blue or green as it opens and
shuts its wings.
260. PITHECOPS HYLAX, Fabricius.
Not uncommon at low elevations throughout the warm months. Its pupa
resembles the face of an ape.
261. NEOPITHECOPS ZALMORA, Butler.
Common at low elevations from May to October.
262. SPALGIS EPIUS, Westwood.
Rare in the low villages from May to November. Its larva is carnivorous, and
feeds on Cocci ("mealy-bugs"); its pupa, like that of Pthecops, resembles a
monkey's face.
263. T ARAKA HAMADA, Druce.
Occurs from the. level of the Terai up to 5,000 feet, and flies from
April to October. It is not very common. It is found also in Western and Central
China and in Sumatra.
264. MEGISBA MALAYA, Horsfield.
The tailed form is very common in Sikhim, but I have seen only two specimens
from thence of the tailless form. It is a
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BUTTERFLIES. 151

common species in Sikhim throughout the warm months at low elevations.

265. LYCAENA LEHANA, Moore.
This species was originally described as Polyommatus lehanus from
Ladak. The Sikhim form was named Lycoena pheretes, Hubner var.
asiatica, by Elwes. The Himalayan form of L. pheretes may be distinct from the
European and Central Asian form, but the Ladak and Sikhim forms are
practically identical. In Sikhim this species occurs only in the interior at very
high elevations.
266. CHILADES LAIUS, Cramer.
Occurs only at the foot of the hills in the Terai, where the larva
feeds on the wild citron. It is a common butterfly of the plains. It is highly
seasonally dimorphic, the .dry-season form being true C.laius, the wet. season
form is C varunana, Moore.
267. CHILADES TROCHILUS, Freyer.
Found only in the Terai.
268. CYANIRIS MARGINATA, de Niceville.
A common species at about 7,000 feet elevation. Colonel Swinhoe says
that. in describing this species I unfortunately omitted to give Mr. Moore the
credit for the MS. name he had proposed for it. If Colonel Swinhoe will refer to
my original description of this species, he will find that M.r. Moore's MS. name
is duly credited to him. It is needless to say that the law of priority has in this, as
in all other cases, to be rigidly enforced, more especially in the present instance
as there is no dispute about the dates on which the descriptions of this species by
Mr. Moore and myself were published. Colonel Swinhoe gives Mr. Moore as the
describer of this and some other species, while admitting that Mr. Moore's
descriptions have not priority.
269. CYANIRIS ALBOCAERULEUS, Moore.
Rare everywhere; occurs in Sikhim from 2,000 to 8,000 feet in
nearly every month in the year. It is found also in Western China, Japan, and
the Loochoo Islands.
270. CYANIRIS TRANSPECTUS, Moore.
A commom species, found from 1,000 to 9,000 feet elevation from April to
November.
271. CYANIRIS LATIMARGO, Moore.
Mr. Moore says he has this species from Sikhim I have so far
failed to identify it. Colonel Swinhoe places it as a synonym of C. transpectus,
Moore.
272. CYANIRIS PUSPA, Horsfield.
One of the commonest species of the genus wherever it is found
(it has a very wide range, from Cashmere to Formosa, and occurs
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152 BUTTERFLIES.

probably in all the Malay islands); in Sikhim it flies from the level of the Terai
up to 10,000 feet, throughout the warm months.
273. CYANIRIS PLACIDA, de Niceville.
Common in Sikhim from 3,000 to 5,000 feet, probably at other
elevations, throughout the warm months.
274. CYANIRIS JYNTEANA, de Niceville.
Found from 2,000 to 9,000 feet. It is a . common species througout the year.
275. CYANIRIS SIKKIMA, Moore.
Described from Sikhim, but I have failed to recognise it.
276. CYANIRlS DILECTUS, Moore.
A common species from the lower valleys up to 9,000 feet. It is found also
in Western and Central China.
277. ZlZERA MAHA, Kollar.
Occurs throughout the year from 6,000 feet down to the level of the Terai,
and is especially common on tea-garden paths at about 4,000 feet. The
following new synonyms may be added to the already extensive synonymy of
this species :-Zizera oriens, Butler, Plbeius albooceruleus, Rober, and
Lyecoena opalina and L. marginata, both of Poujade.
278. ZlZERA LYSlMON, Hubner.
A butterfly of the plains rather than of the hills. It occurs not uncommonly in the
Terai. This little butterfly is found in Europe, Africa, Asia, Australia, and in
many islands.
279. ZlZERA GAlKA, Trimen.
Occurs only in the Terai.
280. ZlZERA OTIS, Fabricius.
Common in the Terai, but stragglers are found at the foot of the hills and in the
lower' outer valleys. Mr. Leech records this species from Western China and the
Loochoo Islands as Z. sangra, Moore. The" Lycoena " thibetensis of Poujade
may be added to the synonymy of Z. otis.
281. AZANUS URANUS, Butler.
A rare species which Otto Moller took in the Terai only in July and August.
282. ORTHOMIELLA PONTIS, Elwes.
First discovered by Elwes on the bridge over the Rangbi Jhora, on the road
from Darjeeling to Serail, at an elevation of 6,000 feet in May. Mr. J. Gammie
informs me that in subsequent years in May it appeared on the Serail road for a
few days in thousands. Mr. Leech gives the" Chilades?" sinensis of Elwes, from
Central and Eastern China, as a synonym of O. pontis.
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BUTTERFLIES. 153

283. LYCAENESTHES EMOLUS, Godart.

Very common at low elevations from March to October.
284. LYCAENESTHES LYCAENINA, Felder.
Rarer than L. emolus, Godart, but found at the same elevation and season.
Lieutenant E. Y. Watson has examined the type specimen of L. lycambes,
Hewitson, which is recorded from Sikhim by Mr. Elwes,and informs me that it
is without doubt identical with L. lycoenina.
285. NIPHANDA CYMBIA, de Niceville.
Common in the low valleys throughout the warm months; the males rarer than
the females. The female of the dry-season form has the ground-colour white
with a sprinkling of blue scales near the base on the upperside of both wings.
This species occurs also in Upper,Burmah.
286. EVERES ARGIADES, Pallas.
Not very rare at low elevations throughout the warm months.
287. NACADUBA MACROPHTHALMA, Felder.
I have seen the type of this species in the Vienna museum, and possess
specimens of it from the Nicobar Isles. The type has the whitish lines on the
underside much narrower and finer than specimens from India. In Sikhim it is a
common species at low elevations throughout the summer months.
288. NACADUBA PAVANA, Horsfield.
May be known at once from the preceding species by all the whitish lines
on the underside of both wings being much narrower. In Sikhim it is a
somewhat rare species.
289. NACADUBA HERMUS, Felder.
N. viola, Moore, is a synonym of this species. It is rare in Sikhim at low
elevations, and occurs from May to October.
290. NACADUBA ATRATA, Horsfield.
A rare species found at low elevations throughout the warmer months. I have
recorded N. prominens, Moore, from Sikhim, but that species had, I think, better
be dropped as a synonym of N. atrata, and it is highly probable that" Lycoena
"beroe, Felder, is another synonym.
291. NACADUBA COELESTIS, de NicevilIe.
Very rare at low elevations only. I have recently received it from Upper
Burmah.
292. NACADUBA BHUTEA, de Niceville.
Not very rare, and occurs at low elevations, from 1,000 to 4,000
feet elevation, from April to October.
293. NACADUBA NOREIA, Felder.
I have seen; the type of this species in the Vienna museum. It is a female,
'and was described from Ceylon. It is what I have called
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154 BUTTERFLIES.

the tailless form of N. ardates, Moore. N. noreia being an older name, N.

ardates has to be sunk as a synonym. N. noreia in both its tailed and tailless
forms is very common in Sikhim at low elevations throughout the year.
294. NACADUBA DANA, de Niceville.
Rare in Sikhim as elsewhere; males have been taken in the Terai and up to 7,000
feet elevation. The female is very rare.
295. JAM IDES BOCHUS, Cramer.
Occurs commonly at low elevations and up to the top of Senchal, 9,000 feet,
throughout the rains from May to October. It is found also in Central China.
296. LAMPIDES ELPIS, Godart.
A common species from the level of the Terai to 4,000 feet, and is found
even higher. Occurs all through the warm months. It is seasonal1y dimorphic.
The larva feeds on the fruit of the cardamom.
297. LAMPIDES CELENO, Cramer.
This species is better known under its synonymic name of L. oelianus,
Fabricius. In Sikhim it is found with the last, and occurs equally commonly. It is
strongly seasonally dimorphic.
298. CATOCHRYSOPS STRABO, Fabricius.
Occurs from April to November, and from the level of the Terai upto 3,000 feet.
299. CATOCHRYSOPS CNEJUS, Fabricius.
Not so common as C. strabo, Fabricius, but occurs at the same times and
places. It has been recently discovered in Western China.
300. CATOCHRYSOPS PANDAVA, Horsfield.
Strongly seasonally dimorphic; the wet-season form is true C. pandav'a, the
dry-season form is C. bengalia, de Niceville. Occurs at low elevations
throughout the year.
301. TARUCUS THEOPHRASTUS, Fabricius.
Otto Moller has taken this species in the Terai only.
302. T ARUCUS PLINIUS, Fabricius.
Occurs sparsely at low elevations and in the Terai. It is one of the earliest
butterflies to emerge in the spring.
303. CASTALIUS ROSIMON, Fabricius. .
Common in the Terai, and stragglers are found in the low valleys
and outer hills throughout the year.
304. CASTALIUS ANANDA, de Niceville.
Rare at low elevations from March to December. It is found as south as
Sumatra.
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305. CASTALIUS ELNA, Hewitson.

Common up to 4,000 or 5,000 feet from April to October. It is seasonally
dimorphic, but the different forms have not been named. Mr. Elwes records C.
roxus, Godart, from Sikhim, but it does not, I believe, occur further north than
Burmah.
306. CASTALIUS DECIDA Hewitson.
Common at low elevations from April to October. It is seasonally
dimorphic, the rains'-form being C. hamatus, Moore, an intermediate form is
the true C. decidia, the dry-season form is C. interruptus, de Niceville.
307. POLYOMMATUS BOETICUS, Linnaeus.
Found in Sikhim from the level of the Terai up to 10,000 feet, but never very
commonly at the higher elevations.
308. AMBLYPODIA ANITA, Hewitson.
Mr. Elwes records a single specimen from Sikhim. It not at all improbably
occurs in the Terai, but is not likely to be found in the hills.
309. IRAOTA TIMOLEON, Stoll.
Mr. Otto Moller obtained three males and six females of this species at low
elevations and in the Terai, some taken ill July, but it is a very rare species in
Sikhim.
310. IRAOTA MAECENAS, Fabricius.
Mr. Otto Moller had only three female specimens in his collection, all from the
Terai, taken in April, November, and December, so it must be even rarer than I.
timoleon, Stoll, from which as a species it is very doubtfully distinct, in which
opinion Mr. Dudgeon concurs. He has received numerous specimens of both
species taken together in Daling, all in May, and has seen the males flying
round India-rubber and other trees of the genus Ficus at 1,500 feet.
311. SURENDRA QUERCETORUM, Moore.
Almost throughout the year, at low elevations. Both sexes common, but the
female commoner than the male. The larva feeds on different species of Acacia.
312.ARRHOPALA CENTAURUS, Fabricius. .

The local race of this species found in Sikhim, Bhutan, and

Assam has been named A. pirithous by Mr. Moore. It is a very common
species at low elevations in Sikhim, and occurs nearly all the year round. The
larva feeds on the young leaves of the sal tree, and is carefully attended by the
large and fierce red tree ant, (Ecophylla smaragdina, Fabricius.
313. ARRHOPALA SILHETENSIS, Hewitson.
Excessively rare. I possess a single male example from Jalpaiguri, obtained by
Mr. A. V. Knyvett and killdly given to me. The
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species is probably a straggler at Jalpaiguri, :its ,head-quarters being almost

certainly in the rich Terai forest at the foot of the hills.
314. ARRHOPALA ARAMA, de Niceville.
I have a single male of this species from Sikhim in my collection, but do not
know when it was captured or the exact locality. Major C. T. Bingham took a
second specimen in May on the road from Kalimpong to Padong at 4,700 feet.
Mr. Dudgeon possesses a single female taken at a low elevation in September.
It must be very rare in the Eastern Himalayas, and is found also in Burmah.
315. ARRHOPALA AMANTES, Hewitson.
Occurs not uncommonly in the Terai and Low on the hills.
316. ARRHOPALA ABSEUS, Hewitson.
Common up to 9,000 feet, and flies from June to December. The larva feeds on
the leaves of the sal tree, and is attended by the ant,
OEcophylla smaragdina, Fabricius.
317. ARRHOPALA OENEA, Hewitson.
A rare species in Sikhim; has been recorded from low elevations from October
to December and again in February.
318. ARRUOPALA ATRAX, Hewitson.
A true plains' species, but occurs in the Sikhim Terai and low valleys up to
3,000 feet, from April to October.
319. ARRHOPALA SINGLA, de Niceville.
A very rare species in Sikhim and found from 1,500 up to 5,000 feet in May and
June. It seems not quite so scarce to the east of the Tista River, and has been
taken in Upper Burmah.
320. ARRHOPALA TEESTA, de Niceville.
Very similar to, though quite distinct from, A. singla, deNiceville, and is much
the more common species of the two in Sikhim, and occurs with it at low
elevations. This species may be the same as A. turbata, Butler, described from
Nikko in Japan, but I 1have not been able to compare males of the two species.
A. teesta has a wide range, being found not only in Sikhim, Assam, and
Burmah, but also in Sumatra and Java.
321. ARRHOPALA RAMA, Kollar.
Occurs in "'Sikhim at low elevations from April to October, and is
rather rare. It is found also at Kiukiang in Central China.
322. ARROPALA ASOKA, de Niceville.
A common species at low elevations from June to October.
323. ARRHOPALA ADRIANA, de Niceville.
Occurs at the same elevations and seasons as A. asoka, de Niceville, and is
even more common. It is found also in the Chin-Lushai Hills.
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324. ARRHOPALA FULGIDA, Hewitson.

Somewhat common from the level of the Terai up to 4,000 feet
throughout the rains. I have taken it in the forest below Barnesbeg
on the Lebong spur at about 3,000 feet elevation in October.
325. ARRHOPALA CAMDEO, :Moore.
In Sikhim this species occurs only, as far as I am aware, in the
Terai at the foot of the hills in July and August and as far south as Jalpaiguri. It
is common at Sivoke in May. It is found also in Assam and Upper Burmah.
326. ARRHOPALA EUMOLPHUS, Cramer.
Rather common at low elevations from March to December. The
female of this species is the A. bupola of Hewitson, recorded by Elwes from
Sikhim as a separate species. A. bazalus, Hewitson, recorded by the writer from
Sikhim, does not occur west of Assam. The specimens so recorded were
wrongly identified.
327. ARRHHOPALA MOELLERI, de Niceville.
Never common; occurs in the rains from June to October at low
elevations.
328. ARRHOPALA PARAMUTA, de NicevilIe.
Rather common at low elevations from April to October.
329. ARRHOPALA. PERIMUTA, Moore.
Very rare; found only in the low valleys from June to October
330 ARRHOPALA ARESTE, Hewitson.
Rare; has been taken at low elevations in February, and from
July to November.
331. ARRHOPALA (Acesina) PARAGANESA, de Niceville.
Rare; I have taken it at about 3,000 feet elevation. It flies in
April, May, and October.
332. CURETIS BULlS, Doubleday and Hewitson.
Extremely common in Sikhim at low elevations at all seasons
of the year, and as variable as common. The females in Sikhim
appear to be always white (not ochreous) on the upperside. C. discalis, Moore,
was described from Darjeeling, but is not separable from O. bulis. Mr. Elwes
records C. thetis, Drury, from Sikhim, but I have never seen typical specimens
of that species from thence.
333. LISTERIA DUDGEONII, de Niceville.
This type of specimen is unique, and was captured at 2.500 fect
elevation in Bhutan.
334. ZEPHYRUS ZOA, de Niceville.
Described from a single example taken on Tiger Hill, above
Darjeeling, at 8,000 feet elevation, in June. As no second specimen
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has been procured since the type was caught, I think it more than probable that it
is an aberration or "sport" only of the next species.
335. ZEPHYRUS DUMA, Hewitson.
Occurs in forests at 6,000 to 8,000 feet from June to August.
The male is rather common, the female very rare.
336. ZEPHYRUS ATAXUS, Doubleday and Hewitson.
Mr. Moore has recorded this species from Darjeeling, but I have never seen
a specimen from thence. It occurs in the Western Himalayas and Western China,
and is very rare there.
337. ZEPHYRUS SYLA, Kollar.
Very rare in Sikhim (common in the Western Himalayas), and
occurs from 8,000 to 10,000 feet elevation in the rains.
338. ZEPHYRUS PAVO, de Niceville.
Excessively rare. I described the species from a single example
taken near Buxa in Bhutan. Mr. W. Doherty obtained another
specimen at Margherita in Upper Assam.
339. CHRYSOPHANUS PHLAEAS, Linnaeus.
Recorded by Mr. Moore from Darjeeling (which is certainly incorrect) and
Bhutan. It is not improbable that this species does occur at high elevations in the
interior, but, of recent years at any rate, no collector has caught it in Sikhim,
Bhutan, or Western China.
340. ILERDA SENA, Kollar.
Recorded by Mr. Moore from Darjeeling, but this is surely an error. It may
perhaps occur in the interior of native Sikhim. It is a very common species in
the Western Himalayas.
341. ILERDA EPICLES, Godart.
The commonest species of the genus in Sikhim, and found throughout the year
at low elevations. The" Thecla " phoenicoparyphus of Holland, described from
Hainan island off the China coast, is, as it deserves to be from the portentous
length of its name, a synonym of this species. It occurs in Western China also.
342. ILERDA MOOREI, Hewitson.
Occurs at considerable elevations in native Sikhim, and has been
recorded also from Bhutan under the name of I. tamu, Kollar.
343. ILERDA ANDROCLES, Doubleday and Hewitson.
Recorded by Mr. Moore from Darjeeling, but I think incorrectly.
It is found in the Western Himalayas from Cashmere to Kumaon, and
again in the Khasi Hills.
344. ILERDA VIRIDIPUNCTATA, de Niceville.
This species is confined in India (as far as I know) to Kumaon and
Sikhim. It has been recorded in error from Sikhim by Mr. Elwes as
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BUTTERFLIES. 159

I androcles, Doubleday and Hewitson. It is a common species from 6,000 to

9,000 feet, and flies throughout the warm months and as late as December.It is
found also in Western China.
345. ILERDA BRAHMA, Moore. .

This is, in my opinion, one of the most lovely butterflies in the world, and the
colouring of the upperside of the male is unique. Luckily in Sikhim it is a
common species, especially so at an elevation of about 4,000 feet, but it is found
from 3,000 to 6,000 feet, and from February to December. It occurs also in
Kumaon, the Naga Hills, and at Bernardmyo and Momeit in Upper Burmah, and
again in Western China.
346. CAMENA CIPPUS, Fabridus.
Mr. Dudgeon has two males from Daling taken in August, and it
has been found near Buxa in Bhutan. .Recently Messrs. E. H. Aitken and J.
Davidson have taken it quite commonly at Karwar, North Kanam, in the
Bombay Presidency. Lieutenant E. Stokes Rober.ts, R.E., bas taken it at Kolar in
the Nilgiri hills in November. I have caught it in North-East Sumatra. It has
.been recorded from Borneo. It is an erratic species and appears in the most
unexpected places.
347. CAMENA CTESIA, Hewitson.
The males are quite common at low elevations from April to October. Mr. Elwes
has figured a female taken as high as 6,000 feet. I possess another from the Khasi
Hills received from the Revd. Walter A. Hamilton, which are the only specimens
of that sex known to me. lt is also found in Western China.
348. CAMENA DEVA, Moore.
Rare in Sikhim. Mr. Otto Moller possessed three males and four females taken in
August and November. The male is found in the Terai and low valleys, but the
female occurs rather plentifully on Rissoom in Daling at 6,000 feet.
349. CAMENA ICETAS, Hewitson.
Mr. A. V. Knyvett obtained three male specimens of this species near Darjeeling,
and Mr. Dudgeon has two males from Rhenok, Sikhim, 6,000 feet, taken in May.
It is common in the Western Himalayas, and is found in Upper Burmah, and in
Western and Central China also. The Iolaus contractus of Leech is a synonym
of this species.
350. CAMENA COTYS, Hewitson.
Rare in Sikhim, and has been taken in the Rungeet Valley in May
and August.
351. MANECA BHOTEA, Moore.
Very rare; has been taken on the Observatory.Hill, 7,500 feet, in the station
of Darjeeling, by Mr. A. V. Knyvett In May. It occurs also at Senchal in the same
month.
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160 BUTTERFLIES.

352. MOTA MASSYLA, Hewitson.

Mr. Otto Moller obtained one female from Bhutan in May; in the Khasi
Hills it has been obtained in fair numbers by Mr. Hamilton's native collectors. It
occurs also in Upper Burmah.
353. APHNAEUS SYAMA, Horsfield.
Very common at low elevations throughout the year. Found in Western and
Central China.
354. APHNAEUS LOHITA, Horsfield.
Quite as common as A. syama, Horsfield, occurring at the same places and
seasons. Mr. Elwes records this species from Sikhim under its synonymic
name, A. himalayanus, Moore. It is found also in Western and Central China.
355. APHNAEUSICTIS, Hewitson.
Mr. Elwes records this species from Sikhim under the name of A. elima, Moore.
.As I do not consider that species to differ from A. ictis, I have used the latter
name, as it is the older. A. lunulifera, Moore, was described from Darjeeling. I
do not consider it to be specifically distinct from A. ictis. A. ictis is a fairly
common species in Sikhim, occurring at low elevations.
356. APHNAEUS RUKMA, de Niceville.
The type of this species still remains unique.
357. APHNAEUS NIPALICUS, Moore.
Described by Mr. Moore from Nepal and Sikhim, but unknown to me.
358. APHNAEUS SANI, de Niceville.
Occurs rarely in Sikhim and Bhutan, and flies in April, May,July, and
October.
359. APHNAEUS RUKMINI, de Niceville.
Rare in Sikhim, where it has been taken in May.
360. TAJURIA INDRA, Moore.
Recorded by Elwes from Sikhim as "Sithon" jalindra, Horsfield,
described from Java, which is the parent species. T. indra is rare in Sikhim, and
occurs at low elevations from September to November.
361. TAJURIA MACULATUS, Hewitson.
Very rare, and occurs in May and June. It has never been taken in Sikhim
except by native collectors. Mr. Harold S. Ferguson records it from the hills of
Travancore, at Ponmudi, 1,000 feet. Occurs also at Sibsagar in Upper Assam,
and in the Khasi Hills. It is not uncommon to the east of the Tista at 1,500 and
again at 6,000 feet in May, where the varietal form figured in "The Butterflies
of India, Burmah and Ceylon" is also fairly plentiful.
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BUTTERFLIES. 161

362. T AJURJA ILLURGlS, Hewitson.

Very rare. Occurs in Mussoorie, Sikhim (July, 5,000 feet), Bhutan
(September), and in the Shan States and North Chin Hills.
363. TAJURIA ILLURGIOIDES, de Niceville.
Recorded from Naini Tal in Kumaon; Kurseong near Darjeeling;and
Senchal, near Darjeeling, 8,000 feet, August. Mr. Dudgeon has a male from
Labah in Daling taken in April, and another from Bhutan in June. It is found
from 5,000 to 8,000 feet. I possess one female from Upper Burmah. These
localities are all that are known to me for the occurrence of this rare species.
364. TAJURIA LONGlNUS, Fabricius.
Mr. Otto Moller obtained a few specimens in the Terai at the foot
of the hills in July and September. It is a common species in the plains of India.
365. TAJURIA DIlEUS, Hewitson.
Extremely rare; has been taken in Sikhim in June, and in Bhutan
in September.
366. TAJURIA THYIA, de Niceville.
Mr. F. A. Moller obtained a single specimen of this species in Sikhim, and Mr.
Dudgeon another from Daling taken in April. It was originally described from
the Khasi Hills. The T. luculentus of Leech, from Central China, is a closely
allied species.
367. TAJURIA ALBIPLAGA, de Niceville.
Described from two males and three females in Mr. Otto Moller's
collection, which are all that are known to me.
368. TAJURIA MELASTIGMA, de Niceville.
Mr. Otto MoIler had three males of this species in his collection,one taken in
March.
369.TAJURIA JANGALA, Horsfield.
The males of this species occur very commonly from April to October in the
beds of streams running along the low valleys. The female is much rarer.
370. TAJURIA ISTROIDEA, de Niceville.
An excessively rare species, which was described from a single
pair in Mr. Otto Moller's collection, the male captured in December.
Mr. Dudgeon possesses a specimen from Bhutan taken in March.
371. HYPOLYCAENA ERYLUS, Godart.
A very common species at low elevations throughout the warm
months.
372. CHLIARIA OTHONA, Hewitson.
The males are common at low elevations from March to October; the female is
much rarer. The larva feeds on orchids.
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162 .BUTTERFLIES
.

373. CHILIARIA KINA, Hewitson.

Less common than C. othona, Hewitson,. and has a much more restricted range
in India. It is found in the low valleys up to about 3,000 feet, and from March to
November. One form of the female is white.
374. ZELTUS ETOLUS, Fabricius.
Occurs commonly near water throughout the warm months at low elevations.
375. CHARANA MANDARINUS, Hewitson.
Very rare in Sikhim in May, September, and October. I have taken it on
the Singla flat, at about 1,500 elevation, in October. It occurs also in the Terai
and at Jalpaiguri, in Bhutan and in Assam. This species, like many of the genera
Camena and Tajuria, is found at low elevations (1,500 feet), and again at from
5,000 to 6,000 feet, never being found in the intermediate zones.
376. NEOCHERITRA FANBRONIA, Hewitson.
Mr G. C. Dudgeon obtained a male in the Tista Valley in October, and a
female from Sivoke in May. These are the only known specimens of the species
obtained in Sikhim.
377. CHERITRELLA TRUNCIPENNIS, de Niceville.
Very rare in Sikhim, where it has been taken at low elevations in June. It is
found also in the Khasi and Karen Hills.
378. TICHEHRA ACTE, Moore.
Probably found in every month in the year at low elevations. It is markedly
seasonally dimorphic.
379. TICHERRA SYMIRA, Hewitson.
The type specimen of this species, described from Sikhim, is the only one
known. It is probably an aberration or "sport" of T. acte, Moore. .
380. CHERITRA FREJA, Fabricius.
Not uncommon in Bhutan; has not so far been recorded from
Sikhim except by Mr. Elwes, but probably in error.
381. HORAGA ONYX, Moore.
Common at low elevations from April to October. It is seasonally dimorphic.
382. HORAGA SIKKIMA, Moore.
Much rarer than H. onyx, Moore. In Sikhim it has been taken
at low elevations from July to October. It occurs in Bhutan and
in the Khasi and North Chin Hills also.
383. HORAGA VIOLA, Moore.
The rarest species of the genus occurring in Sikhim. It is found at low elevations.
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BUTTERFLIES. 163

384. CATAPCECILMA ELEGANS, Druce.

Common in the low valleys and up to 3,000 feet, and has been taken in March,
April, and October.
385. CATAPCECILMA DELlCATUM, do Niceville.
Occurs only in Sikhim, and is very rare. It has been taken in April and May.
386. BIDUANDA MELlSA, Hewitson.
Originally described from Darjeeling and Maulmain. Mr. G. C.Dudgeon
obtained a female in August in Bhutan. It has the costal margin of the hindwing
on the upperside broadly orange-coloured like the male.
387. BIDUANDA CYARA, Hewitson.
First described from Darjeeling and awaits rediscovery, as the type specimen is
probably unique.
388. LOXURA ATYMNUS, Cramer. "
Common almost throughout the year in the low valleys, and is found as high as
5,000 feet.
389. YASODA TRIPUNCTATA, Hewitson.
Occurs from the Terai up to 3,000 feet, from April to November.It is much
rarer than Loxura atymnus, Cramer, and only comes to hand singly. Like that
species it is seasonally dimorphic.
390. LEHERA ERYX, Linnreus.
Rare the native collectors bring in a specimen now and again.It probably occurs
at low elevations only.
391. ARAOTES LAPITHIS, Moore.
I possess a single male from the late L. Mandelli's collection which probably
came from Sikhim.
392. DEUDORIX EPIJARBAS, Moore.
Occurs commonly at low elevations throughout the year. Thelarva feeds on the
fruit of the pomegranate and horse-chestnut.
393. ZINASPA DISTORTA, de Niceville.
A very rare species, the male the rarer of the two sexes. It has been taken in
Sikhim in March, May, July, and August at low elevations. It is also found in
Western China.
394. RAPALA TARA, de Niceville.
Mr. G. C. Dudgeon took a single specimen of this species in Bhutan at 1,500
feet in April; it is common in the Khasi Hills.
395. RAPALA BUXARIA, de Niceville.
Has been taken at Tonglo, Sikhim, at 10,000 feet, and else where. Its range
is probably from 4,000 feet upwards; it certainly
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164 BUTTERFLIES.

occurs at 5,000 feet. Also found. in Bhutan in April, and in the

Khasi Hills.
396. RAPALA SCHISTACEA, Moore.
Occurs in Sikhim at low elevations in April, June, and October,and also in
Bhutan.
397. RAPALA SCINTILLA, de Niceville.
Rare in Sikhim; occurs with R. schistacea, Moore.
398. RAPALA ORSEIS, Hewitson.
CCommon in Sikhim at low elevations from April to November.
:399. RAPALA ROSACEA, de Niceville.
Occurs rarely in Sikhim at elevations from 4,000 feet down to the
level of the Terai, in March. It is found in the Khasi Hills also.
400. RAPALA NISSA, Kollar.
Occurs rather plentifully at low elevations in all but the four coldest
months. It is found in Western and Central China, and has beon named R.
Subpurpurea by Leech.
401. RAPALA PETOSIRIS, Hewitson.
Occurs almost throughout the year commonly at low elevations,the males
assembling in little groups on the wet sandy margins of the streams to suck up
the moisture.. It is found in Siam and Java.
402. RAPALA .JARBAS, Fabricius.
Common at low elevations all the summer and autumn.
403. BINDAHARA PHOCIDES, Fabricius.
Mr Elwes took a single male of this species in Sikhim in July; Mr. Otto
Moller possessed one male from Sikhim and another from near Buxa in
Bhutan; and Mr. Dudgeon has a male from the Leesh river in Daling; these are
all the specimens from the Eastern Himalayas known to me. Mr. W. H. Miskin
has expressed the opinion that B. phocides, Fabricius, B. sugriva, Horsfield, .B.
isabella, Felder, and B. iolcus, Felder, "all represent one rather variable
species." At present I am not prepared to accept this proposition, the three
species admitted by me from the Indian region being quite distinct.
404. VIRACHOLA ISOCRATES, Fabricius.
Has been recorded by Mr. Moore from Darjeeling, but I have seen no
specimens from thence.
405. VIRACHOLA PERSE, Rewitson.
I have a record of the appearance of the imago in Sikhim in January,
February, March, May, October, November, and December. It probably flies
throughout the year. Moller records it from the level of the Terai up to 9,000
feet.
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BUTTERFLIES. 165

406. SINTHUSA NASARA, Horsfield.

Occurs from the level of the Terai up to 5,000 feet. from March to October,
but is not common.
407. SINTHUSA CHANDRANA, :Moore.
Rather common, but very local in Sikhim up to 5,000 feet, from March to
October. It is found in Central China and at Foochau and has been named"
Theela" pratti by Leech.
408. SINTHUSA VIRGO, Elwes.
Extromely rare. Mr. A. V. Knyvett has taken the male on Observatory Hill,
7,500 feet, in Darjeeling, in June; :Mr. H. J. Elwes took a single female in May
near the Rungbi bridge, at 6,000 feet.
409. LIPHYRA BRASSOLIS, Westwood.
One of the rarest of the Sikhim butterflies. Mr. Otto Moller's Lepcha
co1lectors have brought in two or three specimens but nothing definite is known
as to the exact locality of capture. They have been taken in the height of the
rains, in July and August. Mr. Dudgeon has it from Sivoke taken in April.

Family PAPILIONIDAE.

Subfamily PIERINAE.*

410. LEPTOSIA XIPHIA, Fabricius.

Occurs only at the lower elevations, where it flies from April to October.
411. DELIAS PYRAMUS, Wallace.
Common at low elevations from April to December.
412. DELIAS AGLAIA, Linnaeus.
More commonly known as D. pasithoea, Linnaeus. It occurs in the low
hot valleys commonly throughout the year, except perhaps in the two coldest
months.
413. DELIAS BELLADONNA, Fabricius.
Occurs from 1,000 to 11,000 feet in Sikhim, and flies all through the warm
months. Heinrich Ritter von Mitis, who has recently monographed this genus,
in addition to the parent form, truu D. belladonna, gives seven" vars." of it. Of
these, var a, ithiela, Butler; and var..g amarantha, Mitis, he records from
Sikhim. Mr. H. J. Elwes includes var. c, horsfieldii, Gray. Von Mitis omits to

..* There may hereafter be some rather considerable changes in the names of the Pierinae
from Sikhim when I have worked up the synonymy of the various species for the fourth
volume of " The Butterflies of India, Burmah and Ceylon."
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166 BUTTERFLIES.

mention altogether D. Hearseyi and D. boylew, both of Butler, the latter

described from Darjeeling.
414. DELIAS SANACA, Moore.
Recorded from Darjeeling by Mr. Moore, but as far as I know confined
wholly to the Western Himalayas. Some years it is common in Mussoorie,
usually it is very rare, and often not seen at all. It is found in Western and
Central China.
415. DELIAS DESCOMBESI, Boisduval.
Common from 1,000 to 3,000 feet elevation from March to December. It is
an early riser, and commences to fly soon after sunrise.
416. DELIAS EUCHARIS, Drury.
Occurs very rarely at low elevations from April to October. It is a very common
butterfly of the plains.
417. DELIAS HIERTE, Hiibner.
Von Mitis records the parent form from Sikhim, and var. c, indica,
'Wallace (usually given as from Sikhim) from Burmah, Siam, Cochin China,
and Malacca. It is a rare species in Sikhim, and occurs only in the low valleys
and outer slopes of the hills.
418. DELIAS AGOSTINA, Hewitson.
Rather rare in the lower valleys from March to December.
419. PRIONERIS THESTYLIS, Doubleday.
A common species at elevations below 5,000 feet all through the warm
weather. The females are very rare. It is strongly affected by the seasons; the
dry-se'ason form found early in the year has been named P. watsonii by
Hewitson.
420. PRIONERIS CLEMANTHE, Doubleday.
Quite rare in Sikhim, and occurs from April to October at low elevations. In
many years collecting, Mr. Otto Moller obtained two females only.
421. CATOPSILIA CROCALE, Cramer.
In India, Burmah and Ceylon two species of the genus alone occur
according to my judgment, though Mr. Moore allows six from Ceylon alone,
and Colonel Swinhoe would add still two more from India, C. thisorella,
Boisduval, and C. heera, Swinhoe. C. crocale is the larger species of the two
and the more common. It is not, I think, seasonally dimorphic, the
innumerable varieties which are found in both sexes occurring at all times. In
Sikhim it is a common species at low elevations almost throughout the year.
422 CATOPSILIA PYRANTHE, Linnaeus.
This is the smaller and rarer of. the two species. It is found at low elevations
in Sikhim throughout the warm months. It may
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BUTTERFLIES. 167

be seasonally dimorphic, the dry-season form being C. gnoma, Fabricius, the

wet-season form being C. chryseis, Drury. Both forms are found in Sikhim with
true C. pyranthe, which appears to be an intermediate form.
423. TERIAS HECABE, Linnaeus.
Common in Sikhim as elsewhere, and flies all the year round at low
elevations. Mr. Elwes records it from Tonglo, 10,000 feet, but it is only
stragglers that extend their flights to so great an elevation.
424. TERIAS KANA, Moore.
A common species in Sikhim.
425. TERIAS SILHETANA, Wallace.
Lieutenant E. Y. Watson has recently shown that this species may be known
by having three dark streaks or spots in the discoidal cell of the forewing on the
underside in addition to the reniform spot defining the disco-cellular nervules,
while T. hecabe never has more than two streaks or spots in addition to the
reniform one. It also is a common species in Sikhim.
426. TERIAS LAETA, Boisduva1.
Rare in Sikhim, recorded from 7,000 to 9,000 feet from July to September.
427. TERIAS RAMA, Moore.
Also rare; occurs from 2,000 to 9,000 feet. This is probably the species which is
recorded by Elwes as T. venata, Moore.
428. TERIAS LlBYTHEA, Fabricius.
Found at the foot of the hills only and is rare almost throughout the year. It
is recorded by Elwes under its synonymic name of T. rubella, Wallace.
429. TERIAS HARINA, Horsfield.
Occurs at low elevations only and is never common. Flies from April to
December. .
430. COLlAS FIELDII, Menetries.
Rare in Darjeeling itself, far more common in the interior at high elevations.
It is found from 5,000 to 12,000 feet, and flies throughout the warm months
according to the elevation. At the lowest elevation it is found almost throughout
the cold weather. Occurs also in Western and Central China.
431:. DERCAS VERHUELLII, van der Hoeven.
Local, but where it occurs abundant. Found at about 4,000 feet from May to
October.
432. DERCAS WALLICHII, Doubleday.
Mr. Elwes records a single specimen from the interior. It is a common species
in the Khasi Hills and in Western and Central China.
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168 BUTTERFLIES.

433. GONEPTERYX NEPALENSIS, Doubleday.

Mr. Moore records this species from Darjeeling, but I have not seen any
specimens from thence. It is probably the same as the European" Brimstone
Butterfly," G. rhamni, Linnaeus.
434. APORIA SORACTA, Moore.
Recorded from Darjeeling- by Mr Moore, but confined as far as I am aware to
the Western Himalayas.
435. METAPORIA AGATHON, Gray.
Mr. Elwes records a single specimen obtained in 1883 by native collectors from
the interior towards Bhutan, from whence Mr; Moore recorded it in 1857. In
1892 -Mr. F. A. MoIler received a single male from his Lepcha collectors,
prohably from the same locality.
436 METAPORIA HARRIETAE, de Niceville.
A single pair was obtained by Mr. F. A. Moller's collectors with the specimen of
M. agathon, Gray, mentioned above.
437. MANCIPIUM DUBERNARDI, Oberthiir.
Eight or nine males were obtained on the Tibet frontier by a native employed
by Captain Hannan, RE. I have not seen the species, and of recent years it does
not seem to have been obtained.
438. MANCIPIUM CANIDIA, Sparrman.
The Small Cabbage ,White" of India. Flies throughout the year from 3,000 to
12,000 feet.
439. MANCIPIUM BRASSICAE, Linnaeus.
The" Large Cabbage 'White." Flies from March to December, and from
1,000 to 12,000 feet. The Eastern Himalayan form has been named" Pieris"
nepalensis by Gray.
440. MANCIPIUM MELETE, Menetries.
The "Green-veined White" of lndia. Occurs only in the interior, and is very rare.
441. BELENOIS MESENTINA, Cramer.
A common butterfly of the plains, rare in the hills. Occurs from April to
October, and from 3,000 feet to the level of the Terai.
442. HUPHINA PHRYNE, Fabricius.
A common species in the low valleys and up to 5,000 feet. It is. subject to
very great seasonal variability; the form flying in the spring is small and very
pale, that in the rains is very large dark, and richly-coloured.
443. HUPHINA NADINA, Lucas.
Perhaps better known as H. nama, Moore. It is common at low elevations
from March to December. The spring or dry-season form has been named amba
by Wallace, and is much smaller and paler than
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BUTTERFLIES. 169

the rains' form, having the underside pale greyish-brown instead of rich green.
444. CATOPHAGA PAULINA, Cramer.
Rare in Sikhim, where it occurs sporadically from April to October. It is
found also in Western China.
445. APPIAS HIPPOIDES, Moore.
One of the commonest butterflies at low elevations in Sikhim, and flies from
March to December.
446. APPIAS VACANS, Butler.
Described from Darjeeling, but very doubtfully distinct from A. hippoides,
Moore.
447. APPIAS LIBYTHEA, Fabricius.
Occurs rather rarely at 2,000 feet in May.
448. APPIAS NERO, Fabricius.
The Indian form of this wide-ranging species has been named A. galba by
Wallace, but it seems to be barely distinct from the parent form. It is a mere
straggler in Northern India. Mr. Otto Miiller obtained one specimen from
Sikhim, Mr. Wood-Mason obtained one in Cachar, and the Rev. Walter A.
Hamilton a few in the Khasi Hills. It is fairly common in Upper Burmah.
Messrs. Grose Smith and Kirby have recently described A. nebo from Upper
Burmah, which is probably nothing but a dry-season form of A. nero.
449. HIPOSCRITIA LALAGE, Doubleday.
Occurs from the level of the Terai to over 10,000 feet, and flies from April
to October The females scem to be found chiefly at high elevations. This is
also the case with Delias belladonna, Fabricius, and Prioneris thestylis,
Doubleday.
450. HIPOSCRITIA PSEUDOLALAGE, Moore.
This species was described from Sikhim, but I know nothing regarding it.
Colonel Swinhoe records it from the Khasi Hills. It is very doubtfully distinct.
451. HIPOSCRITIA INDBA, Moore.
The males are common at low elevations from April to October, the female, as
usual in this genus, is excessively rare.
452. HIPOSCRITIA MAHANA, Moore.
I know nothing of this species, which was described from Darjeeling, and
recorded from the Khasi Hills by Colonel Swinhoe. It is said to be allied to H.
indra, Moore. It is possibly a seasonal form only of that species.
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170 BUTTERFLIES.

453. NEPHERONIA HIPPIA, Fabricius.

A true butterfly of the plains, occurring rarely in the Terai and in the low
outer valleys.
454. NEPHERONIA -AVATAR, Moore.
This very beautiful and distinct. species occurs from1,000 to 5,000 feet from
April to November, and is not rare.
455. HEBOMOIA GLAUCIPPE, Linnaeus.
Common from March to November from the Terai up to 5,000 feet.
456. IXIAS PYRENE, Linnaeus.
Common throughout the warm months from 1,000 to 5,000 feet elevation. It
is highly seasonally variable; the males of the dryseason forms flying early in
the year are quite small and very lightly marked with black; the .form flying in
the rains is half as large again, and is very richly coloured, with a heavy black
border to the hind wing.
Subfamily PAPILIONINAE.
457. TEINOPALPUS IMPERIALIS, Hope.
In Sikhim this fine butterfly is known to occur 011 the tops of Birch Hill,
Tiger Hill (Senchal), Tonglo, Tendong, and Rikisum, flying from April to
August. It -is found also in the Khasi and Naga, Hills, and at Chang-yang in
Central China. The female is far rarer than the male.
458. ORNITHOPTERA RHADAMANTHUS, Boisduval.
Common in the low valleys from May to October. It is found also in
Western and Central China.
459. ORNITHOPTERA. POMPEUS, Cramer.
Still more common than the preceding, occurring with it and at the same
time of the year. The North Indian form has been described as a distinct species
by Felder as O. cerberus, but cannot, I think, be separated from the typical form,
which was described from Batavia in Java.
460. PAPILlO (Pangerana) ASTORION, Westwood.
Common from April to December and from the level of the Terai up to
7,000 feet.
461. PAPILlO (Pailgerana) AIDONEUS, Doubleday.
Far rarer than P. astorion, Westwood, and found up to 3,000 feet, from April to
November.
462. PAPILIO (Byasa) RAVANA, Moore.
A single pair of specimens of this species was recorded by Mr. Moore from
Darjeeling in 1857. Mr. Elwes also possesses two
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BUTTERFLIES. 171

specimens from old collections ticketed Sikhim. It is a species of the Western

Himalayas, and it is very doubtful if it occurs in Sikhim at all.
463. PAPILIO (? Byasa) PLUTONIUS, Oberthur.
Two female examples were obtained in 1884 by native collectors from the
interior, perhaps from Bhutan. None have been found since. It is found also in
Western China.
464. PAPILIO (? Byasa) ALCINOUS, Klug.
Recorded by Moore from Bhutan. Mr. Leech gives its distribution as
Western and Central China, Corea, Japan, and the Loochoo Islands.
465. PAPILIO (Byasa) LATREILLII, Donovan.
Better known as P. minereus, Gray. It occurs in the thick, high forests from
7,000 to 9,000 feet, from March to August, and is not common in collections.
466. PAPILIO (Byasa) DASARADA, Moore. .
A common species, occurring from 1,000 to 8,000 feet from April till
November. The butterfly has a very powerful and disagreeable odour, which is
perceptible even years after the death of the insect.
467. PAPILIO (Byasa) PHILOXENUS, Gray.
Common at the same elevations and times of year as P. dasarada, Moore. It
occurs also in Siam, Western and Central China.
468. P APILIO (Panosmiopsis) RHETE'NOR, Westwood.
Occurs from April to October, and from the level of the Terai up to 6,000
feet. Both sexes are rare, the female, which is tailed, especially so. It is found in
Western and Central China.
469. PAPILIO (Panosmiopsis) JANAKA, Moore.
Rare, found from 3,000 to 5,000 feet in May and June . Mr.Wood-Mason
described this species under the name of P. sikkimensis.
470. PAPILIO (Menelaides) ARISTOLOCHIAE, Fabricius.
An insect of the plains, but occurs commonly in the lower valleys
throughout the warm months. It is widely distributed in China.
471. PAPILIO (Achillides) PARIS, Linnaeus.
Very common from the Terai up to 5,000 feet, and flies all through the year
except during the three coldest months. It is common in Western China.
472. PAPILIO (Achillides) KRISHNA, Moore.
Occurs from May to August, from 3,000 to 9,000 feet. It is not uncommon
on Senchal, and occurs in Western China.
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172 ..

BUTTE'RFLIES
.
473. PAPILIO (Achillides) ARCTURUS, Westwood.
Found with P. krishna, Moore, and at the same seasons. By no means
common in Sikhim. It occurs also in Western and Central China.
474. PAPILIO (Sarbaria) GANESA, Doubleday.
Occurs throughout the warm months at low elevations, and the male is very
common. The female is, however, very rare, as are those of P. paris, R. krishna,
and P. arcturus.
475. PAPILIO (Iliades) AGENOR, Linnaeus.
The Indian form is more generally known as P. androgeus, Cramer. The female
is polymorphic, but three distinct (though each is more or less variable) forms
may be defined; the first is tailless, and is most like the male; the second is also
tailless, but has a large white patch on the hind wing; the third is tailed, and is
much marked with white spots on the disc of the hindwing. The species has
received a vast number of names, but it is more than doubtful if the best of
them represent anything but" local races." It is a very common species in
Sikhim, and is found from April to December from the Terai to 5,000 feet. The
second form of the female is alone rare, the third is the commonest of the three
forms.
476. PAPILlO (Iliades) POLYMNESTOR, Cramer.
Mr. Otto Moller obtained a single specimen in Sikhim. It is purely a species of
the plains.
477. PAPILlO (Sainia) PROTENOR, Cramer.
Somewhat rare in Sikhim, and occurs from 2,000 to 3,000 feet throughout the
warm months. It is common in China. The female is still rarer, and lacks the
patch of modified buff-coloured' scales on the costa of the hind wing on the
upperside.
478. PAPILIO (Charus) HELENUS, Linnaeus.
Found throughout the summer commonly at the lower elevations
and as high as 6,000 feet. It is probably the commonest Papilio occurring in
Sikhim. It is found right across China to Japan.
479. PAPILIO (Charus) CHAON, Westwood.
A common species at low elevations from April to October.
480. PAPILIO (Tamera) CASTOR, Westwood.
Flies from 1,000 to 3,000 feet from April to October, and is less common than
P. chaon, Westwood, and P. helenus, Linnaeus.
481. PAPILIO (Laertias) POLYTES, Linnaeus.
A common species throughout the year, except in the three coldest months, at
low elevations.. The female is trimorphic; the first form is like the male; the
second form mimics P. aristolochioe, Fabricius; and the third form mimics
P.hector, Linnaeus. The latter form is

...
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BUTTERFLIES. 173

extremely rare in Sikhlm, as the butterfly it mimics does not occur there, the
second form is the commonest of the three.
482. PAPILIO (Orpheides) ERICHTHONIUS, Cramer.
A butterfly of the plains, found only at low elevations sparingly. Mr.
Dudgeon has found its larva at 1,500 feet feeding on wild citron.
483. P APILIO (Menamopsis) SLATERI, H ewitson.
A single-brooded species; which flies in April and May in the low outer
valleys only. It is common at Sivoke.
484. PAPILIO (Menamopsis) EPYCIDES, Hewitson.
Also single-brooded, occurring in April and May at low elevations,
especially at Sivoke. It appears to be very local, but is not rare where found in
river-beds at 1',000 feet. It occurs also in Bhutan, the Khasi Hills, and Upper
Burmah ; also in Western China.
485. PAPILIO (Chilasa) CLYTIA, Linnaeus.
Occurs from March to November commonly at low elevations.
486. PAPILIO (Chilasa) PANOPE, Linnaeus.
Found with P. clytia, Linnaeus, at the same elevations and seasons. I have no
doubt that these two species are really one species, which is dimorphic in both
sexes; but as this theory has never been proved, I have kept them distinct. Mr.
Dudgeon has noticed the two species flying together, but has not succeeded in
taking the opposite sexes in copula.
487. PAPILIO (Paranticopsis) MEGARUS, Westwood.
Mr. Elwes records this species from Sikhim on the strength of an old
specimen so labelled. Its occurrence there is more than doubtful. It is found not
uncommonly in the Khasi Hills and southwards.
488. PAPILIO (Paranticopsis) XENOCLES, Doubleday.
Flies in Sikhim from April to November from the level of the Terai up to
about 3,000 feet. The males are fairly common, the females, as usual in the
genus, are very rare.
489. PAPILIO (Paranticopsis) MACAREUS, Godart
Single-brooded and rather rare in Sikhim, occurs in the low outer valleys only
from. April to June. The Sumatran form has been described as P. macareus, var.
xantnosoma by Dr. Staudinger, the Bornean form as P. macareus, var.
macaristus by Mr. Grose Smith ( = P. macareus, var. borneensis, Staudinger),
and the Palawan form as P. macareus, var. macca'boeus, also by Staudinger. I
have figured a very curious aberration of P. macareus from Sikhim in the
Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, vol. vii, page 345, n. 18, pl. I,
fig. 1, male (1892).
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174 BUTTERFLIES.

490. PAPILlO (Cadugoides) AGESTOR, Gray.

Single-brooded and rather rare, flying from March to May from 5,000 to
7,000 feet. It is a beautiful mimic of Danais tytia, Gray, in both sexes. A local
race named restricta by Leech occurs in Central China.
491 PAPILIO (Pazala) GLYCERION, Gray.
Probab1y single-brooded, and occurs at low elevations in May and June.
492. PAPILIO (Pathysa) PAPHUS, de Niceville.
Occurs from 3,000 to 7,000 feet from May to July. It was described by Mr.
Charles Oberthur as P. glycerion, var. mandarinus before my description
appeared; but as the species is a perfectly distinct one, and is not a "variety" of
P. glycerion, that species not occurring in China, I think the name P. paphus
should stand. It is common in Western China.
493. PAPILIO (Pathysa) AGETES, Westwood.
Probably single-brooded. It occurs in the outer valleys, such as Sivoko, in April
and May, and is rare. It occurs to the southwards as far as North-East Sumatra.
494. PAPILlO (Pathysa) ANTIPHATES, Cramer.
According to Mr Otto Moller this species occurs from April till October in
the lower valleys up to 3,000 feet. It is very common.
495. PAPILIO (Pathysa) ANTICRATES, Doubleday.
Single-brooded, occurs- in Sivoke in April and May only, when it is very
common. It is also found along the Rungeet road in the same months, but
elsewhere it seems scarce.
496. PAPILIO (Pathysa) NOMIUS, Esper.
A species of the plains. A single straggler was 'obtained in Sikhim by Mr. Otto
Moller.
497 PAPILIO (Da1china) CLOANTHUS, Westwood.
Flies from April to October from 2,000 to 4,000 feet. By no means common
in Sikhim. A slight local race, P. cloanthus, var. clymenus, Leech, occurs in
Western and Central China.
498. PAPILIO (Dalchina) SARPEDON, Linnaeus,
Common throughout the warm months from 1,000 to 7,000 feet elevation.
499. PAPlLIO (Zetides) EURYPYLUS, Linnaeus.
Very common in the low valleys from April to October. It is
very. variable in Sikhim as elsewhere, the forms P. telephus, Felder, amI P.
mecisteus, Distant, occurring with the typical form at all seasons.
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500. PAPILIO (Zetides) BATHYCLES, Zinken.Sommer.

. Rather less common than P. eurypylus, Linnaeus, but found at the same
time and in the same places. It is equally variable and inconstant, these
variations having received the names P. chiron, Wallace, P. bathycloides,
Honrath, and P. chironides, Honrath. It occurs also in Central China.
501. PAPILIO (Zetides) AGAMEMNON, Linnaeus.
Common at low elevations throughout the year.
502. PAPILIO (Dabasa) GYAS, Westwood.
Very rare in Sikhim and occurs from 6,000 to 7,000 feet on Birch Hill,
Senchal, and Rikisum, in July and August, but is more common on the Labah
ridge in Daling at 7,000 feet. It is found in Western China under the name of
P. hercules, Blanchard, = P. sciron, Leech, which seems to be a good local
race. .
503. PAPILIO (Meandrusa) EVAN, Doubleday.
Mr. G. C. Dudgeon possesses a male of this species taken at
Sivoke on 15th March, 1890. To the eastwards in Bhutan and the Khasi Hills, it
becomes somewhat common.
504. PAPILlO MACHAON, Linnaeus.
The particular form of this species which occurs only at high elevations in the
interior has been named P. sikkimensis by Mr. Moore. It flies in July and
August.
505. PARNASSIUS HARDWICKII, Gray.
Common on ths higher ranges in the interior. It is exceedingly variable; the
blackest specimens of the species I have ever seen have come from Sikhim,
others again are very light coloured.
506. PARNASSIUS EPAPHUS, Oberthur, var. SIKKIMENSIS, Elwes.
Appears to be excessively rare. Mr. H. J. Elwes took it once near the Donkia
Pass, 18,000 feet, in native Sikhim in September, 1870, and in 1881 obtained
fourteen specimens through a Bhutea plant collector from the Sikhim-Tibet
frontier or in the Chumbi Valley. It does not appear to have been captured
since.
507. PARNASSIUS ACCO, Gray.
Mr H. J. Elwes records a single specimen received at the same time as the
fourteen examples of P. sikkimensis, Elwes, above-mentioned.
508. ARMANDIA LIDDERDALII, Atkinson.
Both sexes occur not uncommonly during the summer on the top of a hill
behind Buxa in Bhutan. Mr: W. Doherty has obtained the species in Assam.
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176 BUTTERFLIES.

Family HESPERIIDAE.

509. ORTHOPHCETUS LIDDERDALI, Elwes.

Described from a single male in the British Museum, the exact locality from
which it came being unknown.
510. CAPILA JAYADEVA, Moore.
A rare species, recorded in Sikhim at low elevations from April to October.
I possess five males and three females from Sikhim, and one female from the
Khasi Hills. There are further specimens in the collection of the Indian
Museum, Calcutta.
511. CALLIANA PIERIDOIDES, Moore.
I possess a single female example of this very rare species taken
near Buxa in Bhutan. It is found -also in Western China.
512. PISOLA ZENNARA, Moore.
Mr. Otto Moller records this species from the low valleys from April to
August. I possess five males and three females, all from Sikhim, one of the
former taken in October, but it is a rare species. I mention the number of
specimens I possess of C. .jayadeva, Moore, and P. zennara, Moore, as Colonel
Swinhoe is desirous of knowing on what material I based my conclusions as to
the correct sexing of these two species. I have seen no evidence of the existence
of a third ,species in India in these two genera, as Colonel Swinhoe has
suggested, though Lieutenant E. Y. Watson records a second species of the
genus Pisola, the" Choetocneme" cerinthus of Felder, from Amboina, which, to
judge from the figure, must have been described from a female, as the forewing'
has a broad oblique white band as have. the females of C. jayadeva and P.
zennara. Mr. Leech records P. zennara from Western China..
513. SATARUPA GOPALA, Moore.
Rare in Sikhim; found at low elevations only from June to October. It is widely
spread. I possess specimens from Assam, Burmah, and Sumatra.
514. SATARUPA SAMBARA, Moore.
Very common, and occurs at low elevations throughout the warm months.
515. DAIMIO BHAGAVA, Moore.
Fairly common; occurs from 1,000 to 3,000 feet from April to October.
516. DAIMIO NARADA, Moore.
Rather rare; found at low elevations only throughout the year except in the
winter. Mr. Leech has described a local race of this species from Western and
Central China as var. diversa.
 BUTTERFLIES. 177 www.sikkim.gov.in

517. DAIMIO PHIARA, Moore.

Occurs as high as Mongpoo, 3,500 feet, and is not uncommon at
low elevations from April to October.
518. SARANGESA DASAHARA, Moore.
Very common at low elevations throughout the warm months.
519. COLADENIA INDRANI, Moore.
Common at low elevations.throughout the year, but most common
in the spring.
520. COLADENIA TISSA, Moore.
Mr. Otto Moller possessed a single example of this species, probably taken in
the Terai. If C. tissa is a distinct species, of which I am by no means convinced,
it would appear to be the form of C. indrani, Moore, occurring in the plains of
India.
521. COLADENIA DAN, Fabricius.
Extremely common from 1,000 to 4,000 feet, from March to November.
Mr. Moore records "Hesperia"fatih, Kollar, from Darjeeling, a Western
Himalayan species, but probably C. dan is the species meant.
522. CELAENORRHINUS BADIA, Hewitson.
Excessively rare. There is one specimen in the Indian Museum,Calcutta
from Sikhim, obtained by Mr. Otto Moller; Mr. H. J. Elwes possesses a single
specimen from Sikhim, Mr. G. C. Dudgeon one from Bhutan, taken in June, and
the Rev. Walter A. Hamilton has obtained it on one occasion in the Khasi Hills,
and has given me three specimens.
523. CELENORRHINUS FLAVOCINCTA, de Niceville.
Has so far only been procured near Buxa in Bhutan, where it appears to be very
rare.
524. CELAENORRHINUS CHAMUNDA, Moore.
Rather rare; recorded up to 4,000 feet from March to November.
525. CELAENORRHINUS SUMITRA, Moore.
Originally described from North-East Bengal I have never been able to
recognize it. Mr. Elwes states that he has "only three specimens taken in the
forest near Rikisum in British Bhutan, at an elevation of 5,000 to 7,000 feet in
August." :Mr. Leech records it from Western China, and figures the male.
526. CELAENORRHINUS LEUCOCERA, Kollar.
The commonest species of the genus in Sikhim as elsewhere, found from 1,000
to 4,000 feet from March to October.
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178 BUTTERFLIES.

527. CELAENORRHINUS PULOMAYA, Moore.

Common in the virgin forest zone from 7,000 to 10,000 feet
during the rains.
528. CELAENORRHINUS PYRRHA, de Niceville.
Found in Bhutan and the Khasi Hills. Nothing is known about its time of
flight, as it has only been obtainted by native collectors.
529. CELAENORHHINUS PLAGIFERA, de Niceville.
Not uncommon in Sikhim and Bhutan.
530. CELAENORRHINUS PATULA, de Niceville.
Described from a single pair only from Sikhim.
531. CELAENORRHINUS FUSCA, Hampson.
Mr. G. C. Dudgeon has obtained a pair or this species in Sikhim, and I
possess one female from thence. It was originally described from the Nilgiri
Hills.
532. CELAENORRHINUS NIGRICANS, de Niceville.
Found at low elevations in Sikhim and Bhutan.
533. CELAENORRHINUS DHANADA, Moore.
Rare in Sikhim, and found only at low elevations. Occurs in May to the east
of the Teesta river.
534. TAGIADES RAVI, Moore.
A butterfly more of the plains than of the hills. Mr. Otto Moller obtained a few
specimens of it in the Terai when he was manager of the Mohurgong Tea
Estate.
535. TAGIADES GANA, Moore.
Occurs throughout the year at low elevations, but is not very common. The
extent of the white area on the upperside of the hind wing is very variable.
536. TAGIADES ATTICUS, Fabricius.
A very variable species and excessively common in Sikhim, where it occurs at
low elevations throughout the year. I have bred it; the larva feeds on bamboo. It
occurs in Western China.
537. TAGIADES TABRICA, Hewitson.
Originally described from Darjeeling. The type specimen
appears to be still unique.
538. TAGIADES PRALAYA, Moore.
Rare; occurs at -low elevations during the rains.
539. DARPA HANRIA, Moore.
Rare; occurs at low elevations only in April and May. Found
also in the Khasi Hills.
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BUTTERFLIES. 179

540. CTENOPTILUM VASAVA, Moore.

Rare; found in April and May from 1,000 to 3,000 feet. It occurs also in
Central and Eastern China.
541. TAPENA AGNI, de Niceville.
A rare species in Sikhim. I have taken it at Singla, at about 1,500 feet
elevation, in October.
542. TAPENA. LAXMI, de Niceville.
Originally described from a female example from the Thaungyin forests in
middle Tenasserim, Burma. Major J. F. Malcolm Fawcett obtained a single
male example at Singla in May, at about 1,500 feet elevation.
543. ODONTOPTILUM SURA, Moore.
Common from 1,000 to 3,000 feet from April to October.
544. CAPRONA SYRICHTHUS, Felder.
Mr. Otto Moller obtained a few specimens of this species during the time
he lived in the Terai. It does not appear to occur in the hills. Mr. Dudgeon
records it from Bhutan at 1,500 feet, in May and July.
545. HESPERIA GALBA, Fabricius.
Also obtained by Mr. Otto Moller during his residence in the Terai. Mr.
Dudgeon notes its occurrence on the outer spurs at 1,500 feet.
546. SUASTUS GREMIUS, Fabricius.
Very common at low elevations throughout the year. The larva feeds on
palms, and the female butterfly in Calcutta often enters the houses to lay her
eggs on the leaves of the ornamental palms so common in rooms in India.
547. SUASTUS ADITUS, Moore.
Very rare in Sikhim, as, indeed, it is everywhere, and is found in the low
valleys only during the rains.
548. SUADA SWERGA, de Niceville.
Rare in the low valleys from June to October. It has a wide range. I possess
specimens from Burmah, the Malay Peninsula, Sumatra, and Java.
549. IAMBRIX SALSALA, Moore.
Common at low elevations throughout the year.
550. KORUTHAIALOS BUTLERI, Wood-Mason and de Niceville.
Rare in Sikhim, and found at low elevations probably throughout the year.
551. AEROMACHUS STIGMATA, Moore.
Not very rare; occurs from 1,000 to 4,000 feet throughout the warm
months.
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180 BUTTERFLIES.
--------- .--

552. AEROMACHUS JHORA, de N iceville.

Found in the low valleys and up to 4,000 feet from April to November.
553. AEROMACHUS KALI, de Niceville.
Somewhat rare, and is found with A. jhora, de Niceville. I have
taken both in October in the Jebi Kola jhora close to the turbine house of the
Tukvar Tea Estate at about 3,500 feet elevation.
554. SEBASTONYMA DOLOPIA, Hewitson.
Occurs at low elevations from April to October, and is never very common.
555. PEDESTES MASURIENSIS, Moore.
Appears to occur only in native Sikhim from June to August at from 5,000
to 6,000 feet elevation.
556. PEDESTES PANDITA, de Niceville.
Native collectors bring this species in large numbers with P. masuriensis,
Moore; the two species appear to fly together. Otto Moller records its
occurrence from 2,000 to 3,000 feet elevation.
557. ARNETTA ATKINSONI, Moore.
A common species, occurring, I believe, at rather high elevations, from 6,000 to
8,O0O feet. It is highly affected by the seasons, the dry-season form having
been named" Isoteinon" subtestaceus and "I." khasianus by Mr. Moore, the
wet-season form being the true A. atkinsoni, Moore.
558. HYAROTIS ADRASTUS, Cramer.
Occurs from April to October from 4,000 feet to the level of the Terai, and is
not rare.
559. ISMA CEPHALA, Hewitson.
Common at low elevations from April.to October. Colonel Swinhoe has
recently described the ordinary male of this variable species from a single
example from "Shillong" as lsma isota.
560. ZOGRAPHETUS SATWA, de Niceville.
Occurs rather commonly from 1,000 to 3,000 feet from April to October.
561. ZOGRAPHETUS FLAVIPENNIS, de Niceville.
Very rare in Sikhim. I once took it at about 1,000 feet elevation in October on
the Singla flat. It occurs in Bhutan, Burmah, and the Andamans, and not
improbably the Z. ogygia, Hewitson, from Sumatra, is the same species, in
which case the latter name has priority.
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562. MATAPA ARIA, Moore.

Obtained by Mr. Otto Moller in the Terai only. The species seems
to be confined to the plains, is very common in Calcutta, and occurs as far south
as Ceylon, the Andamans, Sumatra, Nias, and Java.
563. MATAPA DRUNA, Moore.
Not common; occurs from 1,000 to 3,000 feet from April to November.
564. MATAPA SASIVARNA, Moore.
Rare; occurs throughout the year at low elevations.
565. MATAPA SHALGRAMA, de Niceville.
Fairly common from 1,000 to 4,000 feet from April to November. Colonel
Swinhoe records a specimen of this very local species from the Andaman Isles
sent to him by the late Mr. R. Wimberley. M. aria, Moore, is very common at
Port Blair, but I have never received M. shalgrama from thence. As I sent Mr.
Wimberley many butterflies from Sikhim in exchange for local species, it is
highly probable, I think, that a specimen of M. shalgrama from Sikhim became
mixed up with his Andamanese butterflies.
566. ERIONOTA THRAX, Linnaeus.
Brought in at times in considerable numbers from low elevations by the native
collectors. Its larva feeds on the plantain, which is cultivated everywhere, and
also grows wild in the jungle.
567. ERIONOTA ACROLEUCA, Wood-Mason and de Niceville.
Very rare. I obtained one example, Mr. Otto Moller two only in Sikhim,
after many years' assiduous collecting. It occurs also in Western and Central
China, and has been named" Hidari" .grandis by Leech. It has been named by
six different writers since 1881.
568. PUDICITIA PHOLUS, de Niceville.
Excessively rare. I possess the pair of type specimens taken near Buxa in
Bhutan, and have received one more male from the Khasi Hills, generously
presented to me by the Rev. Walter A. Hamilton.
569. GANGARA THYRSIS, Fabricius.
Rarer than E. thrax, Linnaeus, found at low elevations only. The larva feeds on
palms, especially on the date-palm.
570. PAMPHlLA AVANTI, de Niceville.
Described in 1886 from two specimens obtained by native collectors probably at
high elevations near the passes, and not seen since.
571. OCHUS SUBVITTATUS, Moore.
Not uncommon at low elevations from April to October.
572. TARACTROCERA MAEVIUS, Fabricius.
Obtained in the Terai only by Mr. Otto Moller.
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.

573. TARACTROCERA DANNA, Moore.

Recorded by Mr. Moore from Bhutan, but found only in the Western
Himalayas as far as I know.
574. AMPITTIA MARO, Fabricius.
Mr. Otto Moller took this species in the Terai only.
575. PADRAONA GOLA, Moore. .
Not rare at low elevations throughout the warm months. It is found also in
Central China.
576. PADRAONA DARA, Kollar.
Very common throughout the year from 1,000 to 5,000 feet.
577. PADRAONA MAESOIDES, Butler.
Occurs at the same times and seasons with the last-mentioned species.
578. TELICOTA AUGIAS, Linnaeus.
Very rare in Sikhim. During many years collecting Mr. Otto Moller
obtained one or two specimens only.
579. TELICOTA BAMBUSAE, Moore.
Excessively common in Sikhim, occurring in all the warm months in
abundance from 1,000 to 5,000 feet elevation. It is found also in Central China.
580. BAORIS (Chapra) MATHIAS, Fabricius.
Very cornmon from 1,000 to 8,000 feet from March to December. Occurs
thoughout China and Japan.
581. BAORIS (Chapra) AGNA, Moore.
Kept by Lieutenant E. Y. Watson distinct from B. mathias,Fabricius, and
said by him to be the same species as B. chaya, Moore. Occurs in Sikhim with
B. mathias, from which it may be known by its smaller spots in the forewing.
582. BAORIS (Chapra) SINENSIS, Mabille.
Better known as Chapra prominens, Moore, and of which Pamphila
similis, Leech, is a synonym. Not very common. Occurs from 1,000 to 5,000
feet throughout the warm months. It is found also in Western and Central China.
583. BAORIS (Parnara) BADA, Moore.
Lieutenant E. Y. Watson retains this species as distinct from thenext. It occurs
rarely at low elevations.
584. BAORIS (Parnara) GUTTATUS, Bremer and Grey.
Also found at low elevations throughout the year.
585. BAORIS (Parnam) COLACA, Moore.
Not uncommon at low elevations from March to December.Occurs also in
Western China.
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BUTTERFLIES. 183

586. BAORIS (Parnara) BEVANI, Moore.

Found at low elevations commonly during the rains.
587. BAORIS (Parnara) ASSAMENSIS, Wood-Mason and de Niceville.
Occurs commonly at low elevations from March to December.
588. BAORIS (Parnara) PAGANA, de Niceville.
Common; the native collectors sometimes bring it in considerable numbers. It
occurs at Singla and at other places at a low elevation.
589. BAORIS (Parnara) PLEBEIA, de Niceville.
When describing this species I carefully compared it with " Parnara"
kumara, Moore, and also described the differences in the prehensores. Mr.
Elwes says I do not al1ude to P. kumara in my description. B. plebeia is a
common species at a low elevation in Sikhim.
590. BAORIS (Parnara) AUSTENI, Moore.
Not rare; occurs at low elevations throughout the year, and is found also in
Western and Eastern China.
591. BAORIS (Parnara) TULSI, de Niceville.
Rare in Sikhim and in the Khasi Hills, common in UpperBurmah, and is
found in Java also. I caught the type specimen below Darjeeling at about 3,000
feet elevation in October.
592. BAORIS (Parnara) PELLUCIDA, Murray.
Better known as Parnara toona, Moore, of which the var. quinque puncta of
Mabille, from Japan, is a local race. Very common at low elevations throughout
the year. It occurs as far south as Sumatra, and has been described and figured by
Mr. W. L. Distant as Baoris chaya, Moore. It is found in Japan, Corea, the Kurile
Islands, Amurland, Central and Western China.
593. BAORIS (Parnara) ELTOLA, Hewitson.
Common in Sikhim from 1,000 to 7,000 feet, all through the year.
594. BAORIS OCEIA, Hewitson.
Excessively common all through the warm months of the year, and is found
from 1,000 to 5,000 feet. It is extremely variable, and has been called many bad
names. It varies in the forewing being immaculate through every gradation of
variation till the maximum number of eight hyaline spots is reached, and that in
both sexes. Colonel Swinhoe in his paper on the Butterflies of the Khasi Hills
tries to bolster up some of these inconstant forms which have been raised to
specific rank, but his persistent efforts in this direction are not likely to be
followed by serious lepidopterists. It is found also in Western, Central, and
Eastern China.
 184 BUTTERFLIES. www.sikkim.gov.in

595. HALPE MOOREI, Watson.

Better known in India as H. beturia, Hewitson. Recorded from Sikhim by
Colonel Swinhoe, though Mr. Otto Moller does not seem to have ever obtained it
there. It is a common butterfly of the plains, especially so in Calcutta, and may
well be found in the Terai and on the outer slopes of the hills.
596. HALPE HOMOLEA, Hewitson.
Better known perhaps as H. sikkima, Moore. It is an excessively common species
in Sikhim at low elevations throughout the warmer months. Colonel Swinhoe has
recently described five new species of Halpe, all from" Shillong," though
probably not one of them is to be found at that hill station, but many miles away
from it in the low hot valleys at the foot of the hills. Four of these" new species"
are from single specimens, one species from two examples. It is in the highest
degree improbable' that any of them will obtain currency; they are almost
certainly bad species all of them.
597. HALPE SEPARATA, Moore.
Occurs in the forests about Senchal from 6,000 to 9,000 feet, especially in the
rains.
598. HALPE KUMARA, de Niceville.
A rare species, which occurs also in Bhutan.
599. HALPE HYRIE, de Niceville.
Originally described from the Naga Hills. Mr. G. C. Dudgeon possesses a
single female taken in Bhutan in May.
600. HALPE GUPTA, de Niceville.
Apparently confined in India to Sikhim, and I believe it to occur only at the
higher elevations from 6,000 to 9,000 feet. It is found also in Western China.
601. HALPE CERATA, Hewitson.
Found at low elevations commonly throughout the year.
602. HALPE ZEMA, Hewitson.
This species has a wide range and is found as far south as Nias island off the
West coast of Sumatra. In Sikhim it is quite common, and is found from 1,000 to
3,000 feet from April to November.
603. HALPE AINA, de Niceville.
A very rare species. I have no precise record of its time and
place of appearance. Colonel Swinhoe records it from the Khasi Hills,
604 CUPITHA PURREEA, Moore.
Not common, occurs at low elevations only, and is found throughout the
warm months.
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BUTTERFLIES. 185

605. NOTOCRYPTA FEISTHAMELII, Boisduval.

Better known as Plesioneura alysos, Moore. Lieutenant Watson keeps the N.
curvifascia of Felder, described from China, as a distinct species. I have seen the
type specimen at Vienna, which is a female. As the white band on the underside
of the forewing does not nearly reach the costa, it is probably distinct from N.
feisthamelii, but is near to N. restricta, Moore. N. feisthamelii is one of the
commonest species occurring in Sikhim, and is found in all the months of the
year except the two or three coldest, and from 1,000 to 5,000 feet elevation. It is
found also in Western China, and has been defined as a local race under the
name .of rectifaseia by Leech.
606. NOTOCRYPTA RESTRICTA, Moore.
Colonel Swinhoe says this species is commoner in the Andaman Isles than N.
paralysos, Wood-Mason and de Niceville, and goes on to say that the latter
appears to him to be identical with N. feisthamelii, omitting to notice the very
distinctive white spotting of the hind wing on the underside which makes N.
paralysos unique in the genus. N. restricta in Sikhim is a very common species
at low elevations throughout, the warm months. It is found also in Western
and Central China and in the Loochoo Islands.
607. UDASPES FOLUS, Cramer.
Occurs in the low valleys commonly throughout the year.
608. BARACUS SEPTENTRIONUM, Wood-Mason and de Niceville.
A very rare species in Sikhim and obtained only by Mr. Otto Moller in the Terai.
Mr. Dudgeon has a male taken in March, and a female in August, both from a
low elevation in Daling.
609. ASTICTOPTERUS OLIVASCENS, Moore.
Also a Terai species, of which Mr. Otto Moller obtained a few specimens. The
typical Sikhim form has the markings on the underside nearly obsolete. It occurs
in Calcutta and is very common in Burmah. It is variable, and one of these slight
and inconstant varieties has recently been named A. kada by Colonel Swinhoe. It
occurs right across China to Hainan island, and the" Cyclopides" chinensis of
Leech, C henrici of Holland, and" Steropis " nubilus of Mabille, are synonyms.
610. KERANA DIOCLES, Moore.
Very common at low elevations from March to December. It is widely
spread, and is found in Sumatra and Java.
611. PIRDANA RUDOLPHII, Elwes and de Niceville.
I know of only two specimens of this very rare species from Sikhim, both
females, and one each in the collection of Colonel A. M. Lang, R.E., and myself,
the latter taken by Mr. J. Gammie. I have both sexes from Java.
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612. PLASTINGIA NOEMI, de Niceville.

All the species of this genus appear to be rare, specimens being procured
only one at a time and at distant intervals. P. noem; is no exception to this rule. It
is found in the low hot valleys from May to August.
613. PITHAURIA MURDAVA, Moore.
Common throughout the warmer months at low elevations.
614. PITHAURIA STRAMINEIPENNIS, Wood-Mason and deNiceville.
The females of both the species of Pithauria are very rare, though the males of
both are so common. The present species occurs from April to November from
1,000 to 3,000 feet elevation. It is found in Western China.
615. CRETEUS CYRINA, Hewitson.
Originally described by Hewitson from Darjeeling. I over looked the description,
and described it later on and figured it as Parnara parca. I possess a single
example from Sikhim, taken in October. Mr. G. C. Dudgeon has obtained both
sex,es from the east of the Tista river in September and October. It is found also
in the Khasi Hills.
616. ITON SEMAMORA, Moore.
Very rare in Sikhim, but I have taken it myself at about 3,000 feet in
October. It occurs as far south as North-East Sumatra.
617. ISMENE ATAPHUS, Watson.
Lieutenant E. Y. Watson has recently shown that this species is distinct from
the true I. oedipodea, Swainson, from Sumatra. It is rather rare in Sikhim,
occurring at low elevations only.
618. ISMENE JAINA, Moore.
Not common, and found at low elevations only.
619. ISMENE AMARA, Moore.
Rare; occurs from 1,000 to 3,000 feet during the warm months.
620. ISMENE VASUTANA, Moore.
Rare; flies during the summer in the lower valleys.
621. ISMENE ANADI, de Niceyille.
Probably the rarest species of the genus occurring in Sikhim. It is found at a low
elevation only, as far as is known.
622. ISMENE HARISA, Moore.
Somewhat common. I have on several occasions caught it myself in the low
valleys in October. It occurs in Java.
623. ISMENE GOMATA, Moore.
Very rare, especially the female. Found in the low hot valleys only from May
to October. Mr. Leech describes a local race from Western China as var. lara.
 BUTTERFLIES. 187 www.sikkim.gov.in

624. HASORA BADRA, Moore.

A common species in both sexes from 1,000 to 4,000 feet from April to
November.
625. HASORA ANURA, de Niceville.
A rare species about which not much is known, though Mr. Dudgeon
informs me that he has recently procured about twenty males and one female in
March, April and May at 4,000 feet in Daling. It occurs also in the Khasi Hills,
and in Western and Central Ohina.
626. HASORA CHABRONA, Plotz.
Not uncommon in Sikhim, but hitherto overlooked. The male has no " male-
mark," and both sexes possess a small subcostal yellow dot in the forewing
which is never found in the next species.
627. HASORA (Parata) CHROMUS, Cramer.
Fairly common during the rains at low elevations, otherwise rare in Sikhim. It is
found also in Western China. Colonel Swinhoe records Hasora vitta, Butler,
originally described from Borneo, from Sikhim, but I have failed to recognise
the species from thence, unless it be H. chabrona.
628. BIBASIS SENA, Moore.
Occurs rarely in the low valleys only. It is found to the south as far as North-
East Sumatra, from whence I possess specimens.
629. BADAMIA EXCLAMATIONIS, Fabricius.
One of the commonest of the" Skippers" found in Sikhim. It flies from April to
October, and occurs from 1,000 to 6000 feet elevation
.630. RHOPALOCAMPTA BENJAMINI, Guerin.
Also common; flies throughout the year at from 1,000 to 7,000 feet elevation. It
occurs right across China to Japan.
631. " ISOTEINON" FLAVALUM, de Niceville.
The type specimen of this species is' unique, and was obtained in native Sikhim.
It is now in London in the possession of Mr. J. H. Leech, who bought Mr. Otto
Moller's collection, so is not available for examination with a view to place it in
its true position in accordance with Lieutenant E. Y. Watson's revision of the
genera of the Hesperiidoe.
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188 REPTILES.

REPTILES.
NOTE.-The books consulted for this paper are Gunther's" Reptiles of British India"
and the "Reptilia and Batrachia of British India," by Boulenger.
I do not think there are either tortoises or turtles found in Independent Sikhim, although
at least one tortoise is found in the Terai. If any are found in Independent Sikhim,
they.should precede the lizards in the order as above.
J. GAMMIE-30-8.91.

LIZARDS
TENspecies of lizards are recorded from Sikhim, five of which are skinks ; one
is a gecko or wall-lizard; one ghosamp ; the common bloodsucker; JapaluRa
variegata, which is popularly known by the European visitors as the chameleon
on account of its rather showy colours, but does not belong to that family; and a
beautiful glass-snake (Ophisaurus gracilis) which, as it is limbless, is often
rnistaken for a true snake, but can be readily recognized as belonging not to the
snake but to the lizard family by the presence of eyelids. The gho.samp is the
only large member of the family in Sikhim. It grows to a length of 4 feet. Its
flesh is eaten by the natives and considered a delicacy.
The common cobra (.Naia tripudians) is not uncommon. It keeps chiefly to
the warmer slopes under 4,000 feet, but has been taken as high as 8,000. The
ordinary length of an adult is five feet, but individuals of over six feet are
occasionally killed. The species is variable in colour, but the Sikhim variety is
usually of a uniform brownish-olive above, with a large ocellus, edged and
centred with black, on the dilatable neck: beneath, for a few inches from the
chin it is whitish crossed by a broad black band, and the rest of the lower parts
black. Nai bungarus (the giant cobra) is also found in the lower valleys, but
seldom ascends above 4,000 feet. It feeds mostly on other snakes, and grows to
a length of 12 or 13 feet, of which the tail is 2 1/2 feet. In colour the adult is of
a uniform brownish-black with indistinct darker cross bands, but the young is
much more gaily coloured, being jet black, beautifully ringed, from the snout to
the tip of the tail, with white bands of about a quarter of an inch or more in
breadth, the intervening black spaces being three or four times as broad. One of
the pit-vipers(Ancistrodon himalayanus) is rare in Sikhim, and occurs between
5,000 and 10,000 feet. It is brown, spotted or banded with black, and grows to
nearly 3 feet in length. The other three pit-vipers belong to the genus
Trimeresurus, and are of repulsive aspect, having short tails and triangular
shaped heads which are covered with numerous small scales instead of a few
large shields as in
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REPTILES. 189

most other snakes. T. monticola is thick bodied, and measures about 2 feet in
length, of which the tail is only 3 1/2 inches. It is reddishbrown with two rows
of large, square, black spots along the upper parts of the back, and a row of
smal1er ones on each side. The under parts are marbled brown and white. T.
carinatus is grass green with a yellowish tail and a white line running along the
lower body scales. It is not so heavy as T. monticola, but is about a foot longer.
T. gramineus, the third species, is also grass green, but the line along the outer
scales is bright red, and the tail is reddish. Both of the green species keep to the
hot valleys, ascending to about 4,000 feet, 'but T. monticola ascends to over
5,000. The Sikhim variety of the krait, Bungarus coeruleus, is of a uniform
blackish-brown and is not common. Bungarus bungaroides is one of the rarest
of snakes, and has been collected at 5,000 and 6,800 feet'. It grows to over 2
feet in length, and is not unlike the young of the giant cobra, being black,
banded with white. Callophis maclellandii, the remaining venomous species, is
red above and white below, with a very distinctly-defined black vertebral stripe
running the whole length of the body, and irregularly-shaped broadish black
bands crossing the sides and belly, but not meeting on the back by about half an
inch, and between these black bands is a large ventral spot of the same colour.
The head, which is small, is banded black and white. It is not uncommon
between 5,000 and 7,000 feet. Considering the number of venomous species in
Sikhim, the immunity of both man and beast in it from snake-bite is remarkable.
Fatal cases are almost unknown, and even trivial cases are of rare occurrence
Of the non-venomous species, three attain to considerable dimensions. The
largest of them, by far, is Python molurus, whose usual length is 12 feet, but
individuals of 16 to 20 feet are not very rare. It frequents low elevations, and
feeds on small deer and other mammals which it kills by compression. The
second in size is Zaocys nigromarginatus, a very beautiful snake of the cool
forests between 4,000 and 6,000 feet. It is green (turning blue in spirits) with a
broad black band on each side of the hinder half of the body and tail, and all
the green scales are margined with black. It is rather thick bodied and grows to
nine feet in length. It is peculiar among the Sikhim snakes in having an even
number of rows of scales (14), all the others having odd numbers, viz., one
vertebral row and an even number on each side. The third in size is Zamenis
mucosus, the well-known rat snake, which grows to seven feet in length. Of the
other genera, Tropidonotus is the most numerous, being represented by five
species. Several of them swim well, and one, T. macrophthalmus, has the
misfortune to resemble the common
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190 REPTILES.

cobra somewhat in colouration and in having a dilatable neck, and suffers

accordingly, as it is often mistaken for it and mercilessly killed. There are four
species each of Coluber and Dipsas. three of Trachischium,. two each of
Simotes, Ablabes, and Typhlops, and five genera are each represented in
Sikhim by a single species only.Among them the more notable are Dendrophis
picta, a prettily coloured slender tree-snake, and Dryophis prasinus, a
handsome green whip-snake, which grows to 7 feet in length, and is graceful
in its movements. Both, although perfectly innocuous, are of ferocious and
aggressive habits. Amblycephalus monticola, the only blunt-head in Sikhim, is
alone among the Sikhim non-venomous snakes in being without the shield
lying between the nasal and praeocular shields, whilst it is (the loreal shield),
with this solitary exception, present in all the harmless species, and is absent in
everyone or the venomous; so that in Sikhim the non-venomous species can at
once be distinguished from the venomous, with the one exception mentioned,
by the presence of the loreal shield which lies above the lip, and between the
shield in contact with the front of the eye and the one in which the nostril is
pierced. As already mentioned, none of the venomous sorts have this particular
shield.

FROGS AND TOADS .

Of frogs and toads there are about 16 species .Seven of
them belong to the genus Rana, four toRacophorous three to Bufo, and one
each to Cophophryne and Leptobrachium. Amongst . them are several prettily-
coloured tree frogs. The natives eat five species, and consider them tasty and
wholesome food. They catch them at night by the light of bamboo torches,
which so dazzles the creatures that they remain motionless and allow
themselves to be caught. The Lepchas call the edible frog (Rana liebigii) of the
Upper Forests" Lhak-pok.thalak," while the Nepali name is "Mhun-paha," and
all natives agree that this kind is the best eating. It is even said that every kind
of frog can be eaten, except the big toad with poisonous warts on his back.
When the Lepchas make a bigger catch than they can eat fresh, they gut and
smoke-dry the surplus for future use, when they will keep good for years, but
get so hard and tough as to require much boiling. The edible frog named above
is said to eat the young shoots of the" Malling" bamboo. Several of the species
are recognized by their call. There is but one species of tailed-batrachian, a
newt,(Tylobotriton verrucosus) and it is rare. There is also but one burrowing-
batrachian, Ichthyophis monochrous, which is fairly common about 3-5,000
feet elevation. Were it not for its distinct head and eyes, it might easily be
overlooked for one of the large earthworms.
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BIRDS. 191

BIRDS.
NOTE.-The books consulted for this paper are Jerdon's " Birds of India," Oates' "Birds
of India," and Hume and Marshall's" Game Birds of India."
J. G.AMMIE-22.8.91.

In no part of the world of an equal area are birds more profusely

represented in species than in Sikhim, where there are between 500 and 600.
They vary in size from the gigantic lammergeyer, of about 4 feet in length and 9
feet across the outstretched wings, down to a tiny flower-peeker, Dicoeum
ignipectus, barely exceeding 3. inches from the end of its beak to the tip of its
tail.' There are four species of kingfishers, but none are numerous in individuals;
no doubt owing to the scarcity of fish, their natural food. They chiefly frequent
the streams of the lower valleys and rarely are found above 4,000 feet. The
smallest, and at the same time prettiest of them all, is Ceyx tridactyla, a lovely
little creature of about 5 inches in length, and coloured with rufous, white, and
different shades of glistening blue and violet. Halcyon coromandelianus,
another beautiful species, is of a nearly uniform rich rufous colour overlaid with
shining peach. The largest of all is crested, and spotted black and white. Alcedo
bengalensis, the fourth species, closely resembles the English kingfisher, but is
smaller. The other more conspicuous birds frequenting stream-sides are
forktails, redstarts, a dipper, and a whistling-thrush. The forktails, of which
there are four species, are quite characteristic of the darkly wooded mountain
torrents of Sikhim. There they are at home on the rocks. amidst the roar. and the
spray, but dash up the streams, with a weird sort of screammg noise, when
suddenly disturbed. They are coloured black and white. In the winter season the
white-capped redstart, Chimarrhornis leucocephala, is a conspicuous and
common object of the lower stream beds, but goes high up to breed. It is
chastely clad in a black coat and vest and a snow-white cap, and is rufous
below. The dipper is of a uniform brown colour, and has the remarkable power
of walking under the water where it finds its principal food. The whistling-
thrush is a large handsome yellow-billed bird, over a loot long and of a black
colour overlaid with glistening cobalt-blue. It is, perhaps, the most frequently
noticed of the birds frequenting the stream-sides between 3.,000 and 8,000 feet
elevation.
Of woodpeckers there are about a dozen species. These readily attract
attention by their showy colours and the habit, which their race have, of
climbing on trees and tapping the stems in search of the larvre of beetles, their
favourite food. The species found in Sikhim
192 BIRDS. www.sikkim.gov.in

vary in size from the black and white Yungipicus rubricatus, 5 inches in
length, to the yel1ow-naped Chrysophlegma of 14 inches. They are most
numerous in the low, hot valleys, but several of the species are found at
considerable elevations. There is but one permanent resident belonging to the
parrot family, Paloeornis schisticeps, and it is very abundant on the lower slopes
from October till March, when it ascends to high elevations to breed. It is green,
with a slaty-coloured head, and about 16 inches long. Occasionally, but rarely,
stragglers of one or two of the plains' species are to be seen. About a dozen
species of cuckoos visit Sikhim. Among them is the European cuckoo, whose
call may be heard all day long, in the season, from about 3,500 feet upwards, but
is commonest above 5,000 feet. By far the prettiest of them all is Chrysococcyx
Hodgsoni, the emerald cuckoo. Above, it is of a brilliant emerald-green with a
golden sheen, and below white, .barred with shining green. It is a small bird, not
being much more than half a foot in length. The fork-tailed cuckoo, Surniculus
dicruroides, closely resembles the common king-crow, but its call, a whistling
note five or six times repeated, betrays it.
The long-tailed honey -suckers or sun-birds are not excelled in beauty by
any other of the Sikhim species. There are five of them, all belonging to the
genus .AEthopyga. The males of all of them are richly coloured on the head and
long tail feathers, with lustrous metallic hues of different shades which change
and flash in the sun with every movement. The prevailing colours of .AE.
ignicanda are scarlet and violet; of .AE. nipalensis steel-green, maroon, and
yellow, with flame-colour on the breast; and of .AE. saturata violet and black.
Their curved bills are long and slender, and their bodies are elegantly shaped.
They are found from the lowest valleys up to about 7,000 feet. There are
several nuthatches, of which Sitta formosa is by far the handsomest. It is found
about 6,000 feet, and like its cogeners, climbs about on trees in search of food
after the manner of woodpeckers. The European hoopoo passes through Sikhim
on its way to the plains in the autumn, and again in the spring on its return
journey. There are three minivets, all of them remarkable for the gay plumage
of both sexes, and for the extreme way the sexes of the same species differ
from each other in colour. The male of the largest one, Pericrocotus speciosus,
is a vermilion-red with black head, wings, and back, whilst its female is of the
same pattern, but the colours are yellow and ashy grey. It is abundant up to
about 4,000 feet, and feeds in considerable parties. A flock of them seen flying
in the bright sunshine is one of the sights of Sikhim not readily forgotten. There
are two racket-tailed drongos, both of which have two of their tail feathers
lengthened in a peculiar manner. From the end of the ordinary tail the outer
feathers have a naked shaft of nearly a foot in length ending
 BIRDS. 193 www.sikkim.gov.in

in a twisted barbed portion of some 3 inches long. When seen flying some
distance off, the naked shafts are not readily perceptible, and the whole looks
like a large bird chased by two small ones. Both species affect the dark jungles
in the hot valleys below 3,000 feet. It is said that they can easily be taught to
imitate other birds and noises. In the same places, but keeping still more to the
deep shade of trees, is a lovely trogon, Harpactes Hodgsoni. Its prevailing
colour is Crimson.
Among the flycatchers, of which there are about 26 species in Sikhim,
several being seasonal residents only, the fairy blue-chats are the most
remarkable. There are several species, all common in the cool forests between
4,000 and 8,000 feet. The males of them all are brilliantly marked with different
shades of glistening blue, but the females 'are demurely clothed in brown,. with
the blue of the male confined to a small spot on each side of the neck. Nitidula
Hodgsoni, the pigmy blue flycatcher, which occurs about the same elevations, is
one of the smallest and prettiest of the Sikhim birds. It is only 3- 3/4 inches
long. Stoparola melanops, the verditer-flycatcher, breeds in Sikhim at elevations
over 5,000 feet, but is absent in winter. It is strikingly coloured, being of an
almost uniform verditer-blue, and as it keeps to the road-sides, is one of the best
known birds. A beautiful paradise flycatcher, Terpsiphone affinis, is found in
the very lowest valleys. When in full plumage the male has the head and long-
pointed crest black, and the rest of the plumage white with black shafts. Its tail
grows to 14 inches in length. The white of the adult male is chiefly replaced in
the female and young males with chestnut. There are eight or nine species of
wrens, and they are mostly found creeping about among the undergrowth and
fallen logs of the forests from 5,000 feet upwards, but the prettiest and rarest of
them all, Troglodytes punctatus, is found as low as 2,000 feet. Of the true thrush
family there are about a dozen representatives. One or two of them are fair song-
sters, the best being Geocichla citrina, it handsome blue and orangecoloured
ground thrush of the hot valleys up to about 4,000 feet. The male of Merula
boulboul which is not unlike an English blackbird but has a grey wing bar, is
also a fair songster. It is found abundantly from 5,000 feet upwards. A. fieldfare,
Planesticus atrogularis, abounds in large flocks in the cold season, but goes
further north to breed. A prettily marked mountain-thrush, Oreocincla dauma,
may often be seen turning over the fallen leaves in the lower forests. It is of a
brown colour spotted with white and the feathers fringed with black. It is of.
solitary habits, and rarely is more than one seen at a time. Laughing-thrushes
and babblers are numerous both in species and individuals, and mostly occur in
the forests and scrub over 5,000 feet elevation, but one or two species are found
down to the bottoms of the hottest valleys They usually feed in small flocks,
194 BIRDS. www.sikkim.gov.in

and many of them are noisy. The noisiest at them all is Garrulax lcuco1ophus,
the white-headed laughing-thrush, which frequents the jungles of the lower
valleys up to about 4,000 feet. When disturbed tho whole party unite in making
most discordant noises resembling forced screaming laughter. On the other
hand, the rufous-chinned laughing-thrush, Janthocincla rufigularis, large flocks
of which are exceedingly common among the scrub jungle'up to 4,000 feet, has a
pleasant warbling note, which being kept up by the whole company constitutes a
sweet song. There are five species of Trochalopterum, all pleasingly, although
sombrely, plumaged; and the same number of scimitar-babblers, all with k,ngish
bills of a more or less scimitar shape. The bill of Xiphoramphus supercilliaris,
the slender-billed scimitar-babbler, is remarkable, being very slender, much
curved, and nearly 3 inches in length round the curve.
The bulbuls are also largely represented. The most abundant in numbers
isMolpestes bengalensis, which is to be seen in large flocks among the scrub
everywhere up to 4,000 feet. Alcurus striatus, the striated green bulbul, is almost
as abundant, but keeps to the tree tops at elevations over 5,000 feet. The
beautiful fairy blue bird, Irena puella, occurs rather low down, but is not
common. The whole of the upper parts of the male are glistening cobalt.blue,
and of the lower velvet-black. It is a large bird of 10 inches in length. There is
only one oriole, Oriolus Trailii, and it is very unlike any of the plains orioles in
appearance, being principally of an Indian-red colour, but it builds the same sort
of nest and has a similarly marked egg. Of the stone-chat family the two most
notable members are Copsychus saularis, the magpie-robin, and Kittacincla
macroura, the shama, both famous songsters. The latter is usually found at the
bottoms of the hot valleys only, but the former is commonest about 3,000 feet.
The common and one or two other Indian tailor-birds are plentiful; and small
warblers of many sorts abound. Wagtails are not numerous, and are mostly but
seasonal visitors. Several species of pipits are abundant in the cold weather, and
are sometimes known and used as ortolans. Two thrush.tits are among the most
beautiful of the larger Sikhim birds. One or them, Cochoa viridis, is 15 inches
long and of a bluish-green colour, with head, neck and tail cobalt-blue. It is not
common. The second species, C. purpurea, is commoner and almost as
beautiful, and of about the same size, but is coloured bluish. grey and purple.
Both are found in the forests from about 6,000 feet upwards. Tits are numerous
and varied. One of them, Melanochlora sultanea, which occurs up to 4,000 feet
elevation, is remarkably coloured. Its body is altogether of a greenish-black with
the forehead and a long prominent crest golden-yellow. The finch family is
numerously represented in Sikhim, there being. about 30 species. Among them
are 3 grosbeaks, 3 bullfinches, 1 crossbill, 1 siskin
 BIRDS. 195 www.sikkim.gov.in

8 rosefinches, 2 sparrows, 4 or 5 mountain-finches, and as many buntings.

During the greater part of the year the majority of them are only to be found at
very high elevations, but many descend as low as 6,000 feet in hard winters, and
a few species are to be found at lower elevations the year round. The most
conspicuously coloured of them all is Hoemato.spiza sipahi, which is
gorgeously arrayed in bright scarlet with brown wings and tail edged with
scarlet. The female is brown with a bright yellow rump. It may be seen in
considerable numbers as low as 5,000 feet so early in the year as October. At
high elevations three or four larks are to be found..
The common swallow, Hirundo rustica, arrives about the end of January
and leaves again in October. It begins breeding in March and brings up two or
three broods in .the year. The other species of swallow found in Sikhim,
Hirundo nipalensis, is readily distinguished by its rusty-coloured rump. It builds
a covered nest with a long tunnel for entrance, instead of the open cup-shaped
nest of the common swallow. Chelidon nipalensis, Hodgson's martin, is abun-
dant up to at least 5,000 feet, and remains the whole year, as does also the
Indian edible-nest swiftlet, Collocalia" nidifica. There are three goat suckers, of
which Caprimulgus albonotatus is the commonest. In the breeding season its
song is one of the most frequent sounds to be heard after dusk in the lower
valleys up to nearly 4,000 feet. It is exactly the noise made by striking with a
stone on a frozen pond. Of barbets there are four species. All breed in holes of
trees and have monotonous calls. The largest one, Megalaima .grandis, is very
common. It grows to 13 inches in length, and is said to be excellent eating.
Psarisomus Dalhousioe, a broad bill, is a very showily-coloured bird, and is
found in considerable flocks in the forests of the hot valleys. It is about the size
of a blackbird and of a green colour marked with blue and yellow.
The European raven, Corvus corax, is found at high elevations, and a
jungle crow, Corvus macrorhynchus , is frequent, although not in large
numbers, from low elevations up to considerable heights. There is one jay, and
there are also several magpies of sorts, the most conspicuous of which, Cissa
chinensis, the hunting-jay, is crested and of a bluish-green colour with rufous
wings. It is found up to about 4,000 feet elevation. Over 6,000 feet, usually in
the big forests, are to be found two blue-magpies with tails half a yard in
length. At elevations over 9,000 feet are to be found a nut-cracker and two
choughs, one with a red and the other with a yellow bill. The great hornbill,
Homrains bicornis, is a most remarkable bird. It is 4 feet long, and has a large
yellow casque on the top of its bill. It affects the lower valleys up to 3,000 feet,
but occasionally ascends higher. It goes in small flocks, and at times makes a
loud unearthly-sounding noise, more like that of some large carnivorous
mammal quarrelling over its prey
196 BIRDS. www.sikkim.gov.in

than a bird. It breeds in hollows of lofty trees,. and when the female enters to
lay, she plasters herself in and remains in the hollow till the eggs are hatched,
merely leaving a long slit wide enough to protrude her bill for the reception of
the food which the male has to provide. The second and only other sort of
hornbill in Sikhim is Aceros nipalensis, a hardly less remarkable bird. It is of
similar habits, but of.a rather smaller size and without the casque on the bill. It
frequents higher elevations, and is considered good eating. The neck of the
male is red and of the female black.
Amongst the birds of prey are vultures, eagles, falcons, hawks, owls,
kestril, and kite. The lammergeyer is only found at high elevations, and other
vultures are rather frequent visitors than permanent residents. The kestril is
common in the cold weather, and the kite passes through, in immense numbers,
towards the end of September, on its way to the plains. but a few remain
permanently. The pigmy falcon, Hierax entolmas, a permanent resident of
Sikhim, is an interesting little bird. It is prettily coloured on the upper parts
being marked with black glossed with green, and streaked about the head and
collared with white, and the lower parts reddish. It is only about half a foot in
length, but has courage enough for ten times its size. It keeps mostly to the
lowest valleys, but occasionally ascends to over 4,000 feet. Of all the birds of
prey in Sikhim the black eagle, Neopus malaiensis, is oftenest seen, not that it
is the commonest by any means, but because of its habit of continually soaring
about, at no great height from the ground, the livelong day. Jerdon found that it
fed chiefly on birds' eggs and nestlings. It also feeds on reptiles. The spotted
hawk-eagle, Spizactus nipalensis, is a handsome bird of 2 feet long, and
mostly found below 4,000 feet. The crested serpent eagle, Spilornis cheela, is
common at low elevations. It is also a handsome bird, but its note, which it
sometimes keeps calling for hours together, is a disagreeably loud and harsh
squeal. The European sparrow-hawk and a crested goshawk are also fairly
common. Of the owl tribe there are seven or eight species, varying in size from
the brown wood. owl, Syrnimn nipalensis, which measures 2 feet in length, to
the pigmy owlet, Glancidium brodioei, measuring but 6 inches. There are two
Scops horned-owls.
There are nine or ten species of pigeons and doves. In the lower valleys, up to
4,000 feet, are to be found the Imperial pigeon, Carpophaga insignis; a pin-tailed
green pigeon, Spenocercus apicaudus; a tree-dove, Macropygia tusalia; a
spotted-dove, Turtur suratensis; and a bronze-winged dove, Chalcophaps
indicus. At higher elevations are two wood-pigeons, Alsocomus Hodgsonii and
Palumbus pulchricollis; a green-pigeon, Spenocercus sphenurus, which has the
most musical note of all the Sikhim pigeons, and one or two others. The imperial
pigeon is the largest, and grows to over a
 BIRDS. 197 www.sikkim.gov.in

foot in length and 1 lbs. in weight. It is quite a fruit-eater, and keeps to the
forest-clad parts. Th.e bronze-winged dove is a lovely creature. It is of shy,
solitary habits, but may often be seen feeding on the road under deep shade on
suddenly rounding a turn. Most of the pigeons are good eating.
Sikhim is but a poor country for sport, although at least 14 species of game
birds are to be found in it by the patient and persevering sportsman, between the
Rungeet river and the perpetual snows, but none of them can be called very
abundant, and many are difficult to find. There are 4 pheasants, 3 quails, 2 hill-
partridges, a jungle fowl, woodcock, a snow-cock, a snow-partridge, and a
crake. The moonal, Lophophorus impeyanus, the largest and handsomest of the
Sikhim ,pheasants, rarely descends below 10,000 feet. An adult male weighs up
to 5 ; lbs. and is 28 inches long. It has a peacock-like crest, and its prevailing
colour above is bronze-green glossed with gold; below is black, and the tail is
cinnamon-red. The female is wholly brown, with a white chin and throat. The
blood-pheasant, Ithagenes cruentus, frequents the same zone. It is a small bird,
adult males of it usually weighing under 1 lbs. and measuring 18 inches in
length. They are greyish coloured on the back and greenish below, with blood-
red streaks on the breast, and the under-tail-coverts are "also blood-red. The
cere, legs, and spurs are crimson. The female is reddish-brown finely mottled
with black. Ceriornis satyra, the Indian crimson tragopan, is usually found
between 8,000 and, 10,000 feet, but sometimes descends in winter to below
7,000 in search of the fruit of Arisoema;, a large arum, its favourite food. The
male is rich crimson below, with black-edged white ocelli on the breast and
flanks. The most conspicuous marks about it when alive are the orbital regions,
erectile horns, and dilatable skin about the throat, which are of a fine blue, but
the colour fades after death. It weighs from 3 to 4 lbs. and measures 28
inches in length. The hen is brown, with a few of the feathers white-shafted. The
kalij of the Nepalese, Euplocamus albonotatus, is the commonest of the Sikhim
pheasants, and has the greatest range, being found from the lowest valleys up to
6,000 feet. The male is about 2 feet in length, and from 2 to 2 lbs. in
weight. It is bluish-black above, with a long slender crest of the same colour
and whitish below. The hen is brownish. Gallus ferrugineus, the red jungle-
fowl, is also found from the bottoms of the lowest valleys, but rarely ascends
higher than 4,500 feet. The male closely resembles the ordinary gamecock, and
measures up to 28 inches in length and weighs from 1 to ,2 lbs. The
woodcock is a cold-weather visitor only, and is then to be found from about
3,000 feet upwards. The snow-cock and snow-partridge, as their names imply,
frequent the snowy regions, and the quails and crake the zone lying between
3,000 and 6,000 feet.
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198 TIlE BIRDS OF SIKHIM.

LIST OF SIKHIM BIRDS

SHOWING THEIR

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION.
NO LOCAL LISTS PUBLISHED
ALTHOUGH the avifauna of Sikhim is one of tbe richest in the world, and the
country itself is a well-defined geographical unit it is remarkable that no general
list of Sikhim birds has hitherto been published.
THE AVIFAUNA WELL COLLECTED BUT FURTHER NOTES
NEEDED
OThe fauna has been very fully explored and collected by Hodgson 1
,Hooker , 2 Jerdon , 3 W.T.
. Blanford, 4 Elwes, 4 Mandelli , 5 Gammie , 5
Brooks,6 and others but the records with the exception of those of Jerdon
and Blanford,consist mainly of detached notes on isolated species. Jerdon's
general and systematic observations, which were confined to Darjeeling and the
adjoining parts of British Sikhim,7 were largely complemented by Blanford's
account of his three months' tour in 1870 in Independent Sikhim, chiefly in the
Alpine and Sub-alpine areas. And it is the writings of these two authorities,
supplemented by the" Occasional Notes" from Sikhim, by Mr. Gammie in Stray
Feathers, which afford most of the existing information on the extent and
geographical distribution of Sikhim birds. Hodgson's British Museum Catalogue
of his Sikhim skins gives practically no details of the habitats. And in regard to
the necessity for further information Mr. Blanford has recently written, 8 We
require a large amount of additional information as to the range in height of
Sikhim birds. Largely as they have been collected, there is, I think, less known
about them on the whole than about the less numerous forms of the North-
Western Himalayas."

1 Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, The Bengal Sporting Magazine, Calcutta Jour
of Natural Hist., .
2 Himalayan Journals. I and II, London, 1854.
3 The Birds of India, Calc., 1862.
4 Journal Asiatic Societ.y, Bengal, XLI, part ii (1872), page 30, et seq.
5 Stray Feathers, Calcutta, 1873. et seg.
6 Stray Feathers, VIII, page 464.
7 Dr. Jerdon spent a 'year at Darjeeling about 1857.
8 In epist. 1892.
 THEIR GREAT VARIETY. 199 www.sikkim.gov.in

MY COLLECTION
Having traversed the greater part of both Independent 1 and British Sikhim, and
collected over 2,000 specimens of the. birds of this area, I find that the analysis
of my material affords a considerable contribution towards a geographical
distribution list for Sikhim, and also some additional notes on several of the
species which aid in supplying the want referred to by Mr. Blanford.
THE RICHNESS OF THE SIKHIM AVIFUANA
Sikhim owes its great variety of bird -life to its very varied natural features and
its wide diversity of climate, ranging from the torrid heat of the tarai skirting
the base.of its outer mountains, up to the arctic cold of its everlasting snows.
THE CLIMATE
The climate of this country, in respect to its flora, has been roughly divided by
Sir Joseph Hooker, as noted in a previous chapter, into the Tropical, Temperate,
and Alpine zones. For our purposes, however, it is necessary to make a further
subdivision of these zones, and also to recall briefly the geographical position
and the leading physical features of Sikhim.

GEOGRAPHICAL POSITION
Sikhim forms a narrow oblong tract in the South-Eastern Himalayas and Sub-
Himalayas, with an area of over 4,000 square miles , wedged in between
. ' , .
Nepal on the west and Bhutan on the east, and bounded on the north by Tibet,
and on the south by the plains of Bengal. Its position is peculiarly isolated,
being separated from Nepal and Bhutan in great part by high wall-like ridges,2
from Tibet by the snows and from Bengal by the dreaded tarai 3 jungle. The
political division into "British Sikhim" or the Darjeeling district,4 and "
Independent Sikhim" cannot here be observed
PHYSICAL ASPECTS.
Sikhim thus may be viewed as a stupendous stairway leading from
the western border of the Tibetan plateau down to. the plains of Bengal, with a
fall of about 17,000feet in 150 miles. The surface of this vast incline 5 is
roughly cut up into an innumerable number of rugged peaks and tortuous
valleys with deep gorges, adown which dash the glacial streams and torrents

1 As an instance of the extent to which Sikhim has been neglected by

European travellers, I may note that when Dr. D. D. Cunningham, F.R.S., and
myself visited the Tangkar La Pass (16,500) in 1889, it was the second time
only that it had been visited by Europeans, the first visitor having been Dr. (Sir
Joseph) Hooker in 1849.
2 The boundary on the western (Nepal) side includes Kangchendsonga,
28,156 feet high the second highest mountain in the world, and its southern
spur the" Single La '. range.
3 Hindi tarai ... a swamp or marshy tract.
4 The trans-Tista portion of Darjeeling district lately ceded by Bhutan, was
formerly a part of the Sikhim State.
.5 Gneiss and mica schist are the chief formations; in the lowest ranges
lime, sandstone. and shells are met with, and occasionally copper and iron ores.
The surface soil is largely of a lateritic nature.
 www.sikkim.gov.in

200 THE BIRDS OF SIKHIM.

of water, precipitated by the excessive rainfall of this the rainiest section of the
Himalayas. For, lying immediately opposite the top of the Bay of Bengal, and
not being screened, like Bhutan, by intervening hills, Sikhim receives the full
force of the monsoon storms from the south, thus acquiring the leading feature
of its climate, viz., dampness-the steamy heat of the lower hills and tarai, and
the cold dripping dampness of the upper forests of its outer ranges. The average
rainfall of these latter is about 130 inches per annum, and they are cloud-capped
for a great part of the year.
RIVER SYSTEM
Tortuous rivers seam the face of the country in every direction.
The chief
' effluent river of Sikhim is the Tista, which flows in a
. . . "
generally southerly direction, and has for its headwaters the Lachhen and
,Lachhung, which unite at Tsunthang. T'he main branch of the Tista is the
Great Rungeet, which joins it within the mountains. The depth of the gorge of
the Tista and the Rungeet and other large tributaries is almost incredible.
About thirty miles within the hills, the beds of the Tista and Rungeet are only
about 600 feet above the sea level, and their banks thoroughly tropical. These
great rivers carry a tropical and subtropical climate along their banks far into
the interior of the country, till the semi-tropical vegetation becomes almost
overhung by snow peaks. .
VARIETY OF CLIMATE
Thus the ridges of the innumerable spurs form peninsulas and promontories
'
. of relatively ' temperate climate running out. into the sub tropical areas of the
deep ravines In this way the gradations of climate are almost endless; and some
of the inner and more land-locked valleys came to possess a relatively dry
climate. In lower and outer Sikhim the even outline of the hills is seldom
broken by cliffs or bluffs, and the valleys are usually ravinelike, with the rivers
flowing in deep gorges. In Upper Sikhim the scenery becomes much bolder,
cliffs are frequent, and the forest tends to be confined to the bottom of the
valleys, which latter open out frequently into wide grassy meadows, such as at
Lachhung and Yumthang. Throughout the greater part of Sikhim perennial
streams and evergreen forest offer grateful resources to birds. There are few
lakes, and those which do exist are mostly of very small size.
ClMATE ZONES
The climate of this country may be divided in respect to its fauna into the
following zones Outer grassy plain :
' . .
Inner tangled forest . 125-2,000 feet
.I Tropical- . and sal forest above
the sea level.
Hilly... ... ... ...
II.-Sub-tropicat ... ... ... ... ... 2,000 to 5,000 feet.
IlI-Temperate ... ... ... ... ... 5,000 to 9,000 "
IV.-Sub-Alpine ... ... ... ... ... 9,000 to 13,000 "
V.-Alpine ........................................................... 13,000 to 17,000 "
 www.sikkim.gov.in
THE TABULAR LISTS. 201

These zones are marked by characteristic changes in the vegetation. In the

outer tarai the banks of the great rivers and adjoining depressions subject to
inundation are clothed with giant grass. On the higher rolling land are stretches
of sal 1 forest alternating with tangled jungle-much of it now cleared for
cultivation. The Himalayas rise abruptly out of the tarai plain, and a tangled
forest covers their sides up to about 5,000 feet.2 The temperate zone coincides
gencrally with "the oak forest" region, where the undergrowth becomes percep
tibly less rank and dense. The oaks first appear about 4500 feet, amongst the
still luxuriant semi-tropical vegetation, as a few straggling large.leaved
species, .which gradually beeome more numerous towards 5,000 feet. The
centre of the temperate zone has a mean temperature of about 50 Faht., that' is
very much the same as London; and in December and January frost, and
sometimes snow, lies all day unthawed in situations with a northern exposure.
The Sub-Alpine zone is practically the region of the rhododendron and pine
forests. The pines appear about 9,000 feet and soon form open forests,
alternating with stretches of rhododendron and dwarf bamboos, which at times
form almost impenetrable matted scrub. The limit of trees is 13,000 to 14,000
feet, but in exposed situations it is much lower. Vegetation altogether
disappears at about 15OOO feet, depending on exposure and proximity to
snow peaks and glaciers. The line of perpetual snow ranges from about
l6,OOO to 17,000.
THE ZOOLOGICAL POSITION OF SIKHIM
In regard to horizontal distribution, Sikhim zoologically is situated
on the border-land between the Palaearctic and Oriental regions 3 and, as we
have seen, it connects with both these regions and as we have seen it connects
. ..
viz with Palaearctic and Oriental ' regions
. and . with .several sections of the
Oriental region. Thus its fauna is representative of both these regions-the
Palrearctic forms entering from the north in the same way as the Oriental enter
the mountains from the south; but a few Ethiopian forms also occur. As Sikhim
stands at the junction of the Indian, Indo-Chinese, and Indo-Malayan sub-
regions of the Oriental region, each of these regions is represented in its
avifauna. The Oriental forms seem to ascend no higher than about 8,000 to
10,000 feet.

1 Shorea robusta.
2 In the upper sub.tropical section, the Urticaria,-figs and nettles are
very prominent.
3 Wallace, following Sclater and other naturalists. divides the surface of the
globe. zoologically, into six great regions, viz., (1) The Paloearctic,
including Europe, Africa, north of the Sahara, and Asia north of the Great
wall of the Himalayas (2) the Ethiopian, comprising the rest of Africa with
South Arabia and Madagascar; (3) the Oriental, consisting of India,
Southem China, Burma, Siam, and the Malay Peninsula and adjoining
islands of the Archipelago; (4.) the Australian, comprising Australia, New
Zealand, and the remaining south.eastern islands of the Malay Archipelago,
&c.; (5) the Neartic, and (6) Neotropical, approximately corresponding to
North and South Africa.
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202 THE BIRDS OF SIKHIM.

THE LISTS
A few words are necessary regarding; the list which is here presented in.
tabular form.The data therein given afford information regarding both the
horizontal and vertical distribution. The order of enumeration is that of Oates' "
Birds of India" in the new fauna series for British India. As, however, the 3rd
volume of that work has not yet issued, the remaining birds are catalogued
according to Jerdon's treatise. The figures therefore in column No.1 of the table
represents the serial number of Oates and Jerdon respectively: Jerdon having
been first taken up, as he commences with the Raptores or Birds of Prey.
VERNACULAR NAMES
The Lepcha vernacular name are given as far as possible. Jerdon gave many of
these, and they are very valuable,as being either the onomatopoetic
.. . .
reproductions of the call of the bird, or a descriptive title of some peculiarity
. in regard to its appearance or habits. The names were noted down by me direct
from the Lepchas and occasionally they differ from those of Jerdon. It may be
noted generally that the Lepcha prefix dang means" hot" and , tho means" cool
hill" with reference to the habitat of the bird, kanda means crested, nok = black,
dum = white, hir = red, paoyor = yellow, fong = green, ti = a contraction for
tiak or head, long = stone, kung = wood, bong = tree-trunk, fat = earth, and ung
= water, and after each name is added the word fo or "bird." The Pahariyas,
speaking a Sanskritic dialect-the Parbatiya, and the Bhotiyas, including the
Tibetans, are much less discriminating in their bird-names than the Lepchas,
who are born naturalists"; but some of their names also are given, especially in
regard to those birds frequenting the zones below and above that inhabited by
the Lepchas.
RARITY OR OTHERWISE
The column showing" number of specimens" indicates in a general way the
rarity or otherwise of the species .Where no number is entered it means that
though seen none were secured
INCLUSION OF FORMER RECORDS
In order to render the list more complete ,I have added such cases , as I could
find , of the recorded presence of extra to those actually secured or seen by me
, such species are but ib brackets , and the names of the reporters are given
RANGE
In regard to vertical distribution it must be remembered that a given altitude in
upper Sikhim in proximity to the snows represents a greater degree of the cold
than the same altitude in the outer ranges . It is remarkable how limited is the
range of many of the species notwithstanding their excellent means of
locomotion
COLLECTING STATIONS
To facilitate reference to the positionsof the collecting stations I hereby
indicate roughly the locale of some of the chief of these , and where diffirent
altitudes are given for
' .
 www.sikkim.gov.in
THE TABULAR LISTS. 203

.
the same station it means that the specimens were obtained at varying altitudes
on the flank of the particular mountain or valley-the altitude being
approximately within about 500 feet of the actual elevation. The places in
Upper Sikhim will be readily found on the map by their height and the sparsity
of place names there- Tsungthang (Chungtam), meaning in the vernacular the
Meadow of Marriage (of the Rivers)," is at the junction of the Lachhen and
Lachhung, where they unite to form the Rangnyo or Tista. Thang-kar La is an
exceptionally cold pass, as its name viz., "The White (snow) plain" implies,
with many miles of landlocked snow all the year round. Poi La is almost within
Chumbi-Tibetan territory and so is Byong Chhen-a shrub-fringed lake. In
Central Sikhim, Lingcham, Yang-ong, and Dentam are below Pemiongchi in
the Kulhait Valley. Namchi, Lingmo, Yang-gong, Temi, and Tingbi are on the
flanks of Tendong and Mainom. Padom, Rang-guon, Mangzhim, and Neh
Mendong are in the Tista Valley. Kitam, Seriyong, and Chakong are in the
lower Rungeet- Ramam Valleys, and the Rathong is the chief feeder of the
Rungeet-smaller feeders being the Little Rungeet, Ramam, and Ramith.
Rhenok, Dolomchhen, Gangtok, Kabi, Rangpo, Phima, Fyumgang, Sathok,
Dsekthang, Chomnaga, Takrang, and Phemtong are on ridges, leading up to the
Eastern passes-the Chola and Jelep.
In Lower Sikhim or the Darjeeling District, Gokh, Singla, Lingtam,
Takvar, and Kambal are in the Rungeet Valley. Pashok, Gielle, Matyouli,
Rishap, Mangpu, and the Riang and Kul Jhora rivers are in the outer valley of
the Tista which debouched into the plains at the Sivok Gorge. Labah, Rishe
La, Nambong, Gurubathan lead towards the Dichhu Valley and Bhutan. Mirik,
Simana, and Jorpokri are on ridges leading down from the Nepal frontier to the
Tarai.
THE NOTES
As a postscript to the table I have added some notes regarding those specimens
which differed from the descriptions published by Jerdon, Oates, and others.
In conclusion, I have to acknowledge my indebtedness to Mr. Gammie-the
naturalist of the district-for much kind assistance in the identification and
question of residence of many of the species.
 www.sikkim.gov.in
NOTES ON SIKHIM BIRDS

NOTES ON THE FOREGOING LIST OF SIKHIM BIRDS

BY L.A.WADDELL F. L.S.

3 bis. Gyps fulvescens (Hume).--This fine bird, a male, in October

plumage, answers generally to the description of this species, but it differs in
several details. The ruff is pale earthy-grey, more rufous on the mantle and
interscapulars. Feathers' of the back are not pale-centred. The rump is dark
bronzy-brown, like the wings, only the lateral feathers being centred. No white
patch on the back. Third primary is longest. Beneath, from' the breast, darker,
especially towards the vent and flanks, where the feathers have dark brown
centres. The tail feathers haye a subterminal broad whitish bar slightly mottled
with brown. Length 36. 5 inches" wings 24.1, tail 12.2, bill length (straight)
from front of cere 2.05, breadth at gape 1.7, depth at cere 1.35, length of cere
above 0.1, claw of midtoe
(straight) 1.25.
17. Cerchneis tinnunoulus.-Bill bluish-grey, greenishyellow at base, and
black at tip. Cere greenish-yellow. Feet ochrey. Claws blackish. Forehead
greyish-rufous rather than yellowish.
20 Hierax crerulesoens.-Bill horny-black with greenishyellow base. Legs
dark green. Claws black. Chin, vent, thigh, and under tail coverts dark
ferruginous.
23. Astur badius.-The adults have the rufous demi-collar
broad and well marked.
27. Aquila nepalensis.-A female in January. Length 31.3. Wing 23.2, and
they reach to 2.6 from end of tail. The tail has no black subterminal band, nor
have the shoulders, scapulars, wings, or under-surface any white spots or bars.
33. Nisaetus fasciatus.-Young male in January. Length 24 .4. It has the
lower part of forehead almost pure white. Chin, throat, and breast are much
darker than abdomen, owing to the feathers, which are white at their bases,
having mesial dark brown streaks with fulvous centring which becomes larger
and more rufous on the breast.
36. Limnaetus nepalensis.-Male in January. Length 26.4. Crest 4.95.
Claw of midtoe (straight) 1.1. Inner lining of wings light rufous-brown mostly
with dark brown centres. The whitish spots on breast are in transverse series as
inturrupted bars. Rump uniform hair-brown except at flanks, which as well as
the uppermost of the under tail coverts are barred whitish.
37. L. kienierii.-This extremely beautiful bird varies considerably from
Jerdon's description. A male in April measures
 NOTES ON SIKHIM BIRDS. www.sikkim.gov.in
222

in length 26.4, wing 17.9, mid claw (straight) 1.1, central feathers of crest .4-
which latter is black with a white tip. Above,the general colour is a very pale
brown, lighter than in L. nepalensis. Head pale fulvous-white, becoming rufous
on the hind neck, and all the feathers are white at the base with brown shafts
and centres which become larger and duskier on the nape. Chin, throat, and
breast white. The feathers of hind throat with brown shafts and centres like
those along sides of breast and flanks. The secondary quills and the primary,
greater, and median wing coverts are margined whitish towards their tips.
Axillaries are rufous streaked with brown. Rump and upper tail coverts are
margined with white. Tail has eight brown bands, and the tips of all the feathers
are acuminate.
39. Spilornis cheela.-One of these, a male from Mathouli, on the east of
the Tista, in March, with length of 28.5, has the undersurface from the throat to
the breast an earthy-buff transversely barred with brownish. The chin, throat,
cheeks, and ear coverts are pale bluish-grey. All the tail feathers are margined
with white at their tips, and all have a subterminal band 2.7 broad of pure white
very slightly mottled with pale brown at the lower border.
47. Buteo plumipes.-This bird, a young male, shot in October in the Poi
La leading into Chumbi, corresponds with Blanford's description l except in
the following details. The lores anteriorly are covered with albescent feathers
with hair-like extremities; and posteriorly with radiating black hairs. -The
albescent feathers are prolonged upwards on either side of the forehead, giving
a whitish streaky appearance in that region in front of the superciliary ridge.
The ear coverts are paler than the general colour and mottled with some
rufous-grey. Darkish moustachial stripe. On the nape a conspicuous demi-
collar of pale fulvous bay streaks, due to feathers here being white with dark
brown extremities margined proximately with pale fulvous- bay. The white
spots on the scapulars are present, but require searching for by turning down
the feathers. The whitish on the primary quills is mottled with buff along inner
border of the inner webs. The pale dingy rufous bars on secondaries number
from 5 to 3. Underwing coverts at shoulder are faintly margined with rufous.
Throat and breast dark brown like back and thighs; a few of the feathers here
with faintly rufous margins, and also on abdomen and flanks, but insufficient
to give any general rufous tint. Tarsal plumes interspersed with thready tufts.
Tarsal feathers mottled greyish-brown. The posterior tarsal large scutes
number only four, above which are 8 bifid ones of hedra-, penta-, and
sexagonal shapes. The anterior tarsal scales are hexag-onal and pentagonal.
The fourth primary is the longest, and the quills are emarginate .on the inner
and

1 loc cit., page 42.

 NOTES ON SIKHIM BIRDS. 223 www.sikkim.gov.in

outer webs as in Mr. Blanford's description. Length 19.2, wing 15.4, tail 9.35,
tarsus 2.7, tarsus feathered in front for 1.7, midtoe without claw 1.2, claw round
curve 0.78, inner toe 0.85, its claw 0.95. Bill straight from end of cereo .68,
round curveo .85, from gape 1.4, depth at cere 0.6, breadth at gape 1.2.
63. Circus melanoleucus.-Greater wing coverts and tail silvery grey.
55. Haliastur indus.-Bill pale greenish-horny, yellowish at tip and
commissure, Cere yellow. Irides: of male golden-yellow, of female bronzy-pink.
64. Syrnium newarense.-Adult male. Length 22.5, wing 15.3, tail 8.9,
tarsus 2.5, bill at front (straight) 1.75, from gape 1.7. Anterior margin of cere to
point of bill (straight) 1.0, width at gape 1.25, depth of closed bill at cere 0.8,
closed wings short of tail 2.5.
Adult female. Length 20.0, wing 14.25, tail 8.7, tarsus 2.4, bill at front 1.6,
from gape 1.55, anterior margin at cere to point of bill 0.9, width at gape 1.3,
depth of closed bill at cere 0.8, closed wings short of tail 2.5.
These two birds are of identical appearance. The colour of the bands on the
coverts and scapulars range from silvery-white to fulvousbuff. The tips of the
quills are ashy. The pectoral band is present.
72. Ketupa ceylonensis.-Length of this female 23'5. Chin and upper throat
ashy; lower throat white, some of the feathers having dark brown centrings and
shaft streaks.
73. K. fiavipes.-The lengths of these two birds are 25 and 22.6, and wing
18.2 and 18.1 respectively. The bill is hornyblack with the lower mandible
paler underneath. Claws dusky livid. The 'dashes of brown' on the under-
surface are well-defined shaft streaks about 2.0 long by 0.2 in breadth. Its call
is considered an omen of death; hence it is called by the Lepchas mung, which
means devil
.
75. Scops lettia.-Mr. Gammie took the eggs of E. surpigi at 5,500 .
76. Carine brama.-Bill greenish-horny, darker at base. The feathers of
hind neck are broadly margined at their tips with ashy-white, forming a demi-
collar of that colour. In the disc a whitish supercilium in front. Chin, throat,
and cheeks unsullied white.
81. Ninox scutellatus.-Head and nape a darker and more ashy-brown than
rest of upper plumage. At sides of breast the spots are massed together,
forming a dusky ferruginous patch.
On abdomen and thigh-coverts the spots are cordate and of large size. Chin
ashy-white. Throat mottled with fulvous.
107. Caprimulgus indicus.-Mr. Gammie took its eggs at 5,500'.
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224 NOTES ON SIKHlM BIRDS.

122. Nyctiornis athertoni.-Bill horny-blackish. Irides pale golden. Forehead

greenish-caerulian.
123. Coracias indica.-Only the lower back is blue. The greater portion is
dusky brown with a pale blue spot on the --shoulder, which C. affinis has not
got.
124. C affinis.-Lores and ear-coverts light hair-brown. Cheeks, throat, and
breast with purple shaft streaks, becoming caerulian on throat.
126. Eurystomus orientalis.-Bill deep coral red, except the tip of culmen
which is dark horny; and none of the birds in May have any blue on the upper
part of head-lores, cheeks or ear-coverts.
127. Pelargopsis gurial.-Side by side with the typical race exists a smaller
race about 13.5 in length with a very much lighter cap of pale ashy-brown, and
the chin is almost white; the buff under-plumage also is much less deep or rich.
The kingfishers are confined to the lower and outer hills owing to the scarcity
of fish in the higher glacier-fed streams.
129. Halcyon smyrnensis-The tail feathers have black shafts, and all
except the uppermost two have black margins to the inner webs.
131. H. coromandelianus.-Mr. Gammie gives its call as piccadilly-ooh-
ooh-.ooh.
134. Alcedo bengalensis.-One male from the Dichhu river shot in March,
length 6.2. Irides dull crimson, differs from all the other specimens in having no
rufous band posterior to the eye the ear-coverts in their entiore extent being
cobalt with darkish streaks. Its chin and throat are pale buff-not pure white, and
the rest of its lower surface is very deep ferruginous, almost chestnut.
138. Psarisomus dalhousiae.-Bill dingy olive with culmen and mental
ridge lemon-yellow; the commissure margins whitish-horny.No rictal bristles.
139. Serilophus rubropygius.-Has a somewhat shrike like appearance
with rictal bristly feathers and hairs. Irides dark slate. Orbital skin citrine. Bill
dark plumbeous-olive with bony yellow culmen and mental ridge; tip and
commissure pale horny. Tarsus pale greenish-yellow. Metatarsus cobalt. Claws
darkly livid with horny dorsal line and tips. An ill-defined supercilium of deep
slaty blue continued backwards to the margin of crest as dark hair-brown. The
first primary quill without blue; the others, except the second with a white streak
on the inner border of the blue spot in outer web The secondaries with a white
subterminal streak bordering the bar of the slaty-blue tip. Beneath pale slaty-
grey. The nuchal patch or demi-collar silvery-white in.two specimens; in the
third, December 29th there is, no trace of this white. Mr. Gammie has taken its
nest at 3,800
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NOTES ON SIKHIM BIRDS. 225

147. Palaeornis nepalensis.-Bill dusky cherry-red with yellowish tip; lower

mandible paler. The demi-collar dull peach-rose. The glaucous blue is contined to
the nape and does not extend to the cheeks. Feet dull ochrey. The wing-spot is
dark crimson.
148. P. torquatus.-The blue wash on nape and sides of neck extends also to
mantle and upper back, where it merges into the green. The nuchal ring of the
females is emerald above and greenishyellow below.
150. P schisticeps.-Head dark slaty. The demi-collar of emerald-green has its
posterior border ill-defined. The young male, January, length 13.2,has no wing-
spot.
152. P. fasciatus.-Bill: upper mandible cherry-red, yellowish at tip; lower
horny-black. Frontal band deep black. No supercilium. What seems a young
male, in November, has bill entirely black, and the under-surface from the throat
downwards uniform green. Mr. Gammie .has shot it in spring at 3,300.
155. Picus majoroides.-Bil1: upper mandible blackish-slaty; lower pale
bluish-grey in its anterior two-thirds. Average length 8 inches-none exceed 8.7.
The general colour of the under-surface is a dingy isababelline, becoming dingy
fulvous-buff on breast and abdomen, and merging into orange on the vent. No
white spot on outer web of first primary. The three outer tail feathers are banded
with yellowish. The lower forehead is dingy fulvous-grey. Neck patch is dull
orange-in none is it silky golden-yellow, and it is not perceptibly duller in the
adult females. A young male in September, length 7.7, has the crown feathers
tipped with crimson, while there is no crimson on the nape; and its under-surface
is almost as deeply streaked as in the adult; but its neck patches are pale tawny.
It ranges up to the pine forests of Tankar La about 13,000 feet.
156. P. cathpbarius.-These two birds agree well with Jerdon's description
of this species except in size,-both are only 5.7 in length. One is a male from
Gurubathan, 2,000 feet, in March, and has the full adult markings. The other, a
young male from Single La 10,000, in November, and is also deeply marked
with the exception of the crimson nuchal patches and gorget which are very pale
crimson-buff.
157.P macei.-Bill dusky plumbeous; anterior half of lower mandible livid,
but not reddish. Irides dark brown. Lower forehead light fulvous-grey. Crest of
male crimson mixed with ashyblack. The oval spots on side of breast are black,
and the lower breast and abdomen are streaked with black or dusky, becoming
irregular transverse bars on the loins. Thighs are fulvous-grey. Under tail coverts
crimson. .
161. Hypopicus hyperythrus.-Bill: upper mandible horny-black; lower pale
bony-yellow, greenish at the base. Forehead
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226 NOTES ON SIKHIM BlRDS.

greyish-white .like chin, lores and cheeks. A rufous-bay semi.collar borders the
crimson of the occiput and nape, and within this collar, in five specimens, is a
short crimson bar, in the upper and hind part of neck, but in none is this bar
continued to the undersides of the neck or breast. Wings black with white spots,
generally in series with those of the back, forming transverse bars. Thighs
whitish barred with black. Vent and under tail coverts crimson.
162. Yungipicus rubricatus.-Forehead greyish-white below, mottled dark
fulvous above. Ear-coverts hair-brown. A female in February, length 5.1.
166. Chrysocolaptes sultaneus.-Billdull greenish-hoiny., with the middle
third of lower mandible paler. Claws darkly livid. The white band of nape is
continued to upper back, where it ends in several large central drops of white.
166 bis. C. delesserti.-Bill as above; middle third of lower mandible paler.
The dorsals, scapulars, and wing-coverts largely smeared with red. Forehead
feathers with a few pale subterminal spots. A male in April at Simana on the
Nepal frontier, elevation 7,000, measured-length 10.5, tail 3.7, wing 6.7, bill at
front 1.8, at gape 2.15.
172. Gecinus occipitalis.-Bill horny-black. The males have the lower
forehead ashy, each feather centred with black. Lores black mottled with grey.
Black moustachial stripe along inferior border of mandible to below ear-coverts,
where its extremity does not curve upwards. In none are the chin and part of the
throat white. The chin is dusky ashy, becoming dingy olive on the upper throat.
Two out of the four females have crimson on the head.
173. Chrysophlegma flavinucha.-Bill bluish-horny. becoming white
towards the tip. Claws darkly livid. Nasal feathers in male greenish; in female
reddish-brown. feathers of forehead and crown have greenish tips, which
become broader and more conspicuous on the occiput. The yellow of nape is
silky golden. The female has the cheeks as well as the chin and throat reddish-
brown and obscurely streaked with blackish. A young female in October has the
cheeks unspotted ruddy-sulphureous, and the chin and throat faintly rufous with
dusky streaks.
174. C. chlorolopha.-In the male the crimson supercilium is continued
forwards to encircle the forehead, and backwards around the nape in front of the
yellow, thus forming a continuous coronet. The dusky markings across the
cheeks and throat have the form of irregular bars
176. Blythipicus pyrrhotis.-Bill lemon yellow, dusky olive at base, and
pale horny at tip. Claws darkly livid. Forehead and chin pale vinous-grey, the
midribs of the feathers of chin and upper throat being prolonged as black hairs.
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177. Gecinulus grantius.--Forehead dingy fulvous. Chin and upper throat

greenish-grey. Its usual call is " terr-terr," which is indicated by its Lepcha name
When it occasionally calls" mi-mi," this is regarded as an evil omen-mi being the
negative particle in both the Lepcha and Bhotiya languages.
178. Micropternus phaioceps.-A slight crest. Irides dusky brown. Bill
horny-black; the inferior border of lower mandible greenish-horny in its middle
third. Three out of the seven females have the crimson mandibular stripe
extending backwards to the ear coverts. The colour of the breast ranges from
light to dark chestnutbay or ferruginous. In one female, without the crimson
cheek stripes, the feathers of the chin and throat are darkly pigmented on either
side of shaft, while the edges are unusually pale, almost like M. gularis but the
lower abdomen is barred. The feathers of crown and nape are smeared with the
gum resin of some tree.
180. Brachypternus aurantius.-A male in March, length 11.6, generally
answers to Jerdon's description. The feathers of the median and lesser wing
coverts have subterminally a heart-shaped spot of fulvescent-white. The outer
web of the primaries, excepting the first, have whitish spots corresponding with
those on the inner, and these spots are three in number, excepting the second and
third quills, which have one and two respectively. The tips of the primaries are
greenish - brown.
181. B. puncticollis.-A female in February has the bill horny-black. Irides
pale prune. Legs pale sap-green. Claws plumbeous. A conspicuous fringe of
crimson-tipped feathers on the occiput. The median and lesser wing coverts are
less spotted than in B. aurantius. The tertiary are unspotted ; and the spots are of
an acuminate ovoid shape. The primary quills have the whitish spots on their
outer webs more defined and regular, so as to form two and-a-half interrupted
whitish bars.
187. Sasia ochracea.-Bill: upper mandible horny-black; lower pale
greenish underneath. Winglet margined with pale buff. Wing-lining and
axillaries silvery-white. Rump and upper tail ochraceous-slightly lighter than
breast. Legs fleshy-pink. Claw pale horny-grey.
192. Megalaema hodgsoni.-As there seems some doubt about the
characters of this species, I give here some details of my seven specimens on
the points in question :
Males
Length 9.7 - 8.8 inches.
Expanse 12.0 - 11.6 "
Wing 5.3 - 6.2 "
Tail 3.4 - 3.15 "
Bill from gape 1.5 - 1.4 "
" at front 1.15- 1-13 "
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228 NOTES ON SIKHIM BIRDS.

Females
Length 10.1 8.6 inches.
Expanse 12.0 - 11.3 "
Wing 5.4 - 5.3 "
Tail 3.3 - 2.8 "
Bill from gape 1.55- 1.45 "
" at front 1.2 - 1.15 "
Bill livid yellowish-bony, less livid at base, and horny along commissure. Orbital
skin deep yellow. In both sexes chin and throat greenish-white, with faint fulvous
tinge on lower throat. The rib of each gular fcather is prolonged into a black hair.
The head, neck, breast, and upper abdomen are dingy fulvous-white, with pale
brown edgings to each feather, which edgings, being broader on the forehead,
crown, and neck, give to these parts a darker tint than the breast. First and second
primaries free from green; they are black, with fulvous borders near the base of
the inner web. Mr. Gammie has found it only in the Tarai.
195. M. asiatica. -The red rictal spot is margined posteriorly with green; and
the band across crown is bordered anteriorly with golden -olive.
196. M. franklinii.-The first and second primaries have a pale edging on the
inner web. The large rictal spot is orange. The narrow blue band fringing the
black and crimson of nape extends also obsoletely along margin of throat patch,
thus forming a complete ring.
199. Cuculus canorus.-The bill citrine at base, hornyblack at tip and anterior
part of culmen; the rest of the bill is sap-green. Gape and lining of mouth and
throat rich deep orange. Legs ochrey. Claws dusky ochrey. Irides pale straw, with
orange periphery. The breast bars average seventeen. The under tail coverts in
one are almost free from markings. Its Lepcha name, viz., kuk-ku, is identical
with the English one.
202. C. sonnerati.-A bird. which does not seem to represent the hepatic
stage .of C canorus differs somewhat from J erdon's description of C. sonnerati.
It is a female in May from Labah, 7,000 feet, and measures as follows :-Length
12.4, wing 8.2, bill from front 0.7, from gape 1.15. The colour of bill and gape is
similar to C. canorus. The coverts of primaries are barred with rufous like the
rest of the back, and all of the feathers on the upper surface, including the quills
of wing and tail, and of the under-surface in front of the breast, are narrowly
bordered with ashy at their tips. Under.surface from chin white with numerous
transverse black bars, about l/12 th of an inch broad. Rump more ashy than rest
of upper plumage. Under tail coverts slightly fulvous, with arrow markings.
205. Hierococcyx varius.-Its Lepoha name" Bim-pi.yul" is a. good
representation of its call. It is the" brain. fever" bird of
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NOTES -ON SIKHIM BIRDS. 229

many Europeans in India who thus interpret its call, and from its coming at the
onset of the hot weather.
21 213. Coccystes coromandus.-Tail feathers, except uropygials and under tail
covorts (which are black), are margined whitish at the tips. Two males in May
measure in length 15.3, wings 6.4 and 6.5.
214. Eudynamys honorata.-Irides bright crimson in both sexes. Barring of
tail in male almost imperceptible.
215. Rhopodytes tristis.-Bill unripe apple-green and orbital skin dull
crimson.
217. Centro coccyx rufipennis.-Tail feathers margined with whitish at their
tips.
218. C. bengalensis.-Tail feathers margined with rufous at their tips. Young in
January, with bill fleshy-livid and culmen dark brown. Irides pale grey.
[For the intervening numbers comprising the rest of the Passeres
see the appended second series numbered according to OATES' new
work on the Birds of India.]
776. Osmotreron phayrei.-This pretty pigeon seems very rare. Bill pale
bluish-horny. Forehead and crown pale slate. Green of plumage dullish, lighter on
chin and throat. Dusky orange buff patch on breast forming a semi-collar. Central
tail feathers entirely olive-green. The tips of the lower tail feathers almost pure
white.Length of males 10.7 to 10.3.
783. Alsocomus hodgsonii.-Only found in upper regions near the limits of
forests. Is not common. Was not seen by Blanford.
785. Palumbus pulchricollis.-The isababelline-tipped feathers form a
demi.collar and mantle.
790. Columba leuconota.-Only in upper regions. These formed for a time
Hooker's sole animal food-Himal. Jours. II, page 72,
791. Macropygia tusalia.-Irides pale rosy-pink, legs and feet dull crimson-
lake, claws greenish-horny. None of my four adult females havo the crown barred-
this barring is only found on one young. male and one young female of December.
The females are not more conspicuously barred than the males on the under-
surface; but a one-year old female from Labah 7,000 in June, is finely barred all
over under-surface from chin to under tail coverts, which latter have the superficial
feathers also barred.
793. Turtur meena.-All of my specimens (6) are typical T. meena and
cannot be classed as T. rupicolus. In none is the neckspot black, nor has the tail
a white tip, nor the under tail coverts any white-these are in all an almost
uniform shade of dull ashy-grey.
795. T. suratensis.-Irides fleshy-purple like tile orbital skin.
803 quat. Polyplectrum tibetanum.-Two males in April, length 25.0-26.2,
tail 14.2-14.5, wing 8.6-8.8. These differ from Hume's plate in the Game Birds
of India, &c., vol. I, page 105, in
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230 NOTES ON SIKHIM BIRDS.

having the ground-colour pale ashy, without any rufous tint except at neck,
where there is, in one of the birds, a dingy rufous tint over the ashy. The spots
are much more numerous and minute than in the plate. The ocelli of the wings
have a purply-green iridescence with deep lilac borders. The orbital skin is
fleshy-pink. The chin and throat :are fulvous-ashy, slightly paler on the cheeks,
but much more fulvous than in the plate.
803. sept. Crossoptilum tibetanum.-Hume doubts whether this bird has
been procured on this side of the Himalayas. Several Bhotiyas to whom I have
shown Hume's plate (in Game Birds) state that it is found occasionally below
the Kapap pass near the Jelep and also in the higher passes of Bhutan.
811. Gallophasis me1anota.-These were all true G. mela nota, and none
approached G. lucomelana.
825. Arboricola torqueola.-The top of the head is olivelike the back, with
black shaft streaks.
825 bis. A. mandellii.-This seems to be the first record of these birds from
Sikhim. Hume states (Game Birds, II, 84) that this species has only been found
hitherto in the Bhutan Duars, and only about a dozen specimens. My two birds
were got well within Sikhim the first below Tendong, at an elevation of about
5,000, in December, and the second near Gangtok, about 4,000, in January. It
may, have escaped notice hitherto owing to its shyness.
851. Vanellus cristatus.-Jerdon states that this bird is found in India" only
in the Panjab." My bird, from Maniphung, 7,000, near the Nepal frontier, in
November, agrees with Jerdon's description generally; but it has the scapulars
and the sooty-black feathers of the breast broadly margined with fulvous-white,
and the mantle feathers more narrowly margined with the same.
891. Actitis glareola.-The outermost tail feather has a. small black
subterminal spot in the outer web.
907. Gallinula phoenicura.-A female in January has the lower forehead,
Iores, superciliary region, cheeks and ear-coverts white, very slightly mottled
with brown.
931. Butorides javanica.- The blackish head and crest have a green gloss.
933. Ardetta cinnamomea.-Does not correspond well with Jerdon's
description. The general tint above is a dusky cinnamon. It has a blackish chin and
throat stripes, and all the under surface broadly streaked longitudinally with dark
brown.
955-970. Most of these migratory ducks pass over Sikhim without settling,
but stragglers are occasionally shot.
985. Sterna seena.-The head, above, is mixed ashy-grey and black, the latter
predominating over the hinder part of lores and ear coverts.
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NOTES ON SIKHIM BIRDS. 231

. O. ( 1 ) 13. Urocissa flavirostris.-Out of 14 specimens five have those

portions of the lower plumage and tail, which .are white in the ordinary
specimens, of a more or less rich fulvous tint, and all of these came from the
eastern side of the Tista and the Upper Lacchhen Valley, viz..,..
1 male and 1 female from Samdong Lacchhen ... November, 1891.
" " "Labah ... ... June, 1892.
1 male from Fyumgang .......................................... April, 189l.
From Memphhuk, 13,000, below the Tangkar La, in October, was
got an aged female with a horny-black bill.
O. 26. Garrulus bispecularis.-Its range is very much higher than given by
Oates. It does not seem to be known in Sikhim below 7,000, and is usually found
in the pine forests-ll,OOO to 13,000.
O. 50. Conostoma aemodium.-The English name is rather a misnomer as
the bill is dull yellowish light orange, and Oates' woodcut is somew hat
misleading as there is no dark colour postorbitally.
O. 53. Suthora unicolor--Sides of head with pale streaks.
O. 54. S. humii.-Bill is pale yellow.
O. 65. Dryonastes caerulatus.-In all my eleven specimens the post-orbital
region is lightly streaked. It. extends up to below the Donkya to 16,000, and is
therefore likely to be met with in Tibet. .
O. 69. Garrulax leucolophus.--Tail is obscurely barred.
O. 72. G. pectoralis.-Two [1 male, Lingmo, November, and one female,
Nimbong, (Br. Bhutan) January] have the chin and throat anterior to the gorget
almost unsullied white, the rest have this region fulvous. One female from
Rathong (4,000) had the upper back bordering the nachal collar fringed with
white. Another (a female, Rungeet, April, 1891) had vinaceous-slaty instead of
white on tail, under-surface, and supercilium, and no fulvous collar.
O. 73. G. moniliger.-Have ear-coverts black with whitish centre.
O. 76. G. albigularis.-In regard to the question of location, 2 are from
Gurubathan, British Bhutan-with reference to Mr. Oates' note that he had not
seen any from Bhutan. Not very common.
O. 80. Ianthocincla rufigularis.-Not very common. My three specimens
from (1) Tsunthang, Tista valley, 6,000; Singla, Nepal Frontier, 10,000, in April;
and Phema, 7,000, in March, have not the exceptional colouring noted by Oates
as characteristic of Nepal,

(1) 0 = Oates' serial number

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232 NOTES ON SIKHIM BIRDS.

Sikhim, and Bhutan birds-the chin and upper throat are deeply rufous. Ear coverts
dingy rufous, and loreal patch light fulvous.
O. 85. Trochalopterum nigrimentum.- Very common.
O. 92. T. squamatum.-In regard to the two varieties noted by Oates, page
97, I note that three specimens, all males, in November, December, and January,
have bronzed tails, and all have fulvous-brown lores. Seven specimens (1 male
and 2 females in November, 1 female in each of the months of January, March,
May, and December) have black tails and darker chin, the throat, under surface,
the vent, and upper tail coverts are very much darker, and in all these the females
have grey lores and the males slightly fulvous ones, excepting two females which
have slightly fulvous lores, and in one of these, an adult o'f May, the secondary
and tertiary quills are white-tipped. None of the others have white-tipped quills
except one male-also black-tailed-from Daling in March, which has faint traces of
white tips in two of the secondaries. If would :thus almost appear that the
difference in colour of the tail was sexual, and that the' one male' with black tail
has been wrongly sexed.
O. 137. Gampsorhynchus rufulus.-The chin and throat are also pure white.
O. 163. Alcippe nepalensis.-Most of the specimens have the forehead
feathers well covered and adhesive with pollen and resins
.
O. 211. Actinodura egertoni.-Each of the 17 birds has the median tail
feathers barred throughout-Oates' key to the species of this genera is misleading
and needs alterations.
O. 277. Alcurus striatus.-Two are from 1,500 and 2,5OO. Oates puts lowest
limit at 5,000.
O. 284. Molpastes leucogenys.-Two females; margins of additional feathers
faintly washed with sulphureous.
O. 288. Otocompsa emeria.--The small size of Sikhim and Br. Bhutan
specimens is notable. Adults in March, 1892, three (two 7' length, one 7 -1/10
length), while my Assam specimens measured 8 to 7 3/10 length but mostly
7
'
O. 490. Pericrocotus speciosus.-In two females there is an extensive
washing of scarlet on forehead, throat, breast, and thighs.
O. 498. P.. solaris.-Smaller one has a grey head.
O. 506. Campophaga melanoptera.-All of the specimens have long grey
hairs on nape and occiput. Oates does not give this species north of Arrakan, but
this bird has a general coloration much lighter than .C. melanoschista, and its
additional coverts are white.
O. 630. Henicurus maculatus.-Oates gives Nepal as the eastern limit of
this species, but the Lepchas are quite familiar
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NOTES ON SIKHIM BIRDS. 233

with this and the following species, as is also evident from their vernacular
names for it.
O. 647. Cyanecula suecica.-The outer tail feathers of the female have a
large triangular white tip.
O. 672. Merula albocincta.-" The white-collared ouzel" eight. My
specimens support the view that these merge into one. The males (five) agree
neither with M albocinta nor with M. castanea. Four of the males are black,
except forehead and crown, and in three also the occiput, which are ashy-grey
with darker centres and very conspicuously lighter than back. None of them
have chestnut anywhere-except one has obscure margin of the feathers of lower
back and rump and under wing coverts dingy rufous. Scully, writing from
Nepal, notes that all of his four specimens are typical M. albocincta, and he saw
no M castanea.
These do not agree well with Oates' description of male M. albocincta, yet
they belong to this species rather than M. castanea. The crown and back of the
males are not of the same colour. All of the males, especially those from
January to May, have greyish foreheads and crown owing to the feathers being
broadly edged with ashy. The back and rump are wholly black except in one, a
September bird,the feathers of these regions are narrowly margined with whitish
rufous, and in all the lower, most of the upper, tail coverts are edged with
whitish, and in the females these feathers have whitish shafts.
O. 698. Oreocincla dauma. -Seven specimens. One [Karung, Tista valley
(below Yangang), :May, 1891) has the groundcolour of lower plumage
ochraceous-buff, and otherwise closely resembles Oreocincla umbricata of
Ceylon, and other two males have chin, throat, breast, and under tail coverts
ochraceous, while the femalas have these parts relatively whiter.
O. 704 and 705. Zoothera monticola, Z. marginata.
-One of each-l male, Chowbanjan, April, 1891; 1 male, February, 1892.
In addition to the dark margination of the feathers and its shorter wing and
smaller size, its lores and cheeks are pale mottled grey and ear coverts with
conspicuously pale grey shafts, the blackish tips contrasting against the whitish
subternal bands of the feathers of the side of the neck. Its greater and medium
wing coverts are more conspicuously tipped with ochraceous than is Z.
monticola, and in neither can the chin, throat, breast, and abdomen be said to be
white-in Z. marginata the chin and throat are ashy grey and in Z. monticola
ochraceous: on the breast and upper part of abdomen the dark brown tints
predominate.
O. 831. Motacilla maderaspatensis.-The chin, upper throat and an infra-
mandibular streak, of a November male, are white and the back is blackish-
ashy.
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234 NOTES ON SIKHIM BIRDS.

O. 935. Pitta cucullata.-Rare in Sikhim. Two specimens from Baxar,

Bhutan, May, 2,000, young, but fu11 grown (7 inches), have blackish wedge-
shaped extremity to most of the feathers of the back, wings, and abdomen. The
abdomen is pale bluish-green with a black spot on its lower area, bordering the
crimson.
 MAMMALS 235 www.sikkim.gov.in
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MAMMALS.
NOTE.-The works consulted for this paper are Jerdon's" Mammals of India" and the Fauna of
British India, Mammalia," Part I, by W. T. Blanford.
J. GAMMIE-6-10.91.

ACCORDING to Jerdon and Blanford, there are about 81 species of

mammals in Sikhim. They may be roughly classified as follows, viz. :-3
monkeys, 8 of the true cat tribe, 2 civet-cats, 1 tree-cat, 2 mungooses, 2 of the
dog tribe, 5 polecats and weasels, 1 ferretbadger, 3 otters, 1 cat-bear, 2 bears, 1
tree-shrew, 1 mole, 6 shrews, 2 water-shrews, 12 bats, 4 squirrels, 2 marmots, 8
rats and mice, 1 vole, 1 porcupine, 4 deer, 2 forest goats, 1 goat, 1 sheep, and 1
ant-eater; but the Lepchas consider there are more species of several of the
larger animals than the above two European naturalists admit.
Blanford in the "Fauna of British India" series mentions 3 monkeys from
Sikhim: the Bengal monkey (Macacus rhesus), which is found in large companies
at low elevations, usually not exceeding' 3,000 feet, has straight hair and is of a
hair-brown colour, tinged greyish with rufescent hinder quarters; the Himalayan
monkey (Macacus ageamensis) which is abundant from 3,000 up to 6,000 feet, is
of similar habits and general appearance, but its hair is wavy and of a darker brown,
and it wants the rufescent colour on the hinder quarters; and the Himalayan langur
(Semnopithecus schistaceus) which frequents the zone between 7,000 and 12,000
feet, and is said to differ in habits from the hanuman only in inhabiting a much.
colder climate. The Lepchas say there are two species at those high altitudes: one of
large size and going in pairs only; the other smaller and herding together in
companies of 20 to 60 individuals, and often visiting the hot springs to lick the
saline matter deposited round their edges. .
The tiger is an occasional visitor only, but the leopard (Felis pardus) and the
clouded-leopard (Felis nebulosa) are permanent residents and fairly common, the
latter ascending to about 7,000 reet. The snowleopard (Felis uncia), as its trivial
name implies, inhabits high altitudes only. The marbled-cat (Felis marmorata) is
an elegantly marked crea.ture, attaining to a size of nearly 2 feet in length from
nose to base or tail, which is 15 inches. It chiefly keeps to the warmer slopes, and
is a miniature edition of the clouded-leopard, while the leopard-cat (Felis
bengalensis), also of the warmer slopes, is the miniature of the common
leopard. These two cats never become quite tame, however young they may be
captured, and appear to be incapable or getting in the least attached to more than
one person, but will stay about the
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236 MAMMALS
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house in which they have been brought up till they are about a year old, when
they usually take to the jungles. They are wonderfully active in all their
movements., The large Indian civet-cat (Viverra tibetha) is not uncommon up to
at least 5,500 feet; and the spotted tiger-civet (Prionodon pardicolor) is a very
beautiful and active but rare creature of the cooler forests about 5-6,000 feet; it
is marked with large squarish black spots in longitudinal rows on a fulvous
background. There is but one tree-cat (Paradoxurus grayi), and it is not
uncommon in the warmer forests.
The small Indian mungoose (Herpestes auro-punctatus) is occasionally
found in the lower valleys, but the large crab-eating mungoose (Herpestes urva)
is commoner and ascends to higher elevations. It is a creature of considerable
size, its head and body measuring a foot and-a-half in length and its tail a foot.
The jackal is not uncommon. Jerdon and Blanford both say there is but one
species of wild hog (Cyon dukhunensis) in Sikhim, but the natives are very
positive about there being two, and that they differ both in size and habits as well
as in colour. The large sort they call the Hindu, and say it goes in pairs only or in
parties of three or four, and is or a brownish colour with a black muzzle; the
other sort. which they call the Mussalman, is described as being considerably
smaller, of a uniform reddish colour, and going in packs of ten or a dozen. They
hunt in packs and kill wild pig, deer, goats, &c., and occasionally attack cattle.
The Hindu sort is in great request among native cattle doctors, who consider
every atom of its body, including the bones, but especially the stomach, an
infallible remedy in rinderpest. It is smoke-dried and reduced to powder, and
administered either dry or in water.Their faith in it is unbounded,
notwithstanding that there does not appear to be a single authenticated instance
on record of it ever having effected a cure. The belief in its 'efficacy may have
originated with the idea when the disease first appeared in Sikhim, that -the wild
dog was in some mysterious manner the cause of it, and the wise men acted on
the principle of giving the victim a "hair of the dog that bit him." The Nepalese
also declare it to be a sure remedy in dysentery and other diseases mankind is
subject to. The natives of the plains as well as of the hills believe in and use it,
and there is a tradition that the Cabul traders have offered a hundred rupees for a
living or freshly-killed wild dog of the Hindu variety. The Mussalman sort is not
generally of so high repute as a medicine, and by some considered worthless.
- The Indian marten (Mustela flavigula) is a common animal of a
rather wide range, being found from the lower slopes up to about 7,OOO
feet;'usually in pairs, but occasionally in parties of five or six. It feeds on birds,
reptiles, and small mammals, and when opportunity
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MAMMALS. 237
.

offers is a robber of the fowl. house to an almost incredible extent. It is also a

persistent robber of bee-hives. In colour it is of a dark brown above, and paler
below, with a white chin and throat and yellow breast. It weighs from 4lbs. to
6lbs. The yellow-bellied weasel (Putorius cathia) is a pretty creature and not
uncommon, about 3-4,000 feet. It is usuaJly in parties of about half-a-dozen, and
the leader is the very incarnation of courage and daring, and will attack anything,
however large, in defence of its family. It is of a uniform dark brown colour
above, yellow below, and weighs about 6 oz. Hodgson mentions that it "is
exceedingly prized by the Nepalese for its service in ridding houses of rats," and
that it is easily tamed, and is trained by the rich" to attack large fowls, geese, and
even goats and sheep. So soon as it is loosed it rushes up the fowl's tail or the
goat's leg, and seizes the great artery of the neck, nor ever quits its hold till the
victim sinks under exhaustion from loss of blood." Others are common, but in the
larger rivers only. .
The cat-bear (Aklurus fulqens) occurs from about 7,000 feet upwards. It is a
vegetable feeder and easily tamed. It is of a reddish colour above, darker below,
and the greater part of the face is white and the tail is ringed. Full grown males
weigh from 7 1bs. to 9 1/2 lbs., and measure about 3 feet from the snout to
the tip of the tail, which is nearly half.a-yard. It is one of the most interesting of
the Sikhim mammals. The brown bear (Ursu arctus) occurs at high altitudes,
rarely below 11-12,000 feet, and the Himalayan black bear
(Ursus torquatus) is common from there down to about 4,000 feet. It is an
undesirable neighbour, as it destroys large quantities of the native crops, and at
times kills cattle and occasionally the people themselves. In many places, but
especially in isolated fields in the middle of jungle, the natives have to watch
their crops when ripening to prevent their destruction by monkeys and bears. One
way of frightening them is to have a clapper arrangement fixed in the middle of
the field with a string of cane, often several hundred yards in length, led inside
the dwelling-house from whence it is worked, and every time a member of the
bousehold wakes up he is expected to give the string a few lusty tugs to set the
clapper going. These are the only two bears recorded'from Sikhim, but the
Lepchas are quite positive about there being a third species, resembling torquatus
in appearance, but considerably smaller, and occurring at lower elevations; down
in fact to the bottoms of the lowest valleys, but rarely ascending so high as 6,000
feet. It differs also in being arboreal in its habits, and it is dreaded much more
than the larger one on account of its greater activity. It is probably Ursus
malayanus, which is recorded from Java through to Chittagong and the Garo
Hills, and may be found as far west as Sikhim.
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238 MAMMALS
.

There is one mole (Tapa micrura) of much the same habits as the European
one, but does not throw up mole-hills as that species does, although it makes its
runs near the surface of the ground in the same way It is commonest about 4,000
feet, but is found as high as 8,OOO. .The European mole is of doubtful
occurrence in Sikhim. There are at least half-a-dozen species of shrews,
including the "musk-rat," and eight sorts of rats and mice, two water-shrews, and
a vole.
Two marmots are found at elevations exceeding 10,000 feet. They burrow in
the ground and live in small colonies. One, if not both of them, barks like a dog,
for which it was often mistaken by the European sentries at Gnatong and
considered a nuisance in consequence, as they naturally thought it might be a dog
along with a hostile Tibetan party for whom they had to keep a sharp look out.
One porcupine (Hystrix longicauda) is common about 5-6,000 feet, where it is
very destructive to the potato crop. Its flesh is much prized as an article of food.
The black hill squirrel (Sciurus macrouroides) is a large handsome animal of
the lower forests, occasionally, but rarely, ascending as high as 5,000 feet. It
measures 2-1/2 feet from the nose to end of the tail, and is of a uniform dark
brown on the back and sides, and yellowish below. Two small brown squirrels
are not uncommon among the trees and bamboos of the lower and middle
forests, and a pretty, small-striped species (S. McClellandi) occurs in the upper
forests over 5,000 feet. A very handsome flying squirrel (pteromeys magnificus)
inhabits the forest between 5,000 and 10,000 feet. The head and body measure
about 15 inches in length, and the tail over 20 inches. It is dark chestnut above
and orange-coloured" below. Even adults take not unkindly to confinement.
The shon or Sikhim stag (Cervus affinis) does not, perhaps, occur anywhere
in Sikhim Proper, but inhabits the Chumbi Valley and country beyond. The
s,erow or samber stag '(Rusa. aristotelis) is frequent at .all elevations up to 9-
10,000 feet. The commonest of the deer tribe in Sikhim is the barking-deer
(Cervulus aureus), which is found from the lowest valleys up to 9,000 feet, and
is really excellent eating when in good condition Hodgson says :-" It has no
powers of sustained speed and extensive leap, but is unmatched for flexibility
and power of creeping through tangled underwood. They have indeed a weasel-
like flexibility of spine and limbs, enabling them to wend on without kneeling,
even when there is little perpendicular passage room; thus escaping their great
enemy the wild dog." The natives hunt it greatly with dogs and bows, and they
put bells on their dogs for the double purpose of frightening the deer out of their
hiddcn refuges and indicating the whereabouts of the dogs. The
 MAMMALS 239 www.sikkim.gov.in
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Lepchas believe that the foetus dried and powdered is of great virtue in difficult
confinements. The musk.deer (M0schus moschiferus) remains always at high
elevations, rarely descending below 8,000 feet even in winter. The serow
(Nemorhoedus bubalina) frequents the rockiest ravines over 6,000 feet, while
the ,goral (Nemorhoedus goral) affects similar localities, but descends to 3,000
feet and is found up to 8,000. The burhel (Ovis nahura) is found in considerable
flocks at high altitudes.
 HISTORY OF LAMAISM. 241 www.sikkim.gov.in

LAMAISM IN SIKHIM.

By L. A. WADDELL, M.B.
I.-HISTORIC SKETCH OF THE LAMAIC CHURCH IN SIKHIM.
Lamaism or Tibetan Buddhism is the State religion of Sikhim,
and professed by the majority of the people .l Indeed the
.Lamas since entering the country about two and half centuries
ago have retained the temporal power more or less directly
in their hands; and. the first of the present series of rulers was
nominated by the pioneer - . lamas No detailed account of
Sikhim Lamaism has hitherto been published. 2
In regard to the ritual also and general history of Lamaism I
have often differed from such authorities as Koppen 3 and
.
Schlagintweit, 4 as I have .enjoyed. superior opportunities for.studying
the subject at first hand with living lamas.
As Lamaism is essentially a priestcraft, I have dealt with it mainly in
its sacerdotal aspects, and touch little upon its higher ethics and
metaphysics of which most of the lamas are totally ignorant
And throughout this paper I use the term" lama" in its popular sense,
as a general term for all the clergy of the Tibetan Buddhist Church,
and, not in its special sense of the superior monk of a monastery or
sect.My special sources of information have been notes taken during
several visits to Sikhim and a prolonged residence at Darjeeling in the
society of lamas. For many of the local details I am especially indebted to
thelearned Sikhim Lama Ugyen Gyatsho and the Tibetan Lama Padma
Chho Phel, with whom I have consulted most of the indigenous and
Tibetan books which contain references to the early history of Sikhim and
Tibet.5 These vernacular books contain no very systematic account
either of the introduction of Lamaism into Sikhim or of its origin in Tibet,
and their contents are largely mixed with myth, and legend; but by careful
sifting and comparative treatment it is possible

1 The Hinduized Nepalese lately settled in Eastern Sikhim are not natives of Sikhim.
2, For general notes on Sikhim Lama-ism after Schlagintweit, the chief writers are
Sir John Edgar, Mr. A. W. Paul, C.I.E., who afforded me many facilities for
acquiring information, Sir Joseph Hooker and Sir Richard Temple.
3 KOPPEN: Die lamaiscne Hierarchie und Kirche, Berlin, 1859
4 E. SCHLAGINTWEIT: Buddhism in Tibet, London, 1863
5 I have a1so obtained valuable aid from the Mongol Lama Sherap Gyatsho and
Tungyik Wangden of the Gelukpa monastery at Ghoom, and. from Mr. Dorje
Tshering of the Bhoti,ya school.
 242 HISTORY OF LAMAISM. www.sikkim.gov.in

to get a residue which may be treated as fairly historical, seeing that

the periods dealt with are so relatiyely recent.
Buddhism arose in India and flourished there for about fifteen
' , until it was forcibly suppressed by the Muhammadan
centuries .
Invaders In the latter end of the 12th century A.D.

According to the best authorities, Buddhism was founded at Benares

about the 5th century B.C., when the newly-fledged Buddha preached
his first sermon and made his first converts on the site now marked by the
Sarnath stupa.

The new religion soon spread over the North-Western Provinces and
Oudh and extended down the Gangetic valley to Bihar. But its wide
dissemination dates from the epoch of the Great Indian Emperor Asoka, in the
3rd century B.C., who had his capital at the city of Patna in Bihar. Asoka
made Buddhism the state religion; and, besides diligently promoting it in his
own territories, he sent swarms of missionaries into neighbouring countries to
preach the faith. From Asoka's son, Mahendra, Ceylon claims to have obtained
its Buddhism and the Pali alphabet; while the Asoka missionaries Uttara and
Sauna are similarly claimed by Burma.
. Buddhism spread through Afghanistan, Cashmere, and its adjoin
...ing principalities, into Mongolia and China, and through China to Japan
.
exercising on all the wilder tribes a marked civilizing influence. It
.was established in China about 61 A.D. ..
Up to the 7th century A.D. the people of Tibet were without a
written language and were pure savages. Early in the 7 th century A.D.
was born Srong' -tsang -gampo, whose ancestors since two or three genera
tions had established their authority over Central Tibet, and had bitterly
harassed the western boundaries of China; so that the Chinese Emperor was
glad to make peace with the young prince and gave him a princess of the
Imperial house in marriage. Srong-tsan-gampo had two years previously
married the daughter of the King of Nepal; and both these wives being bigoted
Buddhists, they speedily converted Srong-tsan-gampo, who under their advice
sent to India for Buddhist books and teachers; hence dates the introduction of
Buddhism into Tibet.
Four great councils are reported to have been held for the sup
pression of heresy, viz.
(1) The Council held at Rajagriha under the presidency of Maha Kasyapa
immediately after Buddha's death.
 www.sikkim.gov.in
PRIMITIVE BUDDHISM. 243,

(2) The Council of Vaisali held about 350 B,C. under Yashada.
(3) The Council of Pataliputra (Patna) held about 250 B.C.
under Asoka's orders, with Mogaliputra as president.
(4) The Council of Jalandhara held in the 1st century A.D. under the
auspices of King Kanishka of Kashmir and the Panjab.
The second Council dealt only with discipline. The third Council
defined the Buddhist canon as now current in Ceylon and Burma and Siam.
The fourth developed exorcism, and from it arose the Dharani formulae
for schism of the "Northern" and " Southern" schools.
The Southern school is the more primitive and purer form; it
includes the Burmese, Ceylonese, and Siamese forms of Buddhism
Its sacred language is Pali. ,
The Northern school comprises the forms of Buddhism current
in Kashmir, Mongolia, China, Manchuria, ' .
Japan . Nepal, Tibet, Bhutan, and
Sikhim. Its sacred language is Sanskrit.
The schism was brought about by the Mahayana doctrine, a theistic and
metaphysical form of Buddhism introduced by a monk named Asvagosha and
specially advocated by Nagarjuna, whose name is most intimately identified
with it. Its chief work is the Prajna paramita (Tib. Sher-chin) which recognises
several grades of theoretical Buddhas and of numerous divine Bodhisatwas '
or beings who have arrived at perfect wisdom (Bodhi), yet consent to remain
a creature (satwa) for the good of men, and who must therefore be worshipped,
and to whom prayers must be addressed.
Mythology and mysticism followed necessarily from the growth of the
Mahayana school, and its extension amongst '
" races of devil worshippers. Like;
Hinduism, it admitted within the pale the gods and demons of the new nations it
sought to convert. Mysticism reached its fullest expression in the Tantrik
doctrines (a mixture of Siva-worship and magic) which spread throughout
India about the 6th and 7th century of our era, affecting alike Buddhism and
Hinduism. Arya Asanga, a Buddhist monk of Peshawar, who lived about 300
. A.D., is supposed to have introduced Tantricism into Buddhism.
The Tantriks teach yogism and incantations addressed mostly to female
energies, by which men may gain miraculous powers which may be used for
purely selfish and

.
 www.sikkim.gov.in

244 HISTORY OF LAMAISM.

secular objects. Just as they assigned female" energies "-the Hindu Saktis or
divine mothers-as companions to most of the gods, wives were allotted to th.e
several Buddhas and Bodhisatwas.
At an early date Buddhists worshipped the tree under which the
Buddhahood was attained, and the monument which contained Buddha's relics
and the images of these two objects together with the Wheel as symbolic of the
teaching. ..
Northern Buddhism had almost reached this Impure stage when
it was introduced into Tibet about the middle of the 7 th century A. D.
Hiuen Tsiang states that the Mahayana school then predominated in India, and
tantrik and mystic doctrines were appearing.
Lamaism dates from over a century later than the first entry of Buddhism
"
into Tibet, and in the meantime tantricism had greatly increased. About the
same time the doctrine of the Kalachakra or supreme Deity, without beginning
or end, the source of all things, [Adi Buddha Samantabhadra (Tib. Kun-tu
zang-po)] was accepted by the Lamas.
Lamaism was founded by the wizard-priest Padma Sambhava (Tib.
Pedma Jungne) ,1 i.e., "The lotus born;" usually called by the' Tibetans Guru
Rimbochhe 2 or simply" Guru," the Sanskrit for" teacher."
Lamaism arose in tbe time of King Thi-Srong De-tsan, who reigned 740-
786 A.D. The son of a Chinese princess , he inherited from his mother a strong

prejudice in favour of Budhism.He sent to India for books and teachers, and
commenced
. a systematic translation from the Sanskrit and Chinese scriptures;
and he built the first Buddhist monastery in Tibet, viz. Samye (Sam-yas).
- It was in connection with the building of this monastery that Padma
Sambhava first came to Tibet. King Thi-Srong De-tsan's endeavours to build
."
were all frustrated by earthquakes "
which were attributed . the
to demons. On
advice of the Indian Buddhist monk Shantarakshita, the latter sent to the great
Indian monastery of Nalanda for the wizard-priest Padma Sambhava of the
Yogacharya Scbool, who was a famous sorcerer.
Padma Sambhava, who was a native of Udyana, or Ghazni, a region famed for
sorcery, .promptly responded to the Tibetans kings request and arrived at Samye
, by way of Katmandu and Kyirong in N epal

1Padma hbyung gnas 2 Gu.ru rin.-po-.chhe.

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ORIGIN OF LAMAISM. 245

year 747 A.D. With the dorje (Sansk. Vajra) or thunderbolt and spells from the
Mahayana he vanquished and converted the devils, built the monastery 749
A.D., and established the first community of lamas.
Lamaism may be defined as a mixture of Buddhism with a .
preponderating amount of mythology, ' mysticism,' and magic
' the doctrine
.
of incarnate lamas and the worship of canonized saints, now such prominent
features of Lamaism, are of recent origin. It was readily accepted as it protected
the people from devils. LAMAIC SECTS.

The Lamaic sects (PLATE I) date from the visit to Tibet of t.he Indian
Buddhist monk Atisha (1038-1052 A.D.), who, preached celibacy and moral
. abstinence , and deprecated the practice
' '
of the magic arts.
The reformed sect was called the Kah-dam-pa,1or "those bound
by the orders," and three and.a-half centuries later, in Tsongkhapa's hands, It
became less ascetic and more ritualistic under the title of Ge-luk-pa, now
the dominant sect in Tibet.
The unreformed residue were called the Nying ma-pa or "the old
sect."

THE GE-LUK-PA SECT.

Tsongkhapa 2 gathered together the scattered mem bers of the Kadam pa and
housed them in monasteries, under rigorous- discipline. He made them carry a
begging-bowl and wear a garment of a yellow colour after the
fashion of Indian Buddhists. And he instituted a ritualistic service, in part,
apparently, perhaps borrowed from the Nestorian Christian missionaries, who
were settled at that time in Western China. The tutelary deities are Dorje-hjig-
byed, bDe-mchhog and gSang-wahduspa; and the guardian demons are"
mGonpo phyag-truk," or the six-armed protector, and Tam-chhen Chhos-gyal.
THE KARGYUPA SECT.
The Kargyupa sect was founded in the latter half of the eleventh
century A.D. by Lama Marpa, who had visited India and obtained special
instruction from the Indian pandit Atisha and Atisha's teacher Naropa.

1 bkah.dam.pa,
2 Tsongkhapa means" Of Tsongkha or the Onion Country," the district of his birth in
Western China near the eastern confines of Tibet. His proper name is bLo.bzang~tak.pa ; but he
is best known to European.s -by his territorial title.
246 HISTORY OF LAMAISM. www.sikkim.gov.in

The distinctive features of the Kargyupa sect are that they inhabit caves and
profess meditation and the following doctrines:
( a) Their guardian deity is "The Lord of the Black-Cloak." 1
(b) Their tutelary deity is Demchhok 2 (Skt. Sambhara), or
" Chief of Happiness."
(c) Their mode of meditation or system of mystical insight is
Chhag-chhen,3 or in Sanskrit Mahamudra; and their highest
teacher is the mythical Dorje-Chhang' (Skt. Bajra-dhara), or
"the holder of the Dorj e."
(d) Their hat is called gom-zha pu khyu, or" the meditation
hat with the crossed knees."
The diagram of Kar-gyupa sects (PLATE II) shows the relation of thesub-sects
to the parent sect. The Kar-ma-pa adopted .the Nyingmapa ter-ma of Las-hprod-
ling-pa. The Di-kung-pa take their title from the Dikung,Monastery founded by
Rinchhen-phun-tshog about the middle of the 12th century. Their Nyingmapa
ter-ma is Padmaling.pa.
The Ta-lung-pa issued from the Dikungpa and take their title
from the Talung Monastery founded by Ngag-dbang-chhos- gyalpo in 1179.
They differ from their parent Di-kung-pa in admitting also the ter-ma work
adopted by the Kar-ma-pa.
The Duk-pa are of three forms. The oldest . is the Upper Duk-pa, which
originated by hGro.mgon.rtsang-pa-rgyal-ras (The patron of Animals, The
Victory-clad Tsang po) or sPrul sku-dbung-bsam-wang-po of the Ralung
Monastery in Gnam province of Tibet about the middle of the 12th century. To
emphasize the change the monastery was called Duk-Ralung, and a legend of the
thunder-dragon Duk is related in connection therewith. It adopted the same ter-
ma as the Dikungpa,. but there seems some other distinctive tenet which I have
not yet elicited. The Middle Duk-pa and the Lower Duk-pa 'arose very soon
after.
The Middle Duk-pa took the terma book of Sangyas-ling-pa. This is the
form of Kar-gyu-pa which now prevails in Bhutan under the name of Duk-pa or
Southern Duk-pa. Its chief lama is Zhab-drung Ngag-dbang-nam-gyal, a pupil
of "Kun-mkhyen padma dkar-po" or " The Omniscient White Lotus," who, in
the 17th century A.D., settled at " lchags rit rta mgo " in Bhutan, and soon
displaced the Karthok-pa and ot.her forms of Nyingmapa Lamaism then existing
in that country,

1 mgon-po bar-nak. 3 phyag-rgya.chhew.pa.

2 bde.mchhog. 4 rdo-rje hchhang.
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SAKYAPA AND ITS SUB-SECTS. 247

and which are reputed to have been founded there directly by Lo-pon himself,
who entered Bhutan via gZhas-ma gang and left it by mDungtsang, and at
dgon-tshal phuk are still shown his footprints on a rock.

THE SAKYA-PA SECT.

The Sakya-pa takes its name from the Sa-kya Monastery in Western Tibet,
founded by hKhon-dkon-mchhog rgyalpo. The name Sa-kya 1 refers to the
light. yellow colour of the scanty soil in that locality, which is rocky and
almost bare of vegetation. The. founder mixed together the" old" and" new"
dispensations in regard to the tantras, calling his tantrik system gsang- sngags-gsar-
nying, or "the new-old occult mystery." The Nyingmapa "
books adopted by the Sakya-pa are called Dorje phurpai chhoga; and from the
newer school were taken Dem-chhok, Dorje.kando, Den-zhi, Maha-maha-ma-
yab, Sangye thopa, and 'Dorje-dutsi. Its special meditative system is "Lam-
hbras." Its guardian demons are mgon-po-guror "The Guardian of the Tent" and
mgon-po-zhal. Its hat is called Sa-zhu. Now, however, the Sakya sect is
scarcely distinguishable from the Nyingmapa.
Its sub-sects are as follow :
The Ngor-pa, founded by Gun-gah Zang-po, issued from the Sakya-pa
at the time of Tsongkhapa. Its founder discarded the Nynimapa element in its tantrik
system, retaining only the" new." It has many monasteries in Kham.
The Jonang-po, issued from the Sakya-pa, in the person of Je-kun
gah-tol chhok, who was re-incarnated some centuries later as the great historian
lama Taranath, now the highest incarnate lama of the Mongols and Chinese. This
latter lama built the monastery of Phuntsholing about a mile to the north of Jonang
in Upper Tsang, which was one of the many seized by the great Dalai Lama Lo-
zang gyatsho and forcibly converted into a Gelukpa institution. This sect does not
practically differ from the Ngor-pa. The distinction is only one of founders.
The Nyingmapa peculiarities have already been indicated in a
general way. Further details will be found under the head of Sikhim Lamaism. It
was the Nyingma form of Lamaism which first found its way into Sikhim about 250
years ago.

1 Sa-,kya-pa.
248 HISTORY OF LAMAISM. www.sikkim.gov.in

INTRODUCTION OF LAMAISM INTO SIKHIM.

It is believed in Sikhim that Guru Rimbochhe visited Sikhim during his
travels in Tibet and its western border lands.
The introduction of Lamaism into Sikhim dates from the time of Lhatsun Chhembos
arrival there about the middle of the 17th century A.D. By this time Lamaism
had.become a most powerful hierarchy in Tibet, and was extending its creed among the
Himalayan and Central Asian tribes.
Lhatsun Chhembo was a native of Kongbu in the lower valley of the
Tsangpo,which has a climate and physical appearance very similar to Sikhim. His name
means" The great reverend God." His religious name is Kun-zang nam- gye 1 or " The
entirely victorious Essence of Goodness." He is also known
by the title of Lhatsun nam-kha Jig-med, 2 or "The Reverend God who fears not the
sky," with reference to his alleged power of flying. He is aho sometimes called Kusho
Dsog-chhen Chhembo, or "The great
Honourable Dsog-chhen "-Dsog-chhen, literally" The Great End," being the technical
name for the system of mystical insight of the Nyingmapa, and Kusho means" the
honourable."
He was born in the fire-bird year of the tenth of the sixty-year cycles,
corresponding to 1595 A.D., in the district of Kongbu in South - Eastern Tibet
.
Having spent many years in various monasteries and in travellingthroughout Tibet and
Sikhim,
' he ultimately
. in the year 1648 arrived in Lhassa and obtained such great repute
' " of Gyalwa Ngak-"Wang, the greatest
by his learning as to attract the favourable notice
of the Grand Lamas, who shortly afterwards became the first Dalai Lama.
At this time another lama of the Kartok-pa sub-sect came by Kangla nangma
searching for a path into Sikhim, and also tried without success the sPreu-gyab-tak
(i.e., "Monkey-back rock," with reference to its semblance to a monkey sitting with
hands behind its back) and Dsong-ri, and the western shoulder of sKam -pa Khab-rag-
a ridge of "Kabl'u" which runs down to the Rathong river. He then arrived at the cave
of "the very pleasant grove," and met the saint, who told him that as he was not
destined to open the northern gate, he should go round and try the western.
Then Lhatsun Chhembo, traversing the Kangla nangma and finding no road
beyond the cave of Skam -pa Khabruk, flew miraculously to the upper part of Khabru
(24,000)feet and there blew his kangling and after

1 Kun-bzang rnam.rgyal. .2 lha.brtsun nam mkhah hjigs med.

-------
 249 www.sikkim.gov.in
ITS DEVELOPMENT.

an absence of two weeks flew down to where his servants were collected and
guided them by a road via Dsongri to Norbugang in Sikhim.
He arrived in Sikhim with two other Nyingmapa lamas. By" the western gate"
of Singlela came a Kartok-pa Hima named Sempah Chhembo, 1 and a lama of
the Ngadakpa sub-sect, named Rigdsin Chhembo,2 who. had opened" the
southern gate" by way of Darjeeling and Namchi respectively. The place where
these three lamas met was called by the Lepchas Yok-sam, which means" the
three superior ones or noble men," a literal translation of "the three lamas."
The three lamas held here a council at which Hlatsun Chhembo said,. 'Here
are we three lamas in a new an irreligious country.. We must have a 'dispenser
of gifts' 3 (i.e., a king) to rule the count.ry on our behalf." Then the Nga.dak-pa
lama said, "I am descended from the celebrated Terton Nga-dak Nyang.rel,
who was latterly a governor; I should therefore be the king.'" While the Kartok-
pa lama declared, "As I am of royal lineage I have the right to rule." Then
Hlatsun Chhembo said, "In the prophesy of Guru Rimbochhe it is written that
four noble brothers shall meet in Sikhim and arrange for its government. We
are three of these come from the north, west, and south. Towards the east, it is
written, there is at this epoch a man named Ph-untshog, 4 . a descendant of
brave ancestors of Kham in Eastern Tibet. According, therefore, to the prophesy
of the Guru we should invite him." Two messengers were then despatched to
search for this Phuntshog. Going towards the extreme east near Gangtok they
met a man churning milk and asked him his name. He without replying invited
them to sit down and gave them milk to drink. After they were refreshed, he
said his name was Phuntshog. He was' then conducted to the lamas, who
crowned him by placing the holy water vase on his head and anointed him with
the water; and exhorting him to rule the country religiously, gave him Hlatsun's
own surname of Namgye 5 and the title of Chho-gyal (Skt. Dharma-raja) or
"religious king." Phuntshog Namgye was at this time aged 38 years, and he
became a lama in the same year, which is said to have been 1641 A.D.
In appearance Lhatsiin is usually represented as seated on a leopard skin
mat, with the right leg hanging down and his body almost naked-one of his
titles is He -ru-ka-pa,. which means" unclad." His complexion is dark blue. A
chaplet of skulls encircles his brow. In his left hand is a skull cup filled with
blood, and a trident topped with human heads

1 Sem-dpah chhen-po. 3 sbyin -dak

4 Phun-tshogs
2 Rig-hdsin chhen-po. or' the great Sage.'
.
5 rnam rgyal
250 HISTORY OF LAMAISM. www.sikkim.gov.in

rests in front of the left shoulder. The right, hand is in a teaching attitude
He is believed to be the incarnation.of. the great Indian
' 'teacher Bhima
Mitra

DEVELOPMENT OF LAMAISM IN SIKHIM, SUBSEQUENT TO THE EPOCH OF

LUATSUN CHHEMBO.
The religions ousted by Lamaism were the Pon (Bon), usually
identified with Taouism, and the earlier demon and. fairy worship of the
Lepchas, which can scarcely
be called a religion, Numerous traces of both of these primitive faiths are to
be found embodied in Sikhim Lamaism, which owes any special features it
possesses to the preponderance of these two elements. Only two sects of lamas
exist in Sikhim, viz., the Nyingmapa and the Kargyupa as represented by the
Karmapa. There are no Duk-pa monasteries in Sikhim, nor does there seem
ever to have been any.
THE NYINGMA-PA.

The Nyingma-pa 1 or" the old school" represents the primitive and
unreformed style of Lamaism.It is more largely tinged with the indigenous pre-
Buddhist religious practices; and celibacy and abstinence are rarely practised.
In Sikhim there are three sub-sects of Nyingma-pa, viz.-(l) the Lhatsun-pa, to
which belong most of the monasteries with Pemiongchi at the head; (2) the
Kartok-pa with the monasteries of Kartok and Doling; and (3) the Nga dak -pa
with the monasteries of Namchi, Tashiding, Sinon, and Thang-mochhe.
The Ter-ma of the Lhatsun-pa is the same as was adopted by the
Karmapa, viz., the work Le-tho Ling-pa discovered . (i.e., composed) by Ja-
tshon-pa in Kongbu; But the Pemiongchi lamas also follow the Mindolling
monastery in giving preeminence to the ter-ma work of Dag-ling-pa as a form of
ritual.
The, Kartok-pa ,2 taking their name from the title of their founder
, lama Kah- tok, i.e., "The Understander ..of the Precepts," give pre-eminence to
the terton work Long-chhen rab chung.3 It has been suggested by Mr. Paul that
Darjeeling, properly Dorjeling, may owe its name to the terton Dorjelingpa, who
visited the Kartok-pa Do-ling (properly Dorjeling) monastery in Sikhim, of
which the old Darjeeling monastery was a branch.

1 ,.nying.ma-pa 2 bkah.rtog.pa. 3 rig-hasin rgod ldem.

 ITS SECTS. 251 www.sikkim.gov.in

The Nga-dak-pa, also taking their name from their founder" The owner of
Sway .or Dominion," who was of royal lineage, give pro-eminence to the terton
work of Rig-dsin go dem1 as a code of ritual.
All sections of the N yingma- pa agree in professing the creed called Dsog-
chhen-bo, or "The Great End;" it is probable, however, that the Sanskrit
Maha...joga is intended. This Dsog-chhen-bo doctrine is a purely theoretical
distinction, in great part relating merely to the posture of the hands in meditation
and little understood by the great majority of the members. The obvious and
practical Nyingma-pa characteristics are (a) their special worship of Guru
Rimbochhe; (b) their highest god is Kuntu zang po (Skt. Samantabhadra), "'the
Highest Goodness; " ( c) their special tutelary deity is Dub-pa kah gye; 2 (d)
their special guardian deity Pal-gon de-nga; 3 (e) and their peculiar red hat is
named Ugyen penzhu, and (f) with these characteristics they exhibit, as a class, a
greater laxity in living than any other sect of lamas.
By the Nyingma-pa, the great wizard Guru Pema is worshipped as
" a second Buddha," in spite of his uncelibate life, his semi-demoniac temper,
and his being altogether . void of any of the admirable traits of Buddha. It is just
possible, however, that he is painted blacker than he really was, for most of the
practices and rites which are credited to him were really the composition of the
tertons or "revealers of hidden scriptures" many centuries after his time. He is
worshipped under eight forms, called Guru Tsen-gye, or "the eight worshipful
names of the Teacher." These, together with their para phrases ,are here given
. .
:
I.-Guru Padma Jungne,. "Born of a lotus" for the happiness
of the three worlds.
lI.-Guru Padma Sambhava, '. Saviour by the Religious Doctrine."
(N.B.-This title is the pure Sanskrit equivalent of
No. I.)
III.- Guru Padma Gyelpo, "The King of the Three Collections
of Scriptures" (Skt. "Tripitaka").
IV.-Guru Dorje po-lo," "The Dorje or Diamond Comforter
of all."
V.-Guru Nyima Od-zer, 6 "The Enlightening Sun of Darkness."
VI.-Guru Shakya Seng-ge, "The Second Sakya-the Lion,"
who does the work of eight sages.

I klong-chhen rab hbyani. 4 gu-ru pad-ma hbyung-gnas.

2 sgrub-pa-bkah brgyed. 5 gu-ru rdo-rje gro-lod.
3 dpal.mgon sde lnga. 6 gu.ru nyi.ma hod zer
252 HISTORY OF LAMAISM. www.sikkim.gov.in

VII.- Guru Seng-ge-da dok,1 The propagator of religion in

the six worlds-with" the roaring lion's voice."
VIII.-Guru La-ten Chhog-Se ,2 "The Conveyer of knowledge
to all worlds."
The chief monastery of the Pemiongchi sect and its associated lamas is at
Mindolling in Central Tibet. The chief monastery of the Kartok-pa is at Der.ge
in Kham (Eastern Tibet) celebrated for its excellent prints and that of the
. .
'
Nga dak-pa at Dorje-tak, '
the greatest of the Nyingma-pa head-quarters, about
'
two days' journey south-east of Lhassa. Until recently, Pemiongchi was in the
habit of sending batches of its young lamas to Mindolling for instruction in strict
discipline and rites; but since some years this practice has been allowed to lapse.

THE KARMAPA SUB-SECT.

The Karmapa, as we have already seen, was one of the earliest sub-sects of the
Kargyupa. It differs from its parent Kargyupa in the adoption of the Nyingma
"hidden revelation" found in Kongbo, and entitled Le-to the locally.revealed
merit." And from the Duk-pa, another sub-sect of the Kargyupa, it differs in not
Tenets. having adopt-ed the Nyingma terton works Padma ling-pa and Sangye
ling-pa The Karmapa sect was founded by Milaraspas pupil Rangchug DorjeTheir
chief monastery is at To-lung tshur phu, founded in 1158 A.D:-and about one day's
journey to the north-west of Lhasa. They are Kargyupas who have retrograded
towards the Nyingma-pa practices. Marpa, the nominal founder of the Kargyupa
sect, was married, and few of the Karma-pa lamas are celibate.
The first Karmapa monastery in Sikhim was built at Ralang about 1730
A,D. by the Sikhim ruler Gyur-med Namgyal at the special request of the Ninth
Karmapa Grand Lama dBang -chug -rdorje-in Tibet during a pilgrimage of the
king in Tibet

Their other monasteries are at Ramtek and Phodang, and the" Phodang"
monastery in the Bhotiya basti of Darjeeling which is a chapel of ease to
Phodang.
. The central image in a Karmapa temple is usually that of the
founder of the sub-sect, viz., Karma. "Bakshi,"otherwise their temples do not
differ from those of the Nyingma-pa sect. .. '

1 gu-ru Seng-ge sgra 'sgrogs. 2 gu.ru blo-ldan mehhog Sred.

 www.sikkim.gov.in
ITS MONASTERIES. 253

H.-GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF SIKHIM MONASTERIES.

Monasteries in Sikhim are of three kinds, viz.-(a) Tak-phu ,1 liter.ally a. "rock-

cave" or cave-hermitage; (b) Gompa, 2 literally" a solitary place" or monastery
proper; and (c) the so-called" gompas" founded in or near villages. These latter
are, as a rule, merely temples (hla.khang) with one or more priests engaged in
ministering to the religious - wants of the villagers.
The four great caves of Sikhim hal1owed as the traditional abodes
of Guru Rimbochhe and Lhatsun Chhembo, and now the objects of pilgrimage
even to lamas from Tibet are distinguished according to the four cardinal
points viz
' " .
.
The NORTH Lha-ri nying phu, or "the old cave of God's hill." It is
situated about three days' journey to the north of Tashiding,
along a most difficult path. This is the most holy of the
series.
The SOUTH Kah,-do Sang phu ,3 or " cave of the occult fairies." Here
it is said is a hot spring, and. on the rock are many footprints
ascribed to the fairies.
The EAST Pe phu ,4 or " secret cave." It lies between the Ten.dong and
Mainom mountains, about five miles from Yangang. It is a
vast cavern, reputed to extend by a bifurcation to both
Tendong and Mainom. People go in with torches about a
quarter of a mile. Its height varies from five feet to one
hundred or two hundred feet.
The WEST De-chhen phu, or "cave of Great Happiness." It' is in the
snow near Jongri, and only reachable in the autumn.
"Gompa," as has been noted, means" a solitary place," and most
of the gompas still are found in solitary places. Isolation from the world has
always been a desideratum of Buddhist monks; not as an act of
self.punishment, but merely to escape mundane temptations.
The extreme isolation of some of the gompas has its counterpart in Europe in
the Alpine monasteries amid the everlasting snows. One of these gompa is
To.lung which for the greater part of the year is quite cut off from the outer
world, and at favourable times is only reachable from the south by a

1 brag.phug. 2. dyon-pa. 3 rnkhah hgro gsang. 4 sbas. 5. bde chhen.

254 MONASTERIES www.sikkim.gov.in
.

path of flimsy rope and bamboo ladders leading across the face of precipices.
Thus its solitude is seldom broken by visitors. The remote and almost
inaccessible position of many of the Sikhim gompas renders mendicancy
impossible; but begging-with-bowl seems never to have been a feature of
Lamaism, even when the monastery adjoins a town or village.
The site occupied by the monastery is usually commanding and frequently
picturesque. It should have a free out look to the east to catch the first rays of the
. .
rising sun .The monastery buildings should be built in the long axis of the hill,
O ' '
and it is desirable to have a Lake in front, even though it be several miles
distant. These two conditions are expressed in the couplet:
"Back to the hill-rock,

And front to the tarn."l

The door of the assembly room and temple is coeteris paribus built to face
eastwards. The next best direction is south-east, and then south. If a stream
directly drains the site or is visible a short way below, then the site is
considered bad, as the virtue of the place escapes by the stream. In such a case
the chief entrance is made in another direction. A waterfall, however, is of very
good omen, and if one is visible in the neighbourhood, the entrance is made in
that direction, should it not be too far removed from the east.
The monastic buildings cluster round the temple, which is also used as the
Assembly Hall or du-khang, and corresponds to the vihara of the earlier
Buddhists..
The temple building and its contents form the subject of the next
chapter. Most of the outer detached buildings are dormitories for the monks, and
have nothing to distinguish them from the. ' ordinary houses
. of Sikhim, except,
perhaps, that their surroundings are sometimes a trifle cleaner and more
comfortable looking, and occasionally a few flowers are to be seen.

One elderly monk and two or three novices usually occupy one house, and
each house cooks its own meals independently, as there is no common
. refectory
in the small monastic establishments of Sikhim. The menial lay servants are
usually housed some distance off.
Lining the approaches to the monastery are rows of tall" prayer"flags, and
several large lichen-clad chhortens andlong mendong monuments.

1 -rgyab ri brag dang, mdun ri mtsho.

 LIST OF GOMPAS. 257
www.sikkim.gov.in

There is no regular asylum for animals rescued from the butchers

to save some person from pending death. Occasionally such
.
ransomed cattle are to be found in in the neighbourhood of
monasteries where their pension expenses have been covered
by a donation from the party cured .The animals have their ears
bored for a tuft of coloured rags as a distinctive mark.
:Not far from the monasteries are fertile fields of
murwa (Eleusine cococana) from which is made the country
beer ,a beverage which the Sikhim monks do not deny themselves
In the following table is given , a complete list of monasteries
in native Sikhim with the number of monks in each, information supplied
by Lama Ugyen Gyatsho
. .
LIST OF MONASTERIES IN SIKHIM

s.no Map name Vernacular name Meaning of the name date of Number
building of
monks
1 Sanga Chelling gsang sngags The place of secret 1697 25
chhos gling spells

2 Dubdi sgrub -sde The hermits cell 1701 30

3 Pemiongchi pad- ma yang tse The sublime perfect 1705 108
lotus
4 Gantok btsan mkhar The Tsens house 1716 3
 www.sikkim.gov.in
5 Tashiding bkra shis lding (The large Tashiding 1716 20
temple is the temple
of the religious king
or Dharma Raja )
6 Senan gzil gnon The suppressor of 1716 8
intense fear
7 Rinchinpong rin chhen spungs The precious knoll 1730 8
8 Ralong ra blang 1730 80
9 Mali mad lis 1740 15
10 Ram thek Ram tek A Lepcha village 1740 80
name
11 Fadung pho brang The chapel royal 1740 100
12 Cheung tong btsun thang The Meadow of 1788 8
Marriage (of two
rivers )or of Dorje
Phagmo
13 Ketsu perri mkhah spyod The noble heaven 11
dpal ri reaching mountain
14 Lachung thang mo-chhen The large plain 1788 5
15 Talung rdo lung The stony valley 1789 90
16 Entchi rab-brten gling The high strong place 1840 15
17 Phensung phan bzang The excellent banner 1840 100
or good bliss
18 Kartok bkah rtog The Kartok (founder 1840 20
of a schism)
19 Dalling rdo -gling The stony site or the 1840 8
place of the Dorjeling
terton
20 Yangong gyang sgang The cliffy ridge or the 1841 10
lucky ridge
21 Labrong bla-brang The lamas dwelling 1844 30

22 Lachung pon-po-sgang The Bons ridge 1850 8

23 Lintse Ihun rtse The lofty summit 1850 15

24 Sinik zi- mig 1850 30

25 Ringim ri-dgon Hermitage hill 1852 20

26 Lingthem ling-tham A Lepcha village 1855

name
27 Changhe rtsag-nges
 www.sikkim.gov.in
258 MONASTERIES.

28 Lachen La-chhen The big pass 1858 8

29 Giatong zi-hdur 1860 8

30 Lingqui ling-bkod The uplifted limb 1860 20

31 Fadie hpago-rgyal The sublime victor 1862 8

32 Nobling nub-gling The western place 1875 5

33 Namchi rnam -rtse The sky top 1836 6

34 Pabia spa -hbi- hog 1875 20

35 Singtam sing ltam A Lepcha village 1884 6

name

In addition to the monasteries in this list are several religious buildings called by the people Gompas
but by the Lamas only hla- Khang or temples , such as De thang , Ke dum etc
The oldest monastery in Sikhim is Dub-de ,founded by the pioneer lama Lhatsun Chhembo. Soon
afterwards shrines seem to have been erected at Tashiding Pemiongchi and Sang -nga-choo-ling
over spots consecrated to Guru Rimbochhe and these ultimately became the nuclei of monasteries
Sangngachholing and Pemiongchi being first built .As Sangngachholing is open to membes of all
classes of Sikkim Bhutiyas, Lepchas,Limbus, and also females and even deformed persons , it is
said Pemiongchi was . if not actually built by Hlatsun Chhembo as a high class monastery for
ta -song or pure monks of pure Tibetan race. celibate and undeformed.Pemiongchi still retains its
this reputation for the professedly celibate character and good family of its monks ; and its monks
alone in Sikhim enjoy the title of ta -sang , and to its lamas is reserved the honour of anointing with
holy water the reigning sovereign.
The great majority of the monasteries belong to the Nyingmapa sub
-sect of Lhatsun -pa ,only Namchi, Tashiding, Sinon, and Thangmochhe belonging to the Ngadakpa
sub-sect and Kartok and Do -ling to the Kartokpa sub- sect of Nyingmapa .All of these are
practically subordinate to Pemiongchi , although Namchi and Kartok gompas are nominally the
heads of the Ngadakpa and Kartokpa respectively.Pemiongchi also exercises supervision over the
Lepcha gompas of Ling- them Zimik and Phaggye Lepchas are admissible also to Rigon as well as
Sangngachholing Nuns
 www.sikkim.gov.in

PROPORTION OF LAMAS TO LAITY. 259

are admitted to a few monasteries, but their number is extremely

.
small, and individually they are illiterate, old, and decrepit.
.Only three monasteries belong to the Karmapa, viz., Ralang, Ramtek, and
Phodang, and of these Phodang is now in reality the chief, although Halang is the
parent monastery.
At present the most flourishing monasteries in Sikhim are the Nyingmapa,
Pemiongchi, and the Karmapa Phodang.
The names of the monasteries, as will be seen from the translations given in the
second column of the table, are mostly Tibetan and of an ideal or mystic nature,
.
. site, and a few areLepcha place-names also of a
are physically descriptive of the
descriptive character.
The lamas number nearly one thousand, and are very numerous in proportion to
the Buddhist population of the country.In 1840, Dr. Campbell estimated 1 the
Lepchas and Bhotiyas of Sikhim at 3,000 and 2,000 respectively; but Mr. White
in his census of Sikhim in March 1891 gives the population roughly as
Lepchas. 5,800
Bhotiyas 4,700
Nepalese, ... 9,500
__________
30,000
___________

As the Nepalese are all professing Hindus, the lamas are now dependent on
the Bhotiyas and Lepchas for support. and we thus get a proportion of one lamaic
priest to every 10 or 11 of the indigenous population. But this does not represent
the full priest-force of those two races, as it takes no count of the numerous devil-
dancers and Lepcha priests patronized by both Bhotiyas and Lepchas.

III.-THE TEMPLE AND ITS CONTENTS.

The temple had no place in primitive Buddhism. It is the out come of the worship
of relics and images, and dates from the later and impurer stage of Buddhism.
Its proper name is Lha-khang or "God's house;" but as it serves the purpose of an
assembly room and school, it is also called respectively Du-khang 2 (a meeting-
room) and Tsug-lak-khang (an academy), although the former name is strictly
applicable only to the hall in the lower flat in which the monks assemble for
worship.

1 The Oriental, page 13 2 hdu.khang. 3 gtsug-lag-khang.

260 THE TEMPLE. www.sikkim.gov.in

.It is the chief and most conspicuous building in the monastery and

isolated from the other buildings. It is usually surrounded by a .

paved path to allow of pious cirrcumambulation, and it is
sometimes shaded by a cypress tree. Built in the Sikhim style
of architecture, it is a heavy ungainly building withsquarish
base, tapering whitewashed stone walls, and a huge projecting
flattish roof of thatched bamboo. In the wealthier monasteries
the thatch has lately been replaced by corrugated iron, which
does not improve the appearance of the building. As the
wide projecting eaves render the roof liable to be blown off,
the latter is tied down to the ground at the four corners by
long pendant ropes. The roof is surmounted by one or a pair
of small bell-shaped domes of gilt copper:if a pair, they are
placed one on either end of the ridge, and called Jira;1
if a solitary one in the middle of the ridge, it is called
gyal-tshen.2 They are emblematic of the umbrella-banner
of victory and good fortune. The building is usually two
stories in height with an outside stair on one flank, generally
the right, leading to the upper flat. In front is an upper wooden
balcony, the beams of 'which are . rudely carved.and
its doors variously ornamented.3 The necessary orientation
of the building has already been noted.
In approaching the temple door the visitor must proceed with his right hand to
the wall, in conformity with the Hindu ceremonial custom of pradakshina already
noted. In niches along the base of the building, about three feet above the level of
the path, are sometimes inserted rows of prayer. barrels which are turned by the
visitor sweeping his hand over them as he proceeds.
The main door is entered by a short flight of steps. On 'ascending the steps, the
entrance is at times screened by a large curtain of yak hair hung from the upper
balcony, which serves to keep out rain and snow from the frescoes in the
vestibule.

Entering the vestibule, we find its gateway guarded by several fiendish

figures. These are
I.-The Demon of the Locality, usually a Tsen or male demon
of a red colour, but differing in name according to the locality.

1 kn.yjira. 2 rgyal.mtshan.
3 At Pemiongchi the balcony doors contain painted representations of the seven
precious things of a universal emperor (Chakravarta raja), such as Shakya. was to have
been had be not become a Buddha; viz.-(l) the precious wheel; (2)the precious white
elephant; (3) the precious flying horse; (4) the precious gem; (5) the precious general; (6)
the precious minister; and (7) the precious wife. These objects are frequently figured in the
base of images and pictures of Buddha. See also Chapter V, page 323.
 BUILDING AND VESTIBULE. 261 www.sikkim.gov.in

,m ,_,_m ______ "-

II.-Especially vicious demons of a more or less local character. Thus, at

Pemiongchi is the Gyalpo Shuk-den with a brown face and seated
on a white elephant. He was formerly the learned lama Panchhen
Sod-nams graks-pa, who being falsely charged with licentious
living and deposed, his spirit on his death took this actively
malignant form and wreaks his wrath on all who do not worship
him-inflicting disease and accident.
III.-A pair of hideous imps, one on either side, of a red and bluishblack
colour, respectively, named Ki-kang or Shemba Marnak,1 who
butcher their victims.
IV.-Here also are sometimes portrayed the twelve Tan -ma,-aerial nymphs
peculiar to Tibet, who sow disease and who were among the chief
fiends subjugated by " The Guru."
Confronting the visitor in the vestibule are the four colossal images (frescoes)
of the Kings of the Quarters, who guard the Universe and heavens against
the outer demons. They are clad in full armour and of defiant mien. Two are
placed on each side of the doorway. Their names are
1. Yul-khor srung 2 (Skt. Dhrita-rashtra), the white guardian of
the east and King of the Gandharvas (Dri-za).
2. Phag-kye-po3 (Skt. Virudhaka), the yellow guardian of the
south and King of the Kumbhandas (Grul-bun).
3. J e-mi-zang" (Skt. Virupaksha), the red guardian of the west
and King of the Nagas (kLu).
4. Nam-tho-sre 5 (Skt. Vaisravana), the green guardian of the
north and King of the Yakshas (gNod-sbyin).
Sometimes the guardian of the north is given a yellow, and the guardian of the,
south a green,. complexion, according to the later fashion of the gelukpa, thus
making the complexion of the guardians to coincide with the mythic colours of
the quarters.
In the smaller temples which possess no detached Mani lhakhang,
one or more huge Mani 6 prayer-barrels are set at either end of the
vestibule, and mechanically revolved by lay-devotees, each revolution being
announced by an affixed lever striking a bell. As the bells are of different tones
and are struck alternately, thev form at times a not unpleasant chime.
"

1ki-kang dmar nag. 2 yul hkhor bsrung. 3 hphags skyes.pa

4spyan mig brang. 5 rnam thos sras.
6 So called on account of their containing the" Om mani" formula, vide page 289.
 www.sikkim.gov.in
262 THE TEMPLE.

The door is of massive proportions, sometimes rudely carved and ornamented

with brazen bosses. It opens in halves, giving entry directly to the temple.The
temple is a large hall, with a double row of pillars separating it into a nave and
two aisles , and the nave is termin ated by the altar-vide diagram (PLATE IV).
The whole of the interior, in whichever direction the eye turns, is a mass of rich
colour, the walls to right and left being covered with frescoes of deities, saints,
and demons, mostly of life.size, but in no regular order; and the beams are mostly
painted red, picked out with lotus rosettes and other emblems. The brightest of
colours are used, but the general effect is softened in the deep gloom of the
temple, which is dimly lit only by the entrance door.
Above the altar are placed three colossal gilt images in a sitting attitude, "The
Three Rarest Ones"1 or trinity of the Lamas. These three images should be
Shakya Muni in the centre with Guru Rimboche to the left (of the spectator). .
and Che--resi to the right. Shakya Muni is of a yellow colourwith blue curly hair,
and is occasionally attended by standing figures of his two chief disciples,
Maugdalputra on his left and Shariputra on his right, each with an alarm-staff 2
and begging-bowl (Tib. Hlum-sed, Skt. Patra) in hand. Guru Rimbochhe or
Padma Jungne (the Lotus-born) (PLATE V) usually sits in front of a screen of
lotuses and wears his typical mitre-like hat shaped in the fashion of a lotus
flower. He holds a dorje (the thunderbolt of Indra, the. Hindu God) in his right
hand and a human skull-cup of blood in his left, and resting on his left shoulder
is a trident decorated with human heads. He is almost always attended by his two
ministering wives, viz., the Tibetan fairy Khando Ye-she Tsho-gyal, holding a
skull.cup of blood on his left, and the Indian Lha-cham Mandarawa, holding a
jar of wine for the Guru's use on his right. Che-resi, 3 the patron god of Lamaism
..and of Tibet, and incarnate in the Dalal Lama, is represented white in colour,
with four hands, the front pair of which are joined in devotion, while the upper
right hand holds a crystal rosary, and the upper left a lotus flower.

1 The title" Chief of Rarity" seems to have been the name of an indigenous Tibetan
god.
2 This is a staff (Tib. Kkar-sil, Skt. hi-ki.lo) surmounted by 9 to 12 jingling rings.
carried in the hand of the Indian Buddhist monk, to warn the villagers of his
approach when he went a.begging, bowl in hand.
3 spyan -fas -gzigs
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IMAGES. 263

This order of the images is, however, seldom observed. Most frequently in
Nyingmapa temples the chief place is given to the Guru, and this is justified by
his own statement that he was a second Buddha sent by Shakya Muni specially
to Tibet and Sikhim, as Buddha himself had no leisure to go there. Sometimes
Shakya's image is absent, the third image in such case being usually the fanciful
Buddha Opa-med. (Skt. Amitabha, The Boundless Light) or Tse-pa med (Skt.
Amitayus, Unlimited Life), each with hands joined in the support of a "begging-
bowl (hlun-ze) or holy-water vase respectively. Tse-pa-med the god of long life,
is always crowned. In Karmapa temples the chief place is given to the founder
of the Karmapa sub-sect, namely, Karma Bakshi.
Ranged on Ranged on either side of this triad are the other large images of
the temple. The following are especially common:
Dorje-phagmo (Skt. Vajravarahi)-" The Sow.faced Lady Dorje; " when with
three heads, the left is that of a sow.
Dol-mal (Skt. Tara)-" The Unloosener" or Deliveress-the Virginmother,
and. in other aspects the wife, of the Buddhas and the Bodhisatwas. Further
particulars regarding her and her worship are given in Chapter IV, page 313, et
. seq.
Chak-dor (Skt. Vajrapani)-" The Wielder of the Thunderbolt"
(i .e., Jupiter), with uplifted bolt.
Jam-yang (Skt. Manjutghosa)-" The god of Mystic Wisdom," with the
flaming sword of light in his right hand and the lotus-supported book of
wisdom in left.
Che -resi (Skt. Avalokita)-" The Seer with keen eyes," in his usual four-
handed form; or with eleven heads and a thousand arms, each with an eye in the
palm. This is the great" God of Mercy," one of whose titles is "The Great
Pitier" - his thousand eyes and arms graphically represent his being ever on the
outlook to discover distress and to succour the troubled. This Bodhisatwa,
together with the foregoing two, namely, Jam-yang and Chak-dor, are the
especial Defensores Fedei of Lamaism under the title of Rik-sum-gon-po or
"The Triad Protectors."
Seng-dong-ma-" The Lion-faced Goddess."
Kang-chhen-dso-nga-The chief" country-god of Sikhim," of red colour,
carrying a gyaltshen or banner of victory, and mounted on a white lion. (PLATE
VI).
His dwelling place is the mountain from which he takes his name-Anglice "
Kanchinjingna." This graceful mountain, second in height only to Everest, was
formerly in itself an object of worship, as

1 ,sgrol.ma.

.
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264 THE TEMPLE.

it towers high above every other object--in the country, and is the first to receive
the rays of the rising sun and the last to part with the setting sun.
Kangchhendsonga literally means" the five repositories or ledges of the great
snows," and is physically descriptive of its five peaks-the name having been
given by the adjoining Tsangpa Tibetans, who also worshipped the mountain.
But Lhatsun Chhembo gave the name a mythological meaning, and the
mountain was made to become merely the habitation of the god of that name,
and the five "repositories" were real store-houses of the god's treasure. The
peak, which is most conspicuously gilded by the rising sun, is the treasury of
gold, the peak which remains in cold grey shade is the silver treasury, and the
other peaks are the stores of gems and grain of sorts and holy books. This idea
of treasure naturally led to the god being physically represented somewhat after
the style of "the god of wealth." He is on the whole a good-natured god, but
rather impassive, and is therefore less worshipped than the more actively
malignant deities, For further particulars of his worship, see Chapter VI on
"Demonolatry," page 355,
Lha -tsun Chhembo, the pioneer lama of Sikhim; or other lama-saint of
Sikhim, or of the special sect to which the temple belongs.
The alleged existence, by. Sir Monier Williams 1 and others 2 of images of
Gorakhnath in Tashiding, Tumlong, and other Sikhim temples is' quite a
mistake. No such image is known. The name evidently intended was Guru
Rimbochhe.
The large images are generally of gilded clay, and the most artistic 'Of
these come from Pa-to or "Paro" in . Bhutan. A few are of gilded copper and
mostly made by Newaris in Nepal All are consecrated by the introduction of
pellets of paper inscribed with sacred texts.
Amongst the frescoes on the walls are displayed, the Neden chu-tuk
or the sixteen disciples of Buddha; and also numerous lamas -saints
. .
of Tibet There are also a few oil-paintings of divinities framed in silk
of grotesque dragon pattern with a border, from within ' _,outwards, of "the
primary" colours in their prismatic order of red, yellow, and blue. These
pictures have mostly been brought from Tibet and Bhutan, and are sometimes
creditable specimens of art.
The general plan of a temple interior is shown in the foregoing diagram
Along each side of the nave is a long cushion about three inches high ,the seat
for the

1 Buddhism, page 490. '

2 CHAMBELL, J. A. S. B., 1849; HOOKER, SIR R. TEMPLE, Jour., page 212 ; Him,
Journal I 323; II, page 195.
 IMAGES. 265 www.sikkim.gov.in

monks and novices. At the further end of the right-hand cushion on a throne
about 2 1/2 feet high sits the Dorje Lo-pon, the spiritual head of the monastery.
Immediately below him, on a cushion about one foot high
is. his assistant who plays. the si-nyen cymbals. Facing the Dorje Lo-pon, and
seated on a similar throne at the further end of the left-hand cushion, is the
Um-dse or chief chorister and celebrant and the temporal head of the
monastery
~ .
and below him,on a cushion . high ; is the Uchhung-pa
about one foot .
or Deputy Um-dse, who plays the large tsho-rol or assembly cymbals at the
command of the Um-dse, and officiates in the absence of the latter. At the door-
end of the cushion on the right-hand side is a seat about one foot high for the
Chho tim pa, a sort of provost marshal who enforces discipline, and on the pillar
behind his seat hangs his bamboo rod for corporal chastisement. During the
entry and exit of the congregation he stands by the right side of the door. Facing
him at the end of the left. hand cushion, but merely seated on a mat, is the
Chhab .dupa or water-giver, who offers water to the monks and novices, for
washing their hands and lips after each round of soup. To the left of the door is
a table on which is set the tea and soup served out by the unpassed boy-
probationers during the intervals of worship.
At the spot marked" 13 " on plan is placed the lay figure of the corpse
whose spirit is to be withdrawn by the Dorje La-pon. At the point marked" 12"
is set the throne of the king or of the Labrang incarnate lama-the Kyab-gon or
protector of religion-when either of them chances to visit the temple.
On each pillar is hung a small silk banner with five flaps, usually .in
vertical series of threes called phen, and on each side of the altar is a large
flesh is offered are usually located in a detached building,
Upstairs are the images of secondary importance, and here among
' ' .
the frescoes covering the walls are usually found . the Gon-pos, or demoniacal
protectors of Lamaism.
These latter are of ferocious aspect, enveloped in flames and wielding
various
' weapons. They are clothed
. in human "and tiger skins, and adorned with
snakes and human skulls and bones. Chief among
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266 THE TEMPLE.

these are (1) the blue-faced Lhamo, the Kali form of the Hindu Devi;(2) her
consort Mahakala, a destructive form of Shiva; (3) the horse-headed Tamdin, the
Hayagriva of the Hindus and spouse of Dorje-phagmo.
Prominent among the frescoes is the Si-pa-i kkor-lo 1 or "Cycle of
existence," showing the regions of re- birth and the tortures of the damned. This
picture is so very interesting and important that it demands more than passing
notice.
THE PICTORIAL WHEEL OF LIFE.
The Si-pa-i.khor-lo or "Cycle of Existence "-(vide PLATE VII) for a copy of the
Tashiding t;emple-picture 2-is a graphic exposition of metempsychosis, one of the
most fundamental laws of Buddhism the secret of Buddha having consisted in the
means he devised for escaping from this ceaseless round of re-births with its
attendant sufferings.
This picture is one of the purest Buddhist emblems that the lamas have
preserved to us. And by its means I have _been able to restore the fragment of a
cycle in the verandah of Ajanta Cave No. XVII hitherto uninterpreted, and merely
known as "the Zodiac." This picture potrays in symbolic and concrete form the
three original sins an the recognized causes of re-birth (Nidanas), so as to
ensure their being vividly perceived and avoided; while the evils of existence in
its various forms and the tortures of the damned are intended to intimidate evil-
doers. As the Sikhim copies of the picture misplace the order of the Nidanas,
and are deficient in many details, I here describe the orthodox form of the
picture as found in Tibet.
The picture consists of a large disc, the circular form of which symbolizes
the ceaseless round of worldly existence. It is held in the clutches of a monster,
whose head is seen overtopping the whole. This angry demon, who grips the
disc with his claws and teeth, typifies the passionate clinging of the people to
existence. In the centre of the disc are symbolized the three original sins, and
around the margin the twelve linked chain of causes of re-birth ; while the
remainder of the disc is divided by radii into six compartments, which represent
the six regions of re- birth.
These pictorial symbols of the abstract conceptions of the early Buddhists
are extremely valuable as showing what is the traditional interpretation of the
ambiguous Sanskrit and Pali metaphysical terms for the Nidana found in the
Indian Buddhist books, and the real

1 Srid- pa-hi hkhor.lo 2 Kindly supplied by Mr. White.

 www.sikkim.gov.in
THE WHEEL OF LIPE. 267
.
interpretation of which has formed a subject of much controversy amongst
Western scholars.
The three original sins are depicted as (a) a pig, which has hold of the tail of
(b) a cock, which has seized the tail of ( c) a snake, which in its turn has hold of the
pig's tail, thus forming a circle which revolves continuously around the world. The
pig symbolizes the ignorance of stupidity; the cock, animal desire or lust; and the
snake, anger.1
If these three sins be avoided, then virtue results and merit is accumulated.
The causes of re-birth-the Nidanas-are categorically given as twelve in the
form of a linked chain, the result of the first cause being the cause of the second,
and so on; the ultimate result being suffering.2 The illustrations with their lamaic
paraphrases are :
I.-A blind old woman groping her way 3 = marzg-pa (Skt.
Avidya) or "want of knowledge," which is the cardinal

1 These sins are thus depicted by Sir E. ARNOLDj in 'The Light of .Asia, pg. 64:
" Patigha-Hate
With serpents coiled about her waist, which suck
Poisonous milk from both her hanging- dugs,
And with her curses mix their angry hiss.
Then fol1owed Ruparaga-Lust of Days
That sensual sin which out of greed for life
Forgets to live; and Lust of Fame * * * (and) Fiend of Pride
* :* * * * and-Ignorance-the Dam
Of Fear and Wrong, Avidya, hideous hag
Whose footsteps left the midnight darker."
2 Sir E. ARNOLD (loc. cit., p. 165) thus expresses the Nidinas :
" Whirling on the Wheel,
**** ***
Avidya-Delusion-Sets those snares,
Delusion breeds Sankhara, Tendency
Perverse; Tendency Energy- Vidnnan
Whereby comes Namarupa, local form
And name and bodiment, bringing the'man ,
With senses naked to the sensible,
A helpless mirror of all shows which pass
Across his heart, and so Vedana grows
. Sense-life.'-false in its gladness, fell in sadness;
But sad or glad, the Mother of Desire,
Trishna, that thirst which makes the living drink
Deeper and deeper of the false salt waves
Whereon they float, pleasures, ambitions, wealth,
Praise, fame, or domination, conquest, love
Rich meats and robes and fair abodes add pride
Of ancient lines, and lust of days and strife
To live, and sins that flow from strife, some sweet,
Some bitter. Thus Life's thirst quenches itself
With draughts which double thirst~"
3 In the older pictu_res a man, who represents Buddha, is guiding the blind woman.
But as the Ajanta painting giv.s for this a man leading a (blind) camel, it is
evident that the Lamas constructed their picture from a written description,
and interpreted the word nga-mo (rnga-mo) a c.amel-an animal practically
unknown in Central Tibet-as ga-mo (rgad-mo) " an old woman."
 www.sikkim.gov.in

268 THE TEMPLE.

cause of existence leading people to mistake for happiness the

miseries of existence.
II.-A potter with his wheel making pots = du-che (Skt. Sanskara) or
impressing-literally" preparation or fashioning + action," showing
the fruits of worldly labour are perishable objects-action being
misdirected as a result of ignorance.
III.-A monkey eating fruit = nam-she (Skt. Vijnana) or " entire knowledge" or
good and evil fruits-tasting every fruit in the sense of a roving
libertine without system; thus engendering consciousness.
IV.-A dying man with a physician feeling pulse 1 = ming -zug (Skt. Nama-
rupa) or "name and body," i.e., individual being. Its fleeting
character is shown by the man being about to lose his
individuality and name in death.
V.-An empty house - kye-chhe (Skt. Shudayatana) or "the five mortal
sense organs and mind," illustrates the organs and the will which
are the result of individual being the hollowness of these is
typified. The Ajanta painting depicts this by a mask, which is a
much more, appropriate symbol.
VI.-A pair of lovers kissing = reg-pa (Skt. Sparsha) or contact which results
from the exercise of the sense organs and will.
VII.- An arrow entering a man's eye = tshor-wa (Skt. Vedana or "perception,"
the result of a contact. It includes joy and sorrow as well as pain.
VIII.-A man drinking wine 2 = sre.pa (Skt. Trishrna) or "desire for more,"
including thirst and affection, which results from the exercise of the
perceptive faculty.
lX.-A man gathering a large basketful of flowers = len-pa (Skt. Upadana) "or
taking": grasping indulgence in worldly matters-the result of desire.
X.-A pregnant woman = srid-pa (Skt. Bhava) or "continuity of existence," a
desire for inheritance-the result of the clinging to worldly life and
wealth.
XI.-A mother in childbirth = kye-wa (Skt. Jati) or birth as a result of No. X.
XII.-A human corpse being carried off = ga-she (Skt. Jaramara
na) or "decay and death" with all their sufferings,
which are the result of birth.

1 The newer style has a boat with human plljssengers being ferried across the
ocean of life.
Another form is a pair of caressing lovers,
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THE 'WHEEL OF LIFE. 269

The six forms of re-birth-gro-bai rigs (Skt. Gati)-are shown in

the inner circle. In the order of their superiority they aro
1. The gods or lha (= Skt. Sura or Deva )-the highest form of
existence.
2. The Titans, literal1y "ungodly spirits" or lha-ma-yin ( = Skt.
Asura).
3. Mankind or mi (Skt. Nara).
4. The Beasts or du-do (Skt. Tirjyak).
5. The Tantalized ghosts-yi-dag (SId. Preta).
6. The inhabitants of hell, nyal-wa (Skt. Naraka), the lowest of
all.
The first three forms of existence are classed as good and the last three are
bad; and al1 are under the immediate care of a Buddha, who stands in the centre of
each compartment, and is a form of the Bodhisatwa Che-re-si (Avalokita), who is
incarnate in the Dalai Grand Lama at Lhasa.
The place of one's re-birth is determined solely by one's own deeds-although
the lamas now make faith and charms and ritual take the place of the good works
of the earlier Buddhists. If the virtues are in excess of the sins, then the soul is re-
born in one or other of the first three forms: as a god if the virtue be of the first
degree, as an ungodly spirit if the virtue be of the second degree, and as a human
being if the- virtue is of the lowest order. While those whose sins preponderate are
re- born in one or other" of the last three forms, the most wicked going to hell, and
the least wicked to the beasts.
The judgment is in every case meted out by the impartial "Shinje chho gyal or'
"Religious King of the Dead," a form of Yama, the Hindu god of the dead, who
holds a mirror in which the naked soul is reflected, while his servant Shinje weigh
out in scales the good as opposed to the bad deeds; the former being represented
by white pebbles, and the latter by black.-This incident usually occupies the upper
portion of the hell-compartment of the Si-pa-i khor-lo picture.
The details of these several regions are briefly as follow:
1. The Gods.-These are the gods of lndra's heaven of Hindu mythology
rendered finite. Their life is the longest of all beings; but they, too, are within the
operation of the law of continuous metamorphosis, and may be re-born in hell or in
any other of the six regions. Their abode is the :Mt. Meru (Tib. Ri-rab) of the
Hindus, a mythical and invisible mountain-heaven 1 in the centre of the universe
according to Hindu cosmogony.
The picture of the region of the gods shows a three-storied palace in the
heavens of Indra, Desire occupying the lower, Brahma the middle, and the
indigenous, Da-lha, the Tibetan war god, the

1 .. heaved up."
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270 THE TEMPLE.

upper compartment. This curious perversion of the usual order of the heavens is
notable, as the Lamas have placed the embodiment of passion-their war-god-
above Brahma. These gods are surrounded by other gods, all with shining bodies
and the special attributes of a god of this heaven, namely, (1) goddess-com
panions; (2) a lake of perfumed nectar (amrita), which is their elixir vitae and
source of their bodily lustre; (3) the pag sam shing or wish-granting tree, which
bestows at once any fruit or food wished for; (4) the wish-granting cow, which
yields instantly any drink wished for; (5) the horse of knowledge, which Pegasus-
like carries his rider to the worlds of the present, past, and future; (6) his splendid
dress and ornaments; (7) a fine palace; (8) a.charming garden with flowers, which
form his wreath, and pretty ammals and singing birds. Along the border
separating this world from that of the lhamayin ( Asuras) are some of the gods
armed with spears and other weapons under the direction of the war-god Da-lha
resisting the encroachments of the lhamayin of the lower world.
The human being who has been sufficiently charitable, virtuous, and pious
during his earthly life may be re-born as.a god and enjoy bliss for an almost
incalculable time-one god's day being one hundred human years. And he is born
into heaven in a full-grown state. But when his merit is exhausted, then his lake
of nectar dries up, his wish-granting tree and cow and horse die, his splendid
dress and ornaments disappear, his garden and flowers wither, his body, no longer
bathed by nectar, loses its lustre, and his person becomes loathsome to his
goddess companions and the other gods, who shun him, and he dies miserably. If
he has led a virtuous life during his existence as a god, then he may be re-born in
heaven, otherwise he goes to a lower region and may be even sent to. hell.
II. The Titans (Lhamayin) or ungodly spirits.- These are the Titans or Asuras
of Hindu mythology, and occupy the base of Mt. Meru, and are therefore
intermediate between heaven and the earth. They have numerous joys and
comforts; but are discontented, and envy the greater bliss of the gods, with whom
they are continually fighting for some of the fruits of the heavenly wish-granting
tree, which has its roots and trunk within their region.
This region is represented with a light yellow atmosphere, and contains a
fortified house, with a lake and flowers and numerous animals. The people are all
clad in full armour , and are engaged mostly in fighting with the gods across their
frontier. Many of them are dead, or dying, or horribly mangled by the weapons of
the gods, the most deadly of which is a wheel with teeth like a circular saw, which
is thrown like the Sikh quoit. They always qie in battle from their wounds, as they
have no access to the nectar by which the gods obtain instant recovery when
wounded.
 THE WHEEL OF LIFE. 271 www.sikkim.gov.in

As existence here is rather miserable, although it is above mankind, only the

proud and envious are re- born here, but re- birth from this region mostly occurs in
hell owing to the wicked life led during existence here.
III. Mankind.-The atmosphere of this region is blue or colourless. It shows the
miseries of human existence which have to be endured by all alike, from prince to
pauper: family troubles, striving after wealth, position, or necessaries of life, &c.,
&c.
The following phases of life are depicted amongst others:
1. Birth.
2. Old age.-Decrepit old man and woman hobbling along.
3. Disease.-Sick man, with doctor feeling his pulse, or sick
attempting to drink.
4. Death.-A dying man surrounded by weeping relatives, with a lama doing
worship near his head, and another monk ascertaining
whether the breathing has ceased. Another scene depicts
the dead body being carried off, preceded by a lama, who
carries the end of a scarf affixed to the corpse, and in the
lama's hand are a darmaru (hand-drum) and a thigh-bone
trumpet, while in the distance is the funereal pyre to
cremate the body.
Other scenes illustrate worldly pleasure and business. A man sitting under a
tree in front of his house, drinking tea or wine, and children at play, and hills in the
distance. Traders bargaining, also a drunken man, a borrower, and a criminal being
punished for Crimes.
IV. The Beasts.-The atmosphere of this region is darker, but it has hills and
trees and also some men, as it is merely a different aspect of the human world.
Ruskin says" the fish is freer than the man ;" but the lamas think otherwise. They
class all aquatic animals as "the Bonded Animals," and only terrestrial and flying
animals are " The free." Hence the animal region is divided into an aquatic and a
land-section, each peopled by characteristic animals. This is a state of greater
misery than the human, as the animals prey on one another, and man also kills
many of the animals and uses others as' beasts of burden or for other utilitarian
purposes.
The picture shows land animals of various kinds, some devouring others, and
some human hunters killing game animals. In the water are fish and a variety of
animals, also preying on one another.
V. The Yidags or Tantalized Ghosts.-The atmosphere of this region is also
darkish. This is the special place of those who on earth were miserly, envious, and
uncharitable. They have jewels and food and drink in plenty, but cannot enjoy
them, and are always gnawed by hunger and thirst, as they are given huge bodies
with microscopical
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272 THE TEMPLE.

mouths and gullets. And when any food is taken it is transformed to sharp knives
and saws, which lacerate the bowels and com.e out externally, making large
painful wounds. Others have fires constantly burning in their mouths.
VI. The hells.-The atmosphere of the hells is black. Only eight hells are
mentioned in the older Buddhist works, but the. lamas describe and figure eight
cold and eight hot hells, and give two extra hells named nyi-tshewa, which
includes the state of being flies and insects in the human world, and nyi-khorwa, a
milder hell filled with fiery ashes and rubbish and bodies in which those escaping
from hell must dwell for a further period.
In the upper portion of this region is figured the King and Judge of the dead in
the act of trying the spirits of the dead, with the good recording angel on his right
hand, counting out the good deeds by white pebbles from his purse, and the
incarnation of evil on his left hand displaying before the Judge the bad deeds as a
pile of black pebbles. In front is the scale-holder, who weighs the good as against
the bad deeds.
Those who have sinned in anger are sent to the hot hell, while those who have
sinned through stupidity go to the cold hell, and each receives some appropriate
punishment for misdeeds during life. To show the superiori ty of the lamas to such
tribunals, several are introduced walking serenely through the hells twirling their
prayer wheels.
The hot hells are to the left (of spectator) and the cold to the right.
I. THE HOT. HELLS
1. Yang-So (Skt. Samjiva) = "again revived." Here the bodies
are torn to pieces and then revived only to have the
process repeated ad libitum.
2. Thi-nag (Skt. Kalasutra) = "black lines." Here the bodies are nailed down
and 8 or 16 black lines marked along body, which is then sawn
in sections along these lines .by a burning hot saw. Another
punishment here is the especial one of the slanderer or gossiper
who has his or her tongue enlarged and pegged out and
constantly harrowed by spikes ploughing through it.
3. Du -fom (Skt, Samghata) =" concentrated oppression." Here bodies are
squeezed between animal-beaded mountains or monster iron
books (this is an especial punishment for monks, laymen, and
infidels who have disregarded or profaned the scriptures).
Others here are pounded in iron mortars.
4, Ngu-bod (Skt. Raurava)= "weeping and screaming." The torture here is to
be kept glowing white iron houses and have melted iron poured
doing the throat.
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------

5. Ngu-bod Chhenpo (Skt. Mahaurauava) = "greater weeping and

screaming."Here they are cooked in pots containing
molten iron.
6. Tshewa (Skt. Tapana) = "heat." The body is cast upon
and transfixed by red-hot iron spikes.
7. Rabtu-tshawa (Skt. Pratapana) = "highest heat." A three
spiked burning spear is thrust into body, and later
rolled up within red-hot iron plates. .
8. Nar.med (Skt. Avichi) = "endless torture." - This is the
most severe and longest punishment. The body is
perpetually kept in flames, though never consumed.
II. THE COLD HELLS which have no place in the mythology of
the Indian and Southern Buddhists are:
1. Chhu. bur chen = " blistered and wrinkled." The torture here is
constant immersion of the naked body in icy cold water, under
which the body becomes covered with chilblains.
2. Chhu-bur dolwa.- The chilblains are forcibly cut and torn open,
producing raw sores and deep chaps.
3. A-cchu = "achu " an exclamation of anguish which vents itself in this
expression and which resounds throughout this hell.
4. Kyi-hud.-A worse degree of cold in which the tongue is paralysed and the
exclamation" kyi-hu!" alone possible.
5. So-tham-pa.-The teeth and jaws are rigidly clenched through
cold.
6. Ut-pal tar..ge-pa.-Livid sores which become everted like blue
utpal flowers. .
7. Pe-ma tar ge-pa.-The raw sores become red like lotus (padma) flowers.
8. Pe-ma chh-en-po tar-ge-pa.-The flesh fal1s away from the bones like the
petals of the great red lotus (padma), leaving raw
sores which are continually gnawed and pecked by
birds with iron beaks.
The 'duration of the stay in hell lasts until the great sins committed during the
previous existence are expiated. This period may vary from a few years to
thousands of years. From hell the usual course is back to earth, by the merit of good
works done in a former existence. The lamas explain this by saying that it is like the
discharge of a criminal who has expiated his offence in jail: on release he gets back
his clothes and any other personal properties he can justly lay claim to, and the
benefit of any virtuous deeds he had formerly done.
274 THE TEMPLE. www.sikkim.gov.in

The history of the Si-pa- khor-lo as given by the lamas is that Buddha on one
occasion plucked a stalk of rice, and with its grains illustrated to his disciples his
arguments on the 12 causes of existence and the continuous metamorphoses of
animated beings in the six regions; and that later he personally directed the
preparation of the picture in what is now known as the' new' style which was
specially intended for the conversion of the king of U-tra-ya-na (? Udhayana) and
latterly introduced into Tibet in the 11th century A.D. by the Indian monk Atisha,
who had received it from the followers of Phagpa Thogs-med or Arya Asanga.
The" older" style, that is, as regards Tibet, is reported to have been the copy
sanctioned by Lopon Lu-tub or Guru Nagarjuna, the founder of the Mahayana
system, and a copy of it was brought to Tibet by Bande Ye-shi in the 8th century
A.D. in the reign of the Thi-srong-de-tsan, and reproduced in the monastery of
Samye. The present picture in the Samye monastery is said to measure about 15 to
20 feet in diameter, and differs from the" newer" style chiefly in the absence of a
figure of Buddha;in the upper righthand corner and of the Munis in each of the six
regions.

THE ALTAR AND ITS OBJECTS

The altar or chho-sham 1 occupies the remote end of the nave of the temple.
Above its middle is placed the chief image. A canopy, called nam-yul or " sky-
country," on which are depicted the dragons of the sky,'stretched above the altar;
and a large silken parasol, called duk or -umbrel1a-the oriental symbol of royalty-
is suspended over the head of the central image. This umbrella. slightly revolves
in one or other direction by the ascending currents of warm air from the lamps.
The altar should have at least two tiers. On the lower and narrow outer ledge are
placed the offerings of water, rice ,cake., flower and lamps .
. .
On the higher platform extending up to the images are placed the musical instru-
ments and certain other utensils for worship. In front of the altar stands the
spouted water-jug chhab-pum 2 for filling the smaller water vessels , a vessels, a
dish to hold grain for offerings ne-ze, an incense- holder podsin,4 and a . pair of
flower vases. And on the right (of the spectator) on a small stool or table is the
rice mandala cone, with its three tiers, daily made up by the temple attendant, and
symbolic of an offering of a11 the continents and associated islands of the world
according to Hindu and Buddhist cosmography, with Mount Meru (Tibetan
" point: for detailed description,
Ri.rab), the abode of the gods, as the culminating
see Chapter V, page 320.

1 mchhod shaw. 2 chhab-bum. 3 nas bzed. 4 . .spos.hdsin.

 THE ALTAR AND ITS OBJECTS. 275
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The ordinary water and rice offerings are set in shallow brazen
.
bowls, called chho-ting,l composed of a brittle alloy of brass .
silver,gold ,and pounded precious stones .Their number is five or
seven, usually the former. Two out of the five bowls should be
filled with rice heaped up into a small cone; but as this must be
daily renewed by fresh rice, which in Sikhim is somewhat expensive,
fresh water is usually employed instead.
Another food-offering is a high, conical cake of dough, butter, and
sugar, variously coloured, named torma or zhal-ze, that is, "holy food."
It is placed on a metal tray supported by a tripod. To save expense
a painted dummy cake is usually employed.
The temple-lamp or chho-kong 2 is a short pedestalled bowl, into
a socket in the centre of which is thrust a cotton wick, and it is fed
by melted butter. As the great mass of butter solidifies and remains mostly
in this state, the lamp is practical1y a candle. The size varies according
to the mea.ns and the number of the temple votaries, as it is an act of piety
to add butter to the lamp. One is necessary, but two or more are desirable,
and on special occasions 108 or 1,000 small lamps are offered.
The "essential offerings," or Nyer-cho chho--pa,3 which are needed
in every form of worship are seven in number, and must be placed in line
and in a definite order, as shown in the following diagram:

The cymbals are placed on the inner platform. On the top of the rice heaps of Nos.
3 and 4 should be placed respectively a flower, preferably the large-winged seed of
the legume of the so-called pag-sam shing or " wish-granting tree," and a stick of
incense. And in the bowl marked" No.6" should be placed perfumed water; but
these details are only observed on special occasions. Ordinarily the bowls are filled
with plain water.
These offerings have each received a special Sanskritic name
descriptive of their nature, viz.
1. Ar-gham (or Ar-ganga), in Tibetan chho-yon 4or excellent
drinking river water.

. 1mchhod ting ang. 2 mchhod skong. 3 nyer..spyod. mchhod.-pa. 4 mchhod yon.

 www.sikkim.gov.in
276 THE TEMPLE.

2. Pa dyam, in Tibetan zhab-sel,1 or the cool water for washing

feet.
3. Pukh-pe (orPushpe), in Tibetan me-tok,2 flower.
4. Dhu-pe, in Tibetan du-po,3 incense fumes. ,
5. A-loke, in 1'ibetan mar-me,4 lamp or light.
6. Gan-dhe, in Tibetan ti-chhah, 5 perfumed water for anointing
body.
7. Nai-wi-dya, in Tibetan zhal-ze, 6 sacred food.
8. Shabta, in Tibetan rol -rno,7 cymbals.
This order is reversed in Kargyupa and Gelukpa temples when doing a certain
kind of yidam or tutelary deity's worship. These eight offerings appear to be
symbolic of the eight Matris or Divine mothers, vide Chapter V, page 323. And
with them may also be compared the 16 stages of the Hindu worship of a deity
which I append in a footnote 8 for reference.
On placing the above offerings in position in the order noted,
the benefit of a full service of worship is obtained by merely chanting the
following hymn :
"A.wa-ta-ya, A.wa-ta-ya. Om bajra Argharn, Pa-dyam, Pukh-pe, " Dhu-pe, A-
loke, Gan-dhe, Nai-wi-di ya, Shab-ta, Prati-dsa-yi Swaha" 'Which being
interpreted is :-" Come! Come! Om! Bajra (the "thunderbolt) Partake of these
offerings! excellent drinking river "water, cool water for 'washing your feet,
flowers for decking your "hair, pleasing incense fumes, lamp for lightening the
darkness, "perfumed water for anointing your body, sacred food, the music of "
cymbals ! (here the cymbals are sounded.) Eat fully! Swaha!"
A more elaborate arrangement of food offerings is seen in the banquet to the whole
assembly of the gods and the demons, entitled Kon-chhok chi du,9 or "
sacrifice to the whole assembly of the Rare Ones," which is

1 zhab~ sel. 3 pdug.spos. 5 dri-chhab. . 7 rol-mo.

2 me-tog. . , 4 mar-me. 6 zhal. zas
8 In the Hindu worship of a deity there are 16 stages'of ceremonial adoration following
the Invocation to come (avahan), and the Invitation to be seated (asan), and in each stage mantras
are chanted. I have italicised those stages which are found in the above liimaic ritual:
1. Pad.ya, washing the idol's feet.
2. Azgha, washing the idol's hands. 9. Dhupa, offering incense.
3. Achmana, offering water to rinse mouth. 10. Dipa, offering lamp.
4. Snana, bathing the idol. 11. Naivedya, offering food.
. 5. Vastra, dressing the idol. 12. Achmana, second offering of water to
rinse mouth.
6. Chandan. offering sandal wood, saffron, 13. Tambula, offering betel.
or holi powder. 7. Akshat, offering rice. 14. Supari or puga, offering Arcca. nuts.
8 Pusltpa: offering flowers. 15. Dakshana, offering money.
9 dkon mchheg ,s pyi hdus. 16. Nizajan, waving lights or camphor.
* The lamas dress and bathe their idols only once or twice yearly.
 WORSHIP-OFFERINGS. 277 www.sikkim.gov.in

frequently held in the temples. This feast is observed by all sects of lamas,
Nyimgmapa, Gelukpa, &c., and is an interesting sample of devil-worship. The
Nyingmapa fashion is here detailed, but it differs from the Gelukpa only in
providing for a slightly larger party of demoniacal guests, the Gelukpa inviting
only the following, viz., their chief Lama, i.e., Tsongkhapa, their tutelary deity
Dorje-jik-che, Buddha, Chang-sem, the deified heroes, the fairies, the guardian
demons of the Gelukpa creed, the god of wealth, the guardian demons of the
caves where the terma (hidden revelations) are deposited, the five sister demons
of Mount Everest, the twelve To-ma or aerial nymphs who sow disease, and the
special" country" and" locality" gods.
This sacrifice should be done in the temples for the benefit' or the lamas on the
10th and 15th of every month. On behalf of laymen it must be done once annually
at the expense of every individual layman who can afford it; and on extra
occasions, as a thanksgiving for a successful undertaking, and as a propitiation in.
sickness, death, and disaster.
The arrangement of the banquet is shown in the following diagram :

ARRANGEMENT OF
THE BANQUET TO THE WHOLE ASSEMBLY OF THE GODS AND DEMONS.

..

In the inmost row are the large coloured and ornamented Baling cakes for (1)
the chief Lama-Saint Guru Rimbochhe, (2) the tutelary
 www.sikkim.gov.in
278 THE TEMPLE.

deity, in this case Guru tak-po, a fierce demoniacal form of the Guru, and (3) the
fairy with the lion face. For the Guru there is also placed on either side of his cake
a skull-cup, the one to his right containing country wine, here called Arnrita or
"nectar" (in Tibetan-literally " devils' juice"), and the contents of the other are
called Rakta or blood-infused tea is usually offered instead of blood. In the second
row are the cakes for the guardians and protector of Lamaism, usually with
Buddha's cake (No.4) in centre. The order of the cakes for these guardian demons
is as follows-the attached figures relate to the foregoing diagram :

N o. 5. The Lion-faced demoness. No. 14. The .five everlasting Sisters of Mount
" 6. The four-armed" Lord," a Everest.
form of Mahakala.. " 15. The spirits of the Tank.
"7. The god of wealth. drowned ones.,.
" 8. The" Ruler" of Tibet's guar 16. The homestead demon.owner.
dian (and in Sikhim the special ,. 17. The country god Kangchhend. songa
guardian of the Nga. dak:pa (mountain).
monasteries). 18. The black devil, red devil and
" 9. The demon Blacksmith (red and black Naga of Darjeeling or spe.
colour, rides a goat and carries an cial locality of temple.
anyl and a bellows, was made a pro- " 19. The demons who cause disease.
tector of lamaism by Lo-pon). " 20. The twelve aerial nymphs who
,,10. The Lord of the .Rakshas. cause disease.
,,11. The Locality protector. 21. The demon owners of the
,,12. The Naga demi-gods, white Ter" caves where -the hid.
and black. den revelations are deposited.
,,13. The female fiend.nun of Di. " 22. The black and red devils and
kung monastery. Naga of parent monastery
of the priests of this temple.

In the third row are placed the" essential offerings" Nyer-cho chho-pa)
already detailed on page 275, which are especially intended for the superior gods.
In the fourth and outmost row are an indefinite number of tshok cakes
which are especial dainties as an extra course for all.These cakes contain ordinary
torma cake of cooked rice or barley, with the addition of some wine, and a
mixture of cooked flesh and all sorts of eatables available.
The stages of the worship in this feast are as follows :
1st.-Invitation to the deities and demons to come to the feast (Skt. avahan).
This is accompanied by great clamour of drums, cymbals, horns
and fifes, so as to attract the attention of the gods and demons.
2nd.-Requesting the guests to be seated (Skt. asan).
3rd.-Begging them to partake of the food offered.
4th.-Praises the goodness and admirable qualities of the guests. This is done
while the guests are partaking of the essence of the food.
5th.-Prayers for favours immediate ond to come.
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WORSHIP-OFFERINGS. 279

6th.- The especial delicacy tshog is then offered to all, on four plates, a
plate for each row of guests, one plateful being reserved for the
lamas.
Then is done the ceremony of Kang-so,1 or "expiation for religious duties
left undone," which wipes off all arrears of religious duty. Here the kze-nyer or
novice appointed for the occasion throws skywards, amid great noise of
instruments, several of the tshok cakes to all the demi-gods and demons not
specially included in the feast. One tshok cake is then given to each lama in order
of rank, from the highest to the lowest, as the food has been consecrated by the
gods having eaten of it. They must, however, leave a portion, which is collected
carefully, in.a plate, in order, from. the lowest to the head lama. Above these
collected fragments is placed a whole torma cake, and a worship entitled Hlak-
dor is done, when the whole of these crumbs-the leavings of the lamas-are
contemptuously thrown down to the earth outside the temple door to those evil-
spirits who have not yet been subjected by Lo-pon or subsequent lamas.
On the top of the altar are placed the following articles ;
(i) A miniature chhorten (= chaitya ).2
( ii) One or more sacred books on each side of altar.
(iii) A dor-je, the lamaic sceptre and type of the thunderbolt of
lndra (Jupiter), and a bell tilbu 3 The dorje is the counterpart of the
bell, and when applied to the shoulder of the latter should be of
'"
exactly the same length as the bell. handle.
(iv) The holy-water vase-thu-pum 4-and a metal mirror-me.long -hanging
from its spout. The holy-water of the vase is tinged with saffron, and
is sprinkled by means of a long stopper-rod, which is surmounted by a
fan of peacock's feathers and the holy kusa grass.
(v) The divining arrow, bound with five coloured silks, called
da-dar.5
(vi) A large metal mirror-me-long-to reflect the image of the
spirits.
(vii) T wo pairs of cymbals. The pair used in the worship of
Buddha and the higher divinities are called si-nyen and

1 bskang-gso... . .
2 In the room in which worship is done there must be present these three essential
objects representing the .sku-gsum (Skt.. Tri-kaya) : (a) an image, (b) a chhorten.
and (c) a holy book, which are symbolic of "The Three Holy Ones." In the early
Indian Caves this Triad was represented by a Chaitya ( = Buddha).
Wheel ( = Dharma), and a LION ( = The Assembly).
3 dril- bu. 4 khrus. bum. 5 mdah-dar. 6. ils smyan.
 www.sikkim.gov.in

280 THE TEMPLE.

are of about 12 inches or more in diameter, with very small centre

bosses. They are held vertically when in use, one above the other, and
are manipulated gently. The pair of cymbals used in the worship of the
inferior deities and demons are called rol-mo, and are of short diameter
with very much broader bosses. They are held horizontally in the hands
and forcibly clanged with great clamour.
(viii) Conch-shell trumpet-tung 1-used with the si-nyen cymbals.
(ix) Pair of copper hautboy-fifes-gye-ling.2
(x) Pair of long telescopic copper horns-ra-dung.3
(xi) Pair of human thigh-bone trumpets-khan.-ling} These are sometimes
encased in brass, with a wide copper flanged extremity on which are figured
the three eyes and nose of the ogre-demon, the oval open extremity being the
demon's mouth. In the preparation of these thigh-bone trumpets the bones of
criminals or those who have died by violence are preferred, and an elaborate
incantation is done, part of which consists in the lama eating a portion of the
skin of the bone, otherwise its blast would not be sufficiently powerful to
summon the demons.
(xii) Pair of tiger thigh-bone trumpets-ta-dung.5 These are not always
present, and the last three instruments are only for the worship of the
inferior gods and demons.
(xiii) Drums
( a) A small hand-drum or nga-chhung 6 or damaru, like a large double
egg-cup. Between its two faces are attached a pair of pendant
leather knobs and a long-beaded flap for handle. When the drum is
held by the upper part of the cloth handle and jerked alternately to
right and left the knobs strike the faces of the drum. It is used
daily to mark the pauses between different forms of worship.
(b) The big drum called chho-nganga,7 or religious drum. These are of
two kinds, one of which is suspended in a frame and beaten only
occasionally and in Buddha's worship. The other is carried in the
hand by means of a stem thrust through its curved border. These are
beaten by drumsticks with straight or curved handles.
(c) The human skull-drum made of skull-caps and of same style
as the smaller drum (a) above described.

1dung. 3 rag.dung 5stag.dung. 7 chhos-rnga.

2 rgye-gling . 4 rkang-,gling. 6 rnga-chhung.
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LAMA'S TABLE. 281

THE LAMA'S TABLE.

To the right front of the altar stands the lama's table, called dun chog 1 about
2 3/2 feet in length .and one foot in height. A cushion is placed behind it, and on
this is spread a tiger or leopard-skin rug as a seat. The table should contain the
following articles in the order and position shown in the diagram:

1. Mandala-rice cone. 4. Bell.

2. Chen-du or ne-sel-saucer with loose 5. Dorje.
rice for throwing in sacrifice 6. Lu-puns vase.
3 Small damaru drum.
The extensive arrangement here figured is properly that of the Dorje Lo-pon's
table.Only three monks are allowed tables in the temple, viz.
The Dorje Lo-pon, or abbot.
The Um-dse, or chief celebrant.
The Chho- timba, or provost-marshal.
The Urn-dse's table faces that of the Dorje Lo pon, and contains only a tu bumor
holy-water vase, bell, dorje and the large tsho-rol cymbals.
The table of the Chho-timba stands in front of the latter's seat, near the door,
and contains an incense goblet or sang-bur, bell and dorje.

1mdum.lchog
.
 www.sikkim.gov.in
282 THE TEMPLE.

LAMAIC ROSARIES.

The rosary is an essential part of a lama's dress. As a Buddhist article, the rosary
is especially peculiar to the Northern school of Buddhists and the outcome of the
esoteric teachings of the Mahayana school, instilling belief in the potency of
muttering mystic spells and other strange formulas. In the very complicated
rosaries of Japan it has attained its highest development.
It is not enumerated in the Southern Scriptures among the articles necessary
for a monk. But incidental mention is made by Shway Yoe 2 of a rosary with 108
beads; and several of the Burmese monks I have met possessed a rosary called"
Bodhi," consisting of 72 black sub.cylindrical beads, which I understood were
composed of slips of leaf inscribed with charmed words and rolled into pellets
with the aid of lacquer or varnish.
The rosary is not conspicuous amongst Southern Buddhists, but among
Tibetans it is everywhere visible.
It is also held in the hand of the image of the patron god of Tibet-Che.re-si
(Skt. Avalokita), and its use is not confined to the lamas. Nearly every layman and
woman is possessed of a rosary on which at every opportunity they zealously store
up merit; and they also use it for secular purposes, like the sliding balls of the
Chinese, to assist in ordinary calculations: the beads to. the right of the centre bead
being called ta-thang and reglstermg units, while those to the left are called chu-
do and record tens, which numbers suffice for their ordinary wants.

DESCRIPTION OF THE ROSARY AND ITS APPENDAGES.

The vernacular name for the rosary is "phreng.ba," 3 pronounced

theng.wa or vulgarly theng-nga, and.- literally means "a string of beads."The
rosary contains 108 beads of uniform size. The reason for this special number is
alleged to be merely a provision to ensure the repetition of the sacred spell a full
hundred times, and the extra beads are added to make up for any omission of
beads through absent-mindedness during the telling process or for actual loss of
beads by breakage; but the number is of mystic significance. Che-re-si and Dol-
ma have each 108

1 Note on Buddhist Rosaries in Japan. By J. M. JAMES, Trans Jap. As. Soc.,

page 173, 1881.
2 The. Burman: His Life and Notions, I., page 201.
3 pbreng-ba.
 ROSARIES. 283 www.sikkim.gov.in

names; although it is not usual to tell these on the rosary. One hundred- and eight
is the usual number of lamps and cakes offered at great shrines; and in the later
Kham editions of the: lamaic scriptures -the" kah-gyur "-the volumes have been
extended from 100 to 108. The Southern scriptures state that 108 Brahmans were
called by Gotama's father at the birth. feast to cast the embryo Buddha's horo-
scope, and the Burmese footprints of Buddha sometimes contain 108
subdivisions.1 This mystic number is perhaps borrowed, like so many other lamaic
fashions, from the Hindus, of whom the Vaishnabs possess a rosary with 108
beads.
The two ends of the string of beads before being knotted arepassed through
three extra beads, the centre one of which is the largest. These are collectively
called dok-dsin2 or " retaining or seizing bead" -vide' 'a" in figures. The word is
sometimes spelt mdo-hdsin, and pronounced do-dsin, which means" the union
holder." In either case the meaning is much the same. These beads keep the proper
rosary beads in position, and indicate to the teller the completion of a cycle of
beads.
This triad of beads symbolizes" the Three Holy Ones" of the Buddhist Trinity,
viz., Buddha, Dharma (the Word), and Sangha (the Church, excluding the laity).
The large central bead represent.s Buddha, while the smaller one intervening
between it and the rosary beads represents the Church and is called" Our special,
Lamamonitor," 3 the personal Lama-guide and confessor of the Tibetan Buddhist;
and his symbolic presence on the rosary immediately at the end of the bead-cycle
is to ensure becoming gravity and care in the act of telling the beads, as if he were
actually present.
The ge-luk-pa or" reformed" sect of lamas usually have only two beads as
dok-dsin, in which case the terminal one is of much smaller size, and the pair are
considered emblematic of a vase from which the beads spring.
Attached to the rosary is a pair of strings of ten small pendant metallic rings as
counters-vide" b " in the figures..One of these strings is terminated by a

miniature dorje (the thunderbolt of Indra) and the other by a small bell-in tantric
Buddhist figures the dorje is usually associated with a bell. The counters on the
dorje-string register units of bead-cycles, while those on the bell-string mark tens
of cycles. The counters and the ornaments of the strings are usually of silver, and
inlaid with turquoise.
These two strings of counters are called gang-dsin 4 or "count. keepers," but
vulgarly they are known as chub-she 5 or "the ten

1 The Burman: His Life 4grang-hdsin

2 rdog-hdsin. 5chu - bshad
and Notions, I. page 201. 3 rtsa.wahi bla-ma.
284 THE TEMPLE. www.sikkim.gov.in

markers." They may be attached at any part of tbe rosary string, but are usually
affixed at the 8th and 21st bead on enher side of the central bead.
They are used in the following manner :- When about to tell the
beads, the counters on each string are slid up the string.On completing a
.
cycle of the beads the lowest counter on the dorje.string is slid down into
contact with the dorje. And on each further cycle of beads being told a further
counter is slipped down. When the ten have been exhausted, they are then slid up
again and one counter is slipped down from the bell-string. The counters thus
serve to register the utterance of 108 X10 X 10 = 10,800 prayers or mystic
formulas. The number of formulas daily repeated in this way is enormous. The
average daily number of repetitions may in the earlier stages of a lama's career
amount to 5,000 daily, but it depends somewhat on the zeal and leisure of the
individual. A layman may repeat daily about five to twenty bead. cycles, but
usually less. Old women are especially pious in this way, many telling over twenty
bead-cycles daily. A middle-aged lama friend of mine has repeated the spell of his
tutelary deity alone over 2,000,000 times. It is not uncommon to find rosaries so
worn away by the friction of so much handling that originally globular beads have
become cylindrical.
Affixed to the rosary are small odds and ends, such as a metal tooth-pick,
tweezer, small keys, &c.
The materials of which the lamaic rosaries are composed may to a certain
extent vary in costliness according to the wealth of the wearer. The Khen-pos or
abbots of large and wealthy monasteries have rosaries of pearl and other precious
stones, and even of gold. Turner relates 1 that the Grand Tashi Lama possessed
rosaries of pearls, emeralds, rubies, sapphires, coral, amber, crystal, and
lapislazuli.
But the material of the rosary can only vary within rather narrow limits, its
nature being determined by the particular sect to which the lama belongs and the
particular deity to whom worship is to be paid.
The yellow rosary or Se-theng ,2 vide fig. 1, is the special rosary of the ge-luk-pa
or "reformed school," also called "the yellow-hat sect" (sha-ser). The beads are
formed from the ochrey-yellow wood of the chang-chhub,3 literally "the Bodhi
tree" or tree of supreme wisdom, which is said to grow in Central China. The
wood is so deeply yellow that it is doubtful whether it be really that of the pipal
(Ficus religiosa') which was the Bodhi tree under which Gautama attained his
Buddhahood. These

j1Embassy to Tibet, page 261, 1800. 2 Ser-phreng. 3 byang.chhub.

 KINDS OF ROSARIES. 285 www.sikkim.gov.in

beads are manufactured wholesale by machinery at the temple called by Tibetans

Ri-wo-tse-nga and by the Chinese U-tha-Shan or "The Five Peaks," about 200
miles south-west of Pekin. Huc gives a sketch 1 of this romantic. place, but makes
no mention of its rosaries. This rosary is of two kinds, viz., the usual form of
spherical beads about the size of a pea, and a less common form of lozenge-
shaped perforated discs about the size of a sixpence. This rosary is usable for all
kinds of worship, including that of the furies.
The Bo dhi tse 2 rosary is the one chiefly in use among the nyingmapa, or
"old (i.e., unreformed) school" of lamas. It is remarkable that its name also seeks
to associate it with the Bodhi tree, but its beads are certainly not derived from the
Flcus family. Its beads are the rough brown seeds of a tree which grows in the
outer Himalayas. This rosary can be used for all kinds of worship, and may also
be used by the ge-luk-pa in the worship of the fiercer deities.
The white rosary tung-theng,3 vlde fig. 3, consists of cylindrical perforated discs
of the conch shell (Tib. tung), and is especially used in the worship of Che-re-si

the usual form of whose image holds a white rosary in the upper right hand. This
is the special rosary of nuns.
The rosary of plain crystal or uncoloured glass. beads is also peculiar to Che-re-si.
The red sandal-wood rosary-Tsen-den mar theng 4 vide fig. 2 consists of
perforated discs of red san dal-wood (Adenanthera pavonina) or other wood of a
similar appearance. It is used only in the worship of the fierce deity Tam-din (Skt.
Hayagriva), a special protector of Lamaism.
The coral rosary Chi-ru-theng 5 is also used for Tam-din and by the
nyingmapa sects wr their wizard-saint Padma Sambhava's worship. Coral being
so expensive, red beads of glass or composition are in general use instead. With
this rosary it is usual to have the .counters of turquoise or blue beads.
The rosary formed of discs of the human skull-the tho-theng 6 vide fig. 6-is
especially used for the worship of . Dorje Jik-che (Skt. Yama), one of the forms of
the King" of the Dead. It frequently has its discs symmetrica11y divided by
raksha beads into four series. There is no rosary formed of finger bones as has
been sometimes stated.
The "elephant-stone" rosary-Lang--chhen-do-pa 7-is prepared from
a porous bony-like concretion which is sometimes found in the stomach of the
elephant. It also

1 Trav,els in Tartary, Tibet and China. By M. Hue and GABET. Hazlitt's trans. I, page 79.
2 po-dhi-tse. 4 tsanden.
6 thod-phreng.
3 dung-phreng. 5 pyi-ru. 7 glnag-chhen grod-pa.
286 THE TEMPLE. www.sikkim.gov.in

being suggestive of bone, is used in worship of Yama. The real material,

however, being extremely scarce and expensive, a substitute is usually had in
beads made from the fibrous root of the bowbambu (Zhu-:shing) which has on
section a structure very like the stomach. stone, and its name also means"
stomach or digestion" as well as '-' bow."
The rak-sha rosary,1 vide fig. 4, formed of the large brown warty seeds of the
Eloeocarpus Janitrus, is specially used by the nyingmapa lamas in the worship
of the fierce deities and demons. The seeds of this tree are normally five-lobed,
and it is interesting, from a botanical point of view, to find how relatively
frequent is the occurrence of six lobes. Such abnormal seeds are highly prized by
the Tibetans as being the offspring of the miraculous seeds of Padma Sambhava's
rosary-the legend stating that the saint's rosary string broke while at his Halashi
hermitage, hear the Kusi river in Nepal, and several of the detached beads
remained unpicked up; and from these have resulted the six-lobed seeds. The
demand for such uncommon seeds being great, it is astonishing how many of
them are forthcoming to diligent search. This rosary is also commonly used by
the indigenous Bon-po priests, and it is identical with the rosary of the Shivaic
Hindus-the rudraksha ( Rudra's [i.e., fierce Shiva's eyes), from which the Tibetan
name of rak.sha is supposed to be derived.
The nang-ga pa-ni rosary is only used for the worship of N am-se, the God of
Wealth (Skt. Kuvera); and by the. ngak-pa or wizards in their mystical
incantations.It consists of glossy jet-black nuts about the size of a hazel, but of
the shape of small horse-chestnuts. These are the seeds of the lung thang tree,
which grows in the sub-tropical forests of the south-eastern Himalayas. They are
emblematic of the eyes of the Garuda bird, the chief assistant of Vajra-pani
(Jupiter) and the great enemy of snakes-hence is supposed to be derived the
Sanskri'tic name of the beads, from naga, a serpent. Its use in the worship of the
God of WeaIth is noteworthy in the association of snakes-the mythological
guardians of treasure-with the idea of wealth.
The rosary of snake-spines (vertebrae), vide fig. 7, is only used by the
(ngak-'pa) sorcerers. for purposes of sorcery and divination. The string contains
about fifty vertebrae.
The complexion of the god or goddess to be worshipped also determines
sometimes the colour of the rosary beads. Thus a turquoise rosary is occasionally
used in the worship of the popular goddess Dol-ma, who
1 rag sha.
 www.sikkim.gov.in
MODE OF TELLING THE BEADS. 287
is of a bluish-green complexion. A red rosary with red Tam-din, a yellow with
yellow Jam-yang; and Nam-se, who is of a golden yellow colour, is worshipped
with an amber rosary.
The rosaries of the laity are composed of any sort of bead, according to the
Taste and wealth of the owner They are mostly of glass beads of various colours
and the same rosary contains beads of a variety of sizes and colours interspersed
with coral, amber, turquoise, &c.-vide fig. 5. The number of beads is the same as
with the lamas, but each of the counter strings are usually terminated by a dorje:
both strings record only units of cycles, which suffice for the smaller amount of
bead-telling done by the laity.

:MODE OF TELL1NG THE BEADS.

When not in use the rosary is wound round the right wrist like
a bracelet, or worn around the neck with the knotted end
uppermost.
The act of telling the beads is called tang-che, which literal1y means" to purr"
like a cat, and the muttering of the prayers is rather suggestive of this sound
.
In telling the beads the right hand is passed through the rosary,which is allowed to
hang freely down with the. knotted end upwards. The hand with the thumb upwards
is then usually carried to the breast and held there stationary during the recital. On
pronouncing the initial word" Om," the first bead resting on the knuckle is grasped
by raising the thumb and quickly depressing its tip to seize the bead against the
outer part of the second joint of the index finger. During the rest of the sentence the
bead, still grasped between the thumb and index finger, is gently revolved to the
right, and on conclusion of the sentence is dropped down the palm-side of the
string. Then with another " Om, the next bead is seized and treated in like manner,
and so on throughout the cycle.
On concluding each cycle of the beads, it is usual to finger each of the three"
keeper- beads," saying respectively "0 m! Ah! Hung! " the mystic symbols of the
lam'aic trinity.

THE MYSTIC FORMULAS FOR THE BEADS.

,The mystic formulas for the beads follow the prayer properly so called, and are
believed to contain the essence of the formal prayer, and to act as powerful spells,
They are of a Sanskritic nature, usually containing the name of the deity
addressed, but are more or less wholly unintelligible to the worshipper. .
 www.sikkim.gov.in
288 THE TEMPLE.

The formula used at any particular time varies according to the particular
deity being worshipped. But the one. most frequently used by the individual lama
is that of his own yi-dam or tutelary deity, which varies according to the sect to
which the lama belongs.
The formulas most frequently used are shown in the following table :

Special kind. of
Name of Deity. The Spell. rosary used.

1. Dor-je jik-che.l Om ! Ya-man-ta-taka hung Human skull or

Skt. Yama (antaka). phat ! . " stomach-stone."
Om! Bajrapani hung phat ! Raksha.
2. Cha-na dorje.2 Om ! Bajra dsan-da maha Do.
Skt. Vajrapani. ro-khana hung !
3. Tam-din.3 Om ! pad-ma ta krid hung phat! Red sandal or
Skt: Hayagriva. coral.
4 Che-re-si or Thuk-je Om! mani pad-me hung ! Conch shell or
chhenbo.4 crystal. .
Skt. Avalokita.
5. Dol-ma jang-khu.5 Om ! Ta-re tut-ta-re ture swaha!- Bodhitse or tur-
Skt. Tara. quoise.
6. Dol-kar.6 Om ! Ta-re tut-ta-re mama Bodhitse.
Skt. Sitatara. a-yurpunye-dsanyana pusphpi
ta ku-ru swa-ha !
7. Dor-je phak-mo.7 Om! sar-ba Bud-ha dakkin-ni Ditto.
Skt. Vajra varahi. hung phat! .
8. Ozer-chen-ma.8 Om ! Ma.-ri-tsye mam swa-ha ! Ditto.
Skt. Marici.
9. Gon-po nag-po.9 Om! Sri Ma-ha-ka-la hung phat Raksha
Skt. Kalanatha swa-ha ! .
10. Nam-se.10 Om !Bai-sra-ma-na ye swa- ha Nangapani
Skt. Kuvera. .
11. Dsam bha-Ia.l1 Om !Dsam-bha-la dsalen-dra
Skt. Jambhala. ye swa-ha ! Ditto.
12. Seng-ge-da.12 Om ! a-hrih Sing-ha-nada hung Conch shell or
Skt. Singhanada. phat ! crystal.
13. Jam-yang. I3. Om! a-ra-pa-tsa-na-dhi !
Skt. Manjughosa. Yellow. rosary.
14. Dem-chhok 14 Om! hrih ha-ha hung hung Bodhitse.
Skt. Samvara phat
15. Pad--ma jung-ne.15 Om ! bajra gu-ru padma sid-dhi Coral or bodhitse.
Skt. Padma sambhara. hung!

1 rdo-rje-hjigs-byed 6.tgrol.dkar. 11dsam-bha-la.

2 phyag-na rdo-rje. 7 do-rje phag.mo. . 12 seng-ge'- sgra
.3 rta-mgrin. 8hod-zer-chan.ma. 13 hjam-dbyangs.
4 grugs .rje chhen-po. 9 mgon-po nag-po. 14 bde-mchhog
5 sgrol-ma ljan,g.khu. 10 rnam--sras. 16 pad-ma hbyung-gnas.
 www.sikkim.gov.in
MODE OF TELLING THE BEADS. 289

The concluding word phat which follows the mystic hung; in many of these
spells is cognate with the current Hindustaui word phat, and means" may the
enemy be destroyed utterly."
The laity through want of knowledge seldom use with their rosariesother than
the well-known lamaic formula" Om! Ma ni pad me-Hung ieHail to the Jewel
-
"

In the lotus! Hung." This refers to the Bodhisatwa Cheresi (Skt. Padmapani),
the patron-god of Tibet, who, like Buddha, is usually represented as seated or
standing within a lotus flower, and who is believed to have been born from such
a flower. It has, however, many mystic meanings. And no wonder this formula is
so popular and constantly being repeated by- both laity and lamas, for its mere
enunciation is credited with stopping the' cycle of re-birth, and reaching directly
to Nirvana. Thus, it is stated in the Mani-kah-bum with extravagant rhapsody that
this formula" is the essence of all happiness, prosperity, and knowledge, and the
great means of deliverance," and that the om closes re-birth amongst the gods, ma
among the Titans, ni as a man, pad as a beast, me as a" yidag," and hung as an
inhabitant of hell. And in keeping with this view each of these six -.syllables is
given the distinctive colour of these six states of re-birth, viz. om, the godly
white; ma, the titanic blue; ni, the human yellow; pad, the animal green; me, the"
yidag" red.; hung, the hellish black. 'This formula is of comparatively modern
origin; its first appearance seems to be in the legendary history (bkah bum) of
King Srong-tsangam-bo, which was one of the so-called" hidden" treatises, and
probably written about the 14th or 16th century A.D.l With this formula, which is
peculiar to Tibet, may be compared the Chinese and Japanese spells" Namo
Bulsu" (= Skt. Namo Buddaya, i.e., salutation to.Buddha!) and Namo O-mi.to'-Fu
(= Skt. Namo Amitabha, i.e., salutation to the Boundless Light !-a fanciful form
of Buddha). The Burmese, so far as I have seen, seem to use their rosary merely
for repeating the names of the Buddhist Trinity, viz., "Phra" or Buddha, "Tara" or
Dharma, and Sangha. And the number of beads in their rosary is a multiple of :3
X 3 as with the lamas. On completing the cycle the central bead is fingered with
the pessimistic formula " Anitsa, Dukha, Anatha."-all is transitory, painful, and
unreal.

1 Since the above was in type, I find that ROCKHILL in The Land of theLamas. London,
1891, page 326, notes that Wilhelm de Rubruk, writing in the second half of the 13th
century, A.D. (Soc. dc Geog. de Paris, IV, page 2'83) states regarding the Buddhist monks of
Karakorum: "Habent etiam quocumque vadunt semper in manibus quandaun testem centum
vel ducentorum nucleorum sicut nos portamus paternoster et dicunt semper hec verba on man
baccam hoc est Deus, tu nosti, secundum quod quidam corum intcrpretatus est michi, et
totiens exspcctat, remunerationem a Deo quotiens hoc diceudo mcmoratur." Mr. Rockhill
also independently arrives at a similar conclusion to that noted by me above, as to the
relatively modern composition of the Mani bkah hbum.
 www.sikkim.gov.in

290 THE TEMPLE.

LIST OF THE MASKS.

In the vernacular a mask is called bak. The masks for the religious dances in
Sikhim are carved out of the tough light wood of the giant climber called zar;
while in Tibet, where wood is scarce, they are composed of mashed paper and
cloth. In all cases they are fantastically painted and varnished, and usually
provided with a yak-tail wig.
The masks found in Sikhim temples are the following :

1. Yeshe gon-po or Mahakala. Colour red.

King of the Orge deities Ku .
2. Guru dak -mar, a fierce form of Guru Rim
bochhe. Colour red.
3. Lhamo Mak-zor ma, or Maharani, the Kali
form of Devi. Colour blue.
4. Lang, the Bull. Colour black.
5. Tag , the Tiger. Colour brown.
II.The angry Orge 6. Sengge, the Lion. Colour white.
Deities 7.Khyung, the Garuda-bird. Colour green.
8. Teu the Monkey. Colour ruddy brown.
9. Sha-wa, the Stag. Colour fawn.
10. Yak, the Yak. Colour black.
The above are an of hideous appearance and huge size, having a vertical
diameter of at least twice the length of an ordinary human face and a breadth in
proportion. Each has projecting tusks and three eyes, the central eye being the
eyes of fore-knowledge. Those of an anthropoid form have a chaplet of five
skulls, with pendant bead ornaments of human bones.

III The Ghouls 11 Tur or graveyards ghosts .A monster human skull

Of yellowish colour .A pair of these are needed

IV The Earth demons 12 Sa- chak pa Large hideous masks with only two eyes
servants of Above
V The Indian Teacher 13 A-tsa-ra-(Skt-acharya=teacher )These are of ordinary
Buffoons human size ,white in colour .with moustaches and hair
! Done up into a coil .Their wives are red or
I yellow complexioned
 www.sikkim.gov.in

LAMAIC LIllRARY. 291

The dresses accompanying the first two classes of masks are

ample robes of rich brocade and satin, with gilt embroidery
. bands to imitate the ribs and limb
fitting white calico with red
bones.The weapons carried by the maskers are made of wood
carved with dorje patterns. The staves of the skeletons are topped
by a death's-head.The object and meaning of the masked play are
described under the heading of La-maic Festivals.

THE LAMIAIC LIBRARY.

The larger monasteries in Sikhim all try to possess a copy of the two great lamaic
encyclopaedias, (a) the Kah-gyur or vulgarly Kan.gyur,1 i.e., c, The translated
Commandments," and (b) the Tengyur 2 or "Translated doctrinal Commentaries"
by reputed saints. All of the treatises contained in the Kah-gyur and most of those
in the Tengyur were translated from the Sanskrit of the later Buddhist Church in
India and Kashmir, and a few from the Chinese, mostly in the 9th and 12th
centuries; but the Tengyur contains also much later works. The translations were
done by the Indian Pandits and Tibetan translators (lotsavas) and Chinese priests.
They were collected in their present form only about the beginning of the last
(18th) century of our era.
The 'common edition of the Kah-gyur is printed from wooden blocks at
Narthang, about six miles from Tashelhunpo,3 and fills 100 bulky volumes of
about 1.000 pages each. A later edition, printed at Der-ge in Eastern Tibet
(Kham), contains the same matter distributed in volumes so as to reach the mystic
number of 108. The Tengyur contains 225 or more volumes, and has treatises
on the Indian philosophic schools, grammar, logic, astrology, medicine, &c. The
cost at the printing establishment is about ten rupees per volume.
The expense of such a library being so great, Pemiongchi and Labrang are the
only monasteries in Sikhim which possess a complete set of both encyclopaedias.
But several monasteries possess a full set of the Kah-gyur scriptures. ,

. The Kah-gyur as regards its contents is divided into three great sections, viz.
I.-The Dulva (Skt. Vinaya) or Discipline, in 13 volumes.

1 bkah.hgyur. 2 bstan.hgyur.
3 The ca.pital of Western Tibet .(Tsang),. and head.quarters of the Panchhen (= great
teacher) Grand Lama., the incarnatlon of the mythical Buddha. Amltabha.
 292 THE TE)IPLE. www.sikkim.gov.in

'II.-The Do (Skt. Sutra) or Sermons of the Buddhas, in

66 volumes.
III The Sher-cltin with its divisions (Skt. Abi-dharmma) or
Transcendental Wisdom, in 21 volumes.
These divisions broadly correspond to the classification of the Southern
Buddhist Canon into the Tripitaka or 'three baskets or collections;' but the
lamaic versions are all of a highly inflated and tantrik type, and the Gyut or
tantrik charms and incantations to the number of 22 volumes, which has no
counterpart in the Southern scriptures, has been introduced into the Do class of
the Kah -gyur.
As might be supposed from the leading part which mysticism plays in the
lamaic creed, the sections of the Kah-gyur which are most highly prized are the
Do and the Sher-chin or Transcendental Wisdom of the tantrik kind.
The monasteries which cannot afford to buy the full Kah-gyur -and these in
Sikhim form the majority-possess the following parts of the Sher-chin, viz., the
12 volumes called Bum, literally 100,000" precepts of Transcendental Wisdom,
forming the main body of the Sher.chin. Also the abridged edition of the same
in three volumes called Nyi- thi literally the 20,000" precepts, adapted forthose
individuals who are unable to peruse the full text. And for the common use of
the junior clergy a still smaller abstract in one volume exists under the name of
Gye-tong.ba-literally, "the 8,000" precepts of Transcendental Wisdom. This is
the volume which is carried on the lotus of Jam-pal, the God of Wisdom. The
Dorje-chopa or the" Diamond cutter" is a sloka which is commonly printed
in separate form.And for the youngest boy novices is prepared a tract of about
six leaves containing the most popular portions of the Sherchin. From the Do
division of the Kah-gyur are culled out those mystic formulas, mostly in
unintelligible
'. Sanskrit, which are deemed most potent as charms, and these form
the volume named mDo.mang gzung1 bsdus or curtly Do-many or" assorted
aphorisms "-literally "many sutras." These formulas are not used in the worship
of the Buddhas and superior gods, but only as priestly incantations in the
treatment of disease and illfortune. Being thus the forms of worship of which the
laity have most experience, small pocket editions of one or other Sutra are to be
found in the possession of all literate laymen, as the mere act of reading these
charms suffices to ward off the demon-bred disease and misfortune.

1 gzungs =-Skt. dhar'ani, which is a mystic spell like the Hindu mantra.
 www.sikkim.gov.in
LAMAlC LIBRARY. 293

The books of ordinary worship and ritual, and the school-text books for the
boy-probationers and novices, are also an essential part of the monastic library.
And they must be daily repeated till their contents are fully learned by heart.
Each monastery also possesses one or more of the legendary accounts of tbe
great wizard-saint of the Nyingmapa lamas, viz., La-pon Rimbochhe, or
Pedmajungne, who is believed to have visited Sikhim. These are entitled Pedma
kah-thang (The displayed orders of the Lotus- born One) or Tang-yik Sertheng
(The golden Rosary of plain Epistles); also more or less fragmentary bits of the
works of the pioneer lama of Sikhim-Lha-tsun Chhembo, especially his Ne yik or "
Story of the Sacred Sites of Sikhim," and his manual of worship of the great
mountain god Kangchhendsonga (Ang. Kanchinjingna). Monasteries of the
Karmapa and Dukpa sects contain the ' Kargyupa Golden Rosary" and the
namthars or biographies of the special lama saints of the Karmapa or of the
Bhutan lama-saints. And each monastery possesses a manuscript account of its
own history (deb-ther), although this is kept out of sight. A few Lepcha sacred
books are to be found in the Lepcha. monasteries and in the possession of a few
Lepcha laymen. .They are mostly translations from the Tibetan. The titles of thc
chief ones are (1) Tashi Sung, a fabulous history of Guru Rimbochhe; (2) Guru
Chho Wang, a terton work of Tibet; (3) Sakun de-lok, the narrative of a visit to
Hades by a resuscitated man named Sakun; (4) Ek-doshi manlom-forms of
worship. ,
Individual lamas possess special books according to their private means and
inclinations, such as the Manikahbum, a legendary history of Chere-si, the
the patron god of Tibet, and of the origin of the mystic sentence" Om Mani &c.;
the songs of the great mendicant sage Milarepa, books on the worship of Dolma
and other favourite and tutelary deities. The specialist in medicine has one or
mere fantastic medical works, and the Tsi-pa 1 or astrologer has the Baidyur
karpo and other books on astrological calculations.
The books are deposited in an open pigeon-holed. rack.work. Each book
consists of several hundred leaves, and each leaf is of tough unglazed country
paper, about two feet long by half a foot broad. The leaves forming the volume are
wrapped in a napkin; and the package then placed between two heavy wooden
blocks, as covers, which bear on their front border the name of the book in letters
graved in relief and gilt. rfhe whole parcel is firmly bound by

1 This is the" Cheb'u Lama" of Hooker's Himalayan Journals.

 294 THE MONKHOOD. www.sikkim.gov.in

a broad tape and buckle tied across its middle. These ponderous tomes are very
unwieldy and not easy of reference. When being read the book is held across the
knees, and the upper board and the leaves as read are lifted towards the reader
and repiled in order in his lap. Before opening its fastenings, and also on retying
the parcel, the monk places the book reverently on his head, saying, "may I
obtain the blessing of Thy Holy Word."

IV.-THE MONKHOOD.

Under this heading are detailed the Curriculum for the Monkhood, the Lamaic
Grades and Discipline, and the Daily Routine of a lama's life in Sikhim.
L-THE CURRICULUM.
In nearly every Bhotiya 1 family in Sikhim, one son is devoted to the Church.This
practice is fostered by the deep religious habit of the people and the attractions
.
offered by the high social position and privileges enjoyed by the lamas,
rendering them superior to the highest lay official and free from ordinary
tribunals. A certain amount of reflected honour also attaches to the family which
has afforded the lama.
The rule is for the second son to become a lama, while the eldest son marries in
order to continue the family name and property, and be the bread-winner.
The course of training which I now detail is that which obtains at Pemiongchi
as that monastery is regarded as a standard one which the other monasteries

Preliminary Examination PhysicalThe boy candidate for admission is

Usually brought to the monastery between the age of 8 to 10 years and very
Seldom over 12 years
The parentage of the boy is enquired into ( and at Pemiongchi only those
Candidates who are of pure Tibetan descent are ordinarily placed in the
monastery). The boy is then physically examined to ascertain that he is free from
deformity or defect in his limbs and 'faculties. If he stammers or is a cripple in
any way or bent in body, he is rejected. When he
1 Bhotiya" means an inhabitant of .. Bhot" or Tibet, and is thus synonymous with ..
Tibetan." It includes those residents of Sikhim who are of Tibetan ancestry, and who, though
largely mixed with Lepcha. blood, retain Tibetan speech and manners. These only are professing
Lamaists and eligible to become orthodox lamas. Lepchas are not eligible.
 www.sikkim.gov.in
THE PROBATIONER'S CURRICULUM. 295

has passed this physical examination he is made over by his father. or guardian
to any senior relative he may have amongst the monks. Should he have no
relative in the monastery, then by consulting his horoscope one of the monks is
fixed upon as being his most suitable tutor; and this tutor receives from the boy's
father a present of tea, eatables, and beer. The tutor then takes the boy inside the
great hall where the monks are assembled.. and publicly stating the parentage of
the boy and the other details, and offering presents of beer, he asks the
permission of the dbU-chhos, or elder monks, to take the boy as a pupil. When
approved, the boy becomes a probationer.
Probation.-As a probationer he is little more than a priva.te school. under
the care of his tutor.His hair is cropped without any ceremony and he
.
wears his ordinary lay dress. He is taught by his tutor the alphabet (the "Ka,
Kha, Ga," as it is called}, and afterwards to read and recite by heart the
.
following small booklets of about six or seven leaves each 1;
Leu bdun ma or "The Seven Chapters "-A prayer-book of Guru Rimpochhe.
Bar.chhad lam gsel or "Charms to clear the way from Danger and Injury "-A
prayer to "The Guru" in twelve stanzas.
Sher-phyin-An Abstract of Transcendental Wisdom in six leaves.
sKu-rim-a sacrificial service for averting a calamity.
Mon-lam-Prayers for general welfare.
sDig shag.s or "The Confession of Sins."2 The mere act of reading this holy
booklet even as a school exercise cleanses from sin. Most of the
monas.teries possess their own blocks-- for printing this pamphlet. Both
the text and its translation have been given by Schlagintweit.3
,'Dor gchod,-a Sutm from the Book of Transcendental Wisdom.
Phyogs-bchui-phyogs-dral or "Description of the Ten Direc
tions" ... .., .. . 6 pages.
Namo Guru-" Salutation to The Guru 5"
mChhod-hbul-To give offerings .., 6"
gTorma-Sacred cake... .'" 8"
hSangs bsur-Incense and butter-incense 5"
. lto-mchhod-Rice offering .., 4
Rig-hdsin sngon..hgro-The First essay of the Sage ... 4 "
drag-dmar sngon.hgro-The Primer of the Red Fierce Deity 4 "
bKah brgyed-" The- Eight Commands" or precepts ... 4"
bDe gshegs kun hdus-The Collection of the Tathagathas ... 4"
Yeshes sku mchhog-The best Fore-knowledge ." .n 5 "
,'Tsa-gdung bshag-gsal-The root-pillar of Clear Confession...
4"

1 Such small manuals are about eight or ten inches long by two to three inches broad
and usually have the leaves stitched together.
2,Thc word for sin is" scorpion, ' thus conveying the idea of a vile, venomous, clawing,
acrid thing.
3 Op, cit., pages 122 to 142.
 296 THE MONKHOOD. www.sikkim.gov.in

The young probationer is also instructed in certain golden maxims

of a moral kind, of which the following are examples :'
" The four Precipices in Speech.-If speech be too long, it is tedious;
. "if too short, its meaning is not appreciated; if rough, it ruffles the temper of the
hearers; if soft, "it is unsatisfying.
. " The Requirements of Speech.-Speech must possess vigour or it " will
not interest; it must be bright or it will not enlighten it must be suitably ended

otherwise its effect will be lost.

"The Qualities of Speech.-Speech must be bold as a lion, gentle " and soft as a
hare, impressive as a serpent, pointed as an arrow, "and evenly balanced as.a dorje
held by its middle (literally 'waist').
" The four Relations of Speech-The necessary question should first "be stated.
The later arguments should be connected with the " former. Essentials should be
repeated. -The meanings should be illustrated by examples.
" The -great religious king Srong-btsan-sgam-po has said,1 speech " should
float forth freely like a bird into the sky, and be clothed in "charming- dress like a
goddess. At the outset the object of the "speech should be made clear like an
unclouded sky. The speech "should proceed like the excavation of treasure. The
arguments "should be agile like a deer chased by fresh hounds, without hesita
" tion or pause.' .

" Collections of human beings occur for three purposes, namely, (1)
" happiness, (II) sorrow, and (III) worldly gossip.
The gatherings for happiness are three ,, namely ------
" (1) for doing virtuous acts, (2) for worship in the temples, and " (3) for erecting
houses and for feasts. The gatherings for virtuous "acts are four, viz., the
gathering of the monks, the gathering of "the laity for worship, writing and
.
copying holy books, and giving " away wealth in charity. There are six kinds of
gatherings for "worship, namely, the gathering of the rich, the gathering in a "
separate place of the common men, the gathering for thanksgiving "of those who
have escaped from their enemy's grasp, traders "who have escaped returned
safely and successfully, sick men "from the devouring jaws of death, and youths
on gaining a " victory.
" The eight acts of Low-born persons.-Using coarse language, impoliteness
.

.
1 In the Mani bkah-hbum, vide page 293.

.
 THE NOVICIATE. 297 www.sikkim.gov.in

talking with pride ,want of pride , want of foresight harsh manners ,staring .,
immoral conduct and stealing
"The ten Faults.- Unbelief in books, disrespect of teachers,
"making one's self unpleasant, covetousness, speak too much ,ridiculing
'
anothers misfortune, using"abusive language, being angry with old men or with
women, " borrowing what cannot be repaid, and stealing,
Three Improper Acts.-To speak of a subject of which one is ignorant, to take an
oath,"to give poison to anyone.After two or three years spent in this training,
during which corporal chastisement is freely inflicted, if the boy is then found to be
hopelessly stupid, he is dismissed; while should he prove to be fairly intelligent, he
is admitted to tbe regular noviciate. The object of this probationary stage is to weed
out unpromising individuals.

THE NOVICIATE.

The novice or " Gra. pa," pronounced" Ta.pa," [literally" student or "learner,"
and seldom called dgen-yen or dge thsul (Skt. Sramana)] is, now for the first time
brought under monastic rules.He is ceremoniously shaved, takes the vows,
assumes the dress of a monk, and receives a religious name.
The candidate for the noviciate is searchingly interrogated by the dbU-chhos (or.
elder-lamas) regarding his descent, his entrance donation and presents being
proportionate to the impurity of his descent. If he has a good strain of Tibetan
blood, he is let off cheaply and vice versa; but it is the paternal descent which is
most regarded: mixed blood on the mother's side being tolerated to a considerable
extent,1
When the boy's descent is satisfactorily appraised, the dbU-chhos of the Great
Assembly Hall are requested to place the boy under the" sgris" or General Rules. .
And on [permission being accorded , the parent or guardian of the boy prepares a
feast of food and beer for the monks. After a few months another present of food
and beer, accompanied by a flesh gift of a pig or bullock, must be made, with the
request for a gtor-bzings in the temple. A suitable date for this is fixed by
astrology.

1The alleged reason for this being the pre-eminence of the father, from whom comel the bone
and structure of the child, while. from the mother only came" the flesh." It is notable that the
Tibetans habitually say" apo-ame," i.e., father and mother, and not like the Indians II ,. Ma--'bap,"
i.e., mother and father.
298 THE MONKHOOD. www.sikkim.gov.in

Then a magic circle or mandal1 is prepared. And on the following morning all
the monks (dge.dun) before early mass drink tea at the expense of the candidate
. An after early mass, when all the monks have departed except the elders (dbU-
chhos), the parent or guardian of the boy with his relatives, who has been waiting
outside, now requests an interview with the elders (dbU-chhos), and accompanies
his request with a present of a slaughtered pig and a load of beer, a load of parched
gram (zib-hbras), and about. half a. maund of rice. On these being accepted, the
boy is brought in and is made to recite some of the books he has learned,
especially" the Eight Precepts," "the Refuge formula," " the performance of
religious kindness," and the celebration ritual of "sKu-rim" and" Mon-lam." Then
is done the ceremony of bGes-sprad and the proclamation bKab.bsgo.
The boy is then tonsured (in Pemiongchi this is done with the identical razor
used by the pioneer lama Lhatsun Chhembo He is then given a religious name

and takes the usual vows of poverty ,.celibacy etc followed by the declaration
that" From to-day I have entered on a religious life." The ceremony concludes
with a present to the" gnas zhag," of two bricks of Chinese tea: when these are not
procurable the sum of seven rupees is paid.
At the midday mass, the boy is brought into the Great Assembly Hall dressed in
the three pieces of monkish vestment(chhosgos) and carrying a bundle of
Incense sticks; and he is chaperoned by a monk (gonpa) named the" bride-
companion" (ba-grags), as this ceremony is regarded as a marriage with the
Church. He sits down on an appointed seat by the side of the bride-companion,
who instructs him in the rules and etiquette (sgris) of the monkish manner of
sitting, walking, &c.
Then mass is begun, and on its conclusion beer is brought inside in a skull-cup,

and distributed to .the assembled of monks under the name of gzo-chhang. (It is

considered improper to bring the ordinary bamboo jugs of beer into the Assembly

Hall.) Then a pig and a bullock are given by the boy's people, as well as a money

present. If the boy's relatives are wealthy, this sum should amount to two rupees

for each of the two dbU-chhos and one rupee to each of the 108 monks. But if the

boy's relatives are poor, the total amount may be limited to sixty rupees. Should,

however, this money and" flesh" presents not be forthcoming, the boy's admission

cannot be confirmed.
On the third day, that particular one of the boy's relatives who is the"
dispenser of gifts" (sbyin bdags) must visit each of the two

1 For description. vide Chapter V. page 320.

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THE EXAMINATIONS. 299

dbU.chhos at their respective chambers, taking an offering of rice, beer, and

flour. And each dbU-chhos gives about ten rupees as a return present for the
articles received. Then the boy 's relatives return to their homes.
The boy is now subject to the monastery rules and discipline; and must practise
and learn by heart the books of the magic circles (dKyil hkor). And he shares in
most of the privileges of the other monks, getting his share of meat and lay
offerings of money and gifts of alms-these latter two are, however, appropriated
by his lama-tutor. And he resides in the monastery, getting occasionally leave of
absence for a month or so to revisit his home. He must implicitly obey his tutor,
and the relatives of the boy must come frequently to pay their respects to the
tutor, bringing presents of cooked food, &c.
Examinations.-Within a year of his admission to the order he should attempt to
pass the first professional examination, and in the following year or two the .
. .
Second examination for promotion. And until he passes these examinations he
must perform the menial office of serving out tea and beer to the elder monks in
the Great Assembly Hall.
The examinations are conducted in the presence of the assembled monks,
who observe a solemn silence, and the test . is for the candidate to stand up in the
assembly and recite by' heart all the prescribed books. The ordeal is a very trying
one, so that the candidate is given a companion to prompt and encourage him.
The first examination lasts for three days; and nine intervals are allowed daily
during the examination, and these intervals are utilized by the candidates in
revising the next exercise, in company with their teacher. ,
The books for the First Examination comprise the worship necessary for
three" magic circles," viz.~The first is the magic circle of dKon mchhog spyi
hdus Rig--hdsin hdsah mtshan snying-poi chhos hkhor.1 This book contains about
sixty pages, and its recitation takes nearly one whole day. It comprises the chapters:
(1) Tsbe-sgrub or rfhe obtaining of long life.
(2) Zhi-khro-The mild and angry deities.
(3) Guru-drag-The fierce form of Padma Sambhava.
(4) Seng-gdongma- The lion.faced demoness. .
( 5) Chhos skyong Mahakala Yeshes mgonpo.
(6) Thang.lha,2 mDsod-lnga, Lha-chhen and sMan bstun-Local
and mountain deities.
(7) bsKang bshags, tshogs and Tashi smon-lam.

1 Or .. Banquet to the whole assembly of the Gods and Demons" -vide page 276
.2 Mt. Thang-lha with its spirit" Kiting" is a northern guardian of Sikhim.
300 THE MONKHOOD. www.sikkim.gov.in

The second comprises the magic circle of the collection of the Tathagathas
and "the powerful great pitiful one" (Avalokita)-bDeg ghegs-kun hdus-gar;,dbang,
Thugs-rje chhen-po, of about 40 pages.
Then follow the magic circles of the fierce and demoniacal deities Guru-drag
dmar, Khrowo-rol wai gtor-zlog and Drag-poi-las Gurui-gsol-hdebs len-bdunma,
Kha hdon chhos spyod.
Those who disgracefully fail to pass this examination are taken outside and
beaten by the Chhos-khrims-pa. And
Penalties of failure repeated failure up to a limit of three years necessitates the
rejection of members from the Order. Should, however, the boy be rich and wish
re-entry, he may be readmitted on paying presents and money on a higher scale
than formerly, without which no re-admission is possible. If the rejected candidate
be poor and he wishes to continue a religious life, he can only do so as a lay.
devotee doing drudgery about the monastery buildings. Or he may set up in some
village as an unorthodox lama-priest.
The majority fail to pass at the first attempt. And failure on the part of the
candidate attaches a stigma to his teacher, while in the event of the boy chanting
the exercises correctly and with pleasing voice in the orthodox oratorical manner,
his teacher is highly complimented.
The Second Examination is conducted like the first one, and lasts for two
days, but at this examination "the iron letter" (i.e., inflexible rule) lchag-yig is
solemnly read out before the examination.
The text-books for the books to be recited by heart at the Second
Examination are the following:
(1) The worship of" The Lake-born Vajra" (mTsho-skyes-rdorje),
i.e., Padma Sambhava and the Guru -Sage who has obtained
understanding (Rig-hdsin rtog sgrub-guru).
(2) The three roots of sagedom(Rig hdsin rtsa-gsum)
(a) Rig hdsin lhamai-las.
(b) Tshe-sgrub khog dbugs.
(c) gSang sgrub dongyi snying-po.
(3) The deeds or Dorje Phagmo (rDorje phagmoi-las), the
great happiness of zag-med (zag-med bde-chhen), and the four classes
of the Fierce Guardians-chhos srung drag-po sde bzhi. The names of
these demons areon the east, kLu-bdud Munpa nagpo; on the south,
Srinpo Lanka-mgrim-bchu; on the west, Mamo Sha-za phra-gral nag-po;
on the north, gShenpa sPu-gridmarpo.
(4) The subjugation of the host of demons-The offering to the Dhyani Budhas
bdud dpung zil non, Kun-bzang, mchhod-sprin.
 THE EXAMINATIONS. 301 www.sikkim.gov.in

(5) The sacrificial ceremony bskang bshags, viz., Rig-dsin

bskang-bshags, Phagmai bskang bshags.
(6) The prayer of the glorious" Tashi "the Lepcha name for
Padma Sambhava-Tashi-smon-lam.
The above books reach to about fifty-five pages.
(7) The circle of the eight Commanders of the collected Buddhas. bKah
bgyad bde gshegs hduspai dkyil-hkhor kyi las and Khrowo-rol
wai gtor-zlog gyi skori bkah brgyad. 'This has about 40 pages.
[The names of the eight Commanders, bKah-bgyads, are-(l)
Chhe.mchhog, (2) Yang-dag, (3) gShin-rje, (4) rTa-mgrin, (5)
Phurpa, (6) Mamo, (7) hGad stong, (8) Rig-hdsin).]
When the young monk recites by heart all these books satisfactorily, and so
passes this examination, he is not subject to any further ordeal of examination:
this being the final one. .
It should be noted, however, that outside Pemiongchi practical1y no
examination obtains. All that is done is merely to insist on the young
on the young monks endeavouring to commit to memory as many of these books
as possible.
THE MONKHOOD.-On passing these two examinations, the successful
candidate becomes a junior monk, and is supposed to keep Ten Percepts:
but he is still privileges. -called a gra-pa or "learner." [The term dge-slong

or "the virtuous beggar," which may be considered as representing the Bhikhu of

Indian Buddhism, is not in use in Sikhim; and in Tibet it is restricted to those

lamas who profess the strict observation of the 253 obiigations. ] He is presented

with a scarf of honour by tbe monks, and is considered a member of the Order-

even although he be under 20 years of age. And from that date he is relieved of

the menial office of serving out tea and beer, and he takes a higher seat in the

Assembly Hall. And he now directly receives his share of the money and other

lay gifts which had' hitherto been the perquisite of his tutor. And he has the

privilege of drinking beer which he should not previously have tasted-although

abstinence from intoxicating drinks is one of "the eight precepts." And he may

even drink the beer off the same table as his teacher. But he may not yet discuss

any great subject with his master, as this would be disrespectful. He is taught to

pay his teacher the deepest respect and to place implicit reliance on all his

sayings.
The Ten Precepts (Skt. Dasasila) Mi.dge.bchu-literally" The Ten Unvirtuous
Deeds," according to the ;Lamas. are (I) Not to kill any living being, (2) Not to
steal, (3). Not to commit adultery, (4) Not to lie, (5) Not to drink wine (this is not
observed), (6) "Not to sit on a lofty seat or have a large bed, (7) Not to wear
flowers or ribbons, (8) Not to be fond of songs or dances, (9) Not to wear
ornaments of gold or silver, (10) Not to eat flesh food after noon.
 www.sikkim.gov.in
302 THE MONKHOOD.
He now is instructed in the preparation and adornment of torma, or sacred food
for the gods and demons and in the blowing of the copper trumpets, in the
IDlC .
manipulations of the cymbals, and in dancing and rhetoric, and in any science
which he fancies. And he is now at liberty to choose for himself a teacher. The
sciences usually taken up are astrology, medicine, and painting, but the majority
of the newlyfledged monks are content with the position of an ordinary monk.
Until, however, he commits to memory the following books, he will never
become a successful chaplain or family priest (mchhod-gnas), which is a paying
business and the goal of most of the monks. For those lamas who can recite by
heart all the Litanies and other sacerdotal ritual, without consulting their books,
are much more popular and sought after than those who read their ritual service.
He therefore tries to learn by heart-" The real story of animal beings by Sagon,
who had returned from the dead" (Sagon hgro dngos zhi), and the .Litany of
Avalokita The Powerful Great Pitier (gar-dbang Thug-rje chhenpo), and" The
exhorting Mani," which are used on the occasion of a death. Also " The ripe
(magic) circle which draws to the best and most pleasing dwelling" (smin-byed-
dbyang gi-dkyil"hkor dbang mchhog-gnas hdren).
I have already noted that the majority of the lamas exercise sacerdotal
functions, and. are priests rather than monks. Many of the lamas are permitted to
reside in their villages for the greater part of the year, ostensibly as village-priests
for the convenience of the people. They must, however, return at definite
intervals to their parent-monastery, which keeps a roll of all its members and
punishes those individuals who absent themselves for unduly long periods.
The regulation which is most frequently violated is that of celibacy; but in most
of the institutions other than Pemiongchi celibacy is not observed. Should it
.
be proved that a Pemiongchi monk consorts withwomen, he will be expelled
by a chapter, unless it be his first offence and he prays publicly for forgiveness,
and then is awarded some penance and pays a fine of 180 rupees according to the
rules of the lChags-yig. He must also pay over again the entrance fees and
presents as before.
II.-LAMAIC GRADES AND DISCIPLINE.
The consecutive offices through whicb the young lama must pass to reach the
highest grades are the following :
I.-Conch-shell Blower-for about one year. These go in pairs.
lI.-Power of holy water, or Chhab-hdren-for one year.
I1I.-Image care-taker or sKu-gnyer-for three years.
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LAMMC GRADES. 303

The Ku-nyer is also charged with the duty of dusting and arranging the
objects on the altar and making the offerings of water, lamps, sacred food, &c.,
and the removal of the same.
On completing his service in this last office he passes out of the stage of gra-pa
(pronounced tapa) or learner, and. becomes an dhU-chhos (pronounced" u-
chho") or "Head of Religion." And by the laity he now is called Ya-pa or
"Reverend Father." From this class of dhU-chhos are selected the officials to fill
the special offices of IV and V, and one from the Pemiongchi monastery acts for
a term of a few years as family priest to the Sikhim Raja, doing especially
the sKang-gso worship.
IV.-The Commissariat .Manager or spyi-gnyer (pronounced Chi-nyer)
tenable for three years. There are two of these, and they are in charge of the
lay menials of the monastery. When the menials have any. complaint it must be
made through the Commissariat Manager, who privately informs one of the
dbU-chhos of the details, and afterwards it is laid before the assembly of dbU-
chhos under the presidency of the U-mdse and Dorje sLob-dpon. The orders
which are then passed are communicated by the two Commissariat Managers to
the menials concerned.
V.-Provost Marshal or Chhos khrims-pa (pronounced Chho-rtim-ba),an
appointment tenable for one year. This office requires qualities of pre-eminent
learning, popularity ,tact, and the ability to enforce discipline and respect
-.
The Provost Marshal is appointed by the vote of the monks (tapa). These select
one of the yap as or superior monks, and recommend him to the Sikhim Raja in a
memorial, which they all sign. The Raja's minister then informs the nominee that
he has been appointed Provost Marshal for the current year, and that into his
charge have been placed all the books of the Library, including the lChags-yig
Rules, and certain advice is given him, accompanied by the presentation of an
exceptionally long and honourable scarf; a refreshment of tea and beer is given.
One of his duties is to read the lChags-yig Rules to the assembled monks, and
also lecture to them occasionally on religious and civil history and discipline.
He is the recognised head of the monks and their spokesman. When any
person requests that the" Banquet to the whole assembly or the Gods and
Demons" (Tshogs-hkhor)-vide page 276-be performed, all the monks assemble
and do the necessary worship and' make the magic circles. It is the Chho-.tim.ba
who declares the object of the sacrifice, viz., for one or other of the four
conditions-birth, old age, sickness or death.
 www.sikkim.gov.in
304 THE MONKHOOD.

He is usually re-appointed for one or more terms, as there is difficulty in

finding suitable men for this ap'pointment. .
After filling the above office he is elgible for the two highest appointments
in the monastery, viz.
VI.-Principal and Chief Celebrant or dbU-mdsad (pronounced Um-dse); and
VI I.-Patriarch or rDo-rje sLob-dpon (pronounced Dorje Lo-pan).
These two offices are held for life, and the holders enjoy equal rank and
receive the same stipend and perquisites, and, as we have seen, sit opposite each
other in the assembly room. But the Um-dse is always the more learned of the
two, and is necessarily something of a man of the world. He supervises the
whole establishment and controls the discussions, and it is to him that the
peasantry resort for advice and settlement of their disputes. The Dorje La-pan
upholds the dignity of religion by taking in secular matters and doing the

mechanical work of meditation and some of the higher ritual, one of his chief
duties being to abstract the soul of the dead and despatch it on the right path to
heaven or for a new rebirth.
The Incarnate Lama. of bLa-brang monastery is supposed to exercise the
functions of a Bishop of Sikhim; but he has only the title of Protector of
Religion-the titles of Do-.dam .pa or "bishop," Khenpo (mkhan-po) or "abbot"
are not used in Sikhim.

III-MONA.STIC ROUTINE.
The daily routine of the Sikhim monk differs somewhat, according to
whether (a) he be living apart from his monastery, say, as a village priest, or (b)
as a resident in a monastery, or (c) as a solitary hermit. I will describe the
practices in this order.

As A VILLAGE PRIEST. (

The monk immediately on waking must arise from his couch,

even though it be midnight, and commence to chant the mi.rtak.rgyud-bskul,
taking care to pronounce all the words fully and distinctly. This contains the
instructions of his special Lama-preceptor (rtsa-wa.blama), and in the recital the
monk must call vividly to mind his spiritual guide. This is followed by a prayer
for a number of requests by the monk himself.
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MONASTIC ROUTINE. 305

Then he assumes the meditative posture of "the seven attitudes," in order to

subjugate the five senses. These attitudes are-(l) sitting. with legs flexed in the
well-known attitude of Buddha; (2) the hands resting one above
the other in the lap; (3) head slightly bent forwards; (4) eyes fixed on the tip of
the nose; (5) shoulders" floating like the wings of a vulture ;(6) spine erect and"
straight like an arrow;" (7) tongue arched upwards to palate like the curving petals
of the eight.leaved lotus. While in this posture he must think that he is alone in a
wilderness.
The three original sins of the body are then got rid of according to the
humoural physiology of the ancients in the three series of dbuma-, roma,and.
rkyang.ma. After takmg a deep inspiration , the air of the roma vems is expel1ed
three times, and thus" the white wind" is let out from the right nostril three times
in short and forcible expiratory gusts. This expels all Anger. Then from the left
nostril is thrice expelled in a similar way" the red air," which rids from Lust. The
colourless central air is thrice expelled, which frees from Ignorance. On
concluding these processes, the monk must mentally realize that all ignorance,
lust, and anger-the three Original Sins-have disappeared like frost before a
scorching sun.
He then says the" a-lia-ki," keeping his tongue curved like a lotus petal. This is
followed by his chanting the blamai rnal-hbyor or " the Yoga of the Lama,"
during which he must mentally conceive his Lama-guide as sitting overhead
upon a lotus flower.
Then, assuming the spiritual guise of his Yidam or tutelary deity, he chants the
Four Preliminary Services the sngon-gro hzi.hbyor. These are the Refuge
formula or skyabs-hgro-vide page 308-which cleanses the darkness of the Body,
the Hundred Letters or Yige-brgyapa, which cleanses all obscurity in Speech;
and the magic circle of rice-the .Mandala, see page 324-which cleanses th.e
Mind; and the prayer gsol-hdebs, classifying the lamas up to the most perfect
one, confers Perfection on the monk himself.
This is followed by the chanting of bla-grub, "the obtaining of the Lama," and"
the obtaining of the ornaments snyen-grub."
The mild deity in this worship is called" The Agreeable One" (mthun) and
the demon ( drag-po) is called" The Repulsive" (bzle-pa). The demoniacal form
must be recited that full number of times which the lama bound himself to do by
vow before his spiritual tutor viz 100,1000,or 10,000 times daily .Those not
bound in this way by vows repeat the charm as many times as they conveniently
can.
306 THE MONK HOOD. www.sikkim.gov.in

Having done this, he may retire again to sleep, if the night be . not very far
advanced. But if the dawn is near, he must not go to sleep, but should employ the
interval in several sorts of prayer (smon-lam).
As soon as day dawns, he must wash his face and rinse his mouth and do the
worship above noted , should he not have already done so; also the following
rites:
1st. - Prepare sacred food for the six sorts of beings (Rigs -strug-gi-gtorma) and
send it to Ngo-wo.yidag-The Tantalized Ghosts.
2nd.-Offer incense, butter-incense, and wine-oblation (gser skyem). The incense
is offered to the good spirits firstly, to the chief god and the lama; secondly, to
the class of "king" gods; and thirdly, to the mountain god Kang.chhen dsonga
(Ang. Kanchinjingna). Then offerings are made to the spirits of caves (who
guarded and still guard the hidden revelations therein deposited), the dgra-lha or"
gods of Battle," the Yul-lha or country gods, the gzi-bdag or local gods, and the
sde-brgyad, "the eight classes of deities." 1 The butter-incense is only given to the
most malignant class of the demons and evil spirits.
Some breakfast is now taken, consisting of thugpa or weak soup, followed by
tea with parched grain. Any especial work which has to be done will now be
attended to, failing which some dge-sbyor or other service will be chanted. And
if any temple or chaitya (chhorten) be at hand, these will be circumambulated
with "prayer-wheel" revolving in hand and chanting mantras. Then is done any
priestly service required by the villagers.
About two o'clock in the afternoon a meal of rice is taken, followed by beer by
those who take it, or by tea for non-beer drinkers.
About six o'clock P.M. is done the gtor-bsngos service, in which, after
Assuming his tutelary deity , he chants the sngon-gro and the skyab-gro 2
.Then is done a chhoga (a form of celebration-worship) with bell and small
drum in hands, followed by an invocation to all the host of Lamas, yidams and
Chhos.skyong (Defensores Fidei), on the assembly of all of whom there is done
the worship of the magic-circle of a tutelary deity (Yidam).
At 9 or 10 P.M. he retires to sleep.
IN MONASTIC RESIDENCE.
In monastic residence the worship is conducted with much more ceremony,
especially on feast days.

I For list of these, vide Chapter VI, page 356. I I Vide page 305.
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MONASTIC ROUTINE. 307

In the morning, after offering the sacred food, incense, and butter incense, a
conch-shell is blown, on which 'all the monks must come out of their chambers
(gra-shag).On the second blast all collect in the Great Assembly Hall, and
during this entry into the hall the Provost Marshal (chhos-khrimba) stands
beside the door with his rod in hand. All the monks seat themselves in Buddha
fashion, each on his own mat. The monk's feet must not project and his clothes
must not hang down or rest upon the mat. Each must face straight to his front
with eyes fixed on the tip of his nose. And the most solemn silence must be
observed. The slightest breach of these rules is promptly punished by the rod of
the Provost Marshal or, in the case of the younger novices, by the sKu-gnyer.
When all have been properly seated, then two or three of the most inferior
novices who have not passed their examination and who occupy back seats, rise
up and serve out tea to the assembly 1 each monk producing- from his breast
pocket his own cup ahd having it filled up by these novices. Before drinking it
all must wait for the Um-dse to say the Grace, in which all the assembly joins.
A usual grace is
"We humbly beseech Thee! that we and our relatives throughout all of onr
life-cycles may never be separated from the Three Holy Ones! May the blessing
of The Trinity enter into this drink! "
Then sprinkling a few drops on the ground with the tips of the fore and
middle fingers:
"To all the dread locality demons of this country, we offer this' good Chinese
tea! Let us obtain our wishes! And may the doctrines of Buddha be extended! "
The tea is then drunk and the cup is refilled two or three times.
The service of tea is succeeded by soup named" gsol-jam thugpa," and served
by a new set of the novice underlings.
When the cups are filled the Um-dse, joined by all the monks, chants the"
thug-pai mchhod-pa," or "the Sacrificial Offering of the Soup." Three or four
cups of soup are supplied to each monk. The hall is then swept by junior monks.
The Um-dse then inspects the magic circle (dKyil-hkhor)2 to see that it is
correct, and this ascertained he commences the celebration. He always heads the
service, the rest of the congregation repeating it word by word closely after him

and using a Psalter. This service consists of the

1 Nol ayman is allowed to serve out the monks" food. T'he lay servants bring it to the
outside door of the building and there deposit it.
2 For its description, vide Chapter V, page 320.
308 THE MONKHOOD. www.sikkim.gov.in

sngon-hgro. skyabs-hgro and las-sbyang, on the conclusion of which the

assembly disperses. As a sample of this part of the worsbip, I here translate a
short version of the sKyabs-hgro (vulgarly" KYAM--DO"), or
THE REFUGE FORMULA.
This service well illustrates the very depraved form of Buddhism
which is professed by the lamas. For here we find that the original Triple Refuge
formula for Buddha, The Word and The Assembly has been extended by the
lamas to include within its bounds the vast host of deities, demons and deified
saints of Tibet as well as many of the Indian Mahayana and Yogacharya Saints.
Its text is as follows:
" We-all beings-through the intercession of the Lama, go for refuge to
Buddha!
"We go for refuge to Buddha's Books (Dharma)!
"We go for refuge to The Assembly of the Lam,as (Sanghha)!
" We go for refuge to the host of the Gods and their retinue of the Yidam
(tantalized ghosts), mKhah-hgros (fairies), and the Defenders of THE Religion
who people the sky!
" We go for refuge to the victorious Lamas who have descended from the Sky
(i.e., all inspired Lamas)!
" We go for refuge to The Lama who is the holder of Wisdom and the Tantra!
(i.e., The holder of Padma Jungre as personified by Wisdom and Tantra.)
" We go for refuge to the All-Good Father-Mother, Samanta
bhadra-Yab-yum Kun tu.bzang-po! (The primordial Buddha-God.)
"We go for refuge to the divinely adorned Mild and Angry Loving Ones-
Longs-sku-zhi-khro-rab-hbyam!
" We go for refuge to the Maha Vajradhara Incarnation (of Shakyamuni )-
sprul-sku-Dorj e-hchhang.chhen !
" We go for refuge to The Diamond Sworded Guide' Vajrasatwa '-sTon-pa-
Dorje-Sems-pa!
"We go for refuge to the victorious Shakya Muni-rGyal-wa Shakya-Thub-
pa!
"We go for refuge to the Fierce Vajrapani-Phyag-na-Dorje gtum-po!
" We go for refuge to the Converted Mother Devi Marici- Yum hgyur-lha-
mo od-zer-chan ma !
" We go for refuge to the Learned Acharji Manjusri-sLob-dpon hJ am dpal
bshes-hsnyen!
" We go for refuge to the Pandita Sri Singha-Pan-chhen-Shri Singha !
"We go for refuge to the Jina Jnyana Suda-rGyal-wa..gyang-na su-da!
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THE REFUGE FORMULA. 309

" We go for refuge to the Pandita Bimala Mitra-Panchhen Bhi

ma-la-ri-tma!
"We go for refuge to the Incarnate Lotus-born Padma Sam
bhava-sprul-sku-Pad-ma-hbyung-gnas!
"We go for refuge to (his wife) the Daki'ni of the Ocean of Fore
knowledge-mKhah-hgro-ye-shes-mtsho-rgyal!
We go for refuge to The Religious King Dharma raja Thi-srong.
de.tsen-Chhos-rgyal-Khri-srong-ldeu-btsan!
" We go for refuge to The A pocalyse Finder- Terton M yang
ban-ting-hdsin-hzang-po!
" We go for refuge to The Guru's disciple, the Victor Sthavira
Dang-ma-gnas-brtan-ldang-ma-hlun-rgyal!
" We go for refuge to the Reverend Sister, the powerful Lioness
Lady Singeshwara-lche-btsun Seng-ge-dbang-phyug!
" We go for refuge to the Incarnate Jina Zhang-ton sprul.sku
rgyal-wa-zhang-rton!
" We go for refuge to The Gu-ru, clever above thousands-mKhas
panyid-hbum!
" We go for refuge to Dharma Gurunath Ber.nag-Chhos.bdag-gu
ru.jo.hber-nak mgon-po!
"We go for refuge to The Illusive Lion Gyaba-Khrul.zhig-seng
ge-rgyab-ba!
" We go for refuge to the Grent Devotee' The Clearer of the misty
moon'-Grub-chhen-zla-wa mun sel!
"We go for refuge to the Indian Sage Kumaraja-Rig.hdsin.ku.
ma-ra-dsa!
"We go for refuge to the Jina Prince of the Scentless Rays-rGyal
sres.Dri-med-hod-zer!
"We go for refuge to the Incarnate' Noble Banner of Victory'
sprul-sku .dPal-hbyor-rgyal-mtshan !
" We go for refuge to the Omniscient renowned Chandrakirti
Kun.mkhyen-Zla-wa-grags.pa!
"We go for refuge to The Three Incarnate Kind brothers-Drin
chhen-sprul-skn-mchhed-gsum!
"We go for refuge to the Bodhisatwa, The Noble Ocean-Byang
sems-dPal.hbyor-rgya mtsho!
"We go for refuge to the Incarnate Sage, the religious Vajra
sprul-sku-Rig-hdsin-chhos.rdor!
" We go for refuge to The Entirely accomplished and renowned
Speaker- Yongs-hdsin-ngag-dhang-grags-pa !
"We go for refuge to Mahaguru Dharmaraja -bLa-chhen-Chbos
kyi-rgyal-po!
" We go for refuge to the Revelation Finder Zhigpoling gter-bton-
zhig-po-gling-pa!
 310 THE MONKHOOD. www.sikkim.gov.in

" We go for refuge to the Religious king of accomplished know

ledge1-Chhos-rgyal-yon-ten.Phuntshogs !
" We go for refuge to The Banner of obtained Wisdom-mKhas
grub-bLo-gros-rgyal.mtshan !
"W ego for refuge to The Unequalled useful Vajra-Tshung med..
gzhan-phan-Dorje!
"We go for refuge to the Radical (Mula) Lama. Asoka-Mya
ngan-med-rTsa.wai-bLa-ma! 2
We go for refuge to the Lama of the Three collections of the
Mula Tantra-rTsa rGyud.dus-gsum-bLa-ma !
" We go for refuge to the accomplished Sage Satwa Phuntshogs
Sems-dpah Phun-tshogs-rig-hdsin !
"We go for refuge to The Beloved Religious King hsTan-hdsin,3
the holder of the doctrines Chhos-rgyal-Byams-pa-bsTan-hdsin!
" We go for refuge to the Reverend Sky Vajra-mKhas-btsun
Nam-mkhah-Dorje!
" We go for refuge to the Shri.Ratna.Bhadra-Satwa-Sems.dpah
Rin-chhen-dPal.bzang!
, We go for refuge to the collection of mild and angry Yidams
(Tutelary gods) !
" We go for refuge to the holy doctrine of Maha Anta or the Great
End-r Dsogspa-chhen-po !
" We go for refuge to The male and female Saints of the Country!
We go for refuge to The Fairies (mKhah hgro), Defenders of
Religion (Chhos skyongs), and Guardians (bSrungs ma)!
"Oh! Lama! Bless us as you have been blessed; Bless us with the
. blessing of the Tantras! .
"We beg you to bless us with OM, which is the BODY. We beg you to purify
our sins and pollutions of the body. We beg you to increase happiness without
any sickness. We beg you to give us the real undying gift of life!
" We beg you to bless us with AH, which is the COMMAND. We beg you to
purify the pollution and sins of the mind !We beg you to give us the power of
speech. We beg you to confer on us the gift of perfect speech!
"We beg you to bless us with the HUM (pr. Hung), which is the MIND! We
beg you to purify the pollution and sins of the mind! We beg you to give us the
real gift of pure heart. We beg you to empower us with the four powers!
" We pray you to give us the gifts of the True Body, Command and Mind!

1 The first Bhotiya King of Sikhim, vide page 249.

2 This may be a reference to the great Emperor Asoka or his confessor-Upagupta, the
Thirteenth Patriarch of the early Buddhist Church in India.
3 The sixth Bhotiya King of Sikhim, circa 1770-90.
 www.sikkim.gov.in
THE REFUGE FORMULA. 311

" -OM-.A.H-HUNG !
"Give us such blessing as will clear away the sins and pollution
of bad deeds!
" We beg you to soften the evils of bad causes!
"We beg you to bless us with the prosperity of our body, i.e., health.
" Bless us with mental guidance.
" Bless us with Buddhahood soon.
" Bless us by cutting us off from (worldly) illusions.
" Bless us by putting us into The Right Path.
" Bless us by making us understand all religious things.
" Bless us to be useful to each other with kindliness.
"Bless us with the ability of doing good and delivering the
animal beings from misery.
" Bless us to know ourselves thoroughly.
" Bless us to be mild from the depths of our heart.
" Bless us to be brave as .Yourself.
" Bless us with the Tantras as Yourself!
"Now, we, the innumerable animal beings, conceive that we have
"become pure in thought like Buddha, and we conceive that we are " working for
the welfare of the other animal beings. We, now having " obtained the qualities of
the collection of the gods and the roots of the " Tantras, and the zhi-wa, rgyas-pa,
dbang and Phrin-las, pray that all the animal beings be possessed of happiness
and be freed from misery. " Let us all animals be freed from lust, anger, and
attachment to worldly " affairs, and let us perfectly understand the true nature of
religion!
"Now, O! Father-Mother! The unadorned Dharma Kaya Samanta " Bhadra-
Yab-yum Chhos-sku-Kun-bzang! The richly adorned Mild "and Angry Loving
Ones-Longs-sku-zhi-khro-rab-hbyams! The "incarnate sages of the Skull
Rosary-sprul-sku-rigs-hdsin-thod" hphreng-bstsal! and the Mula Tantra Lama-
Tsa-rgyud-bla-ma ! " I now beg You to depart!
" O! Ghosts of heroes, "dPa-o! Female fiends, Dakkini Demoniacal
Defenders of the faith, Chhos.skyongs! The Holy Guardians " of the
Commandments-Dam-chan-bkah-i-bsrung-ma 1 And all those" that we invited
to this place! I beg You All now to depart!
"O! The powerful King of the Angry Deities, Khro-wo-i-rgyal" po- stob-po-
chhe! The powerful Ishwara and the host of the Country "Guardian Gods-mthu-
stobs-dbang-phyug-yul-hkhor-srung! And " all those others that were invited to
this place with all their retinue! " I beg You All now to depart!
MAY GLORY COME! Tashi-shok
.. LET VIRTUE COME! d Ge-o !"
[Here endeth The Refuge Service.]
 www.sikkim.gov.in
312 THE MONKHOOD.

About 8 A.M. the conch-shell blast again summons. the monks to the
Assembly Hall, where, after partaking of refreshments of tea and parched grain in
the manner already described, a full celebration (chhoga) is done. And on its
conclusion the monks disperse.
About 10 A.M. a Chinese drum is beaten to muster the monks in the
Assembly Hall. At this meeting rice and meat and vegetables are served out as
before, and with this is also served beer called gsos.. rgyab the lto-mchhod being
done as formerly. A fun celebration is then performed and the meeting dissolves.
In the afternoon a conch shell is blown for tea and a Chinese drum beaten for
beer, the monks assembling as before and doing a full celebration of the worship
of Mahakala Natha (mgonpo) and the Guardians of Religion respectively.
When sacerdotal celebrations on behalf of lay individuals have to be done,
they are introduced within the latter celebration, which is interrupted for this
purpose. And after each of these extra celebrations the monks .remain outside the
Assembly Hall for a very short time and then re-assemble. On finishing the extra
chhogas, the chhoga of the Religious Guardians is then resumed and concluded.
In the evening another assembly, preceded by tea as refreshment, conducts
the celebration of skang-shags with 108 lamps.
Another and final assembly for the day is made by beat of drum,
and rice and flesh-meat is served out.
The refreshments and meals usually number nine daily.
- IN HERMITAGE.
In the case of the hermit-lama (or mtshamS-pa), of which there are very. few in
.Sikhim, he is engaged all day long in mortifying his passions and worldly
desires, repeating mantras and practising those postures and magic rites which,
according to the Tantrik school, give miraculous powers and a short cut to
Nirvana.
The order of these exercises, according to the book entitled" The complete
Esoteric Tantra " 1 the reputed work of Padma Sambhava, is as follows:
1st.-The mode of placing the three mystic words (i.e., ku,
sung, and tuk).
2nd.- The Nectar-replying rosary.
3rd.-The jewelled rosary-guide for Ascending..
4th.-Secret counsels of the four Yogas.
5th.- The great Root of the Heart.

1 gsang.sngags lpyi rgyud.

 IN HERMITAGE. 313 www.sikkim.gov.in

6th.-The Lamp of The Three Dwellings.

7th.-The bright Loosener of the Illusion.
8th.- The water-drawing" dorj e. "
9th.-The secret guide to the fierce Dakini.
10th.-The drawing of the Essence of the stony nectar.
11 th.-Counsel on the Dakinis' habits.
12th.-Fathoming the mystery of the Dakinis.
13th.-Counsel for the Khandoma-Fairies' heart-root.
14th.-The Four Words for the path of Pardo.1
15th.-The Pardo of the angry demons.
16th.-To recognise the Gyalwa Rig-na or The Five Former
Buddhas. Then Nirvana is reached.
The hermit-lamas of Sikhim usually leave their hermitage for some months
annually to visit villages and places of pilgrimage. A true hermit who has cut off
all connection with the world is called sgomchhen or " great devotee."
Theoretically it ought to be part of the training of every young lama to spend
in hermitage a period of three years, three months, and three days,in order
"
to
accustom himself to ascetic rites .But this practice is very rarely observed in
Sikhim for any period, and when it is done, a period of three months and three
days is considered sufficient. During this seclusion he repeats the mantra of his
tutelary deity an incredible number of times. sNgon-gro-bzi-kbyor complete in
all its four sections, must be repeated 100,000 times. In the "Kyabdo" portion he
must prostrate himself to the ground 100,000 times. The repetition of the
Yige.brgya- pa itself takes about two months; and in addition must be .chanted
the following voluminous services:
Phyi.hgrub, nang-hgrub, gsang-hgrub, bla-hgrub, snyen.grub,
hphrin-las, and bzi-hgrub
As a sample of the form of lamaic ritual employed in the worship of a special
divinity, I give here a translation of the manual entitled
THE WORSHIP OF DOLMA,2 THE DELIVERESS.
Dolma is one of the most popular of the deities, and a large proportion of the
laity can repeat her services by heart. She is known to Northern Buddhism by the
Sanskrit name of Tara of which Dolma is a literal Tibetan translation, meaning"
The Unloosener (of difficulties)" or" The Saviouress." And it is to this attribute
of being ever ready to help and easily
1 Pardo, the ghostly interval between .death and judgment-vide article" Wheel of
Life," in chapter on " Temple," page 266.
2 sgrol.ma, vulgarly Do-
ma.
314 THE MONKHOOD. www.sikkim.gov.in

approachable that she owes her popularity. Most of the other deities cannot be
approached without the mediation of a lama; but the poorest layman or woman
may secure the immediate attention of Dolma by simply appealing to her direct.
The striking similarity between Dolma and" The Virgin Mary" of Roman
Catholicism has excited comment. Dolma, like The Virgin Mary, occupies a
maternal relation to the Buddhas ,and is an intercessor , a ready hearer of prayer

, easily approachable, and able and willing to relieve or soothe petty troubles, and
her name is a favourite personal name for women.
Her worship seems to date from about the 7th century A. D., when Tantric ideas
began to tinge Indian Buddhism. It seems to me that the name was evidently
suggested by the Hindu myth of Budha, or the planet :Mercury, whose mother
was Tara; and either by wilful or accidental confusion the idea got transferred to
Buddha, who about this time also received a place in the Hindu Pantheon.
There are now two recognized classes of the goddess Dolma, viz.
(a) The Green Dolma-" The Dolma" of the Tibetans, of
. which King Srongtsan-gampo's Nepalese wife was an incarnation ,and

(b) The White Dolma-who is especially worshipped in China and

Mongolia and very seldom in Tibet. King Srongtsan-gampo's
Chinese wife is believed to be an incarnation of this form.
The white form is seated like a. Buddha, and has seven eyes, one
. in the forehead in addition to the ordinary facial pair , and one in each
being
palm and in the sole of each foot
The green form The Dolma of the Tibetansis usually represented in the
form of a bejeweled young woman of a green complexion seated on a
lotus,with her left leg hanging down and . holding a long-stemmed lotus
flower. She is, however, given a variety of other forms, mild and demoniacal,
to the number of twenty-one or more. The demoniacal forms 1 are very
similar to those of the Hindu Durga. These several . forms are evidently the
objective representations in concrete fashion of the numerous titles of the
goddess :-thus Locana, Mamaki, Vajradhatviswari, Pandara, Ugratara,
Ratnatara., Bhrikutitara, Visvatara, &c. And latterly her names have been
extended to reach the mystic number of 108.

1 Khro-gnyer chan (pr. To-nyer chen), " She with frowning brows," &c.
 DOLMA'S WORSHIP. 315 www.sikkim.gov.in

Her Manual of Worship is alleged internally to have been composed by the first
of the seven mythical Dhyani Buddhas, viz., Vipashyi. The appendix, however, is
signed by Gedun Dub, the Grand Lama, who built Tashi lhunpo monastery circa 1445
A.D., so that it is possible he composed this version.
The Manual is here translated:
" EXHORTATION TO DOLMAS WORSHIP.
"If we worship this high and pure-souled goddess when we "retire in the dusk
and get up in the morning, then all our fears and " worldly anxieties will' give
way,' and our sins be forgiven. SHE"The .conqueror of myriad hosts, will
strengthen us. She will do more "than this! She will reach us directly to the end
of our transmigra"tion to Buddha and Nirvana!
" She will expel the direst poisons and relieve us from all anxieties " as to
food and drink, and all our wants will be satisfied; and all devils "and plagues
and poisons will be annihilated utterly; and the burdens "of all animals will
be.lightened ! If you chant her hymn two or three "or six or seven times, your
desire for a son will be realized! Or, "should you wish wealth, you will obtain it,
and all other wishes will be gratified and every sort of demon wIll be wholly
overcome! "
HER WORSHIP.
Her worship is divided into seven stages, viz.
(1) Invocation-Cal1ing her to come.
(2) Presentation of offerings of sacred food, water, flowers
and rice, and occasionally a mandala or magic circle
offering.
(3) Hymn in her praise.
(4) Repetition of her spell or mantra.
(5)&(6) Prayers for benefits present and to come.
(7) Benediction.

I.
INVOCATION.
" Hail! O! emeraldine Dolma !
Who art the Saviour of all beings!
I pray Thee descend from Thy heavenly mansion, at Potala,
Together with all Thy retinue of gods, titans, and deliverers! I humbly
prostrate myself at Thy lotus feet
Deliver us from all distress!
Hail to Thee, Our Holy Mother! "
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316 THE MONKHOOD.

II.

PRESENTATION OF OFFERINGS (Sacrificial).

" We hail Thee! 0 Rever'd and Sublime Dolma !
Who art adored by all the kings and princes
Of the ten directions and of the present, past and future.
We pray Thee to accept these offerings
Of flowers, incense, perfumed lamps,
Precious food, the music of cymbals,
And the other offerings!
We sincerely beg Thee in all of Thy divine Forms 1
To partake of the food now offered!
On confessing to Thee penitently their sins
The most sinful hearts, yea! even the committers of the
Ten vices and the five boundless sins,
Will obtain forgiveness and reach
Perfection of soul-through Thee!
If we (human beings) have amassed any merit
In the three periods, the present, past and future,
We rejoice in this good fortune, when we consider
The unfortunate lot of the poor (lower) animals
Piteously engulphed in the ocean of misery.
On their behalf, we now beg to turn the wheel of religion !
We beseech Thee by whatever merit we've accumulated
To kindly regard all the animals.
And for ourselves!
When our merit has reached perfection
Let us not we pray Thee
Linger longer in this world! "

III.

HYMNS IN PRAISE OF DOLMA

. (In her Twenty-one Forms)
" Adoration to Arya Tara!
And Avalokita (her spiritual father),
Rich in power and the store-house of pity!
Hail! rever'd and sublime Dolma!
We adore Thee!
1Each stanza refers to a different form of the goddess as noted in the foregoing text.
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DOLMA S WORSHIP. 317

"Hail! Dolma! Thou ever ready heroine !

Born, like a lightning-flash, from the pitying tear 1
Shed for humanity by The Lord of the three worlds
The Lotus.born!
Hail! to Thee whose face is shining
As a hundred harvest moons
Lit by the splendid light of
A full thousand fulgent stars I
Hail! O! Thou whose hand is decked with
'The Blue and Golden water-lotus!
Thou beneficent and zealous Soother of difficulties,
Thou monopoliseth the realms of woe, as well as action.
Hail! 0 ! Thou with head adorned by Tathagatha 2
Conqueror of the Uni verse!
Thou hast overcome Thine enemies without exception
And shown Thyself a saintly Victor.
Hail! By Thy mystic' Tut.ta-ra-hung 3
Thou possesseth the realms of earth and sky.
Thou .treadest under foot the seven worlds
And makest one and all to bend!
Hail! The mighty gods adore Thee
lndra, Agni, Brahma and the Lord of the Winds;
The risen ghosts and the dread' Ti.za ';
The horde of harmful spirits praise Thee!
Hail! By Thy mystic' tre' and' phat'
Thou destroy.est the cunning schemes of Thy opponents.
With Thy right leg flexed and the left extended
, Thou consumest Thine enemies with devouring fire!
Hail! With Thy awful word' tu-re' t 4
Thou banishest the bravest of devils!
With the mere frown of Thy tear-born face
Thou completely routeth enemies!

1 The allusion here is that Avalokita-" The Storehouse of Pity-on looking down upon
the world shed tears out of pity for the misery of humanity. The tear from the left eye On
falling to the earth formed a lake, on which instantly, like a lightning-flash, appeared,
floating on a lotus flower, the goddess Dolma, who was then commissioned by Avalokita to
soothe human suffering.
2 In this form of Dolma's image a figure of Tathagatha Amitabha Buddha is seated on her
hair.
3&4 Part of Dolma's spell or mantra already given under head of Rosaries," vide
page 288.