Exploring The Childs Personality PDF

EXPLORING THE
CHILDS PERSONALITY
ABOUT THE EDITOR
Doctor Carina Coulacoglou (born in 1956 in Athens, Greece) is a

child psychologist and test developer. She studied psychology at the
University of London and later obtained a Master of Sciences (MSc)
in Child Development from the same university. Her interest grad-
ually moved towards the psychology of fairy tales and she embarked
on a Master of Philosophy (MPhil) at the University of Sussex (UK),
followed by a Ph.D., which concerned the development of the Fairy
Tale Test (FTT). The test has been standardized in Greece and is cur-
rently published in many languages. She is also the author of sever-
al papers on the FTT as well as two textbooks (in Greek) about psy-
chometrics and personality assessment. Over the years, Doctor
Coulacoglou has taught courses in Psychometrics and Psychological
Assessment in various educational institutions in Greece.
EXPLORING THE
CHILDS PERSONALITY
Developmental, Clinical and Cross-Cultural
Applications of the Fairy Tale Test
Edited by
CARINA COULACOGLOU, Ph.D.

Published and Distributed Throughout the World by
CHARLES C THOMAS PUBLISHER, LTD.

2600 South First Street
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This book is protected by copyright. No part of

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2008 by CHARLES C THOMAS PUBLISHER, LTD.
ISBN 978-0-398-07804-1 (hard)

ISBN 978-0-398-07805-8 (paper)
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Kendler, Howard H., 1919

Exploring the childs personality : developmental, clinical, and cross-cultural
applications of the Fairy Tale Test / edited by Carina Coulacoglou.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-0-398-07804-1 (hard)ISBN 978-0-398-07805-8 (pbk.)
1. Fairy Tale Test. 2. Fairy Tale TestCross-cultural studies. I. Coulacoglou,
Carina, 1956 . II. Title.
[DNLM: 1. Personality Tests. 2. Child. 3. Cross-Cultural Comparison. 4.
Fantasy. 5. Mythologypsychology. 6. Personality Assessment. WM 145 E965
2008]
BF698.8 F35E97 2008

155.418284dc22
2008002315
CONTRIBUTORS
Anastasia Atsarou, Ph.D.

Child Clinical Psychologist
Peristeri Mental Health
Athens, Greece
Pirim Dugsor Bengi

Research Assistant
University of Istanbul Department of Psychology
Istanbul, Turkey
Carina Coulacoglou, Ph.D.

Child Psychologist
Projective Society of the Fairy Tale Test
Athens, Greece
Manisha Das Gupta, Ph.D.

Lecturer, Department of Psychology
University of Kolkata, India
Hayriye Ertem-Vehid, Ph.D.

University of Istanbul, Child Institute
Statistician: Department of Family Health
Istanbul, Turkey
Alison Ferst, M.A.

Psychology Department
City University of New York at City College, USA
Ioanna Giannopoulou, Ph.D.

Child Psychiatrist
Peristeri Mental Health Center
v
vi Exploring the Childs Personality
Athens, Greece
Nora Goudsmit, M.A.

Zianxin Jhang, Ph.D.

Institute of Psychology
Chinese Academy of Sciences
Beijing, China
Eleni Kotsoni, M.Sc., Ph.D.

Psychologist
Projective Fairy Tale Test Society
Athens, Greece
Yuhui Li, Ph.D.

Key Laboratory of Mental Health
Institute of Psychology
Chinese Academy of Sciences
Beijing, China
Niovi Michalopoulou, Psy.D.

Clinical Psychologist (private practice)
Athens, Greece
Nilanjana Sanyal, Ph.D.

Professor and former Head, Department of Psychology
University of Kolkata, India
Elena Savina, Ph.D.

Developmental Psychologist
University of Oreol, Russia
Simon Shagrin, M.A.

Marilena Souyouldzoglou, Ph.D.

Educational Psychologist
Sikiaridion Special School
Athens, Greece
Contributors vii
Daphne Stamatoyanni, Ph.D.

Clinical Psychologist (private practice)
Athens, Greece
Steven Tuber, Ph.D.

ABPP Psychology Department
Tevfika Tunaboylu-Ikiz, Ph.D.

Psychoanalyst
Istanbul, Turkey
Rachel Wolitzky, M.A.

Ayse Elif Yavuz

Research Assistant
Istanbul, Turkey
Dedicated to my life companion.
and
In memory of Paul Kline.

PREFACE
decided to embark on the mission of editing the present book, when I

I realized that I would like to share with others my experience in using the
Fairy Tale Test (FTT). I could perhaps refer to this long-term experience as a
journey of wisdom and enchantment in the depths of the childs psyche.
The writing and editing took approximately four years, since at the time of
its conception, some of the cross-cultural studies were still under way.
Through the use of the FTT we attempt to describe and elaborate on var-
ious issues of child development, especially those that relate to the structure
and the unfolding of personality. What is worth noting is that fairy tales are
still very much alive and captivating in childrens mind and hearts. They
havent lost their appeal probably because their symbolisms and reflected
values remain the same through the passage of time.
When I first decided to standardize the test in various cultures, I did not
know what to expect, mostly in terms of how the material will appeal to chil-
dren from nonwestern countries. To my surprise I discovered that at least
three of the most popular fairy tales (i.e., Little Red Riding Hood, Snow White
and the Seven Dwarfs and Cinderella) are translated in most languages. In addi-
tion, most book illustrations represent westernized characters in terms of
both external features and clothing.
Fairy tales with giants, however, are not as popular as the above stories.
For instance, Japanese children are scarcely familiar with the story of Jack and
the Beanstalk, Tom Thumb or giants known from literary fairy tales such as
Oscar Wildes The Selfish Giant, or Gullivers Travels.
Through the application of the FTT in diverse cultures, I had the oppor-
tunity to find out that supernatural characters such as giants or witches with
well-known aggressive, antagonistic, menacing or magical abilities are not
necessarily perceived as such from children in nonwestern countries. Giants
in China, for instance, are usually nice and protective; Rakshashas or
Rakshashis in India are man-eating demons, while giants in Japan do not
exist as such.
xi
xii Exploring the Childs Personality
Childrens responses to the FTT questions revealed that their reactions are
not so much motivated by the external attributes of the character (e.g., skin
color, facial traits, clothes, gender, etc.) as much as to what this character rep-
resents or symbolizes. This is perhaps the major reason that makes this tool
cross-culturally sensitive and universally appealing.
It is worth emphasizing the importance of standardizing the FTT in such
cultures as Russia, Turkey, India and China whereby test standardization is
not common practice, let alone the standardization of a projective instru-
ment. Had it not been for the perseverance, broadmindedness, sensitivity,
conscientiousness and determination of all my collaborators in completing
this important task, the standardization of the FTT would have remained a
figment of imagination.
The FTT was designed based on modern psychometric theories, in terms
of including large samples and a variety of validity studies. Since its creation
ten years ago, many things have been accomplished: an initial standardiza-
tion in Greece of approximately 800 children (between 7 to 12 years of age),
followed by a second one which included a younger age group of children
(6-year-olds) and resulted in the addition of three personality variables.
Furthermore, construct and criterion validity studies took place. Another sig-
nificant achievement concerns the several standardization projects that have
taken place and are still under way.
For decades, psychologists have been classifying personality tests as either
objective or projective. Objective tests correspond to assessment instruments
where the intended response is represented by a limited set of options, and
scored according to a pre-existing key. On the other hand, in projective tests
the respondent is required to generate a response in the face of an ambigui-
ty, whereby the person projects unconscious or subjective material. A recent
debate in the field of personality assessment concerns this terminology as
being unclear and misleading. Objective tests by definition carry desirable
and positive connotations such as precision and objectivity, encouraging cer-
tain prejudices against projective techniques. As a result alternative terms,
such as Performance Based Tests, Constructive Method, Free Response Measures,
Expressive Personality Tests, and so on, have been proposed in order to replace
the term projective. Although I am aware of this debate and realize that these
two terms do not fully reflect the complex and distinctive methods actually
used for personality assessment, the term projective techniques is
employed throughout the book as this still remains the most popular term for
the purposes of scientific communication.
Preface xiii
CONTENTS
The present book is divided in six sections. The first section entitled New
Developments in Projective Techniques for Children, provides a basis for
understanding the function and nature of projective tests in general (chapter
1), and the Fairy Tale Test in particular (Chapter 2).
Most specifically, in Chapter 1 the authors review the recent develop-
ments in projective techniques in children, by discussing two major tests, the
Rorschach and the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT), while setting apart
the contribution of the Fairy Tale Test as a novel instrument in the field of
personality assessment in children.
In Chapter 2 the author presents in an elaborative way the association
between fairy tales and unconscious processes. More specifically, she
describes the origins and function of fairy tales, their main characteristics, the
childrens interest in fairy tales in terms of their psychological development
and coping with inner conflicts, the roles of aggression and violence in fairy
tales and, finally, their clinical applications.
The second section of the book Empirical Research includes two chap-
ters. Chapter 3 presents an elaborative study of the various types of aggres-
sion as assessed in the FTT, and contributes towards a better understanding
of the construct of aggression. The fourth chapter investigates idiosyncratic
responses of children according to their responses to the Fairy Tale Test. It
aims at exploring the nature of the bizarre response and attempts to form a
preliminary guide to differentiating bizarre responses that indicate some
form of psychopathology from those that indicate imagination and creativi-
ty.
The third section of the book, The Study of Defense Mechanisms, con-
sists of a single chapter (Chapter 5) that deals with the development and
cross-cultural significance of defense mechanisms. More specifically, the
author describes the origins and theories of defense mechanisms and their
classification. In addition, she concentrates on how defense mechanisms
appear in the Fairy Tale Test and their development through childhood,
while discussing each one separately. Particular reference is made to the
cross-cultural significance of defense mechanisms.
In the fourth section of the book, Clinical Applications of the Fairy Tale
Test, the emphasis is given on the clinical application of the test in three dis-
tinct groups of children with mental disorders: children with learning dis-
abilities (Chapter 6); children with mild mental retardation (Chapter 7); and
children with psychotic symptoms (Chapter 8). All three chapters highlight
the way the Fairy Tale Test contributes to the understanding of underlying
personality structures in relation to specific disorders.
xiv Exploring the Childs Personality
The following section, Cross-Cultural Applications of the FTT, includes

five chapters presenting the application of the Fairy Tale Test across five cul-
turally diverse countries on a large sample of children as part of the tests
standardization: Russia (Chapter 9), China (Chapter 10), Greece (Chapter
11), India (Chapter 12) and Turkey (Chapter 13). Each chapter presents a
detailed quantitative and qualitative analysis of the data, revealing the core
personality of children in relation to their specific sociocultural background.
The last section, Psychoanalytic Interpretation of Fairy Tales, consists of
one chapter (Chapter 14) that provides some experimental validation of psy-
choanalytic theories of fairy tales through the Fairy Tale Test. More specifi-
cally, the authors analyze the psychoanalytic significance of the childrens
responses and discuss how those can supplement and verify psychoanalytic
interpretations of fairy tales.
SCOPE
The scope of this book is to present its readers an in-depth study of the
childs personality through the use of the Fairy Tale Test (FTT). The FTT has
the significant advantage of providing information on a large number of per-
sonality parameters and their interrelations in a systematic way. Some of
these parameters (such as ambivalence, sense of property, and sense of pri-
vacy) have not been examined by other personality measures. In that sense,
the FTT is a tool that can be employed for a variety of purposes such as in
the fields of developmental psychology, diagnosis and treatment outcome,
and cross-cultural research.
The present book offers information on current theoretical issues about
the psychological uses of fairy tales, the results of empirical studies with
groups of children that psychologists commonly encounter in their practice
(namely, children with learning disabilities and mild mental retardation), as
well as the results of several cross-cultural applications. It is in fact a rare
opportunity for the interested reader to come across an elaborative study of
personality and culture, especially through the study of such diverse cultures
such as China, India, Russia, Turkey and Greece. Another significant and
perhaps unique contribution is the elaborate analysis of a large number of
defense mechanisms, their development during childhood, as well as some
cross-cultural comparisons.
I hope that the present book will inspire readers to study and use the FTT,
and that it will be helpful in opening new ways in working with children, by
learning more about the complexities and intricacies of their distinct person-
ality.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
would like to thank my friends and colleagues: Doctor Anastasia Atsarou,

I for her support and contribution in finding clinical samples; Doctor
Sarafidou Emy, for her valuable advice in the statistical analysis of the data;
and Doctor Marilena Souyouldjoglou, for her support and constructive col-
laboration in several chapters of this book.
I would also like to thank and express my appreciation to all the contrib-
utors for sharing their knowledge and experience. With regards to the con-
tributors of the cross-cultural studies, I would like to express my gratitude for
taking part in such a demanding and unique project. I would like to extend
my thanks to all the examiners of the FTT whose role in the standardization
process was invaluable. I would also like to thank all the children who par-
ticipated in data collection, their parents and teachers.
Many thanks to Alison Rooney and Eleni Kotsoni for their constructive
comments and the copyediting of the book.
Finally, I would like to thank Michael Thomas for his patience and trust.
xv
CONTENTS
Page
Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xi
Chapter
PART I: NEW DEVELOPMENTS IN PROJECTIVE
TECHNIQUES FOR CHILDREN
1. A Review of Projective Tests for Children:

Recent Developments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Steven Tuber, Nora Goudsmit, Alison Ferst,
Simon Shagrin, and Rachel Wolitzky
2. Fairy Tales as Building Blocks: The Development
of the Fairy Tale Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Carina Coulacoglou
PART II: EMPIRICAL RESEARCH
3. A Study on Aggression in Children through the Fairy Tale Test . . . . 63

Carina Coulacoglou, Marilena Souyouldzoglou, and Anastasia Atsarou
4. A Study on the Idiosyncratic Responses of Children . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Niovi Michalopoulou
PART III: THE STUDY OF DEFENSE MECHANISMS
5. The Development and Cross-Cultural Significance of

Defense Mechanisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
Carina Coulacoglou
xvii
xviii Exploring the Childs Personality
PART IV: CLINICAL APPLICATION OF THE FAIRY TALE TEST
6. The Fairy Tale Test in the Personality Assessment of

Children with Learning Disorders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
Marilena Souyouldzoglou
7. The Fairy Tale Test in the Personality Assessment of
Children with Mild Mental Retardation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
Marilena Souyouldzoglou
8. Children with Psychotic Symptoms: Two Case Studies . . . . . . . . . . 154
Ioanna Giannopoulou, Anastasia Atsarou, and Dafne Stamatoyanni
PART V: CROSS-CULTURAL APPLICATION OF THE FAIRY

TALE TEST
Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
9. The Application of the Fairy Tale Test in Russia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
Elena Savina
10. The Application of the Fairy Tale Test in China . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
Yuhui Li and Jianxin Zhang
11. The Application of the Fairy Tale Test in Greece . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
Carina Coulacoglou and Eleni Kotsoni
12. The Application of the Fairy Tale Test in India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
Nilanjana Sanyal and Manisha Dasgupta
13. The Application of the Fairy Tale Test in Turkey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
Tevfika Tunaboylu-Ikiz, Hayriye Ertem-Vehid,
Bengi Pirim Dsgr, and Ayse Elif Yavu
PART VI: PSYCHOANALYTIC INTERPRETATIONS OF FAIRY

TALES
14. The Contribution of the Fairy Tale Test in the Psychoanalytic

Interpretation of Fairy Tales. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
Carina Coulacoglou and Marilena Souyouldzoglou
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341
ABBREVIATIONS
(?) An in-parenthesis question mark indicates probing made by

the examiner/administrator to the child during administra-
tion of the FTT in order to clarify his/her response.
DM Defense mechanism
FTT Fairy Tale Test
LD Learning disabilities
LRRH Little Red Riding Hood
M Mean
MMR Mild mental retardation
N Number of participants
Q Question
SD Standard deviation
SES Socioeconomic status
SW Snow White (from the tale Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs)
FTT Variables
AMB Ambivalence
DMT Desire for Material Things
DSUP Desire for Superiority
SE Self-Esteem
SPRO Sense of Property
SPRIV Sense of Privacy
AGRDOM Aggression as Dominance
OA Oral Aggression
ON Oral Needs
AGRA Aggression Type A
AGRRET Aggression as Retaliation
AGRENVY Aggression as Envy
AGRDEF Aggression as Defense
xix
xx Exploring the Childs Personality
FA Fear of Aggression
NAFCT Need for Affection
NAFIL Need for Affiliation
DH Desire to Help
NPRO Need for Protection
ANX Anxiety
D Depression
AFTC Adaptation to Fairy Tale Content
B Bizarres
SEXPREO Sexual Preoccupation
MOR Morality
REL/MO Relation with Mother
REL/FA Relation with Father
REP Repetitions
NAPPRO Need for Approval
AGRINSTR Instrumental Aggression
EXPLORING THE
CHILDS PERSONALITY
PART I
NEW DEVELOPMENTS IN PROJECTIVE

TECHNIQUES FOR CHILDREN
Chapter 1
A REVIEW OF PROJECTIVE TESTS FOR CHILDREN:

RECENT DEVELOPMENTS
STEVEN TUBER, NORA GOUDSMIT, ALISON F ERST, S IMON S HAGRIN, AND RACHEL WOLITZKY
INTRODUCTION on childrens play has shown that fantasy play is a

domain where cognitive and affective processes
erhaps the primary reason projective tests have interact and develop (Russ, 1998). Seja and Russ
P been so useful in work with children is because
they provide a standardized arena in which to cap-
(1999), for example, demonstrated that children
who had the capacity to play and were able to
ture a childs play and imagination. Play and imag- organize their fantasy play around emotional
ination for children are valid equivalents to dreams themes were more adept at both describing emo-
for an adult in that they are where a childs con- tional experiences and understanding the emotions
scious and unconscious mental phenomena come of others, not accounted for by verbal ability. While
together, so that in play a child can be most men- this research does not make claims about causation,
tally alive and present. By putting experiences and it highlights the importance of play as a medium
feelings into play rather than words, the child is creating through which one can observe and assess a childs
structure . . . Adults figure out how they feel by talk- cognitive and emotional life. Childrens ability to
ing it through; very young children figure it out by play with projective measures thus takes the
playing about it (Slade, 1994, original emphasis). important step of placing their idiosyncratic expres-
Children use play and imagination to rehearse and sion and development in a standardized format for
repeat aspects of their experience they are coming nomothetic comparison.
to terms with, exploring, or working towards mas- A good place to start a discussion of projective
tery in their development. Projective tests allow the tests is with the difference between projective and
imaginative and playful expression of children to be nonprojective tests, and the question of why one
captured and transformed into a standardized for- should use projective tests at all. Rapaport (1950)
mat, rather than remain within the utterly idio- addressed this distinction in a manner that is still
graphic domain of the playground or the clinician- pertinent and useful today. The apparent distinc-
patient relationship. tion between the two types of tests is due to whether
Children use play to process their experience, the questions or tasks are structured (nonprojec-
and through play they practice taking the perspective) or unstructured (projective). Nonprojective
tives of others, rehearse emotional experiences and tests consist of tasks that have a unique and verifi-
situations, and consider multiple perspectives on able answer whereas projective tests do not have
reality. For Winnicott (1971) the capacity to play is a an objective or a single correct answer (Rapaport,
critical developmental achievement, and it is not 1950, p. 347). The principle behind projective tests
only a sign of adaptation, it is an indicator of a is that the subjects answers are determined by
capacity for attaining fully human status. Research choices and principles that can be both intrapsychic
5
6 Exploring the Childs Personality
and external to the subject. Rapaport argued that organization and creativity.
the distinction between projective and nonprojec- In a recent paper, Meyer and Kurtz (2006) argue
tive tests is arbitrary because each shares qualities of that the opposing terms projective and objec-
the other. Projective test stimuli have objective and tive used to describe measures of personality
verifiable features to them as evidenced by popular assessment are misleading and inaccurate for a
responses on the Rorschach or common themes in number of reasons. The authors argue that objec-
responses to TAT cards. Similarly, nonprojective tive tests, referring to patient-rated question-
tests elicit features of the subjects personality and naires, (inventories with true vs. false or Likert-
internal life, evident in verbal responses, or the scat- scale answers) place the burden of objectivity and
ter of test scores on intelligence tests, that reveals expertise on the subject filling out the questionnaire
the subjects unique development and personality rather than the examiner, in addition to suggesting
organization in his/her array of aptitudes across dif- that the well-documented presence of response
ferent domains. Rapaport stated that the distinction styles and biases does affect the objectivity of the
between projective and nonprojective tests does not results. The term projective is also misleading, the
hold because a subjects answers are always deter- authors suggest, because the mechanism guiding the
mined by a combination of the external features of subjects responses may not always be projection
the test stimulus and the internal qualities of the in the classic Freudian sense of the term, meaning
subject. So the same diagnostic principle behind attributing distressing internal phenomena to the
projective tests may be applied when analyzing external world. Projective tests do not merely cap-
either type of test results: It is assumed that these ture the private world of the subject irregardless of
behavior segments bear the imprint of the organi- the test stimuli; rather the nature of the projective
zation of the subjects personality, and therefore it is task does impact responses. The authors argue that
expected that the test performance will be revealing individual tests should be named or referred to
of that personality (Rapaport, 1950, p. 340). more specifically, rather than lumping different
Projective tests are designed to present the sub- assessment measures and techniques into abstract,
ject with a lesser degree of external structure in misrepresentative categories. Nevertheless, the term
order to allow maximal expression of the structur- projective test will still be used in this chapter and
ing principles of the individual personality throughout this book, acknowledging that a sub-
(Rapaport, 1950, p. 342). Diagnostic testing is most jects responses to a projective test are always a
clinically useful when a battery of tests is used, product of the interaction between the subjects per-
including both projective and nonprojective tests, in sonality and the test stimulus as no method of obser-
order to see how the subjects performance varies in vation captures the subject without some alteration
the context of greater and lesser ambiguity. A dis- in his/her state. Projective tests, as we use the
crepancy in performance on projective versus non- term, merely refer to a test with a relatively smaller
projective methods can have important implica- degree of external structure, and a task that does not
tions for both diagnosis and treatment. For instance, have a single answer or prescribed options from
test results showing intact test performance on struc- which the subject chooses.
tured tasks compared to more regressed, low func- Projective tests have proved to be particularly
tioning responses on unstructured tasks have been useful when viewed through a psychodynamic lens
found to be more typical of people with a border- because they operationalize and provide a database
line level of organization (Knight, 1953; Gunderson for many of the theoretical concepts underlying dif-
& Singer, 1975). Both projective and nonprojective ferent psychodynamic schools of thought. Common
tests are needed in order to assess a subjects to all psychodynamic schools, or models, is the con-
response to greater and lesser degrees of external ception of the mind and present behavior as being
structure, which bears uniquely on personality determined by both conscious and unconscious
A Review of Projective Tests for Children 7
thoughts, affects, wishes and representations. This niques, in turn, provide an empirical format for con-
common conception of personality and mental life cepts from these different psychodynamic models
having both conscious and unconscious aspects that to be used in research. An example of research
interact has both commonalities and differences informed by the drive model is Sprohge, Handler,
across the three major paradigms of psychodynam- Plant and Wickers (2002) examination of oral
ic thought. The models of drive, ego psychology dependence in alcoholics and depressives using the
and self-object representations are different yet Rorschach. Two examples of research from the ego
overlapping in the way they frame this interaction psychological perspective include Russ and
between conscious and unconscious components of Grossman-McKees (1990) look at the relationship
mental life within the individual. between primary process thinking on the
The drive model is based on the view that peo- Rorschach and affect expressed in fantasy play and
ple are motivated by biologically-based urges or divergent thinking, and Smiths (1981) look at the
drives, and each person varies in their ability to relationship between childrens Whole responses
manage, comprehend and transform them at each on the Rorschach and Piagetian stages of cognitive
stage in their development (Freud, 1923). It is there- development. A prime example of research from a
fore normative for all children to experience certain combination of the ego psychological and object
wishes and desires as unacceptable to some extent, relational perspectives is Lerners (1990) review of
and the internal conflict that results is often related research using the Lerner and Lerner (1980) scale
to the tasks and preoccupations of particular (psy- for assessing primitive defenses on the Rorschach.
chosexual) stages of development. The ego psycho- These studies identified patterns of defenses used
logical model looks at the persons ability to adapt by specific clinical populations (e.g., anorexics, gen-
to the demands of reality in the external world, to der disturbed children) and patients with different
manage their internal urges, wishes and emotions, levels of psychopathology (neurotic, borderline,
and their capacity to psychologically self-regulate schizophrenia). Examples of research using projec-
(e.g., a focus on the capacity for reality-testing and tive tests from an object relational perspective can
the quality of defense mechanisms) (Anna Freud, be found in two literature reviews: Tuber (1992)
1936; Hartmann, 1939; Mahler, Pine, & Bergman reviewed studies using the Mutual Autonomy Scale
1975). From the ego psychological perspective, ego applied to the Rorschach to assess the quality of
capacities, both strengths and deficits, are devel- childrens object relations, and Stricker and Healey
oped slowly over the course of development, (1990) reviewed empirical literature assessing object
through both conscious and unconscious learning. relations with various projective techniques, includ-
Last, the self/object representational model focuses ing the Rorschach, TAT, dream-based measures,
on a persons internal representations of self and early memories and others. The rise of object rela-
others, based on conscious and unconscious memo- tions theory over the past 30 years has led to rela-
ries of childhood experiences (Klein, 1932; tively more object-representational-based uses of
Fairbairn, 1952; Winnicott; 1958; Kernberg, 1976). projective tests. This mirrors the notion that as the-
These representations significantly contribute to the oretical paradigms have changed over time, so too
persons experience of self and others, and psy- have the ways projective tests been interpreted and
chopathology may be seen as the extent to which utilized to predict aspects of psychodynamic assess-
the present is incapable of being perceived and ment and treatment (Lerner, 1998).
experienced as separate from internal representa- The usefulness of psychodynamic theoretical
tions from the past. concepts lies in large part in their application to the
These different models encompass various theo- process of psychodynamic treatment. Projective
retical perspectives on personality organization, in tests provide a snapshot at a given time of central
addition to methods of treatment. Projective tech- aspects of a persons personality organization. By
translating theoretical concepts into limited behav- a snapshot of a childs inner life with its capacities
ior segments, projective tests provide a vital link and limitations. In their 1994 review, Ornberg and
between an isolated measurement of personality Zalewski, for example, critically examined forty-
and theories of treatment (given the pathological or eight studies that use the Rorschach in adolescent
adaptive presence of certain drives, defenses, or populations. Notwithstanding several methodologi-
object relations). Projective tests can be used to cal concerns, they found evidence that the
assess and predict treatment outcome by linking Rorschach provides useful and valid measures of
patterns of test scores to patterns in the treatment reality testing, cognitive complexity, disordered/
process, or changes in test performance to changes psychotic thinking, general psychological distress,
in treatment (Tuber, 2000; Fowler, Hilsenroth, & disturbance in object relations and depression in
Handler, 2000). specific adolescent groups (Ornberg & Zalewski,
In summary, projective tests are particularly use- 1994).
ful for tapping into the emotional lives of children. A number of scales are currently available which
They provide a substantive assessment of personal- assess the quality of Object Relations in projective
ity in a standardized format, and they serve as a test responses including: the Mutuality of
connective bridge between a measurement of indi- Autonomy Scale (MOA) developed by Urist (1977);
vidual personality, psychodynamic theory and the the Krohn Scale of Object Representations (1974)
treatment process. We now turn to a discussion of for Rorschach responses as well as dreams and early
the most eminent projective test, the Rorschach, memories; and the Rorschach Separation
and the ways it has been used in empirical research Individuation Scale (Coonerty, 1986). These scales
in the areas of object relations, child development, have been widely used in clinical research with chil-
psychopathology and treatment. dren and have proven to be reliable measures of
different aspects and qualitative dimensions of
object representations. Additionally, each individ-
THE RORSCHACH ual measure cited above espouses a developmental
framework, and has proven to be sensitive in meas-
The Rorschach Test as a uring change in the nature of an individuals repre-
Measure of Object Relations sentations of self and other over time when used as
a repeated measure. Thus, each has demonstrated
There is a rich history of operationalizing psy- its heuristic value in documenting important quali-
chodynamic concepts with children and applying tative changes in object representations over the
these principles to the Rorschach. Research with course of long-term, psychodynamically-oriented
childrens Rorschach protocols has confirmed many treatment.
key tenets of the psychoanalytically informed con- The focus on the relationship of self and other in
cepts of object relations, affect maturity and defense interaction has been a particularly investigated
organization. Russ and Grossman-McKee (1990), means of examining a childs phenomenological
for example, investigated the relationships among experience. Assessments of the manner in which
expression of primary process thinking on the children internalize early interactions between
Rorschach, emotional expression in childrens fan- self and significant others have also become
tasy play, and divergent thinking in first and second increasingly viewed as a pivotal means of discern-
grade children. Their results suggest that the ability ing both cognitive development and later interper-
to think imaginatively in a style similar to an adults sonal relations (Tuber, 1992). An object representa-
free-association and the ability to tap into affect- tion scale developed by Urist (1977), the Mutuality
laden material are related processes. The Rorschach of Autonomy (MOA) scale, rates Rorschach object
gives us access to this arena, and allows the clinician representational responses on a 7-point continuum.
Scale points range from adaptive, mutual and recip- intrapsychic representational structures. The
rocal respect for others in interaction, to the loss of authors defined object representations as conscious
autonomy in interaction through the need for exter- and unconscious mental schemata which are estab-
nal support; mirroring echoes of ones self; threat or lished on the basis of interactions with significant
control of another; physical assault destroying others, and which bear the imprint not only of actu-
autonomy and last, to calamitous engulfment or al interactions, but also of the individuals develop-
destruction. Reliability has been excellent (Tuber, mental level and intrapsychic life (e.g., impulses,
1992) for the scale and it has been used in a number affects, drives, and fantasies). The authors cite pre-
of studies relating to treatment efficacy. Tuber vious research which has indicated that essential
(1983) used the MOA scale to effectively predict features of the individuals mental representations,
later rehospitalization in young children who had along with their developmental antecedents, are
spent at least six-months in residential treatment encoded in projective test responses that can be
during their childhood. Children without the bene- assessed systematically.
fit of benign object representations at admission Exners Egocentricity Index on the Rorschach
were far more likely to be rehospitalized later than (Exner, 1974, 1978) rates the degree and level of
a group of matched cohorts at the same treatment egocentricity by providing an index of the subjects
facility. Tuber (1992) has also used the scale in idio- self-concern, self-focusing and egocentricity.
graphic assessments of children who were tested Exners scale is based on the premise that exces-
and then later began psychodynamic psychothera- sively high or low index scores may accompany
py. Treatment paradigms closely matched psychopathological states and that improvement as
Rorschach MOA patterns, suggesting that this an outcome of treatment would be characterized by
measure may be a useful component of empirical level of egocentricity scores becoming more consis-
efforts to capture object relations status, both tent with nonpatient records. Its negative correla-
before, during, and after the child treatment tion with the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI) sup-
process. ports the interpretation of a low index score as a
Krohn and Mayman (1974) developed an object reflection of low self-concept and dysphoric mood
representational scale that they and others have (Duricko et al., 1988). A measure of Rorschach
applied successfully to Rorschach protocols as well Developmental Level (DL) first developed by
as dream reports and early memories. The scale Friedman (1953) and later modified by Becker
assesses object relational qualities slightly different (1956) has shown promise as a predictor of change
from the MOA scale, in that the focus is on the in children. Tuber (1983) used Rorschach DL scores
degree of emptiness, wholeness, differentiation, in conjunction with object relational assessments to
aliveness and psychological mindedness of the per- best predict childrens later adjustment after long-
cepts, memories and dreams. It has been scored term residential treatment. This index has been
reliably and showed promising construct validity used to assess the quality and level of ego function-
(Stricker & Healey, 1990). Gluckman and Tuber ing in both children and adults.
(1996), have demonstrated that the Krohn scale can
be used effectively in rating childrens Rorschach The Rorschach Test as a Measure
responses and dream reports, suggesting that it may of the Developmental Process
also be a useful component in analyzing aspects of
childrens treatment content. It is commonly acknowledged among mental
According to Diamond et al. (1990), psychoana- health professionals that personality develops along
lytic theory has increasingly focused on the ways in multiple lines. Physical, neurological, cognitive and
which object relations are internalized in the course intellectual development, as well as the progression
of early development and transformed into of human relationships, coping strategies, and gen-
eral styles of organizing and differentiating to states that demonstrate the ability to experience
thoughts, wishes and feelings are all viewed as pro- multiple and complex feelings within themselves
ceeding along specific patterns of progressive and in relation to others. Ames and colleagues
sophistication. The rate and substance of these pro- (1974) showed that chronological age and specific
gressions, in turn, contribute to the ways an indi- developmental achievements have correlates in
vidual organizes and creates his or her unique expe- comparable Rorschach variables. By comparing
rience. Examining multiple lines of development empirically derived chronological milestones of
and understanding their dynamic interplay in over- children with extensive Rorschach data, they effec-
all personality functioning is a necessary part of tively cross-validated both fields of study and made
clinical work. Several core personality and therapy a convincing case for linking Rorschach responses
process constructs are particularly relevant to psy- to a developmental framework. The greatest value
chodynamically-oriented treatment. These include: of their study was that it demonstrated that expect-
quality of object relations and level of separation- ed Rorschach variables that are associated with
individuation; quality of affective life; ego function- maturity grow and develop over time whereas those
ing; effectiveness of defensive operations and reali- that are associated with immaturity decrease over
ty testing. Additionally, measures of psychosocial time. Wulach (1977) hypothesized that as children
functioning such as self-concept/identity formation, develop from the preoperational to the concrete
nature and severity of symptomatology, cognitive level of operations, there would be a corresponding
and academic functioning are important domains to increase in the effective control of primary process
assess in order to generate a comprehensive clinical ideation. His analysis of variance demonstrated sig-
profile of a childs adaptive and maladaptive func- nificant primary process differences between pre-
tioning before beginning psychodynamically-ori- operational, transitional and concrete operational
ented treatment. The Rorschach has been used to groups, thereby linking key aspects of Piagets theo-
assess the nature and rate of development across all ries of cognitive development with psychodynami-
these domains. Leichtman (1996a), for example, cally-informed constructions about the nature of
posits the importance of exploring the Rorschach emotional development.
responses of preschoolers to understand both Defenses also change and become more sophisti-
process and content, and to witness the pathways by cated as development proceeds. Avoidance in
which children become capable of taking on the infancy gives way to higher levels of defense.
task as it is intended. Understanding this develop- Lerner and Lerners (1980) scale is relevant to the
mental progression can allow us to better under- assessment of childrens defensive functioning and
stand both normal child development, and also assessing primitive defenses, specifically splitting,
pathology in children and adults. In the same vein, idealization and devaluation, denial and projective
Meyer and Tuber (1989) found that preschoolers identification, which have been hypothesized to be
with imaginary companions had this vivid inner life the hallmark of developmentally immature individ-
mirrored by a far greater number of human move- uals. In a host of studies (Lerner & Lerner, 1980;
ment responses than comparably aged children Lerner, Sugarman & Gaughran, 1981; Van-Der
without such companions. Keshet, 1988; Gacono, 1988a; Kolers, 1986), the
Between the ages of 2 and 10, children progres- Lerner Defense Scale was found to be valid in dis-
sively become much less dominated by egocentric tinguishing borderline patients from other types of
thought. We see increasing sophistication across patients, eating disordered patients from normal
affective, cognitive, and identity realms on both controls, and gender disturbed children from nor-
conscious and unconscious levels. Childrens affec- mal controls.
tive lives move from global moods with no nuance,
The Rorschach Test as a (Holaday, 2000, abstract).

Measure of Psychopathology Acklin (1990) compared a nonclinical group of
children, to a group of learning disabled children
Once children are developmentally capable of referred for psychoeducational assessment. He
attending to the task of the Rorschach within the found that the LD group exhibited several distinct
structure of the typical administration, researchers Rorschach characteristicsincluding problems in
have demonstrated a number of psychodynamic perceptual accuracy, inefficient visual scanning and
principles as they present themselves in the problem-solving strategies, and avoidance of affect-
Rorschach of children with various disorders. The laden stimuliall of which posed distinct problems
Rorschach has had a long history within various for successful socio emotional adaptation.
research applications, ranging from schizophrenia- Spigelman and Spigelman (1991a) studied the
spectrum disorders to being used within popula- relationship between parental divorce and body
tions looking at learning disorders and attentional boundary definiteness in a group of 90 Swedish
issues. children. Nondivorce children were found to have
Holaday, Moak, and Shipley (2001) studied firmer body boundaries (i.e., higher barrier and
Rorschach protocols from 24 boys with Aspergers lower penetration scores) than children of divorced
Disorder matched by age to a contrast group of 24 parents. Their findings suggest that the vulnerabili-
boys with other emotional or behavioral disorders. ty of body boundaries appears to persist even years
Between group differences were assessed and com- after the family breakup, indicating that for children
pared to Exners (1995) normative data. They pre- of either sex the effects of divorce on childrens
dicted that eight variables based on Diagnostic and intrapsychic experience are long-term.
Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (4th ed. Donahue and Tuber (1993) measured the rela-
[DSM-IV]; American Psychiatric Association, tionship between the capacity of a group of inner-
1994) criteria and a review of the literature for city, homeless children to produce adaptive fantasy
Aspergers Disorder would discriminate between images, as assessed by the Rorschach M+ score and
the groups, with the Aspergers group having more their performance on the Fruit Distraction Test of
extreme scores. In their findings, five variables selective attention and Rorschach measures of real-
(COP, CDI, H, M, and EA) were significantly dif- ity testing (extended F+ percentage) and object rela-
ferent from the contrast group and T and WSumC tions (Mutuality of Autonomy [MOA] Scale, Urist,
were significantly different from the normative data 1977). The sample included forty-six Black and
in both the Aspergers group and the contrast Hispanic children (24 boys and 22 girls) who
group. ranged in age from 5 to 13 years. The results suggest
Holaday (2000), compared Rorschach protocols that childrens capacity to withstand severe envi-
from thirty-five children and adolescents with post- ronmental stressors is linked to their ability to pro-
traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and thirty-five duce adaptive fantasy images on the Rorschach.
with oppositional defiant disorder (ODD). Both In a case study that utilized the Rorschach,
groups revealed significant differences from the Murray (1994) noted that the diagnosis of neurotic
normative tables on the same twelve variables: disturbance in children and adolescents can be an
SCZI, DEPI, CDI, X+%, EgoC, Afr, T, EA, P, exceedingly complex decision given the impact of
WSumC, RawSumSS, and WgtSumSS. When developmental and situational factors on aspects of
young victims cannot comprehend or make sense personality organization and personality style. He
of what has happened to them, life becomes irra- stated that the potential for rapid regression, rapid
tional, illogical, and confusing. Exners SCZI does development, and incomplete structuralization of
what it was designed to do: identify individuals with personality organization and style, complicates our
disordered thinking and inaccurate perception understanding of the meaning of particular symp-
toms or behavior. His research relied on the high stimulus demand in order to recognize,
Rorschach and the help that it offers in sorting process, and represent their experience. In compar-
through these issues because of its unique ability to ison with children who had other learning and
assess aspects of personality organization, personal- behavioral difficulties, the Rorschach protocols of
ity style, and the impact of developmental or situa- children with a high number of ADHD symptoms
tional factors. revealed a paucity in the production of fully human
Goddard and Tuber (1989) used Rorschach scales percepts and human movement, and a limited
to examine the quality of thought disturbance and access to internal ego strengths important for self-
object relations in boys meeting the Diagnostic and regulation. They suggest that Rorschach data inter-
Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, third edition preted within a psychodynamic framework has the
(DSM-III; American Psychiatric Association, 1980) potential to go beyond merely identifying the com-
criteria for separation anxiety disorder (SAD). monly understood behavioral picture of ADHD
Nineteen urban, middle and low socioeconomic sta- (impulsivity and restlessness), to a more nuanced
tus (SES), SAD boys were compared to a group of understanding of these childrens ego strengths and
fourteen male control subjects. The hypotheses of resources. Idiographic study linked impairments
the study were that SAD boys as compared to con- specific to two children with ADHD to both their
trols would: (a) have significantly more thought dis- Rorschach protocols and a detailed examination of
ordered responses as measured by a Rorschach their progress in psychotherapy. Understanding the
Thought Disorder Scale (Blatt & Ritzler, 1974), and dynamics underlying ADHD childrens self-regula-
(b) evidence significantly less adaptive object rela- tory difficulties, and discerning ways in which
tions scale scores as measured by the Mutuality of impairments affect ADHD childrens abilities to
Autonomy Scale. Results confirmed both hypothe- contain affect and negotiate relationships at home
ses. The SAD group had more thought disordered and at school, give clinicians a clearer clinical pic-
responses and more disrupted object relations scores ture and provides more avenues for therapeutic
than the controls. Ideas and images of these boys intervention.
were found to generally be more unstable, boundary Leifer, Shapiro, Martone and Kassem (1991)
compromised, fluid, idiosyncratic, tangential, and compared sexually abused females between the
psychotic-like than the controls. It was concluded ages of 5 and 16 with a comparison group of non-
that these boys possess a significant potential to have abused girls using the Rorschach. In addition to
thinking abnormalities that will interfere with their Exners (1985) Comprehensive System, the Elizur
independent functioning. Concerning their object (1949) Rorschach Content Test Scale (RCT), the
relations scores, the SAD subjects were found to MOA Scale and the Barrier and Penetration Scales
have significantly fewer benign, adaptive object (Fisher & Cleveland, 1968) were used. Their find-
interactional percepts, and a greater number of ings showed that sexually abused girls demonstrate
dependent and/or clinging interactional object rep- more disturbed thinking, experience higher levels
resentations (imagery) than the controls. This study of stress relative to their adaptive abilities, describe
supported the viewpoint that SAD boys studied human relationships more negatively, and show
were deeply psychologically troubled. increased preoccupation with sexuality than the
Harris and Tuber (2007) studied the Rorschach nonabused comparison group. They additionally
protocols of children with Attention Deficit found that the distress experienced by the victim-
Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) both nomotheti- ized children was more related to internal mediat-
cally and idiographically. Nomothetic study ing variables then to abuse characteristics and that
revealed results which are consistent with the idea sexually abused girls who are cognitively and emo-
that children with ADHD symptomatology have tionally active also experienced high levels of dis-
difficulty accessing internal resources in the face of tress compared to abused girls who are psychologi-
cally constricted (Leifer et al., 1991). Rorschach test data to take a heuristically helpful
A number of researchers have been able to dis- snapshot of personality organization at a given
tinguish clinical from nonclinical patients and dif- point in time and to integrate this snapshot into an
ferent clinical populations from one another using overall assessment of personality functioning is
Rorschach data. For example, Billingsley (1985) intrinsic to the projective hypothesis from which
compared the Rorschach protocols of 18 preadoles- projective testing was first developed (Tuber, 2000).
cent, sexually abused children to protocols of eight- Linking change in psychodynamic treatment to
een clinical controls. Dependent variables included shifts in test performance or using test performance
responses with overt sexual contents, sexual sym- as a predictor of psychotherapeutic change may
bols and near-sexual contents, and the results sug- thus provide confirmation from two overlapping
gested that these dependent variables in combina- arenas of personality organization and growth
tion could differentiate sexually abused children (Tuber, 2000 p. 286). Tuber (1992) used the MOA
from other clinical groups. scale in four cases of children tested before begin-
Tuber and Coates (1985) studied the Rorschach ning psychodynamic psychotherapy. Findings sup-
protocols of fourteen boys with gender identity dis- ported the use of projective test data as a method of
order. Relative to the records of normal subjects, assessing treatment progress. Key treatment para-
feminine boys displayed an inordinate investment digms were found to closely pair up with Rorschach
in quasi-human at the expense of fully human MOA patterns.
responses. When percepts contained individuals in In another study looking to use the Rorschach as
interaction, the preponderance of these interactions a measure of ego function in relation to treatment
was malevolent. Boundary disturbances, as indicat- outcome, Stokes, Pogge, Powell-Lunder, Ward,
ed by lapses of thought organization, were com- Bilginer, and DeLuca (2003) investigated the treat-
monplace. Females were frequently represented in ment utility of the revision of Perry and Vigliones
idealized, stereotypical, or caricatured ways. Last, (1991) Rorschach Ego Impairment Index (EII-2) in
overt gender confusion was seen in single percepts a sample of fifty-three child psychiatric inpatients.
of humans. It is proposed that these results provide Along with the EII-2, the authors obtained parent
evidence of severely disturbed internalized object ratings of symptomatic functioning on the
representations. As such, boyhood gender identity Devereux Scales of Mental Disorders (DSMD;
disorder is inextricably linked to psychopathology Naglieri, LeBuffe, & Pfeiffer, 1994) at admission, 30
and not a secondary consequence of peer rejection, days post-discharge, and 120 days post-discharge.
as has been argued by others. The authors report that EII-2 scores correlated with
As described earlier, Tuber (1983) hypothesized initial symptom elevations on the Critical Pathology
that Rorschach measures of object relations and at admission, and EII-2 scores did not predict short-
thought organization could help predict later adjust- term response to treatment. However, EII-2 scores
ment. Former patients (N=70) at a child residential demonstrated moderate correlations with long-term
treatment center were followed up as adults. Object outcome and relapse. EII-2 was related to predic-
relations measures were found to be effective dis- tion of worsening of symptoms between 30-day and
criminators and predictors of later rehospitalization 120-day follow-up as measured by Reliable Change
for boys. Index scores that were computed for the
Externalizing, Internalizing, Critical Pathology, and
The Rorschach Test as a Measure of Total DSMD scales (Stokes et al., 2003).
Change During Psychotherapy Russ (1980) investigated the relationship
between primary process integration (PPI) and
The Rorschach has often been used to assess the achievement in second graders. Russ utilized the
nature of change in psychotherapy. The ability of Rorschach protocols of fifty-one 7 and 8-year-olds,
scored using Holts Primary Process Scoring System their original contribution, each story was to be
and the Primary Reading Profile Test and academic evaluated based on four main categories: Vectors,
grade average as criteria of achievement. Her Levels, Conditions, and Qualifiers. The vectors rep-
hypothesis, based on psychodynamic theory, that resented the direction that the story takes, under-
PPI would be positively related to achievement was stood as the respondents own wishes, feelings and
confirmed, and her findings showed that both PPI strivings. The vectors were broken into subcate-
measures, Defense Effectiveness and Adaptive gories, each one relating to an object of human
Regression, significantly related to achievement, interest. The levels were considered to be the psy-
independent of IQ. The strongest relationship was chological surface of function (i.e., the object
the correlation between Adaptive Regression and description, events occurring, perceptions, inten-
reading (Russ, 1980). tions, thoughts, memories, feelings etc.). The condi-
A complete review of all Rorschach studies is tions corresponded to the psychological, social or
beyond the scope of the present chapter. The fol- physical state given by the respondent. Finally, the
lowing section discusses the use of Thematic qualifiers were the more detailed aspects of the vec-
Apperception tests in the projective assessment of tors, levels or conditions, based, for example, on
children. temporal characteristics, intensity, negation, causal-
ity, and so forth. The paradigm behind the scoring
schemes was to understand the production of the
THEMATIC APPERCEPTION TEST responses from dimensions that captured the
respondents own internal experiences and themes
The Thematic Apperception Test (TAT; Morgan that were relevant and important in the individuals
& Murray, 1935) has been one of the most com- life. As the implementation of the TAT grew over
monly-used projective tests for both children and time, interpretation of the stories, either based on
adults. The TAT consists of a series of picture cards, any given respondent or taken across many differ-
each one representing various evocative circum- ent groups of respondents, intrigued examiners as it
stances with a certain element of ambiguity. The provided access to imagination and private fan-
images are in black and white and given the action tasies. As Rapaport et al. (1967) write, . . . the
of the card, the expressions of the characters or the organization of sufficiently large segments of com-
mood of the card, a wide variety of different feelings munication ideational content always bears some
and thoughts can be stirred in the respondent. The traces of the organization of motivating forcesthat
TAT presents the respondent with the basic require- is, of the personality. But as segments of communi-
ments to tell a story, created from five questions: (1) cated ideational content range from the common-
what is happening currently, (2) what led up to the place to the idiosyncratic, the testing of ideational
current situation, (3) what will happen in the future, content can be efficacious only if it differentiates
(4) what the characters are thinking, and (5) what between conscious and unconscious ideational con-
they are feeling. The story that is created by the par- tents, motivations and attitudes (p. 469). With this
ticipant is ideally considered both from the per- in mind, clinicians, especially when psychodynami-
spective of content, the what of the story and from cally informed, became interested in the narratives
the structure or the organization of the story. of the TAT from the vantage point of how an indi-
Unlike the Rorschach, which, as noted above, vidual unconsciously protects against arousing
has an extensive and commonly-used methodology material and moves away from this content, how an
for scoring each card, the TAT does not have a uni- individual internally forms and then engages in
versally recognized scoring system. Tomkins (1947) relationships with others and how an individual
wrote about the history of the TAT from Morgan integrates and processes different emotions.
and Murrays original conception (1935), and in
Research Investigations and the TAT es in children depend heavily on the childs under-
standing of the defense in operation. Elkind (1976)
While the TAT has perhaps been used most com- conjectured that the maturity of the defense used
monly as an idiographic measure of health and was based on developmental periods that the child
pathology, there has been a good deal of nomo- experienced, specifically related to egocentric
thetic research specifically aimed at studying defen- thinking for younger children. More specifically he
sive organization and the use of affect among par- posited that younger children approach the world
ticular populations. Cramer and her colleagues from a development point-of-view that is an exten-
have been at the forefront of research examining sion of their self-experience such that their egocen-
the use of defenses among children, adolescents and tric structures are cast onto others intentions, feel-
adults, as well as the implications of defenses among ing states and beliefs. From Elkinds perspective,
particular pathologies such as Conduct Disorder, once a child progresses past this place on the devel-
Adjustment Reaction and Adjustment Disorder opmental continuum, their defensive structures will
(Sandstrom & Cramer, 2003; 2004). Cramer and advance in tandem with their cognitive prowess.
Blatt have used her Defense Scale to measure the Thus if defenses are considered to function on an
change of defenses such as, Denial, Projection unconscious level, then once a child were to under-
and Identification following intensive psychother- stand that he/she was using a given defense, the
apy (Cramer & Blatt, 1990). Defending against defense would no longer work successfully in reduc-
unwanted internal experiences is an unconscious ing their anxiety because of this understanding.
process through which the unwelcome conflict or Therefore, the more cognitively advanced the child
elements of distress are kept from the individuals is, the more complex a defensive structure should
awareness and in turn anxiety is reduced. be in order to maintain the unconscious operation
Many theorists who examine the use of defense and usefulness of the defense.
mechanisms in adults have wondered about the In a similar manner, the experience and expres-
development of such mechanisms in children. After sion of affect is also connected to both conscious
charting childrens defensive patterns from ages 6 to and unconscious experience. Affect tolerance and
9, Cramer (1997) found that the use of denial expression are integral in our understanding of self
decreased significantly at age 7 and projection and other. Much like defense operation, affective
increased significantly at age 8. These findings are experience matures along a developmental and
based on research using the Cramer Defense cognitive continuum. Thompson (1985) posits that
Mechanism Manual, which indicates that there are affective life develops along developmental lines
three primary defenses in operationDenial, and may be manifested at different levels of maturi-
Projection and Identification, with Denial being ty, from the most primitive to the most mature.
viewed as the most primitive of the defenses and Affect maturity can be understood as ones relative
Identification being the most mature. These defens- capacities in experiencing and expressing feeling-
es then become the umbrella concepts for more states. Using the TAT, Thompson (1985) created a
nuanced defenses within each category. Based on scale to better understand the overlap between cog-
this scale, seven subcategories account for other nition and affect. TAT responses were rated on a
defenses within each larger group. Cramer et al. one to five scale, with a score of one depicting
have applied this measure of defense maturity to responses where affects are experienced as separate,
the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) across many fragmented events, a score of three describing sto-
studies to capture the state and progression of ries that reveal unintegrated, yet simultaneous,
defenses among children (1987; 1988; 1990; 1997; mixed emotions and a score of five portraying fully
1998). Cramer and Brilliant (2001) also note that the reversible, enduring inner dispositions that reflect
shifts in the development and utilization of defens- integrated emotional responsiveness.
In an effort to bridge the domains of psychoana- conclude that relying on depressive symptomatol-
lytic practice and research, Wilson et al. developed ogy alone to identify suicidality overlooks a majori-
the Epigenetic Assessment Rating System (EARS; ty of at-risk adolescents. Rather than just looking for
1989) as an empirical method that can be depressive symptoms, structural personality vari-
employed by researchers in a manner similar to ables as measured by the EARS identify and distin-
how psychoanalysts listen and then respond to their guish subsets of suicidal adolescents (Feldman &
patients. The EARS system was designed in order Wilson, 1997).
to provide empirical referents for psychoanalytic
concepts defined according to epigenetic principles, Syndromes/Pathology and the TAT
which tend to emphasize the progressive and
regressive movement of clinical phenomena within Many researchers have also used the content of
a particular theoretical hierarchy of personality TAT narratives to better understand clinical phe-
organization (Wilson et al., 1989). The EARS was nomena and explore psychopathological syn-
developed for empirically identifying different lev- dromes. More specifically, the TAT has been used
els of key dimensions of psychic structure, and to to determine if differences in story content could be
date it has been applied to three specific types of noted amongst different diagnostic groups. Bellak
databases, all of which are narrative speech sam- (1950), in a chapter devoted to the clinical use of the
ples: TAT narratives; 5-minute speech monologues; TAT, outlines commonly told themes for each card
and anecdotal relationship paradigms. The EARS is that may be stirred within the subject and created in
one of the few measures available that specifically their story, as a window into their experience.
looks at qualitative dimensions of affect including McGrew and Teglasi (1990) looked specifically at
the capacity for affect tolerance and affect expres- the structure and the content of TAT responses in
sion within narratives. Feldman and Wilson (1997) the evaluation of emotionally disturbed boys in
used two cards from the TAT that were defined by comparison to boys who were considered well-
the authors as low arousal or high arousal (Cards 1 adjusted. The authors indicate that the boys who
& 13MF) respectively, and applied the EARS along were considered emotionally disturbed had a more
with the Childrens Depression Inventory (CDI) difficult time in telling a complete and logically con-
and the Separation Anxiety Test (SAT) to determine sistent story and found that general characteristics
if mediating factors such as aggression and disor- such as inadequate judgment in relation to cause
ders of conduct, depression, and separation anxiety and effect relations, inappropriate verbal expres-
impact suicidal behavior in psychiatrically hospital- sions and difficulty in the modulation of affective
ized urban minority adolescents (Feldman & expression, as indicated by extremely violent or
Wilson, 1997). The authors note that a different sub- morbid content, were more often attributed to the
set of suicidal adolescents could be identified with emotionally disturbed group (McGrew & Teglasi,
the EARS and the CDI. Adolescents with lower 1990). In a similar design, researchers analyzed data
modal EARS scores exhibited greater reactivity to from the TAT to explore whether aspects of object
separation experiences on the SAT. Specifically relations could identify differences between abused
that, . . . the impairment in the toleration and and nonabused groups (Ornduff et al., 1996;
expression of affects, including a tendency to dis- Rosenberg et al., 1994). These authors (see also
charge intolerable affects through aggressive/impul- Westen et al., 1990), found significant group differ-
sive behavior, is related to both suicidal and con- ences in overall object relations assessing the TAT
duct disordered behavior. Lower psychological protocols with the Social Cognition and Object
functioning in these areas was greater when a con- Relations Scales (SCORS; Westen et al., 1985). To
duct disorder presented concurrently with suicidali- examine character pathology, more specifically nar-
ty (Feldman & Wilson, 1997, p. 87). The authors cissistic character pathology among children, Weise
and Tuber (2004) used TAT protocols of elementary of Lisa, Tuber (2004), for example, demonstrated
school-aged children and assessed the stories with how the major themes from the patients Childrens
the SCORS. With the TAT and SCORS, these Apperception Test protocol had broad and telling
authors found that the children struggling with nar- implications for her treatment as both a child and
cissistic issues were also lacking in empathy, grap- an adult. The author found consistency in Lisas
pling with self-esteem regulation, and in poor con- object relations across both her testing protocol and
trol of their impulses or aggression. Often in the lit- her transferential paradigms within the analytic
erature the TAT is paired with the SCORS to process during both of her analytic treatments
explore the connection between internal represen- (Tuber, 2004).
tations and level of functioning. Niec and Russ
(2002) applied the SCORS-Q (Westen, 1995) to
TAT responses from children between the ages of 8 OTHER PROJECTIVE TESTS
and 10 years to better understand the relationship
among internal representation, empathy and affec- Although the Rorschach and TAT are the most
tive and cognitive processes in fantasy play. The widely known and well-developed projective meas-
authors findings supported a relationship between ures with children, many others exist that are con-
internal representations as related to empathy, help- sidered by practitioners to be of significant clinical
fulness, and quality of fantasy play (Niec & Russ, utility. The difficulty inherent in translating this clin-
2002). With a similar projective measure, ical utility to a form that can be shared and applied
Constantino et al. (1991) looked at children and nomothetically may be one reason that these tests
adolescent outpatients diagnosed with Attention so often stay under the empirical radar. This is
Deficit-Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) with the reflected in the large discrepancy between the fre-
Tell Me A Story test (TEMAS, 1988) in order to quency of other projective test use being reported
understand childrens responses to perceptual by clinicians and the relative dearth of their appear-
details and to evaluate if children with ADHD omit ance in the psychological literature. A computer
more details of the stimuli presented. The TEMAS, search using the database PsycInfo (abstracts from
like the TAT, is a task where the respondent is asked 18722007) revealed 1120 articles for the
to create a story from visual stimuli. There are twen- Rorschach, 263 for the TAT, and merely a handful
ty-three cards and scores were based on tallying that spoke of any other type of projective measure
omissions related to the main character, secondary with children. This is in contrast to a study pub-
character, event and setting. The relationship lished in 1995 surveying clinical psychologists
between omission and diagnostic group was under- about their usage of various assessment measures,
stood by the authors to be specific to the ADHD which found that 69 percent of respondents used
group. the WISC-III, while 84 percent used Sentence
Completion Methods, 82 percent used the
Therapy Themes and the TAT Rorschach and TAT, and 80 percent used Projective
Drawings (Watkins et al., 1995).
Linking projective test assessment of the multiple
lines of the developmental process via the TAT with The Sentence Completion Test
potential themes for treatment has also been a long-
standing tradition in the field of psychotherapy. The projective technique of sentence completion
Assessing a single patients protocol and looking to is just what it sounds like: children are presented
TAT responses for themes from a psychodynamic with a list of stems (the beginnings of sentences),
perspective can inform treatment and provide the and asked to complete each sentence using whatev-
clinician with very useful data. In his case write-up er words they choose, whatever comes to mind.
Stems can be just one word, such as Girls . . . Loevingers Sentence Completion Test/
but tend to be a few words in length, for example, Washington University Sentence
I am happiest when . . . or Other boys think . . .
Completion Test
Depending on the age of the child, and the prefer-
ence of the practitioner, these items are either read This 36-item test was developed specifically to
aloud to the child, or the child is asked to complete measure the level of ego development based on
a paper and pencil version of the test. Predictably, Loevingers theory of personality, however, results
the younger the child the more likely it is that the have been found to correlate well with other meas-
tester will read the words aloud (Holaday et al., ures of personality constructs. The comprehensive
2000), however some practitioners also read the test scoring system involves classifying each response to
aloud with adults, so as to take note of some addi- one of seven categories, and also yields a total rat-
tional aspects of the persons response (e.g., how ing. The test was originally designed for use with
long they pause before completing the sentence). persons of 12 years of age and over, and has two
While many different authors have published slightly different versions for use with women and
versions of the sentence completion test, these tests men. The most recent volume (Loevinger, 1998)
are often lumped together, and viewed by the psy- includes, for the first time, chapters on cross-cultur-
chological community in a generic fashion. In other al assessment, along with a version of the test for
words, it is the method of sentence completion, children and adolescents. The test has been used to
and not any one particular set of stems, that is val- look at such concepts as family dynamics (Bell &
ued most by the psychological community. In a sur- Bell, 1982), object relations and cognitive and social
vey by Holaday et al. (2000) published in the Journal functioning (Avery & Ryan, 1988), and self-reported
of Personality Assessment, 25 percent of respondents fears (Westenberg et al., 2004). Specifically,
indicated that they did not know the name of the Westenberg et al. have developed a revised version
test they use, and no one test captured more than 46 of the measure and its affiliated levels of early ego
percent of the total usage. Given this, and the pre- development that they believe are better suited for
ponderance of sentence completion instruments use with children. (Westenberg et al., 1998;
available, we will just present a selection of the ver- Westenberg, 2001). The test has also been adapted
sions currently in use. and used with children in Japan (Watanabe &
Yamamoto, 1989; Ohno, 1997) and Chile (Serrano
Incomplete Sentences Blank et al., 2001).
Rotter (1951) is credited with the development of Miale-Holsopple Sentence

this instrument, initially to be used as a means of Completion Test
screening maladjusted high school and college stu-
dents. As far as can be determined, this is the sen- Developed in 1950 (Holsopple & Miale) this 73-
tence completion measure most frequently used item test is bent towards measuring cultural atti-
with children and adolescents. According to the test tudes, priming people with stems relating to par-
usage survey done by Holaday et al. (2000) the per- ents, children, sex, alcohol, achievement, authority,
centages are 39 and 51 percent respectively for chil- and morality (Potash et al., 1990). It is more likely
dren and adolescents. There is a scoring system that that this test is used with adolescents than with
yields an overall value, based on coding the forty young children. When administered to groups of
responses as positive, neutral, or containing conflict. students (aged 1723 years) in the United States and
The manual is published by the Psychological Brazil, this test detected differences with regard to
Corporation, most recently in 1992. work ethic, expectations for the future, and interra-
cial marriages (Potash et al., 1990).
Drawings Human Figure Drawings

Another projective technique, particularly rele- The usefulness of human figure drawings in clin-
vant to children, involves using semi-structured art ical assessment is still debated, yet it remains a fre-
or drawing tasks for assessment. Hammer (1958) quently used projective technique for those in prac-
describes the basic premisethat a childs thoughts tice. Machover was one of the first to write about
and feelings float into his drawings unwittingly the use of human figure drawing as a projective test
and/or unwillingly. One major advantage of using in her seminal book, Personality Projection in the
drawings is the nonverbal nature of the activity, Drawing of a Human Figure, published in 1949. Since
which is particularly useful for young children and then, human figure drawings have been incorporat-
children with poor verbal skills. Yet the intuitive ed into more formalized projective drawing assess-
sense that these drawings are useful means of ment techniques, some of which are described
understanding children, has struggled in the quest below. Human figure drawings in particular, have
for empirical validation. What to pay attention to been found to be reliable as a measure of learning
how to code drawingshas remained elusive, disabilities and as a predictor of the performance of
notwithstanding some efforts of this sort. Many cli- learning-related behaviors (Neale & Rosal, 1993).
nicians describe being guided in their interpretation
by the childs associations to his own pictures, The House-Tree-Person
rather than by some consistent external criteria,
which makes trying to develop a scoring system all The House-Tree-Person (HTP; Buck, 1948) was one
the more difficult. of the first formalized projective drawing tech-
In some ways the use of projective drawings is niques, conceived of by Buck, who published a 120-
analogous to dream interpretation. Dream analysis page qualitative and quantitative scoring guide in
is undoubtedly a worthy and robust technique used 1948 in the Journal of Clinical Psychology. In addition
in psychodynamic psychotherapy, but the criteria a to the topics of investigation mentioned above, the
clinician uses to understand a given dream is not of HTP has been particularly useful in cross-cultural
the sort that can be standardized or used in a mech- research, as it has been found to be free of cultural
anistic way. At best there can be a set of guidelines bias (Neale & Rosal, 1993). At minimum, it has
for interpreting dreams. Meaning unfolds as a been used in such countries as Ireland, Korea,
process between patient and therapist, through the France, Spain, Brazil, Mexico, and Thailand.
patients own associations to the dream material,
and within the context of each particular patients The Kinetic Family Drawing
life. Within academic psychology, the notion of
having universal meanings for particular dream The Kinetic Family Drawing (KFD; Burns &
content has long been discarded, and similarly link- Kaufman, 1970, 1972), in which the child is asked to
ing specific aspects of drawings to unique meanings draw a picture of everyone in his or her family
is likely unattainable. Nonetheless, attempts to doing something, is another technique used by psy-
empirically prove the value of drawings as an chologists. Understandably, the KFD is particularly
assessment tool has met some success, despite ongo- relevant in studies looking at various aspects of fam-
ing debate. Historically, projective drawings have ily dynamics, for example looking at children of
most commonly been considered in relation to substance abusing parents (Holt & Kaiser, 2001;
intelligence, learning disabilities, medical disorders, Reinert, 1999) or to understand the experience of
and various forms of childhood maltreatment internationally adopted children (Freidlander et al.,
(Psychology Info search 18722007). 2000). The kinetic family drawings have been found
to have solid test-retest and concurrent reliability
(Neale & Rosal, 1993). one, about her choices, asking why she chose this
animal, and recording the verbatim response (Rojas
The Draw-A-Person Test & Tuber, 1991).
Conceptually, animals are an easy target onto
More recently, The Draw-A-Person: Screening which children can project their emotional needs
Procedure for Emotional Disturbance (DAP: and psychological conflicts. Animals have long
SPED; Naglieri, McNeish, & Bardos, 1991) has been used metaphorically to communicate with
been shown to be useful as a screening measure for children. Children are used to seeing animals with
global psychopathology, and one with sound psy- human characteristics; they are in their stories, car-
chometric development (Naglieri & Pfeiffer, 1992; toons, literature and movies. They are human-like,
Trevisan, 1996; Matto, 2002). The DAP: SPED but not human, and this distance makes it a safer
involves a child drawing three pictures: a man, a forum for the child to explore their wishes and
woman and a picture of him/herself. It can be fears. This test also has the advantage of being
administered to children individually or in groups, quick, easy to administer and responded to favor-
and there are separate directions in the manual for ably by children (Rojas & Tuber, 1991). There has
each type of administration. The drawings are been little empirical research on the Animal
scored along fifty-five variables, eight of which Preference Test, although Rojas and Tuber suggest a
assess the structural characteristics of the drawings way of coding the responses, which they have found
(e.g., size) and forty-seven which evaluate content to be reliable, and, in conjunction with the use of
features (e.g., facial expression). The DAP:SPED the Achenbach Child Behavior Checklist
has been normed on 2,622 children in the U.S., (Achenbach & Edelbrock, 1986), they have demon-
ages 517, stratified along a number of demograph- strated construct validity with regard to depressed
ic variables (Naglieri, McNeish, & Bardos, 1991; and aggressive behavior (Rojas & Tuber, 1991).
Garb et al., 2002). Trevisans (1996) review con-
cluded that the DAP:SPED is a good initial assess- Hand Test
ment for determining whether a child may be suf-
fering from emotional problems, to then be fol- The format of the Hand Test is somewhat similar
lowed up with a much more comprehensive assess- to that of TAT. The child is shown a series of cards,
ment. Similarly, Matto (2002) found it to be a sig- except in this case the cards are drawings of hands
nificant predictor of variation in internalizing in various ambiguous positions and the child is
behavior disturbance. asked to tell what the hand might be doing. There
is also one completely blank card, for which the
Animal Preference child is asked to imagine a hand and tell what it
might be doing. Including the blank card, a total of
The Animal Preference Test, first introduced by ten cards are presented. The Hand Test has the
Van Krevelen in 1955, is another projective meas- advantages of being brief (rarely more than 10 min-
ure that is used more frequently in practice than the utes), and being nonthreatening, which makes it
literature would suggest. Administration is very sim- particularly suitable for use with children
ple: Begin by asking the child, If you could no (Hilsenroth & Sivec, 1990).
longer be a person, what animal would you most Wagner (1962) advocated using hand positions as
like to be? Follow this by asking for her second and the basis for a projective test because he saw, hand
third choice of animal shed most like to be. Do the movement and attitude as being a basic means of
same for the three animals shed least like to be. orientation in ones immediate psychosocial envi-
After the child has given her answers, it is illustra- ronment (Hoover, 1978, p. 129). Hands are a cru-
tive for the tester to go back and inquire, one by cial way of interacting with both the social and
physical world, and they help establish and main- ment due to the clinical wisdom and insight the
tain contact with reality (Hoover, 1978). The Hand material provides. That there are not yet many suf-
Test has been suggested to represent a cross ficiently valid ways of quantifying the information
between the Rorschach and TAT. It employs an these tests provide, does not mean that they do not
intermediate level of ambiguity, with responses per- provide valid information. As Hammer (1958)
haps closer to those of the Rorschach, but which, writes, every act, expression, or response of an
like the TAT, are less dependent on a formal scor- individualhis gestures, perceptions, feelings, selec-
ing system for interpretation. tions, verbalizations, or motor actsin some way
Wagners published Hand Test manual (1962; bears the stamp of his personality. (p. 5) The impli-
1983; 1986; 1991) contains fifteen quantitative cation of this is that projective material is every-
scores and seven summary scores. Based on this where, and that our challenge is to capture this
scoring system, the Hand Test has been used to material in a way that allows for meaningful com-
study children across a variety of different settings parisons and generalizable findings. The road is
and of varying clinical characteristics. Smith et al. open for new projective measures that will help to
(2005) conclude that the Hand Test has been found operationalize core tenets of psychodynamic theory
to be useful in the assessment of personality, behav- and aid in the assessment of personality and psy-
ioral problems and aggression in children and ado- chopathology. Coulacoglous Fairy Tale Test holds
lescent psychiatric and nonpatient populations. In much promise in this regard.
particular, the Pathology and Acting Out Score
summary variables and the Aggression score have The Fairy Tale Test
been able to differentiate between children with and
without significant behavioral and emotional con- The Fairy Tale Test (Coulacoglou, 2003) is a
cerns (Smith et al., 2005). The Hand Test has also novel way of accessing the inner lives of children
been used to assess pediatric medical patients, and through structured fantasy and storytelling. It fol-
a recent study by Smith et al. (2005) found the lows in the tradition of the thematic tests, as in the
Aggression, Withdrawal and Pathological scores, TAT childrens responses to questions reflect psy-
but not the Crippled variable, distinguished med- chological themes. The characters and events of the
ically ill children from those with psychological dis- story provide a palette for the childs projection of
turbance. feelings, conflicts and wishes, and thus a framework
through which personality dynamics can be viewed.
The FTT has the advantage of using stories that
NEW DIRECTIONS many children are familiar with (Little Red Riding
Hood, Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs) and the
There is a primary reason projective tests are still child need only reflect on an already-existing story,
widely used today, in spite of all the psychometric rather than make up his or her own. By their nature,
criticism they have endured; a reason they are still fairy tales, and particularly the ones included in the
used in schools, in hospitals, and in private psy- FTT, contain such themes as, affection, envy,
chotherapy offices. And it is this: although the aggression and violence, orality, sexuality, narcis-
measures may be imperfect, the theoretical basis for sism, mother-child relationship, oedipal feelings,
the projective approach is solid and has a rich his- rejection, death, and resurrection and rebirth, all
tory. Deeply grounded in psychodynamic theory is central players in psychodynamic theory
the idea that when presented with ambiguous stim- (Coulacoglou, 2003, p. 4).
uli we project onto them parts of our inner and per- The FTT was designed for, and has been normed
haps unconscious worlds. Practitioners continue to on, school-aged children between 6 and 12 years of
use projective measures in the context of assess- age, based on the idea during this age range fairy
tales figure most prominently into childrens lives to explain why. This is followed by the series of,
and memory. Because the FTT depends on prior Which of the three scares you most, Why?
knowledge of the content of the fairy tales, the Which is the most wicked, Why? and What can
childs first task is to narrate the stories of Little Red a wicked witch do? The last question for the set
Riding Hood and Snow White and the Seven Drawfs. If even asks the child to make up a name for each
the child does not demonstrate familiarity with the witch.
fairy tales, the test is rescheduled, and the child is Similar to the logic behind the Animal
given at least a week to read and learn the fairy Preference Test, the fantastical nature of the charac-
tales. tersthat they are human-like but not human
The FTT consists of seven sets of stimulus cards, makes them easy targets for projection. This may
with three cards per set. Each card in the set depicts prove to be of particular benefit with children, who
a different version of a fairy tale character or scene. may more freely project onto these human-like
The three pictures differ just enough to vary in emo- characters than onto pictures of actual humans. For
tional flavor and valence, usually by alteration in the child, the underlying rationale and desired con-
facial expressions or body postures of the charac- tent may be more disguised in the FTT than in
ter(s). For each set, the child is presented with all other thematic projective tests. This is always a
three cards at once, and then asked questions which desired quality for a projective test, and in fact is
require him or her to make choices based on the dif- one of the general advantages of using projective
ferent portrayals of a certain aspect of the fairy tale. measures. The guiding principle is, the less the child
The FTT includes an interview guidea form used is aware of and able to monitor what he is revealing
to administer the testcomplete with both the ques- about himself, the more he will reveal.
tions and space to record responses. The compre-
hensive FTT manual encourages, and provides
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Chapter 2
FAIRY TALES AS BUILDING BLOCKS: THE

DEVELOPMENT OF THE FAIRY TALE TEST
CARINA COULACOGLOU
INTRODUCTION formations and retellings of fairy tales.
he development of the Fairy Tale Projective

T Test for children (19891993) is the outcome of
my doctoral dissertation at the University of Exeter,
Origins and Functions
of the Fairy Tale
which followed laborious research on the relation- This chapter requires definitions of the three
ship between fairy tales and child development main oral genres of folklorenamely, the myth, the
issues (Coulacoglou, 1987). This research study led legend, and the fairy tale. Myths are narratives that
me to seek more practical and specific ways to are considered true and are about gods or supernat-
employ fairy tales within the field of personality ural beings, from whose experiences humans can
assessment. draw moral lessons. Legends generally recount
My main source of inspiration, however, was extraordinary events in the lives of ordinary
Bettelheims The Uses of Enchantment (1976), which humans. These events frequently follow an
made me search for ways to study empirically his encounter with the supernatural. In contrast to
notions about the ways fairy tales affect children myths and legends, fairy tales are narratives of
and the extent to which children identify with char- magic and fantasy and are understood as works of
acters and plot. Consequently, I decided to develop fiction (Zipes, 2000).
a projective personality test for children. Where do fairy tales come from? What inspired
Two people played a crucial role in concretizing the tellers to create these stories? When did they
this idea: the artist and illustrator of the test cards, first appear? Fairy tales began as oral folktales,
Anthony Glykos, and the supervisor of my thesis, although it is almost impossible to determine their
renowned psychometrician Professor Paul Kline. precise chronology and origins. In his Folk
The construction of the test rests mainly on the Psychology (19001909), Wundt (1908) points out
association between fairy tales and unconscious that the fairy tale is the oldest of all narrative genres
processes. This association was deduced from vari- and reveals fundamental aspects of the primitive
ous sources, including the origins and the evolution mind.
of the tales, the relationship between fairy tales and The term folktale refers to any tale deriving
unconscious processes, the specific characteristics of from or existing in oral tradition. Zipes (1999)
fairy tales, the relationship between fairy tales and claims that oral folktales have existed for thousand
child development, the aggression and violence in of years. They have been conveyed in various ways,
fairy tales, the use of fairy tales in psychotherapy, such as by slaves traveling from Africa to America,
nostalgic thoughts about fairy tales, and the trans- by soldiers returning from the Crusades, by pil-
29
grims returning from the Holy Land or Mecca, and but kept enough within the frame of the happy-end
by travelers and through commercial exchange narratives to allow insight into real conditions (p.
between Europe and the East. 121).
During the Renaissance, the tales were finally American folklorist and psychoanalyst A.
written down, and therefore they became the liter- Dundes (1989) notes that although Perrault and the
ary fairy tales with which most of us are familiar. Grimms modified the tales, they could not destroy
Yolen (1981/2000) explains that once writing was them. He claims that the projective nature of
established, the written word worked its own magic famous tales, such as that of Little Red Riding Hood
on the world of story (p. 23). (LRRH), has survived literary reworkings.
Famous fairy tale collections include the One There are various postulates regarding the ori-
Thousand and One Nights (1548), which consists of gins of fairy tales and oral tales; the most popular
stories from India, Egypt, Arabia, and Persia; are:
Straparolas Pleasant Nights (1550); Basiles The Tale
of Tales (1637), also known as the Pentamerone; 1. Fairy tales are remnants of solar or lunar
Charles Perraults Stories or Tales of Passed Times (or myths or initiation rites (the sun-myth theory
Tales of Mother Goose) (1697), the title of which is con- or the Aryan theory advocated by Max
sidered almost synonymous with the literary fairy Muller and the Brothers Grimm). The story of
tale in France; and finally the tales of the Brothers LRRH is one of the most popular fairy tales
Grimm, who dominated the literary world in and has received considerable attention from
Germany during the nineteenth century. Their scholars. It has been considered a myth of
famous fairy tale collection, Childrens and Household sunset and sunrise and a seasonal ritual in
Tales, was published in two volumes in 1812 and which spring conquers winter. Calvetti (1980)
1815 and became a world classic. understands LRRHs departure from home as
One of the major criticisms regarding the record- a rite of separation, her time in the woods as a
ed texts has to do with the extent of subjectivity that marginal period, her being eaten by the wolf
interfered or altered the oral versions. Zipes (1988) as a test of initiation, and her salvation by the
argues that Perrault, during the reign of Louis XIV hunter as her birth or admission into adult
and the glory of Versailles, sought to make an society.
important contribution to French culture by 2. Fairy tales are the distillate of dreams.
demonstrating, with remarkable expertise, the role Transformations occurring in dreams are just
of manners, sexuality, and civilit in fairy tales. as plausible in fairy tales. Like the folktale,
Like Perrault, the Grimms imposed their own dreams usually revolve around a single per-
value system on the oral tradition. More specifical- son, a single problem, or a single characteris-
ly, they made their texts more didactic, sentimental, tic. In tribal societies, dreams, like fairy tales,
and moralistic. Once their printed texts were pub- are commonly reported as real experiences.
lished in Germany and in other countries, the tales
were reabsorbed by the oral tradition and thereby The genre of the fairy tale is manifold: fairy tales
served as the basis for new oral versions that, in vary from culture to culture, place to place, and
turn, inspired new literary works. time to time. Jane Yolen (1981/2000) explains: The
The Grimms were criticized for revising the orig- oldest stories were transmitted and transmuted, the
inal texts to make them more suitable for children. kaleidoscope patterns of motif changed by time and
For example, they changed cruel mother figures by the times, by the tellers and by the listeners, by
into stepmothers. Zipes (1988) notes that the the country in which they arose, the countries to
Grimms as collectors and revisers of the tales toned which they were carried. The oral tales were
down or omitted some of the more cruel episodes, changed by the way culture itself changes, the way
Fairy Tales as Building Blocks 31
traditions change (p. 23). consolation to the wronged, they draw social outlines
The nature of the fairy tales is promiscuous, around boys and girls, fathers and mothers, the rich
omnivorous, and anarchically heterogeneous, and the poor, the rulers and the ruled, they point out
absorbing high and low elements and tragic and the evildoers and garland the virtuous, they stand up
to adversity with dreams of vengeance, power and vin-
comic tones into its usually simple form of narra-
dication. (p. 21)
tive. Motifs and plotlines are nomadic, traversing
the globe and the millennia, turning up on parch-
Fairy tales disregard logic and encompass a mix-
ment in medieval Persia, in oral form in the
ture of feelings and reflect universal values includ-
Pyrenees, in a ballad in the Highlands, and in a
ing hatred, envy, kindness, and forgiveness, which
fairy tale in the Caribbean (Warner, 1994).
the tales originators integrated delicately. Their
Many of the central plots and themes of fairy
characters soon outlive shivering agony and sus-
tales can be found throughout the world; the many
pense with conflict resolution and cherished out-
variants of the tale of Cinderella are a typical exam-
comes. The double vision of the tales, on the one
ple. The similarity between the various themes and
hand charting perennial drives and terrors and on
plots may be explained by the fact that the tales
the other mapping actual volatile experience, gives
express universal truths and values as well as prob-
the genre its fascination and power to satisfy
lems and challenges faced by people throughout the
(Warner, 1994, p. XVII).
world and during different periods. According to
Heuscher (1974) the Grimms tales are the most
authentic and moving portrayals of the multileveled Fairy Tale Characteristics
vicissitudes of human beings. Similarly, Von Franz
(1982) argues that because the fairy tale is beyond The Swiss folklorist Max Luthi (1987) considered
cultural and racial differences it can migrate so eas- the folktale as a particular art form. Luthi character-
ily. Fairy tale language seems to be the internation- ized the folktale by the following criteria: one-
al language of all mankindof all ages and of all dimensionality (the unproblematic movement
races and cultures (p. 18). between the real and the enchanted world); depth-
Seifert (1996) claims that fairy tales correspond lessness (absence of psychological feelings or moti-
to immediate, almost universal, cultural references vation on the part of the characters); abstraction
that reveal in succinct form some of the most signif- (lack of realistic detail and a tendency toward
icant psychic and social phenomena. Folktales were extremes, contrasts, or fixed formulas); and isola-
closely connected with the rituals, customs, and tion and universal connection (abstract character
beliefs of tribes, communities, and trades. The tales types with no sustained relationships to other char-
fostered a sense of belonging and of hope that mir- acters).
acles were possible. They were to be shared and The Russian folklorist Vladimir Propp (1968) in
exchanged, used and modified, according to the the Morphology of the Folktale analyzed the basic plot
needs of the individuals involved. Folktales instruct- components of Russian folktales to identify their
ed, amused, warned, initiated, and enlightened. simplest narrative units. Propp concluded that all
They were the result of common experiences and tales have a common structure. He identified thirty-
beliefs. one distinct functions, which he argued dictate the
Warner (1994) writes: structure of the folktale and can be fulfilled by the
characters actions or motives. Finally, he noted that
Fairy tales exchange knowledge between the older these functions always occur in the same sequence.
voice of experience and a younger audience, they For the sake of brevity, I present here a simplified
present pictures of perils and possibilities that lie list of five of these functions:
ahead, they use terror to set limits on choice and offer
1. There is a lack of something. characterize fairy tale heroes: (a) kindness, in com-
2. This lack forces the hero to go on a quest to bination with humility, to the poor, the ugly, and
eliminate the lack. the old, and to animals, and (b) passivity (e.g., of
3. During the quest, the hero encounters a magi- heroines such as Cinderella and Snow White),
cal agent or helper. which often proves ultimately to be a kind of
4. The hero is subjected to one or more tests. strength.
5. After passing the test, the hero earns a reward Plot development is simple and lacks unnecessary
and the villain is punished. scenes descriptions. Fairy tale plots raise problems
of general human significance; they represent uni-
Fairy tales bear distinct characteristics that set versal values, emotions, or concerns allegorically
them apart from myths or legends. These charac- and symbolically. One reason for the worldwide
teristics facilitate identification with the story and appeal of fairy tales is likely their capacity to reflect
the characters, and they concern the setting, char- everyday actualities, in particular the intricacies of
acters, plot, style, themes, and motifs. social and familial relationships.
The structure of the fairy tale is characterized by The themes of fairy tales reflect universal truths
clarity, compactness, and precision. Moreover, it is and the valuesmany of which are still preserved
characterized by formulas, the expression of todayof the people and cultures from which they
extremes and polarities, and the absence of distract- originated. Most themes refer to moral and materi-
ing details. al achievements, such as the triumph of good over
The setting includes both time and place. The evil, that justice prevails, that intelligence and
time is always the far-distant past and is usually humility are more important than physical strength,
introduced by some version of once upon a time. and that kindness and hard work are rewarded.
The place involves castles or forests; such settings Some fairy tale themes exist in several stories from
prepare children for a fascinating experience. different parts of the world. For example, the theme
According to Von Franz (1982), once upon a time of overcoming adversaries with cunning and brav-
or a similar opening denotes timelessness and ery is present in many tales, such as Jack the Giant
spacelessnessthe nowhere of the collective Killer (or Jack and the Beanstalk). Similarly, the
unconscious. The forest is quite often a special place theme of being maltreated or abused by elders
in which anything can happen; it allows for a exists in many versions of the tale of Cinderella.
change in the protagonists destiny, an opportunity Researchers use motifs to identify and analyze the
for self-discovery and transformation. It symbolizes similarities in tales from various cultures. Some
the dark, impenetrable world of the unconscious, motifs, such as supernatural beings, magical trans-
where all types of anxiety take form. formations, and extraordinary animals, appear to
Fairy tale characters are essentially symbolic and be almost universal, suggesting similar thought
are usually described as flatthat is, they do not processes in people around the world.
change over the course of time. In accordance with The Aarne-Thompson Index is a classification
the oral tradition, the Grimms described their char- system for folktales. Initially developed by the
acters in terms of their social class, family status, or Finnish folklorist Antti Aarne in 1910, the system
profession. Occasionally they used descriptive was broadened with the collaboration of the
names such as Little Red Cap (or Riding Hood) or American folklorist Stith Thompson in 1928 and
Snow White, or common names such as Elsa, revised in 1961. The principal value of the index lies
Hansel, Gretel, or Hans to facilitate projection. in the creation of a single classification system by
Three major characteristics of fairy tale protago- which culturally distinct variants are grouped
nists include humbleness, humility, and naivet. together according to a common reference number.
Brewer (2003) refers to two additional features that The index aims to help researchers identify the
types of tales, isolate motifs, and locate cultural vari- tales and attempts to explain why these magical sto-
ants. It is an important and long-lasting contribution ries continue to fascinate and enchant readers.
to the study of folktales. Children identify with fairy tale characters and proj-
Warner (1994) writes: ect upon them their feelings, wishes, or conflicts,
and through this process they gradually find solu-
Fairy tales use the story of something in the remote tions to their problems and cope with feelings of
past to look towards the future, their happy endings do rejection, loneliness, or insecurity. Cashdan (1999)
not bring about total closure, but make promises, maintains that fairy tales resolve inner struggles by
prophesies. . . . More so than the presence of fairies, providing children a context in which to act them
the moral function, the imagined antiquity and oral
out. By identifying with fairy tale characters, chil-
anonymity of the ultimate source and the happy end-
dren can resolve tensions and find solutions to con-
ing, metamorphoses, define the fairy tale. The folktale
has a moral and a clearly symbolic underlying struc- flicts. Fairy tales are the psychodramas of child-
ture. (p. 35) hood. Beneath the surface of these fanciful excur-
sions into fantasy are real-life dramas that mirror
Brewer (2003) maintains that fairy tales have real-life struggles (p. 17).
stereotyped characters and a certain predictability According to Favat (1977), childrens interest in
of events. They embody the social wisdom of their fairy tales emerges and then declines between the
community and an implicit morality or didacticism. ages of 5 to 10 years, peaking between 6 to 8 years.
There is little scene description. The protagonists He examined the relationship and parallelism of
commit some kind of transgression, but recover childrens interest in fairy tales and their moral and
through a magical event; occasionally, there is a cognitive development. More specifically, the mag-
happy ending. ical beliefs of children can take the form of wishes
(as in the tales of Cinderella and the Seven Ravens).
Fairy Tales and Children Animist beliefs are evident in stories that include
talking objects or animals. Retributive justice that is
The traditional fairy tales, especially those achieved via expiatory punishment (morality of
recorded by Perrault and the Brothers Grimm, constraint) abounds in fairy tales, just as harsh pun-
either in their translated literal editions, or in mul- ishment awaits wrongdoers.
tifarious adaptations, play a crucial role in the Children between the ages of 6 and 12 years
socialization of children over much of the modern believe that others understand and share their
world (Zipes, 1988, p. 110). thoughts, aims, and desires. Just as children per-
Although fairy tales were not initially intended ceive themselves to be at the center of the universe,
for children, nowadays, childrens fascination con- so does the hero of the fairy tale exist at the center
firms the interplay between fairy tales and their lis- of his/her world, the events of which, however
teners or readers. Fairy tales appear to leave a last- adverse initially, consistently convene to enable the
ing impression on the path of the developing child. fulfillment of his/her deepest desires.
What makes them so captivating and enduring? My MPhil thesis (Coulacoglou, 1987) examined
Peller (1959) observed that as children grow up the way fairy tales can be employed as a means to
they read fairy tales that best reflect their own psy- evaluate childrens developmental abilities. Chil-
chological conflicts. The opportunity to externalize dren were questioned with regards to the actions
them and to identify with fairy tale characters may and behaviors of popular fairy tale protagonists.
help reduce anxiety. The responses reflected issues associated with
Bettelheims The Uses of Enchantment (1976) is a moral, cognitive, and social cognitive development.
landmark in the psychoanalytic history of fairy Specifically, the questions aimed to discover:
tales. The author interprets a large number of fairy
1. Childrens approval or disapproval of punish- reciprocity.

ment (e.g., Should Cinderella forgive her step- To explain why Cinderella hadnt informed her
mother and sisters, or should she punish father about her maltreatment by the stepmother,
them?). the majority of children responded that Cinderella
2. Childrens need for a motive to judge the con- was nice and did not want to indict the stepmother.
sequences of an act (e.g., Did the queen wish Older children more frequently provided responses
to kill Snow White because she was prettier or such as, She did not want to upset her father or
because the queen was evil?). She was afraid of her stepmother. The first
3. Whether children can differentiate between response reflects concern for anothers feelings;
what is desirable and what actually occurs in older children are more able to empathize with the
the story (e.g., Who did the father love more, emotional states of others. One might explain the
Cinderella or the stepmother?). latter answer in terms of the ability of older children
4. How children explain a course of action that to recognize that others behave in predictable and
did not take place (e.g., Why didnt Cinderella consistent ways.
tell her father about her maltreatment by the When asked whom they would like to be in the
stepmother? or Why didnt Snow White story of Cinderella, 6-year-olds said the prince or
marry one of the dwarfs?). Cinderella, whereas the majority of 11-year-olds
5. How children explain the behavior of a char- identified with the doves. Although the majority of
acter in the story (e.g., Why did Snow White girls identified with Cinderella and the majority of
disobey the dwarfs and open the door?). boys with the prince, there were no sex differences
6. The reasons underlying the identification with in regard to the doves.
specific fairy tale characters. Similar findings were observed when children
7. Which fairy tales themes children prefer and were asked whom they would like to be in the story
how they justify these preferences in relation of Snow White. While the majority of children
to moral and social cognitive development between ages 6 to 9 identified with Snow White, as
(e.g., What part of the story did you like children grow older, the percentage that identified
most/least?). with the heroine and with the prince decreases con-
siderably. As a result, the majority of 11-year-olds
Childrens responses to questions revealed sever- identified with the dwarfs mainly because they sup-
al interesting developmental differences among the ported and helped Snow White.
age groups and between boys and girls. For exam- Researchers have also studied the close relation-
ple, while 6-year-olds preferred the scene in which ship between fairy tales and children from a psy-
the hunter punishes the wolf, 11-year-olds favored choanalytic perspective. One psychoanalytic notion
the scene in which the hunter saves LRRH and her that applies to pubertal children is the fantasy of
grandmother. In response to whether Cinderella family romance. This fantasy relates to the idea
should forgive or punish her stepmother and step- that ones parents are not really ones own but
sisters, the majority of 6-year-olds (71%) said that instead have replaced real parents who are of
she should have punished them, whereas the major- nobler origins. Such fantasies find parallels in many
ity of 11-year-olds felt that Cinderella was right to fairy tale plots, in which poor children discover that
forgive them. In addition, while younger children they are actually the sons or daughters of kings or
chose the most severe punishments for the victims other nobility.
(i.e., death), the majority of older children chose a Protagonists in fairy tales frequently encounter
punishment similar to what the offenders had done and deal symbolically with Oedipal fantasies.
(e.g., make the victim sleep in the ashes), thus Characteristic stories often include a young boy
demonstrating their preference for punishment by who has been challenged by his father the king to
complete difficult, seemingly insurmountable tasks form of cannibalism, is represented by the wolf
and therefore is sent away, out into the world. The devouring the young heroine and her grandmother.
boy accepts the challenge, as it offers him the The reason the wolf eating the young heroine is
opportunity for great success in life. Success is the considered cannibalistic is that the wolf in fairy tales
outcome of an adventurous and often hazardous is somewhat anthropomorphic. The cannibalistic
journey during which the young hero faces many elements found in an Italian version of the tale (The
dangers. Primarily, he deals with them by using his Wolf and the Three Girls) are quite shocking. Here,
wits and by accepting the assistance of friendly ani- the wolf kills LRRHs mother, crafts a door-latch
mals or supernatural creatures. His reward tends to cord from her tendons, chops up her body to make
be marriage to the beautiful and kind princess. a meat pie, and pours her blood into a wine bottle.
When Oedipal fantasy is applied to girls, the The heroine then greedily, though unknowingly,
mother is split into a pre-Oedipal good mother and consumes both the meat pie and the blood.
an Oedipal evil stepmother or witch. In the fairy tale The Juniper Tree (a fairy tale
collected by the brothers Grimm, see Tatar, 2003),
Aggression and Violence the stepmother pushed the little boy from one
in Fairy Tales place to the next, slapped him here and cuffed him
there so that the poor child lived in constant fear.
Tatar (1992) poses the important question, What When the unsuspected boy reaches into a chest to
makes a tale about being devoured seem so attrac- get an apple, the stepmother decapitates him.
tive when in fact it is dreadful? (p. 192). It is hard to In the tale of Hansel and Gretel, the old witch,
think of a well-known traditional fairy tale that does presented as carnivorous and a child-eater, appears
not contain some form of violence. Aggression and dreadful: The old woman only pretended to be
violence abound in tales, but in most cases, there is kind. Actually, she was a wicked witch, who waylaid
a motive. The motives of privation or retaliation children and she built her house out of bread to
especially as a form of punishmentare conveyed as entice them. She killed, cooked, and ate any child
justifiable causes for the most atrocious acts. who fell into her hands and that to her was a feast
Two types of aggression tend to exist in fairy tales: day (Tatar, 2003, page 75).
In the tale of Snow White, the evil queen desires
1. Aggressionoral aggression being the most to exterminate her stepdaughter because she is
commonly expressedderives from parental more beautiful than the queen. The queens canni-
figures, supernatural beings, or wild animals. balistic instincts are revealed when she orders the
It is generally directed toward the protagonist, huntsman to kill Snow White: Get that child out of
usually a child or a weak person or animal. my sight. Take her into the forest to kill her and
Stepmothers stand as an abiding source of bring me her lungs and liver to prove youve done
evil in countless fairy tales, and it is no acci- it (Tatar, 1992). (Although not made explicit, it is
dent that they rank among the most memo- implied that the queen hopes to become more
rable villains in those tales (Tatar, 1987, p. beautiful by consuming the organs of her beautiful
141). stepdaughter.) This primitive fantasy of incorpora-
2. Retaliatory aggression is most commonly tiontaking something into ones body in order to
observed in the form of punishment of wrong- appropriate aspects or qualities of the object
doers. This type of aggression is preposterous, appears latent in many fairy tales.
often reaching the limits of sadism. Cruel punishments also characterize fairy tales.
The villain often receives no mercy but rather radi-
The story of LRRH provides a striking example cal annihilation by the hero(ine) or a third party.
of the first category. In this tale, violence, in the Sadistic torture of villains occurs in several fairy
tales. In the story of Snow White and the Seven wolf in the phase of talio-anxiety.
Dwarfs, the evil queen faces her death sentence ter- Miller (1981) has a different approach to the
rified and speechless: The moment she entered the interpretation of aggression in fairy tales. She claims
hall she recognized Snow White and she was so ter- that the origins of aggression can be found in the
rified that she just stood there and couldnt move. mechanism of identification with the aggressor and
But two iron slippers had already been put into that adults take advantage of or abuse children,
glowing coals. Someone took them out with a pair intentionally or unintentionally. Miller argues that
of tongs and set them down in front of her. She was the origins of perversions, addictions, and self-
forced to step into the red-hot shoes and dance till destructive behaviors can be found in the abuse that
she fell to the floor dead. the perpetrators experienced as children. She illus-
The punishment that befalls the stepmother in trates her point with the fairy tales of The Virgin
The Juniper Tree is brought on by the victim, who Marys Child and Rumpelstiltskin.
has been transformed into a bird, when Bam! The Returning to Tatars question that opened this
bird dropped a millstone on her head and crushed sectionWhat makes a tale about being devoured
her to death (Tatar, 2003). seem so attractive when in fact it is dreadful? (p.
While these cruel forms of execution correspond 192)one must consider the aggression that exists
to real punishments that have been enacted within the child him- or herself, as aggression con-
throughout history, this alone cannot account for stitutes an inevitable part of human nature. Parents
the extent of brutality found in fairy tales. The often try to protect their children from external
Freudian interpretation of the myth of Cronus violence; some believe that banishing fairy tales will
describes the father as the victim and the children as dissolve violent behavior in their children. In play-
the perpetrators, thus implying the projection of ing certain games children easily alternate between
their murderous hostility onto the father. Klein the roles of aggressor and victim. Scherf (1982) cites
(1975) pursued and further elaborated on the role of games that employ fairy tale characters, which he
hostility and oral aggression in the mother-child believes help children control their anxieties and
relationship. While the mothers breast begins as a master their fears. In one such game, a child is des-
source of pleasure and gratification, it gradually ignated as the witch, while the other children chant,
becomes the target of destructive, oral-aggressive Old wench, why are you sleeping such a long
fantasies. The child later projects these fantasies time? As the game continues:
onto the mother, and the child simultaneously
develops the fear of being devoured. According to The witch pretends to awaken:
Rheim (1953/1992), the witch, as bad mother, What time is it? she asks.
represents the talio aspect of the childs body- Half goats tail, they answer.
destruction fantasies. Aggression is combined with Why are the bells ringing so sweetly? she asks.
regression and it follows that the idea of being swal- Because your husband is dead, shout the chil-
lowed, being eaten, is the talio aspect of this aggres- dren with satisfaction.
sion. The cannibal child creates a cannibal mother Who has done this? howls the witch.
(p. 394).
In his first attempt to analyze fairy tales, Rheim And the children scream Me!, Me!, and they
(1940) draws attention to their cannibalistic compo- rush away, the witch in hot pursuit. The child that
nents. He believes that tales such as LRRH and the witch captures at the end not only is the victim,
The Wolf and the Seven Kids reflect oral aggres- but also becomes the witchs successor. Thus, the
sion on the part of the victims. Rheim notes that child-as-victim quickly transforms into the child-as-
the heroine-as-wolf in LRRH first eats her grand- predator.
mother and is then devoured by her grandmother-
Fairy Tales and the Unconscious nication. Furthermore, fairy tales contain symbols
and use them in an exhortatory and instructional
Freud (1900/1953) was the first to refer to the fashion, which makes it likely that the child will
symbolic nature of fairy tales, and he often incorporate them into the developing ego.
employed fairy tales to advance the analysis of Jungs approach to the analysis of fairy tales had
dreams. According to Freud, both fairy tales and a significant influence on their reception and schol-
dreams reveal unconscious processes in a symbolic arship of the genre. Freud viewed psychopathology
way. In his analysis of the Wolf Man (1918/1995), as manifestations of the individual unconscious, yet
Freud indicated that the sexual anxiety expressed in Jung posited the existence of an impersonal collec-
his patients dreams shared symbolism with those tive unconscious that individuals in turn expresses
observed in the tales The Wolf and the Seven in various symbolic forms such as dreams and artis-
Kids and LRRH. tic creations. Archetypes, the symbolic language of
Ricklin (1915) further elaborated Freuds notion the collective unconscious, help the individual
that fairy tales function as a form of wish fulfillment achieve self-realization or individuation.
to express repressed sexual desires. Rank (1919) Von Franz (1982), the prominent Jungian analyst
proposed that fairy tales are adult projections of and fairy tale scholar, notes that these stories form
childhood fantasies. He examined mythological and the simplest and purest expression of collective
fairy tale heroes in light of Freuds theories on the unconscious psychic processes. One can often iden-
Oedipal conflict and family romance. In the years tify in fairy talesas in dreamsthe archetypes that
following Ranks research, interest in the study of serve as the structural components of the collective
fairy tales increased, and renowned analysts devot- unconscious: birth and rebirth, death, power,
ed time to studying their symbolism. magic, unity, the hero, the child, God, the demon,
Rheim (1953) claims that fairy tales are dreams the wise old man, the earth mother, and the animal.
that have been retold and reformulated by the All fairy tales attempt to describe one psychic
dreamer. Fairy tales resemble dreams in several realitythe self. For example, many fairy tales fea-
aspects: they deal in opposites or contrasts, they are ture a king who has fallen ill or grown old to sym-
irrational, they have manifest and latent meaning, bolize the initial stage in the process of individua-
they rely on symbolism, they expand the concept of tion. A significant number of fairy tales also include
reality, they are dramatized forms of expression, motifs that represent the shadow, the anima (ani-
they contain sexual and cultural elements, they mus), and the persona.
express wishes, and they reflect defense mecha- Heuschers (1974) position on the interpretation
nisms such as displacement, devaluation, and of fairy tales is a mixture of Jungian and existential
overevaluation. psychology. He cites the usefulness of myths and
Schwartz (1964/1994) suggests that an analytic fairy tales in activating the potential for healthy
examination of the content of a fairy tale might growth, and argues that there is no human condi-
uncover the tales latent meaning and integrate it tion, problem, or hope that these stories do not
with our knowledge of psychodynamics, the devel- meaningfully mirror.
opment of culture, and the lifestyles in which the Different types of defense mechanisms have
tale arises. As in other areas (for instance, art) con- been observed in various fairy tales, including
taining symbols, fairy tales deal with deep percep- denial in fantasy (e.g., Cramer, 1991). The tale of
tions, anticipations, longings, and fears. Sensations, Hansel and Gretel features projection, whereby the
intuitions, feelings, and thoughts are combined to childrens fear of being devoured by the witch may
provide the child with symbols in the form of con- represent their desire to return to an early existence
crete images. The child therefore finds the tales in which they were one with the mother (Heuscher,
more understandable than other forms of commu- 1974). Therefore, the struggle between the children
and the witch signifies the struggle between the one might establish a preliminary rapport and com-
child and what the projection of his wish has made munication with borderline and schizophrenic
out of the mother. patients. By considering fairy tales as metaphors, he
In the story of Snow White and the Seven uses fairy tale characters to communicate with his
Dwarfs, regression seems to occur when the heroine patients. The threats the child might be experienc-
arrives at the dwarfs small cottage. According to ing within the family environment, as well as to
Heuscher (1974), this arrival signifies the return to his/her ego organization, are depicted through the
the oral stage of development. symbolism in the fairy tales; the child in turn is able
Dieckmann (1971) has studied extensively the to work through these by maintaining a distance of
relationship between fairy tales and psychoneu- the fantasy through the conscious awareness of the
roses, from both a theoretical and a clinical per- child (p. 115). Furthermore, Ekstein maintains that
spective. He maintains that fairy tales can be used a unique characteristic of the symbolic language
as a diagnostic tool to determine the neurotic-arche- used in therapy is that the therapist and the patient
typal fixation. enter a state of communion that resembles the
primitive mother-child fusion, in which overt verbal
Clinical Applications of Fairy Tales content is not always necessary for communication.
Brun, Pedersen, and Runberg (1993) employed
Fairy tales have been employed in psychothera- fairy tales in psychotherapy with emotionally dis-
py with both children and adults. Child psychiatrist turbed children and adolescents.
and analyst Lafforgue (1995) has created the fairy Clinicians following a Jungian approach have
tale workshop, as he calls it, at a childrens hospi- also employed fairy tales in psychotherapy.
tal in southern France. His aim was to apply fairy Dieckmann (1986) observed the ways that some of
tales in practical ways to the therapy of psychotic his patients acted out fairy tales in their lives. More
and autistic children. He uses a number of popular specifically, he studied the connections between a
fairy tales, such as LRRH, the Three Little Pigs, childs favorite fairy tale and his/her fate later in life.
Hansel and Gretel, and Tom Thumb, which he Fairy tale motifs influence ones view of self and
rotates according to the stage of the therapeutic ones environment and can dominate ones mental
process. Staff members read fairy tales to the chil- life.
dren, who then act them out through role-playing,
which provides the opportunity to project conflicts Nostalgic Thoughts in Fairy Tales
and feelings onto specific characters. Inner or inter-
personal conflicts, as well as oral or anal conflicts As people age, tender childhood memories that
are manifested symbolically through the role-play- are tinged with nostalgia often resurface. Below are
ing and the holding environment of the institution. excerpts of two texts, by a Greek and an Indian
Lafforgue reports that, in general, children are writer (respectively), which are characteristic of this
inclined to employ helpful and organized experi- kind of nostalgia.
ences (e.g., the appearance of the police or the
Right in the midst of summer, the ancient Zeus sulked
hunter to control the wolf) to manage their confu-
and the sad rain gathered a herd of clouds and nailed
sion and restrain the aggressors. Identification with
them on us. Time to go home. The thirsty earth longed
the aggressor was the most commonly employed for the rain just like our hearts longed for the fairy tale.
defense mechanism. Lafforgue claims that the fairy Behind the misty glass shivering dreams are passing.
tale workshop helps psychotic children transition Sad Cinderella missing her slipper removed the cur-
from the incoherence of thought to the symboliza- tain: where is my treasure hiding?
tion of experience. Little Red Riding Hood nests in the corner. All of a
Ekstein (1983) suggests that by fusing metaphors sudden the forest turns to winter. The wolf is spying
through aging logs. We hear his howling in the still- they refer. Von Franz (1982) writes that attempting
ness. Where is he coming from? The broken branches to interpret the same fairy tale is similar to making
gasp under his foot. Well, dear Little red Riding Hood, a confession and taking a Rorschach test.
it seems the weather has turned cold, snow is falling up
on the mountains. Right here we shall light the ancient How Little Red Riding Hood Came to Be Eaten
fire and wake up grandmother who sleeps for ageless
times inside her shabby coffin and plead her to start Most worthy of praise
the tale once again. Were the virtuous ways
Around the fire we shall relive the great moment. The Of Little Red Riding Hoods Ma,
pale apple hangs from the bean along the winter And no one was ever
quince. Dear Little Red Riding Hood, the house is More cautious and clever
sweet on such a magic night. Than Little Red Riding Hoods Pa.
(Panayotopoulos, 1991, p. 87) They never mislead
For they meant what they said,
In his poems collection, The Elephants of Reckoning And would frequently say what they meant:
the Indian poet Amirthanayagam (1993) expresses And the way she should go
his longing for fairy tales in quite a different way: They were careful to show,
And the way that they showed her, she went.
Mother, For obedience she was effusively thanked,
You never told me any fairy tale And for anything else she was carefully spanked.
About Cinderellas with golden dresses ...
About grandmothers that cook cakes on the moon She expected to find
But youve taught me Her decrepit but kind
How to walk on a muddy path Old grandmother waiting her call,
How to eat bread without butter But the visage that met her
You never hit me once maybe because you thought Completely upset her:
that life will offer me many things It wasnt familiar at all!
you never let me cry With a whitening cheek
maybe because Ill have to do it She started to speak,
in the years to come. But her peril she instantly saw:
But mother, Her Grandma had fled,
I need your fairy tales at least now And she has tackled instead
After 32 years Four merciless Paws and a Maw!
I need angels to save the poor When the neighbors came running, the wolf to subdue,
Magic wands to give them food He was licking his chops (and Red Riding Hoods too!)
I need your fairy tales Mother. Guy Wetmore Carryl, 1902
Transformations and Retellings The Snow Child

of Fairy Tales They came to a bush of roses, all in flower Pick me
Many authors and book illustrators have rewrit- one said the Countess to the girl. The girl picks a rose,
pricks her finger on the thorn; bleeds; screams; falls.
ten and illustrated fairy tales to express their own
Weeping the Count got off his horse, unfastened his
feelings or experiences about the stories. These cre-
breaches and thrust his virile member into the dead
ative productions could be wish fulfillments or the girl. The Countess reined in her stamping mare and
result of the lingering effect the tales have had upon watched him narrowly. Then the girl began to melt.
these authors, or they may be attempts to grasp the Soon there was nothing left of her but a feather a bird
true meaning of the stories. These creations are might have dropped; a blood stain, like the trace of a
essentially interpretations of the fairy tales to which foxs kill on the snow; and the rose she had pulled off
the bush. Now the Countess had all her clothes on him.
again. With her long hand, she stroked her furs. The She will lay his fearful head on her lap and she will
Count picked up the rose, bowed and handed to his pick out the lice from his pelt and perhaps she will put
wife; when she touched it, she dropped it. It bites! the lice into her mouth and eat them, as he will bid
she said. her, as she would do in a savage marriage ceremony.
Angela Carter, 1979/1995 Angela Carter, 1979/1995
The Company of Wolves Red Riding Hood
It is midwinter and the robin, the friend of man, sits on He appeared to be in his ninth month
the gardeners spade and sings. It is the worst time in and Little Red Riding Hood and her grandmother
all the year for wolves but this strong-minded child rode like two Jonahs up and down with
insists she will go off through the wood. She is quite his every breath. One pigeon. One partridge.
sure the wild beasts cannot harm her although, well-
warned, she lays a carving knife in the basket. There is He was fast asleep,
a bottle of hard liquor distilled from brambles; a batch dreaming of his cup and gown
of flat oatcakes baked on the hearthstone; a pot or two wolfless.
of jam. The flaxen-haired girl will take these delicious
gifts to a reclusive grandmother so old the burden of The huntsman and the grandmother and Little Red
her years is crushing her to death. Granny lives two Riding Hood
hours trudge through the winter woods; the child sat down by his corpse and had a meal of
wraps herself in her thick shawl, draws it over her wine and cake.
head. She steps into her stout wooden shoes; she is Those two remembering
dressed and ready and it is Christmas Eve. The malign nothing naked and brutal
door of the solstice still swings upon its hinges but she from that little death
has been too much loved ever to feel scared. that little birth,
... from their going down
When she heard the freezing howl of a distant wolf, and their lifting up.
her practiced hand sprang to the handle of her knife, Anne Sexton, 1971, pp. 110118
but she saw no sign of a wolf at all, nor of a naked man
neither. . . . shed never seen such a fine fellow before, The transformation of either LRRH or the
not among the rustic clowns of her native village. Soon grandmother into the wolf is especially interesting
they were laughing and joking like old friends. from a psychodynamic/psychoanalytic perspective.
...
That is, the transformation reflects the loose bound-
What big arms you have.
aries between the aggressor and the victim. In the
All the better to hug you with.
Every wolf in the world now howled a prothalamion Japanese story that follows, one may note the con-
outside the window as she freely gave the kiss she fusion between oral needs and oral aggression as
owed him. well as the role of the superego.
What big teeth you have!
She saw how his jaw began to slaver and the room was The Gourmand Little Red Riding Hood
full of the clamour of the forests Liebestod but the
wise child never flinched, even when he answered: All Once upon a time there was a beautiful girl who lived
the better to eat you with. in a village. She would never take off her hood that her
The girl burst out laughing; she new she was nobodys grandmother made for her, and that is why everybody
meat. She laughed at him full in the face, she ripped called her Little Red Riding Hood.
off his shirt for him and flung it into the fire, in the One day her mother cooked a lot of cookies and asked
fiery wake of her own discarded clothing. Little Red Riding Hood to take them to her grand-
Carnivore incarnate, only immaculate flesh appeases mother who lived in a near village.
Listen, daughter, you should not even think of eating through the forest, a wolf with a red hood appears and
any of the cookies on your way, as they are for your says:
grandma-her mother said. Dont eat secretly!
Little Red Riding Hood went on her way carrying the If someday you meet a wolf with a hood, remember
heavy basket full of cookies. that it may not be a wolf but a little girl.
The sweet smell of the cookies tempted her nose. Yukari Miyazawa, 2006
BRUUUMM BRUUUMM
When she got into the wood her stomach produced a
strong sound.
THE FAIRY TALE TEST
There are so many cookies that it doesnt matter if I
take one-she thought.
How tasty! Let me see another one. . . only one more The Fairy Tale Test (FTT) is an associative but
. . . MMMMM! Good, let me take one last. also thematic projective test for children aged 6 to
When she reached the grandmas house the basket 12 years. It relies on the association between fairy
was empty. tales and unconscious processes and between fairy
What am I going to do now? Should I tell granny tales and child development.
that mom has not given me anything for her? The theoretical background is psychodynamic,
While she was making such reflections, a tasty smell
mostly based on the theories of the ego and of
came to her from the house.
object relations. The FTT was originally standard-
BRUUUMM BRUUUMM
Little Red Riding Hoods stomach produced a sound ized on a Greek sample of 800 children aged 7 to 12
once more. years. In 2001 to 2003, it was restandardized on a
When she opened the door Little Red Riding Hood new sample (N = 873) of Greek children aged 6 to12
discovered a table full of various things for eating, all years. The details about data collection and validity
of them delicious. It was the breakfast that grand- studies are presented in the chapter referring to the
mother had prepared for both of them. But grand- application of the FTT in Greece (Chapter 11).
mother was not around. It is also worth noting that prior to the standard-
How tasty is everything! It doesnt matter if I try a ization a pilot was conducted in order to ensure
piece of something-Little Red Riding Hood thought, variability of responses. The FTT was administered
tasting the food.
to approximately 100 children and the results indi-
A little bit more . . . MMM! And more . . . -she said,
cated that their responses varied both in terms of its
eating one piece after another.
Her mouth was getting more and more open. At the material (21 cards, see below for details), but also
same time her ears suddenly raised, while her whole across children. The ingenuity with which the chil-
body was covered with fur. dren twisted the tales plot to suit their own needs
After a while her appearance was similar more to a was fascinating.
wolf than to a little girl. The FTT may be considered as a thematic test as
When grandmother returned home and saw her she various themes such as feelings of deprivation,
was surprised. rejection, sexual issues, and so on, are revealed
Ay, a wolf! Get out of here! Out! Out! through childrens responses; but also, as an asso-
The girl wanted to explain to her grandma that it was ciative test where the child associates a character to
her, Little Red Riding Hood, but she couldnt because
a particular story.
her mouth was full of food.
After obtaining a good series of strikes with the broom
Little Red Riding Hood, crying, escaped to the wood. Rationale
Afterwards, the mother and the grandmother searched
for Little Red Riding Hood for days and months but The FTT was developed to provide clinical,
never found her. school, and child psychologists with a psychometri-
The rumor says that from that day on when a kid goes cally sound instrument to assess a large number of
personality functions. We are going to play a game with popular fairy tale
heroes. I am going to ask you some questions about them
Stimulus Cards and Administration and I would like to hear your opinion.
The stimulus material of the Fairy Tale Test con- Before proceeding with the questioning the
sists of twenty-one cards that are presented to the examiner asks the child to narrate the stories of
child in sets of three. The cards depict popular fairy Little Red Riding Hood and Snow White and the
tale characters primarily derived from the stories of Seven Dwarfs. The childs version of the stories is
Little Red Riding Hood (LRRH) and Snow White recorded in the FTTs interview guide. The exam-
and the Seven Dwarfs, such as Little Red Riding iner then starts presenting the cards to the child in
Hood, the wolf, the dwarf, the witch, but also the sets of three at a time in a standard order, as indi-
giants derived from other popular fairy tales (such cated at the back side of each card. During the card
as Jack and the Beanstalk). These tales were specifi- presentation, the child is asked to respond to specif-
cally selected in part because they are among the ic questions that relate to the set of cards presented
most popular and widely translated ones, they have to him/her (see Appendix A for a complete
been interpreted from a variety of perspectives, but Interview Guide).
also they have been used in psychotherapy. The child needs to be reassured that there are no
The administration of all seven sets of cards takes right or wrong answers, as this is not a test, and can
approximately 50 minutes. express him/herself freely. Any behavioral signs on
Before the administration of the FTT, the exam- behalf of the child occurring during test administra-
iner makes sure that the child is familiar with the tion should also be noted, as they may constitute
fairy tales of Little Red Riding Hood, Snow White additional clues for qualitative analysis of results.
and the Seven Dwarfs, as well as with one story Such behaviors include an inability to stay seated or
involving a giant, e.g., Jack and the Beanstalk, Tom still, fidgeting with the cards, gestures or facial
Thumb, and so forth. However, it is not imperative expressions, and so on.
that the child is familiar with a giant story, as long The aim of probing is to record a complete
as she/he has a notion of the giants as being tall, response given by the child, including feelings and
strong and so on. thoughts of the figure presented, as well as motives
The FTT is not a memory test; the purpose of behind actions that the character (always according
testing is not to check the accuracy of the childs to the child) might engage in. Children do not fre-
recall of the story, but rather to see how the child quently provide full or complete responses volun-
has assimilated the fairy tales and uses them in tarily; therefore probing (indicated by (?) through-
order to put forward his/her experiences, feelings, out this book) is almost an indispensable part of the
fears, etc. Accordingly, when the child is not famil- tests administration.
iar with any of these stories then the examiner nar-
rates the stories to the child and reschedules the test. Themes and Conflicts Elicited
Setting a new date for the test makes it possible for
the child to read the stories (or listen to them) and Little Red Riding Hood
allows time for the fairy tales to sink into the uncon- 1. Conflict between autonomy (LRRH strays
scious. from the path; she wishes to meet the wolf or
During administration, and once good rapport to go and play) and compliance to authority
has been established between the examiner and the (LRRH obeys her mother)
child, the examiner introduces the FTT to the child 2. Self-image (doubts about whether LRRH will
as follows: make it on time or whether she can beat the
wolf; she does not like certain features about
herself) Aggression as Envy)

3. Sexual feelings (LRRH feels shy or excited 7. Dominance or ambition
when she meets the wolf; she thinks about her 8. Self-image (the witch is getting old; her magic
boyfriend; her skirt is short) power is diminishing, nobody loves her; she is
4. Separation anxiety (LRRH worries that some- ugly)
thing bad may happen to her mother or to
herself) Giant
5. Ways of coping with danger (LRRH will 1. Aggression (more frequently observed as
deceive the wolf, she will strike him, she will Aggression Type A and Aggression as
return home) Dominance)
2. Oral needs
Wolf 3. Self-image (the giant is ugly, too tall, fat, or dif-
1. Conflict between controlling or letting free ferent; nobody wants him)
ones impulses (devouring or not devouring 4. Sexual feelings (the giant wants to find a girl-
LRRH) friend)
2. Conflict between aggression and superego (if 5. Father-child relationship (observed rarely)
the wolf eats LRRH the hunter will punish or
kill him) Scenes From the Story of Little Red Riding Hood
3. Oral needs 1. Mother image
4. Dominance 2. Severity of superego (LRRH begs her mother
to forgive her; she wants the story to end at
Dwarf Card 1 because she deserved her mothers
1. Insecurity or fear of possible dangers (SW punishment)
might be a thief, the witch will kill both SW 3. Conflict between pleasure (playing, cutting
and the dwarfs) flowers) and moral restrictions (LRRH must
2. Affective needs (SW will take care of the visit her sick grandmother)
dwarfs) 4. Separation anxiety
3. Coping with danger (the dwarfs will kill the 5. Depression
witch; they have ways to deceive her; they can
hide Scenes From the Story of Snow White and the
4. Self-image (the dwarfs question whether they Seven Dwarfs
can help SW; they are concerned about their 1. Male-female relationship
small stature or their appearance) 2. Father-child relationship
3. Separation anxiety (the prince may die; SWs
Witch father is old; the prince may leave her)
1. Mother-child relationship 4. Conflict between autonomy (getting married
2. Narcissistic feelings (the witch wants everyone because she desires to) and compliance (her
to admire her; she wants to become a queen) father forbids her from getting married)
3. Sibling rivalry (the witch feels rivalry toward 5. Conflict between growing old (getting married)
SW) and remaining a child (staying with the dwarfs)
4. Oedipal feelings (the witch wants to extermi-
nate SW so the father will love only the witch) Scoring and Interpretation
5. Superego (the witch fears being punished for
wrongdoing) The Fairy Tale Test accounts for twenty-nine (29)
6. Aggression (more frequently observed as personality variables. These variables (see Ap-
pendix B for a brief description of each of them) tions (R) are scored as 1. When a variable does not
can be classified under five major personality com- occur in a response, the rating corresponds to 0.
ponents: Despite the many personality variables, the average
number of variables observed in a single childs
1. DESIRES AND NEEDS: Desire for Material protocol ranges from approximately 8 to 15.
Things (DMT), Desire for Superiority It is strongly suggested that the administrator
(DSUP), Desire to Help (DH), Oral Needs review all of the childs responses before rating the
(ON), Need for Affiliation (NAFIL), Need for variables. It is important to distinguish the character
Affection (NAFCT), Need for Approval with which the child identifies, so that the rating is
(NAPRO), Need for Protection (NPRO) correct. Correct recognition of the identification fig-
ure is crucial as it will determine whether the child
2. Impulses: Sexual Preoccupation (SEX- identifies with either the aggressor or the victim,
PREO), Bizarres (B), Oral Aggression (OA), and thus establish if a response expresses Aggres-
Aggression Type A (AGR A), Aggression as sion (AGGR) (any type) and Fear of Aggression
Dominance (AGRDOM), Instrumental Ag- (FA), and/or Desire to Help (DH) and Need for
gression (AGRINSTR), Aggression as De- Protection (NPRO). Key words or expressions, the
fense (AGRDEF), Aggression as Retaliation childs age and sex are also helpful to determine
(AGRRET), Aggression as Envy (AGREN- with which character the child identifies.
VY) Only a number of feelings are rated, such as fear,
depression, and anxiety. Feelings of hatred and
3. O BJECT RELATIONS: Relationship with envy are rated only in combination with an action.
Mother (REL/MO), Relationship with Father When rating responses it is of paramount impor-
(REL/FA) tance to investigate the underlying intentions of the
characters, as the motive determines the type of
4. E MOTIONAL STATES: Fear of Aggression (FA), aggression.
Anxiety (ANX), Depression (D) Raw scores of all variables are converted into
normalized T-scores (M=50, SD=10) in order to
5. EGO FUNCTIONS: Ambivalence (AMB), Self- compare the personality variables as measured by
Esteem (SE), Morality (MO), Adaptation to the FTT and to correct for any irregularities in the
Fairy Tale Content (AFTC), Repetitions distribution of the scales. Significant deviations on
(REP), Sense of Property (SPRO), Sense of the FTT profile are operationally defined as one
Privacy (SPRIV) standard deviation above or below the mean.
Deviations falling two standard deviations above or
The majority of the variables are rated on a 1- to below the mean are considered highly significant.
3-point scale, whereby 1 is low and 3 is high in This way scores ranging between 40 and 60 (in T-
intensity. For example, a response such as the giant scores units) are interpreted as being within normal
wants to exterminate the whole world because nobody limits.
loves him is rated as Aggression (Retaliation) 3,
whereas the giant wants to send away another giant Qualitative Interpretation
who threatens him is rated as Aggression (Defense) 1.
Certain variables, such as Relationship with Mother Qualitative interpretation is usually richer than
(REL/MO), Relationship with Father (REL/FA) the quantitative one since the clinician can analyze
and Self-Esteem (SE) are rated as either positive any material that cannot be otherwise rated.
(+1) or negative (-1) depending on the nature of the However, this type of analysis always comprises the
response. Occurrences of Bizarres (B) and Repeti- risk of being more subjective, as ones theoretical
background and clinical experience may interfere The evaluation of ego functioning is related to
with the tests interpretation. This analysis also the: (a) analysis of thought process, which is reflected
includes behavioral observations during testing, as a in the Adaptation to the Fairy Tale Content (AFTC).
childs responses during administration of the FTT Responses to the questions What does each Witch
may be influenced by external factors (i.e., transito- (or LRRH, Wolf and so on) think/feel? and
ry mood fluctuations, recent events, or the person- Describe what is going on in each scene may be
ality of the examiner, etc). Such observations should stereotyped, or original; (b) resolution of conflicts,
also take into consideration the manner of response reflected in responses to With which card does the
(comments about the drawings on the cards, rejec- story end? Why? and With which card would you
tion of cards, changing the order of the cards pres- like the story to end? Why?; (c) nature of anxieties;
entation etc), the childs level of concentration (dif- (d) conflicts between main drives and the superego; (e)
ficulty remaining seated, fidgeting, showing impa- fantasy of incorporation; and (f) quality of bizarre
tience about completing the test), and verbal ability responses.
(grammar, syntax, vocabulary, idiosyncratic expres- The analysis of defense mechanisms includes the
sions or words). As previously explained, a careful evaluation of a large number of these mechanisms
attention to the childs behavior during testing con- including Undoing, Denial, Rationalization,
stitutes an important source of information. Projection, Reaction Formation, Splitting,
Within a qualitative analysis the examiner should Projective Identification, Repression, Compensa-
also take into consideration a series of properties tion, Reversal, Displacement, Regression, Aggres-
that may be present or not in a childs responses. sion Turned Inward, and Acting Out.
These include:
Advantages of the FTT
Continuity of responses across a card set
revealing the unfolding of a conflict or the 1. The test allows for the evaluation of a large
gradual increase in the intensity of the under- number of personality variables, which pro-
lying variable. vides a global picture of the childs personali-
Responses expressed in the first person, as ty.
these may reflect more reliably unconscious 2. The test format involves an interview session
processes, especially so when accompanied about specific fairy tale heroes. The testing sit-
by gestures or facial expressions. uation is game-like and thus more appropriate
Interactions between the three figures of a set, for children, especially for those who may be
as this type of phenomenon may correspond inhibited.
to expressing different facets of the self. 3. The test can be applied to children with fairly
Contamination across responses, whereby the limited verbal skills, as the child must only
child brings a theme from one fairy tale to an respond to specific questions.
unrelated set of drawings. 4. Because of the nature of the stimulus materi-
als, the test can be employed with children
Moreover, qualitative analysis of the responses from diverse social and cultural backgrounds.
includes the analysis of defense mechanisms, the 5. A huge number of responses were meticu-
integration of ego functioning, and the quality of lously recorded, evaluated and rated accord-
family dynamics. ingly, generating a thorough scoring system.
The evaluation of family dynamics considers the 6. Responses reflect a large number of defense
quality of the relationship with the parents, sibling mechanisms.
rivalry, and the emergence of Oedipal conflicts,
including castration and separation anxiety.
Disadvantages of the FTT developmental theories and principles and

with psychoanalytic interpretations of fairy
1. Some children are uninterested in or dislike tales.
fairy tales, which may result in dull or stereo- 4. Before a child can be administered the test, it
typed responses. is important (but not necessary) for him or her
2. Test administration must be carried out with to be familiar with fairy tales, in particular the
care and may take as long as an hour. Probing stories of LRRH and SW.
is required, but too much may result in self- 5. Determining the identification figure, espe-
disclosure or repression. cially in regard to the cards that depict the
3. The examiners who interpret the FTT results witch and the giant, may prove difficult and
need to be familiar with psychodynamic strenuous.
Appendix A
FTTINTERVIEW GUIDE
Name: Age: Gender: M F School:
Mothers Name: Fathers Name:
Family Situation*: Favorite Fairy Tale:
Referring Practitioner:
*(e.g., divorced, single parent, adopted child
Instructions: Please use this booklet for the FTT Interview and refer to the FTT Manual for the complete FTT protocol.
Raw Scores Total T-score Childs interview behavior

Desire for Material Things (DMT)
Desire for Superiority (DSUP)
Desire to Help (DH)
Oral Needs (ON)
Need for Affiliation (NAFIL)
Need for Affection (NAFCT)
Need for Approval (NAPRO)
Need for Protection (NP)
Sexual Preoccupation (SP)
Bizarre Response (B)
Oral Aggression (OA)
Aggression as Dominance (AGRDOM)
Instrumental Aggression (AGRINS)
Aggression Type A (AGRA)
Aggression as Defense (AGRDEF)
Aggresstion as Retaliation(AGREET)
Aggression as Envy (AGRENV)
Relationship with Mother (REL/MO)
Relationship with Father (REL/FA)
Fear of Aggression (FA)
Anxiety (ANX)
Depression (D)
Ambivalence (AMB)
Self-Esteem (SE)
Morality (M)
Sense of Property or Ownership (SPRO)
Sense of Privacy (SPRIV)
Adaptation to Fairy Tale Content (AFTC)
Repetitions (R)
General Comments:
Appendix AContinued
Appendix AContinued
Appendix AContinued
Appendix AContinued
Appendix AContinued
Appendix AContinued
Appendix AContinued
Appendix AContinued
Appendix B
BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF FTT VARIABLES
The 29 FTT personality variables can be classified under 5 major personality components:
A. Desires and Needs

1. DESIRE FOR MATERIAL THINGS (DMT) is associated with the desire to acquire material
things including money, toys, clothes, cars, or jewelry, or material pleasures such as leading a
wealthy life.
2. DESIRE FOR SUPERIORITY (DSUP) reveals feelings of omnipotence and the desire for
great achievements or for the attainment of higher positions or social status.
3. DESIRE TO HELP (DH) corresponds to a desire to offer assistance to others in need. It is sim-
ilar to pro-social reasoning and altruistic behavior.
4. ORAL NEEDS (ON) reflect actual deprivation of food or symbolic deprivation of love and
affection.
5. NEED FOR AFFILIATION (NAFIL) refers to ones need to engage in friendly behaviors,
acquire friends, or be part of a social milieu.
6. NEED FOR AFFECTION (NAFCT) is expressed as a need to offer and receive love and affec-
tion.
7. NEED FOR APPROVAL (NAPRO) is one of childrens most fundamental needs. Children
require systematic appreciation or praise of their behavior from others to maintain or improve
their self-image.
8. NEED FOR PROTECTION (NPRO) is the need to seek security or assistance from others who
are perceived as stronger or more powerful.
B. Impulses
1. SEXUAL PREOCCUPATION (SEXPREO). Responses that demonstrate SEXPREO reflect
interest in or concern about sexual matters either in a socially disguised form (marriage, falling
in love) or in a more impulsive way.
2. BIZARRES (B) refers to unique, idiosyncratic responses that may reflect the childs level of
imagination and fantasy but can also be indicative of deep personal conflicts or psychopatholo-
gy.
3. ORAL AGGRESSION (OA) is the most primitive or infantile form of aggression. Common
expressions of OA include biting, chewing, tearing to pieces, swearing, cursing, spitting at some-
one, and gritting ones teeth.
4. AGGRESSION TYPE A (AGRA) is primarily interpersonal and hostile. The major motives
for this type of aggression are hatred and pleasure. Sadistic expressions are often part of AGRA.
5. AGGRESSION AS DOMINANCE (AGRDOM) is a means to master ones environment in
order to impose ones self or ones will and to satisfy ones ambitions.
6. INSTRUMENTAL AGGRESSION (AGRINSTR) is a way to acquire possessions primarily
for survival or for self-serving outcomes.
7. AGGRESSION TYPE B, which comprises Aggression as Defense, Aggression as Retaliation,
and Aggression as Envy, only occurs as a reaction to an external source of frustration (reactive
aggression). The reaction is directed at someone who is assumed to cause harm (envy), to have
Appendix BContinued
caused harm (retaliation), or to be about to cause harm (defense) to oneself or to others.

i. AGGRESSION AS DEFENSE (AGRDEF) primarily focuses on defending or protect-
ing oneself or someone else when threatened or attacked.
ii. AGGRESSION AS RETALIATION (AGRRET) may be the first type of aggression
children learn, experiencing it in the form of punishment. This type of aggression is moti-
vated by a negative or traumatic event that occurred in the past.
iii. AGGRESSION AS ENVY (AGRENVY) arises when one compares unfavorably to
others and is characterized by feelings of inferiority, hostility, and resentment. In the FTT,
AGRENVY is perceived as the need to cause harm to others who are superior somehow
to the aggressor.
C. Object Relations
1. RELATIONSHIP WITH THE MOTHER (REL/MO) is widely thought to have significance
for the childs personality development and mental health. In the FTT, REL/MO is demonstrat-
ed in responses that reflect the quality of the perceived relationship with the mother.
2. RELATIONSHIP WITH THE FATHER (REL/FA) has particular significance during the
Oedipal stage during which gender and sexual identities develop. Reactivation of Oedipal fan-
tasies occurs during early adolescence. In the FTT, REL/FA is represented in responses that
reflect the quality of the perceived relationship with the father.
D. Emotional States
1. FEAR OF AGGRESSION (FA) is evoked by impending danger or threat. In the FTT, FA
reflects fear of eminent attack, threat, or danger.
2. ANXIETY (ANX) is expressed in the FTT through thoughts about impending dangers or dis-
tressing events. ANX is distinguished from FA by the time of the occurrence: FA refers to cur-
rent events that are taking place at present, whereas ANX refers to events that either have
occurred already or will occur. The most frequently observed types of ANX are harm, death, self-
image, insecurity, disapproval, punishment, concern for others, deprivation, and helplessness.
3. DEPRESSION (D) refers to a pattern of affects and affective-cognitive interactions. The phe-
nomenology of depression involves emotions such as sadness, which is the key emotion, anger,
disgust, contempt, fear, guilt, and shyness. Responses that demonstrate this variable in the FTT
commonly express feelings of unhappiness, rejection, or loneliness.
E. Ego Functions
1. AMBIVALENCE (AMB) appears in different forms such as indecision, hesitation, doubt, alter-
native responses, and emotional conflict in the FTT.
i. Indecision occurs when the child has difficulty making a choice or decision.
ii. Hesitation refers to the childs reluctance to express a definite statement or to commit.
iii. Doubt refers to uncertainty or disbelief in opinion or belief.
iv. Alternative responses occur when the child offers more than one response to a question.
x. Emotional conflict is demonstrated when the child describes two opposite emotions or two
conflicting actions, which in turn reflect opposite emotions.
2. SELF-ESTEEM (SE) connotes the value that one places on oneself. SE is reflected in responses
Appendix BContinued
that concern appearance (e.g., clothing, looks) or personal qualities (e.g., stupid, unable to do
something).
3. MORALITY (MOR) is examined from both a psychoanalytic and cognitive/developmental
approach. Responses rated for MOR reveal issues such as moral judgments in regard to obedi-
ence and fear of punishment, moral actions motivated by the desire for reward or benefit, guilt,
self-blame, dilemmas between what is right and what is wrong, and moral actions motivated by
the anticipation of the disapproval of others.
4. SENSE OF PROPERTY (SPRO) involves the determination of boundaries between what is
mine and what is not mine. In the FTT, SPRO refers to the childs need to control his terri-
tory and to things of emotional or material value (e.g., food, personal belongings). Possessiveness
is implied when this variable is applied to people.
5. SENSE OF PRIVACY (SPRIV) refers to the individuals need for isolation or seclusion. SPRIV
is often expressed as a desire to be alone, away from crowds and noises.
6. ADAPTATION TO FAIRY TALE CONTENT (AFTC) is the childs ability to confine his
response to the fairy tale content (according to the version he is familiar with). AFTC reflects the
childs level of reality testingi.e., the capacity to distinguish between mental images and exter-
nal precepts and between fantasy and external reality, and to correct subjective impressions
against external facts (the reality of the text in this case).
7. REPETITIONS (REP) involves a response that is similar (i.e., if the meaning is the same) to the
previous one. REP may be the result of lack of imagination, boredom, or preoccupation with a
particular theme.
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(Original work published 1979). Psychoanalytische Bibliothek.
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Warner, M. (1994). From the beast to the blonde: On fairy tales and their tradition. London: Routledge.
and their tellers. London: Chatto & Windus. Zipes, J. (Ed.). (2000). The Oxford companion to fairy tales:
Wundt, W. (19001909). Volkerpsychologie. [Folk psycholo- The Western fairy tale tradition from medieval to modern.
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PART II
EMPIRICAL RESEARCH
Chapter 3
A STUDY OF AGGRESSION IN CHILDREN

THROUGH THE FAIRY TALE TEST
CARINA COULACOGLOU, MARILENA SOUYOULDZOGLOU, AND ANASTASIA ATSAROU
INTRODUCTION changes. It starts as gross, disorganized affective dis-

charge, and gradually becomes structured, differentiat-
hat makes aggression such a popular and ed and cognitively organized. The individuals reac-
W widely studied concept in child develop-
ment? Aggression is closely related to healthy per-
tion to this ongoing experience will determine
whether aggression will constitute an overwhelming
threat, or whether it will be integrated into the psychic
sonality development such as mastery or assertive-
economy and become available for purposes of mas-
ness (e.g., Storr, 1968), to interpersonal relations tery, self-assertion and ambition. (p. 178)
and family functioning (e.g., Morton, 1987), to pun-
ishment and child abuse (e.g., Belsky & Vondra, Aggression is one of the few concepts that has
1987), to maladaptive functioning such as conduct been explored from multiple theoretical back-
disorders (e.g., Wells & Forehand, 1985), to delin- grounds including (a) the Freudian psychoanalytic-
quency and antisocial behaviors (e.g., Menard & death instinct hypothesis; (b) the frustration-aggres-
Elliot, 1994), to bullying (e.g., Coie et al., 1991), and sion theory (Dollard et al., 1939; Dodge & Coie,
to hyperactivity (e.g., Millich et al., 1982). 1987); (c) as a modeling reaction pertaining to social
Some of the most common manifestations of learning theory (Bandura & Walters, 1963); (d) as a
aggression include destruction of objects, physical response to imperfect mothering (Bowlby, 1944); (e)
attack or assault, killing, torturing, sexual abuse, as a biological phenomenon (Lorenz, 1966); and (f)
threatening gestures or verbalizations, humiliating as part of gene preservation (Wilson, 1978).
or insulting others, stealing, and lying. Although Furst (1998) writes aggression is multiply deter-
aggression is often associated with behaviors such as mined by a number of developmental, genetic and
the above, lack of aggression, sometimes called pas- dynamic variables. Each metapsychologic cluster of
sivity, may also signify maladjustment. Furst (1998) variables affects the nature, intensity and expression
emphasizes the negative effects of the inhibition of of aggression in a rather specific way (p. 160).
aggression: the early inhibition of the normal Aggression has been classified either according to
developmental potential for aggressive discharge its consequences (benign or malignant, constructive
results in an ego distortion that carries far-reaching or destructive) or according to its functions or out-
consequences (p. 174). comes: hostile, emotional, or angry versus instru-
Signs of aggression appear very early in life and mental (Averill, 1982; Feshbach, 1964; Hartup,
gradually become integrated into the developing 1974; Lorenz, 1966).
personality. Furst (1998) explains: In a report about a violent crime, the first aspect
mentioned is the possible motive that led to the act.
Aggression undergoes significant developmental Frequently reported motives include envy (in cases
63
of theft or burglary), retaliation (when the victim aggression. Ornstein (1997) maintains that the sense
has in some way been hurt by the aggressor in the of personal power is acquired through age-appro-
past), dominance (when one attacks weaker individ- priate validation of the young childs grandiosity;
uals or animals), and self-defense. In some cases no destructive aggression arises when the childs
apparent motive is presented. grandiosity is questioned, rather than affirmed.
In The Anatomy of Human Destructiveness (1973), In their study of elementary school boys, Dodge
Erich Fromm refers to the motives behind a and Coie (1987) define aggression in terms of
destructive act. He mentions vengeful destructive- antecedents and outcomes. Aggression that appears
ness as the spontaneous reaction to intense and to be a response to antecedent conditions, such as
unjustified suffering inflicted upon a person (p. goal-blocking and provocation, and responses that
363). He maintains that all forms of punishment are primarily interpersonal and hostile in nature are
include the element of vengeance, which he distin- called reactive. Aggression that is the result of the
guishes from defensive aggression in terms of time, accomplishment of a self-serving outcome is called
as vengeance occurs after the damage has been proactive.
done, and in terms of intensity, as it is of much The study of aggression and of the validity of
greater intensity. various aggression variables in projective tech-
Kohut (1972) describes narcissistic rage charac- niques has been the focus of attention of several
terized by the need for revenge: the injured self researchers (e.g., Baity & Hilsenroth, 1999;
seeks restitution thatat least temporarilyempow- Clemence, Hilsenroth, Silvec, & Rasch, 1999; Baity,
ers the self by blotting out the offense which was McDaniel, & Hilsenroth, 2000).
perpetrated against the grandiose self (pp. 386 The scoring scheme of the FTT classifies aggres-
387). sion according to its motives: aggression as domi-
Anna Freud (1981) explains that some aggressive nance, oral aggression, aggression type A, and
behavior, such as defensive aggression, serves ego aggression type B (which includes aggression as
purposes, as opposed to that which is the direct retaliation, aggression as envy, and aggression as
result of genuinely aggressive fantasies or impulses. defense). During the standardization procedure of
Furst (1998) maintains that early object loss and the Greek sample, researchers examined the validi-
abandonment may generate feelings of mistrust and ty of aggression (a) through factor analysis of the
a sense of disillusion. In this case, aggression serves FTT variables, and (b) through the comparison of
as a defense against the repetition of the traumatic FTT factor scores with the Childrens Personality
experience. Questionnaire (CPQ) (Porter & Cattell, 1975) and
Envy may be another motive of aggression. with the Rutter Behavior Scales for Parents and
Fosshage (1998) notes that envy refers to discon- Teachers (Rutter, 1967). The results of these studies
tent over anothers possession of what one would confirmed the initial differentiation of the aggres-
like for oneself. Envys fertile field is negative and sion types (see Tables 3.1 and 3.2).
devitalized self-feeling. As the experience of envy The present investigation aims to advance the
intensifies, anger and aversiveness will intensify (p. validity of these different types of motivational
50). aggression by comparing the personality profiles of
Aggression motivated by dominance is related to children with high ratings on each of these aggres-
the concepts of narcissism and personal power. sion types to the profiles of a control group. In addi-
Furst (1998) contends that traumatic early experi- tion to the aggression groups, a no-aggression group
ences may cause a shift from object orientation was formed; this group comprised children who
toward narcissism. Narcissism is associated with a received zero (0) ratings on all aggression variables.
low tolerance for frustration, which in turn triggers
A Study of Aggression in Children Through the Fairy Tale Test 65
TABLE 3.1.
COMPARISON BETWEEN HIGH AND LOW SCORERS ON FTT FACTOR 6
(AGGRESSION) AND CHILDRENS PERSONALITY QUESTIONNAIRE (CPQ)
Low Scorers Middle Scorers High Scorers Low High

CPQ N = 216 N = 322 N = 241 vs. vs.
Parameters M SD M SD M SD Middle Middle
FA:
Warm- 7.86 1.55 7.84 1.43 7.77 1.70 .931 .560
hearted
FB:
7.10 1.99 7.39 1.94 7.43 1.93 .095 .837
Bright
FC:
Emotionally 7.28 1.77 7.14 1.93 7.13 2.10 .400 .966
stable
FD:
2.31 1.99 2.21 1.80 2.51 1.94 .554 .062 JNS
Phlegmatic
FE:
2.37 1.49 2.47 1.47 2.71 1.58 .473 .059 JNS
Obedient
FF:
3.28 1.82 3.33 2.02 3.51 1.87 .719 .282
Sober
FG:
7.65 1.77 7.58 1.74 7.19 2.06 .671 .013*
Conscientious
FH:
5.78 1.91 5.73 1.95 5.80 1.83 .740 .663
Venturesome
FI:
Tender- 5.61 2.73 5.53 2.62 5.49 2.57 .719 .848
minded
FJ:
3.02 1.88 3.04 1.80 3.13 1.77 .876 .562
Jestful
FN
2.19 1.84 2.23 1.70 2.67 1.90 .782 .004**
Forthright
FO:
2.41 1.64 2.52 1.64 2.56 1.62 .448 .769
Confident
FQ3:
7.54 1.71 7.59 1.70 7.24 1.87 .744 .018*
Controlled
FQ4:
3.04 2.09 3.17 2.05 3.60 2.22 .472 .017*
Relaxed
Note: Children who have type B aggression perceive themselves as less conscientious, less forthright, less self-con-
trolled, and less relaxed. Highly significant differences were found only in FN.
TABLE 3.2.
TOTAL SCORE AND SUBSCORES OF RUTTER A2 AND B2 SCALES
ACCORDING TO GROUPS BY FTT FACTOR 6 (AGGRESSION)
Low Middle High Low High

A2 Scales Scorers Scorers Scorers vs. vs.
Mean (SE) Mean (SE) Mean (SE) Middle Middle
P P
Total 8.19 (.43) 7.32 (.30) 8.26 (.41) .096 .063
Emotional 1.40 (.09) 1.27 (.08) 1.52 (.09) .276 .029*
Conduct 1.30 (.11) 1.08 (.07) 1.23 (.10) .081 .216
Hyperactivity 1.52 (.13) 1.20 (.09) 1.52 (.11) .031* .029*
B2 Scale
Total 6.10 (.44) 4.62 (.27) 4.78 (.33) .002** .722
Emotional 1.16 (.08) 1.10 (.06) 0.99 (.07) .562 .305
Conduct 1.28 (.14) 0.86 (.09) 0.87 (.10) .007** .962
Hyperactivity 1.62 (.14) 1.15 (.09) 1.24 (.11) .003* .531
Note: Parents and teachers describe children with type A aggression as hyperactive. Teachers also describe them as dis-
turbed and as having conduct disorders. Parents describe children with type B aggression as emotionally disturbed and
hyperactive.
METHOD ings in aggression as defense, and thus it was not

possible to form a separate group.
Participants The aggression type A group had raw scores
above the 90th percentile in aggression type A (> =
The FTT was administered to 803 nonclinical 9, M = 12.27) and values below the 90th percentile
Greek children (405 boys and 398 girls) who attend- in the remaining aggression variables. Of the fifty-
ed public schools in the Athens area.1 The children one children in this group, 53 percent were boys
were divided into three age groups: 7 to 8 years old and 47 percent were girls, and 39.2 percent were 7
(117 boys and 112 girls), 9 to 10 years old (119 boys to 8 years old, 35.3 percent were 9 to 10 years old,
and 143 girls), and 11 to 12 years old (169 boys and and 25.5 percent were 11 to 12 years old.
143 girls). The majority of the children came from The aggression as dominance group had raw
middle-class sociocultural backgrounds. scores above the 90th percentile in aggression as
Five groups were created from this sample: dominance (> = 4, M = 7.51) and values below the
aggression type A, aggression as dominance, 90th percentile in the remaining aggression vari-
aggression as retaliation, aggression as envy, and no ables. Of the sixty-eight children in this group, 41
aggression. Only a few children received high rat- percent were boys and 59 percent were girls, and 25
1. The sample of the present study was based on the first standardization of the Fairy Tale Test in Greece.
percent were 7 to 8 years old, 32.4 percent were 9 were 7 to 8 years old, 32.9 percent were 9 to 10
to 10 years old, and 42.6 percent were 11 to 12 years years old, and 32.9 percent were 11 to 12 years old.
old.
The aggression as retaliation group had raw Material
scores above the ninetieth percentile in aggression
as retaliation (> = 6, M = 8.78) and values below the The Fairy Tale Test (FTT) was used to assess
ninetieth percentile in the remaining aggression aggression in this sample of children. The FTT
variables. Of the fifty-five children in this group, 40 (Coulacoglou & Kline, 1995; Coulacoglou,
percent were boys and 60 percent were girls, and 20 1995/2002) is a projective test for children aged
percent were 7 to 8 years old, 21.8 percent were 9 seven to twelve years; it is based on the association
to 10 years old, and 58.2 percent were 11 to 12 years between fairy tales and unconscious processes (e.g.,
old. Bettelheim, 1976; Kaes et al., 1989).
The aggression as envy group had raw scores The test consists of twenty-one cards that depict
above the 90th percentile in aggression as envy (> popular fairy-tale characters and scenes from the
= 4, M = 6.90) and values below the 90th percentile stories of Little Red Riding Hood and Snow White
in the remaining aggression variables. Of the fifty- and the Seven Dwarfs. Some of the cards are in
eight children in this group, 50 percent were boys color (e.g., those depicting Little Red Riding Hood
and 50 percent were girls, and 29.3 percent were 7 and the Dwarfs), and others are illustrated in black-
to 8 years old, 27.6 percent were 9 to 10 years old, and-white ink (wolves, witches, and giants) or pen-
and 43.1 percent were 11 to 12 years old. cil (scenes from the tales of Little Red Riding Hood
Fifty (50) children received a score of zero (0) on and Snow White).
all four aggression variables and thus formed the The child is presented with sets of three cards at
no-aggression group. Of the fifty children in this a time; the three cards in each set differ in terms of
group, 44 percent were boys and 56 percent were the characters expression, posture, or clothing (see
girls, and 52 percent were 7 to 8 years olds, 32 per- Figure 3.1). The first set consists of three different
cent were 9 to 10 years old, and 16 percent were 11 depictions of Little Red Riding Hood; the second
to 12 years old. consists of three depictions of the wolf; the third
Of the remaining cases, only sixteen had high consists of three depictions of the dwarf; the fourth
scores on more than one of the aggression vari- consists of three depictions of the witch; the fifth
ables; these children were excluded from the sam- consists of three depictions of the giant; the sixth
ple. A random sample of 70 cases was selected consists of three scenes from the story of Little Red
among the rest of the children and served as a con- Riding Hood; and the final set consists of three
trol group. This group was divided evenly among scenes from the story of Snow White and the Seven
boys (35) and girls (35); 34.3 percent of the children Dwarfs.
Figure 3.1. The three FTT cards depicting the witches.

Before administering the test, the examiner asks The construct validity of the FTT was examined
the child to narrate the stories of Little Red Riding through the application of factor analysis of the FTT
Hood and Snow White; the childs version of each variables and the comparison of FTT factor scores
story is recorded, as his account is integral to the with other measures such as the Rutter Behavior
results analysis. In contrast to other projective tests, Scales for Parents and Teachers and the Childrens
the child is not asked to describe what he sees or to Personality Questionnaire (CPQ). Factor analysis of
construct a story. Instead, the child responds to a variables led to the formation of eight factors: reali-
series of questions that concern the characters illus- ty testing, mother image, assertiveness, orality, pos-
trated on the cards. Some questions are common to sessiveness, aggression, helpfulness, and depression.
most sets of images, such as What does each . . . Qualitative analysis focuses primarily on the
think/feel? examination of conflicts, the nature of anxieties, the
The FTT assesses the following twenty-six per- study of defense mechanisms, and the integration of
sonality variables derived from responses to the the ego.
questions posed: self-esteem, ambivalence, desire Because the FTT was the only test used to assess
for material things, sense of property, desire for the different types of aggression and other person-
superiority, aggression type A (hostile aggression), ality variables, the possibility of shared method
aggression as retaliation, aggression as defense, variance should be considered.
aggression as envy, aggression as dominance, oral
aggression, fear of aggression, oral needs, need for The Assessment of
affiliation, need for affection, need for protection, Aggression in the FTT
desire to help, anxiety, depression, morality, sexual
preoccupation, relationship with mother, relation- The majority of projective tests examine aggres-
ship with father, adaptation to fairy tale content sion in relation to its major expressions (e.g., physi-
(AFTC), bizarres, and repetitions. cal or verbal, social or asocial) or with reference to
Most of the variables are rated on a 1- to 3-point its directions (e.g., extraggression or intraggression);
scale, where 1 signifies low intensity and 3 high the FTT, however, assesses aggression in relation to
intensity; the variables self-esteem, relationship its motives (motivational aggression).
with mother, and relationship with father are rated Although the various manifestations of aggres-
as positive (+1) or negative (-1), and the variables sion can be observed directly, the motives that
bizarres and repetitions are scored as 1 (present) or underlie such actions are not always obvious. The
0 (not present). The sum of the ratings provides a FTT is a projective measure that studies a number
total raw score for each of the 26 variables, and of motives that impel a child to respond aggressive-
these raw scores can later be converted into nor- ly: Against whom, or under what conditions, does
malized T-scores (M = 50, SD = 10). the child retaliate? Why is the child envious? What
The FTT was standardized on a sample of 803 is the particular meaning of the others possessions?
nonreferred Greek children aged 7 to 12 years from Why does the child attack younger or weaker chil-
the greater Athens area. Concerning the examina- dren? What lies beneath the childs passivity? The
tion of the FTTs psychometric properties, inter- answers to these important questions can clarify
scorer (N = 49) (aggression type A, r = .843; aggres- issues that relate to personality development, inter-
sion as dominance, r = .886; aggression as retalia- personal relations, or family functioning.
tion, r = .907; aggression as envy, r = .922) and In the FTT, questions that concern the pictures
retest (N = 58) reliability (aggression type A, r = of the witch and the giant most commonly receive
.656; aggression as dominance, r = .595; aggression aggressive responses. Sample questions include
as retaliation, r = .538; aggression as envy, r = .638) What does each (of the witches/giants) think?;
for the various aggression variables were examined. Which of the three is the most wicked, and why?;
and What can a wicked witch/giant do? aggressive response that is justified by retaliation. In
The FTT quantitatively assesses the types of such responses, the victim has hurt the aggressor in
aggression classified according to specific motives the past. The following are examples of AGRRET
or antecedent conditions (e.g., aggression type B), responses to the question What does each
or as a result of self-serving outcomes (e.g., domi- witch/giant think?
nance). Aggression type A is a discharge, or angry,
type of aggression: the aggressive act of aggression The witch wants to strike a person because he
type A (AGR A) is justified in terms of internal has stolen her magic wand.
motives. The most common justifications for the The witch wants to transform someone into a
aggressive act include that it was done out of spite frog because she used to be a queen and this
or because he is mean or to have fun. Less fre- person took away her throne.
quently, AGR A appears as rage, or acting out.
For example, The witch got so angry that Snow Aggression as defense (AGRDEF) is the aggres-
White was still alive that she broke her mirror. The sive response that is justified by defense. In such
following are examples of AGR A responses to the responses, the victim is simultaneously the aggres-
question What does each witch/giant think? sor. For example, an AGRDEF response to the
question What does each witch/giant think?
This giant is enraged. He wants to murder includes The giant wants to strike another giant
someone because he feels enraged. who is throwing him stones.
This giant wants to kill people; he does not Aggression as dominance (AGRDOM) forms a
like them. separate category of aggression. In such responses,
This witch has a cane and whomever she finds the aggressor wants to harm others to prove him or
she kicks and hits him. to demonstrate his abilities and strength. The fol-
The giant is having fun with people by tortur- lowing are examples of AGRDOM responses to the
ing them (?) he throws them down, he locks question What does each witch/giant think?
them somewhere and they scream.
This giant wants to grab a plane and smash it. This witch wants to extinguish the other
witches so that she can be the most beautiful
Aggression type B consists of aggression as envy, in the kingdom.
aggression as retaliation, and aggression as defense. This giant wants to kill whomever resists his
Aggression as envy (AGRENVY) is the aggressive power.
response that is justified by envy. In such responses,
the victim is in various ways better or more quali- Procedure
fied than the aggressor (e.g., more beautiful, more
clever, more loved). The following are examples of Four trained graduate students of psychology
AGRENVY responses to the question What does examined each child individually in an empty class-
each witch/giant think? room during school hours. Before administering the
test, the examiner asked each child if she knows any
The witch wants to kill a small child, she does fairy tales and if so, which is her favorite tale. Next,
not love children(?) she is jealous of them the examiner then instructed the child to narrate the
because they are prettier and happier than her. stories of Little Red Riding Hood and Snow White
The witch wants to kill Snow White because and the dwarfs to demonstrate the childs familiari-
she is younger, prettier and healthier than her. ty with these stories. The childs version of each
story was recorded on the FTT form.
Aggression as retaliation (AGRRET) is the The examiner then read the child instructions
about the game to be played: We are going to play RESULTS

a game with popular fairy tale heroes. I am going to
ask you some questions about them and I would An analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to
like to hear your opinion. After the child is assured determine if there were any differences among the
that there are no right or wrong answers, the exam- groups in relation to fifteen variables of the FTT
iner presents the cards in standard order, one set at (see Table 3.3). These particular variables were
a time, keeping the rest of the cards out of the selected because most have been reported to be
childs sight. associated with aggression: sense of property (e.g.,
TABLE 3.3.
ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE (ANOVA) FOR THE FIVE AGGRESSION GROUPS
(M = means, SD = standard deviation)
Aggression A Envy Retaliation Dominance No aggression Control
N + 51 N = 58 N = 55 N = 68 N = 50 N = 70
Variables M SD M SD M SD M SD M SD M SD P
SPRO .31 1.3 .40 .94 .64 1.3 .63 1.6 .18 .63 .41 1.1 .292
FA .54 2.9 6.3 3.5 5.5 3.1 5.0 3.2 10.5 5.9 6.6 4.1 .000
ON 5.2 4.3 5.7 3.8 4.5 2.8 4.9 3.3 4.00 3.6 4.4 3.3 .159
DH .90 1.5 1.1 1.7 1.3 2.6 1.1 2.0 .56 1.6 .77 1.68 .325
NPRO 1.69 1.9 2.0 2.5 2.3 2.8 1.6 2.3 3.3 5.0 2.0 2.4 .046
NFCT .65 1.6 1.0 2.1 .82 1.7 .60 1.4 .66 1.1 .86 1.5 .690
ANX 3.7 3.3 4.3 3.1 5.7 3.9 5.5 3.6 6.0 4.3 4.6 3.6 .007
D 2.8 3.0 2.8 2.7 2.0 2.1 2.3 2.1 2.9 2.9 2.6 2.4 .343
MOR 2.0 3.2 1.4 2.0 1.7 2.3 2.8 2.8 1.4 2.6 1.5 2.0 .007
NAFIL .90 1.7 1.3 1.8 1.4 1.6 1.3 1.9 .72 1.1 .97 1.4 .225
SE -.39 1.33 -.79 1.02 -.73 1.1 -.68 1.06 -.66 1.2 -.43 .84 .168
REL/MO -.18 1.0 -.38 1.0 -.15 .87 -.43 .98 -.88 1.0 -.50 1.05 .003
DSUP .92 1.9 1.2 2.3 1.3 2.4 3.5 3.5 1.4 4.3 .84 1.68 .000
AFTC 46.6 5.4 47.7 4.4 45.9 4.8 46.4 5.4 44.1 6.3 46.7 3.9 .009
B .61 1.3 .83 1.6 .60 1.3 1.2 2.0 1.76 2.5 .60 1.01 .001
Freud, 1989); fear of aggression; oral needs; desire dominance have higher moral consciences and
to help, usually called altruism (e.g., Freud, 1966; higher desire for superiority, and are less fearful.
Zahn-Waxler et al., 1991); need for protection; need
for affection; anxiety; depression (e.g., Kazdin,
1988); morality (e.g., Turiel, 1987); need for affilia- DISCUSSION
tion; self-esteem (e.g., Ornstein, 1997; Kohut, 1972;
Hartup, 1974); relationship with mother (e.g., The results demonstrate that the children with no
Ornstein, 1997); desire for superiority (e.g., Furst, aggression appear to form a disturbed group, which
1998; Kohut, 1972; Freud, 1971); adaptation to fairy differs from the control group in three personality
tale content; bizarres. Three of these variablesoral variables that are related to disturbance: anxiety,
needs, need for protection, and need for affection AFTC, and bizarres (reality testing). However, the
reflect emotional needs that may motivate aggres- majority of these children (52%) were from the
sion when inhibited or frustrated (e.g., Furst, 1998). younger group (i.e., aged 7 to 8 years), and it has
The analyses demonstrate that only two out of been found that AFTC increases with age and
the five groups significantly differ from the control bizarres decrease (Coulacoglou, 1993). Yet, it must
group (see Table 3.4)i.e., the no-aggression and be noted that in general children with no aggression
aggression as dominance groups. Children with no produced more incomplete and inappropriate
aggression appear to be more fearful and more anx- responses than children in the other aggression
ious, and have poorer reality contact (lower AFTC, groups. This may be related to intellectual immatu-
higher bizarres) and a worse relationship with their rity, which may in turn be attributed to age or to
mother. Children with high ratings in aggression as genetic or developmental factors. For example, a
TABLE 3.4.
COMPARISON BETWEEN THE FIVE GROUPS AND THE CONTROL
(2-TAILED)
Aggression No
Envy Retaliation Dominance
A aggression
Variables p p p p p
FA .071 .588 .091 .012 .000
ANX .183 .572 .101 .149 .046
MOR .312 .849 .502 .001 .855
REL/MO .080 .498 .085 .667 .041
NPRO .297 .954 .579 .309 .110
DSUP .816 .324 .232 .000 .342
AFTC .983 .155 .370 .734 .011
B .971 .351 1.000 .070 .003
Note: This table demonstrates that only 8out of the 15 variables generated significant differences among the aggression
groups.
child in the no aggression group provided the fol- is rated as negative in terms of the relationship with
lowing responses to the question What does each mother.
witch/giant think? We may assume that such mothers inhibit their
childrens aggressive outbursts, possibly through
WITCH scolding or punishment. Furst (1998) emphasizes
the negative effects of the inhibition of aggression:
Card 1: Maybe she forgot the spells to ask her the early inhibition of the normal developmental
mirror and she thinks with what spells she will ask potential for aggressive discharge results in an ego
her mirror. distortion that carries far-reaching consequences
Card 2: What to do in order to become old (that (p. 174).
is, how the witch will transform herself into an old The findings from the no-aggression group sup-
woman). port the loadings of FTT factor 2, mother image.
Factor 2 loads on negative relationship with moth-
GIANT er, fear of aggression, and anxiety. Therefore, it
appears that a negative relationship with mother
Card 1: How to find some money because from intensifies passivity, fearfulness, and anxiety. A
the way he touches his pocket its as if he says, Ah, childs relationship with his mother is of foremost
I wish I had some money. importance, and this explains why mother image is
Card 2: He is greedyI wish I had a sandwich. second in terms of variance percentage. It would be
Card 3: Its as if he wants to kill Snow White worth investigating the significance of this factor in
(identification with Snow White, i.e., the victim). other cultures.
The aggression as dominance group also differs
Intellectual immaturity of the no-aggression from the control group. In contrast to the children
group is also confirmed by these childrens scores in the no-aggression group, these children are less
on the CPQ, whereby children with high scores on fearful of the aggression of others. This probably
Factor 2 (indicating a very negative mother image) signifies that the wish to dominate and surpass oth-
are less bright than children with low scores. ers is so intense in these children that this desire
Because they are less aggressive, these children overcomes the fear of what others can do to them.
are more fearful of the aggression of others and con- Aggression as dominance correlates highly with
sequently more anxious. Their responses to the desire for superiority, and this finding supports the
question What does each witch/giant think? usu- results from factor analysis in relation to Factor 3,
ally reveal identification with the victim, rather than assertiveness. (This factor loads on the FTT vari-
the aggressor (see response to Card 3, page 21). The ables of aggression as dominance and desire for
relationship with their mother is worse than that of superiority.) The responses of children in the
the control group. assertive group suggest the desire to eliminate com-
At this point, it must be noted that the variable petitors and antagonists, to enforce their own rules,
relationship with mother is rated as either positive and to do as they please. These children have prob-
(+1) or negative (-1). The relationship is considered ably suffered narcissistic wounds, and the expres-
negative if the response reveals a strict, punishing, sion of assertiveness and self-aggrandizement has
or rejecting mother figure. For example, in describ- been limited or precluded. As Anna Freud (1971)
ing each scene from the Little Red Riding Hood notes, When the narcissistic cathexis of the self is
story, the child provides the following response to increased unduly, the corresponding symptoms
Card 2: Here is Little Red Riding Hood all alone may be egotism, self-centeredness, overevaluation
in the woods, her mother sent her away because she of the self, and in extreme cases, megalomania (p.
disobeyed and spoke to the wolf. Such a response 168).
These children also have stronger moral con- image) and Factor 3 (assertiveness).
sciences. Turiel (1987) observes that aggression is The most important finding of this study, how-
directly related to morality in that it involves inflict- ever, is thatat least for the Greek childrenthe role
ing harm and violating rights. While the various of the mother in the development of aggression is
forms of aggression type B (envy, retaliation, and substantial. A mother who is perceived as extreme-
defense) are externally justifiable (external sources ly rejecting, critical, or punishing may foster passiv-
of frustration) and thus more acceptable, the ity and fearfulness in her child. Such passivity and
motives for aggression as dominance are more com- fearfulness may be detrimental, as the beneficiary
plicated and thus less acceptable. Therefore, the role of all types of aggression in the development of
childs desire to achieve a higher status, to dominate a healthy personality is indisputable.
his environment, and to enforce his own rules is As is true for the majority of psychological tests
perceived as socially unacceptable and therefore and in particular projective techniques, the study of
morally wrong. For example, in response to the validity should never cease. Further validity studies
question What does each witch think? a 10-year- may include the application of more specific per-
old girl provided the following answers, which char- sonality instruments such as aggression question-
acteristically reflect aggression as dominance, desire naires and the application of the FTT in different
for superiority, and morality (superego): cultures, wherein the significance of aggression may
be different from the Greek, or other Western, cul-
Card 1: This witch wants to kill the other witches ture. Moreover, the role of the quality of attachment
and rule the world. in the mother-child relationship and aggression
Card 2: If I rule the world God will punish me. development necessitate further research including
Card 3: God punished her and she became ugly. observational studies.
Finally, it may be worth noting that no other

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Chapter 4
A STUDY ON THE IDIOSYNCRATIC

RESPONSES OF CHILDREN
N IOVI M ICHALOPOULOU
INTRODUCTION and writers (Post, 1994, p. 24). The prevalence of

seriously disabling and disruptive personality devi-
ew childrens personality testsand mostly pro- ations was higher than in the general population
F jective onesidentify the bizarre response as
one to be measured and interpreted. This is, despite
samples only in the case of artists, writers and mar-
ginally, intellectuals (Post, 1994, p. 32). However,
the fact that a projective situation offers numerous other diagnostic categories, such as anxiety disor-
opportunities for different, unique, strange, original, ders and psychoses, were found to be within the
unusual, or inappropriate ways of responding, given general population range. Bipolar disorder, on the
the freedom involved and the use of fantasy often other hand ( Jamison, 1989, 1993), and specifically
required. This chapter researches idiosyncratic its hypomanic phase have been correlated to cre-
responses of children (Bizarre variable) in their ativity.
responses to the Fairy Tale Test (FTT). It aims at What is relevant to this discussion is that there is
exploring the nature of the bizarre response and an ongoing conversation in the fields of psychology
attempts to form a preliminary guide to differentiat- and creativity research on the relationship between
ing bizarre responses that indicate some form of creativity and psychopathology. The current litera-
pathology from those that indicate a rich and vivid ture on creativity focuses on both the creative prod-
childhood imagination. uct and the creative process and the creative per-
Numerous scholars have researched the relation- son. Given the topic of this chapter, the attributes of
ship between creativity and psychopathology, the creative act and product are the focus here.
genius and madness ( Juda, 1949; Kessel, 1989; Originality, complexity, unconventionality,
Jamison, 1993; Andreasen, 1987; Sandblom, 1982; divergent and/or oppositional thinking, novelty,
Prentsky, 1980), yet most suffer from methodologi- unusualness in thematic content or in the expressive
cal shortcomings. The question remains to be process: these are all characteristics of the com-
answered conclusively. monly perceived creative product and/or process.
Nevertheless, the results of the literature review However necessary, these characteristics do not suf-
point to an undeniable relationship between mental fice for the act/product to be considered creative
illness and creativity, with a higher prevalence of per se. Works that are disorganized, lacking in
mental problems among well-known creative peo- technique or incomprehensible are unlikely to have
ple. Severe psychopathology, in the sense of inter- any redeeming social value. There must be a genius
rupting work, requiring periods of rest and some- behind the vision, a disciplined intelligence capable
times treatment, exceeded the incidence of less dis- of transforming these private, primitive, idiosyn-
abling disorders in the case of artists, composers cratic or extraordinary perceptions into a language
75
that is accessible and coherent for others (Ludwig, aggressive drive content include murder, torture,
1989, p. 11). Furthermore, a response can be judged mutilation, and illness. Primitive process ideation
as creative or not in terms of its appropriateness and can be characterized as absurd, autistic, loose in
usefulness in relation to the demands of the situa- associations, and magical (Dudek, 1980).
tion, in addition to its heuristic (nonlinear, illogi- Holt (1977, as cited in Lazar & Harrow, 1980) has
cal) nature (Ludwig, 1989). created a scoring system to measure primary
One often judges what is creative and what is not process thinking in the Rorschach. The system has
within a specific context. At a micro level, the con- two broad categories: the content of the response
text is the task at hand, and at a broader level, the expressing libidinal and aggressive drives and the
context is the society, history, and culture in which formal aspects (deviation or adherence to the rules
the task takes place. of logical thought) of the response, such as its organ-
A testing situation is a particular context, and a ization and reality-based logical coherence.
response to an external demand such as a projective However, this system has yet to differentiate pri-
personality test requires certain abilities, a main one mary process thinking among various diagnostic
being a particular level of ego control. This requires categories; nor has the research been conclusive
adequate control to maintain ones attention, con- about whether primary process thinking can distin-
centration, and motivation regarding the task at guish creative from noncreative persons. Dudek
hand without rambling incoherently in the act of (1980) cites contradictory research findings on the
responding, but also being able to tap into hidden correlation of creativity scores with childrens abili-
and unexpected parts of oneself to produce an orig- ty to regress in the service of the ego and their pri-
inal and imaginative response. Thus, the ability to mary process thinking. However, the research on
regress in the service of the ego, while at the same the relationship between primitive drive-dominated
time maintaining a hold on reality (in this instance thinking and the schizophrenic and sociopathic
the testing situation and the fairy tale wherein the population is confirmatory and conclusive (Harrow
projected fantasy takes place) is perhaps a charac- et al., 1976, as cited in Dudek, 1980).
teristic of the creative process and product in the Fairy tales indulge in primary process thinking
FTT situation. andbased on such mechanisms as displacement,
More specifically, a lowering of ones defenses condensation, and symbolismhelp their readers
results in the regressive use of primary process think- follow suit and enter that realm. The projective test-
ing, which is nonlinear, illogical, and inconsiderate ing situation and the FTT specifically are tools that
of realistic factors such as time and space. Dreams, value a regression into primary process thinking
jokes, wit and humor, art and the creative process, but in a controlled manner that disregards neither
mythology, and psychotic processes share this form the demands of the testing reality (time constraints,
of thought. The mode of thinking is inferred from appropriateness of the response to the question
a persons verbalizations or visual-motor produc- asked, etc.), the social conventions defining the
tions, and primary process thinking may be identi- social aspect (tester-testee relationship), nor the log-
fied either by illogical and unrealistic organization ical and meaningful coherence of the test response.
or by drive dominated thinking. Drive-dominated Tapping into the resource of the unconscious under
thinking is a form of primary process thinking with ego control is advantageous and adaptive, but its
libidinal or aggressive content (Lazar & Harrow, key characteristic is that it is a mindful decision,
1980, pp. 497498). It is characterized by its level of which the individual can conclude at will.
inappropriateness, bluntness, and intensity in con- It is difficult to define what is normal or abnor-
tent. Examples of libidinal drive content include mal, creative or pathological, and even more diffi-
cannibalism, biting, excretory and reproductive cult to determine a particular potentialespecially
organs, nudity, and exhibitionism, and examples of in childrenof the presence (or absence) of primary
A Study on the Idiosyncratic Responses of Children 77
process thinking alone. It is clear that the relatively able and strange reactions as inappropriate-absurd
mindful use of ones unconscious resources, both in responses. More than three of such responses are
content and process, along with the maintenance of considered pathological and, together with high lev-
good reality testing are essential. One must, howev- els of defensiveness, are potential predictors of a
er, also take other factors into account. psychotic process (Hansburg, 1986).
A standard clinical assessment entails an assess- In the Rorschach, the percentage of good form
ment of both thought content and thought process, responses indicates the degree to which the subject
in order to determine the presence or absence of can conform to the demands of the testing situation,
disturbed thinking. The latter, also known as the without being overly influenced by unconscious
formal or structural aspects of thought plays an processes. Adjustment is the balance between inhi-
important role in the assessment of pathological bition of impulses and adequate freedom of thought
thought. As with all abnormal behavior, thus a dis- to provide spontaneous unique and (reality-based)
turbance in thought, can range from fallacious, conforming responses.
erroneous, illogical thinking (usually exhibited by Here, the appearance of a common response,
nonpsychiatric patients) to mildly disturbed think- scored as popular (P), or the appearance of an
ing(typically displayed by neurotics or individuals unusual responsewhich may be scored either as
experiencing situational stress) to severely disturbed original (O) or absurd depending on the form qual-
thinking (usually characteristic of schizophrenics) ity (i.e., the degree to which the percept seeing is
(Loro, 1980, p. 492). appropriate to the form of the image)are interpret-
Characteristic of some degree of disturbance in ed in relation to the totality of the test protocol.
thought are unusual, nonconforming, bizarre, con- Thus no single score can be used interpretively, as
crete, personally overinvolved, inferred, tangential, is the case for any test in and of itself.
stereotypical, illogical, and persevering thoughts. The P responses in moderation correspond to
On the pathological extreme, illogical thought is ones ability for mainstream and conventional
reflected in peculiar and bizarre expressions (word thinking. To an extreme, they may signify a lack of
salad, neologisms, and clang associations) that hin- individuality, poor intelligence, rigidity, and depres-
der meaningful communication, in autistic ideas sive apathy.
and explanations, and in disorganized, incongru- The O responses are statistically rare (2%) and
ous, and fragmented condensations influenced by involve an idiosyncratic and original perceptual
primary process thinking. synthesis of the inkblot. Such responses are based
The FTT is one of the few personality tests that upon active perceptual work in the chosen area.
identify a response as bizarre and potentially indica- What makes the response original is a new percep-
tive of severe pathology. Other tests include the tual organization of the image. Such responses
Word Association Test, the Separation-Anxiety Test, denote enough autonomy in thinking that the
the Rorschach, the Holtzman Inkblot Technique, inkblot becomes important in that it provides and
and the Hand Test. A brief review of their deter- shapes the perceptual response, but at the same
mining factors of psychopathology sets the context time it also becomes irrelevant to the actual
for the FTTs investigations. response. In moderation and in conjunction with
The Word Association Test categorizes responses good form quality, original responses indicate a cre-
in terms of the affective reaction they evoke. ative ability in the subject. Too many O responses
Research has shown that psychotic protocols con- or O responses with poor form quality may suggest
tain strong affective reactions, while impulsive, poor judgment and a disregard for reality.
uninhibited, and poorly educated men often give Generally, a high number of originals are found
vulgar reactions (Rapaport, Gill, & Schafer, 1991). among acute schizophrenics (usually of poor form
The Separation Anxiety Test scores inconceiv- quality), neurotics, obsessive-compulsives, and
paranoid patients (Rapaport, Gill, & Schafer, 1991). in Holtzman, 1986). Fabulations, fabulized combi-
An absurd response results when the associative nations, strange, illogical, and incoherent answers,
process to the inkblot occurs irrespective of the per- and contaminated or self-referential responses
cept and the subjects internal processes (wishes, determine the PV factor. Due to the immaturity of
fantasies, fears and anxieties, hallucinatory and their thought processes and their natural inclination
delusional processes) determine the response. An towards the world of fantasy, children who score
absurd response is never original, as it is not moderately on the PV are not necessarily consid-
grounded in the reality of the percept. Fabulized ered problematic. In fact, this may be a sign of a
combinations (correctly perceived percepts that are creative process, especially if the response is bizarre
unrealistically/impossibly related), confabulations because of how the child synthesizes the percept
(impossible generalizations made from a detail of and not because of how the child perceives it.
the blot), and contaminations (spatial relationship of A PV score in conjunction with anxiety and hos-
percepts that creates an impossible conceptual link tility in a protocol tends to reveal some kind of psy-
through fusion of images) may potentially represent chopathology. Again, children scoring moderately
a loss of reality testing and psychopathology. high on these three factors have been found to have
Apart from the percept produced to the inkblot, a creative and imaginative capacity. However, high
the manner in which the subject gives response can scores on these factors are also a prognostic sign for
also indicate pathology. Peculiar, queer verbaliza- some form of disturbance.
tions, vague responses, confusion, and incoherence The Hand Test determines a response as bizarre
may fail to articulate a clear percept or render the (BIZ) or not based on two factors: the ability to
response incomprehensible and communication respond to the test question of what is the hand
unsuccessful. The manner in which the subject tries doing? without seeing something else, and the
to prove his/her reasoning behind the percept may level of morbidity in the content of the answer that
also hide some pathology. Any absolute conviction also deforms the hand percept (e.g., a hand
of a responses validity despite its obvious illogical- smashed into little bones). A response such as its a
ity is a form of autistic logic (e.g., its short because laughing skull combines both the hallucinatory
its at the bottom). This kind of reasoning is not percept and the morbid content. According to
influenced by the common rules of logic but rather Young and Wagner (1999), BIZ has stood the test
by the demands of the individuals wishes. of time and has consistently been found to be asso-
Responses that contain some sort of emotional or ciated with severe psychopathology (p. 7).
personalized verbalizations (e.g., I am scared of The BIZ response is further categorized into the
card or this is my bat at home) signify some sort of highly pathological HYPO response, in which the
loss of boundary with the card. subject disregards the hand completely and pro-
Finally, the content of the response can prove to duces a percept completely out of his/her internal
indicate some form of pathology, as ones emotion- processes; the less-pathological HYPER response,
al dysphoria intrudes into the cognitive processes. in which the subject, having used the hand as a
The MORBID content score was created based on stimulus for his/her response, nevertheless pro-
the quality of the object perceived: dead, destroyed, duces a percept that has nothing to do with the
hurt, broken, ill, damaged, or characterized by a hand, e.g., a flying ball; and the MOR (morbid)
depressive feeling (Exner, 1993). response, in which the subject describes the hand as
The Holtzman Inkblot Technique (Holtzman, having undergone some sort of deformity worse
1986) contains the Pathognomic Verbalization (PV) than that afforded to the cripple (CRIP) response
variable, both a predictor of pathology and a com- and linked with harm, death, and destruction
mon factor found in highly creative and prominent (Young and Wagner, 1999).
artists (Holtzman, Swartz, & Thorpe, 1971, as cited Here, too, reality testing becomes the distin-
guishing factor between a bizarre response and an much harder to distinguish what is pathological fan-
original one, the latter being unusual and creative tasy from what is adaptive (Rausch de De
yet maintaining the percept of the hand intact, Traubenberg, 1986).
while being appropriate to the task at hand. CAT (Childrens Apperception Test) responses
The integrated response includes the following make possible a more detailed exploration of the
characteristics: (1) It is appropriate, (i.e., the match content of pathological responses in children.
between the drawn hand and the elicited response According to Haworth (1986), the prepsychotics
is reasonable); (2) it is differential, (i.e., it narrows stories were characterized by a rich fantasy of an
the response down to a specific action or set of archaic type; fantasies of being devoured at the oral-
actions which differs appreciably from the vast sadistic level; and expressions of fear of annihilation
array of behaviors which could have been given); or abandonment. There were many regressive
and (3) as already implied, it is behavioralthe hand themes of eating, drinking, and sleeping and of
is seen as doing something, thus, complying with escaping into an imaginary, magical world. Little
the administrators request (Young & Wagner, 1999, distinction was made between the aggressor and the
p. 14). one aggressed against (p. 67).
The TAT (Thematic Apperception Test) is one of Research on the Rorschach with adolescents has
the projective tests that does not have a bizarre fac- shown that indications of a thought disturbance
tor, yet it can generate valuable information on the (fabulized combinations, autistic logic, deviant ver-
possible contents of a pathological fantasy. balizations, perseverations, etc.) occur as often as
Rapaport, Gill, and Schafer (1991) shy away from one in every protocol in 11-year-olds, and while
making clear-cut distinctions between psy- they do decrease by 16 years of age, they still occur
chopathology and creative fantasy until the whole twice as often as in adults (Exner & Weiner, 1982;
continuum of production of ideational contents Exner, 1978). According to Exner and Weiner
ranging from everyday conversation to poetic cre- (1982), marks of schizophrenia are also found in
ation has been explored (p. 480). normal adolescents, making differential diagnoses
Nevertheless, signs of pathology can be found in more difficult with this age group. Likewise, the
a variety of places: in the content of the story content of normal adolescent protocols may include
(socially inappropriate, delusional, and contradicto- crudeness of emotions (aggression, fear, and isola-
ry), in the manner in which it is told (disorganized, tion) that would normally suggest psychotic disinte-
disjointed), and in the examinees reaction to the gration (Rychlak & OLeary, 1965). Adolescent bor-
card, the examiner, or the testing situation derlines similarly produce records that seethe with
(Rapaport, Gill, & Schafer, 1991). indications of barely contained aggression, particu-
The use of these tests with children raises more larly in the form of oral destructiveness and explo-
complex diagnostic dilemmas. Adolescents are nat- sions and images depicting deprivation and anxi-
urally characterized by volatile emotions, unstable ety over abandonment, along with representations
defensive functioning, and irregular impulse con- of merged objects (Berg, 1986, p. 126).
trol, which give rise to emotional outbursts and Nevertheless, adolescents with schizophrenia do
seemingly disturbed protocols. With children, fur- exhibit a wealth of primary process responses and
thermore, reality testing becomes an issue not of cognitive slippages. Exner and Weiner (1982) have
impulse control or mature defensive functioning but found protocols of normal children under the age of
of the childs need both to adapt to external reality 12 with enough self-centered, poor impulse control
and to express the needs, wishes, and fears of its and poor form quality responses to indicate a per-
internal reality. Play and fantasy are a childs natu- sonality disorder. In summary, projective testing
ral modes of accommodating these two realities, with children poses a variety of concerns when we
and a childs response taps into both, making it are asked to determine the level of pathology in any
given protocol. The Total Number of Bizarres

Based on the existing research on the bizarre
response and the signs of pathology in the afore- Protocols of psychotic children tend to contain
mentioned tests, it is possible to make a preliminary more bizarres than do protocols of normal undi-
distinction, to be further researched, on what con- agnosed children, but this is not a fixed rule. There
stitutes a pathological bizarre response as opposed are protocols of normal children with more than
to an imaginative one. Numerous examples from three bizarres as well as protocols of psychotic chil-
FTT protocols of normal/undiagnosed children and dren with few (if any) bizarre responses. The more
psychotic children are used in this endeavor. disturbed child does not necessarily generate a
Responses that rate as bizarre refer to unique, higher rate of bizarre responses. The number of
idiosyncratic responses that may reflect the childs bizarre responses alone is a determining factor, but
level of imagination and fantasy but can also be must be considered among other factors.
indicative of deep personal conflicts or psy- Imagination is the result of a sublimation of
chopathology (Coulacoglou, 2003). In an effort to needs, fears, and wishes, including the creative and
understand and discriminate between the various pathological potential of each person. In fantasy,
bizarre responses and place them along the pathol- one exaggerates and elaborates on experiences and
ogy-creative-imagination continuum, the analysis pursues unresolved issues, conflicts, and struggles.
focuses on both the content and the production Pleasurable emotions are repeated and painful
process of a bizarre response. events reconstructed. Ones personal past in addi-
Childhood is a period of life in which fantasy is tion to ones collective unconscious provide fanta-
accepted and even reinforced as a form of play and sys material. Thus the determining factor is not the
a natural phase that allows the child to come to presence or the content of the fantasy in the
terms with his/her reality; accordingly, one must response, but rather the absence of more mature,
search for other determinants of pathology. Yet one reality-based, secondary process material, along
can speculate on the types and themes of a fantasy with the lack of sufficient control over the response,
life that may be associated with pathology. In addi- so that it does not intrude, blur, or distort the reali-
tion, one must also take into account the difficulty ty of the fairy tale or the reality of the FTT process
in diagnosing schizophrenia in children due to their itself.
emotional and cognitive development.
Before proceeding with the differentiation of Behavioral Observations
bizarre responses, it is important to take into During the Administration
account certain aspects of the process.
An example of this is when, in response to the
question, Who is the meanest? an 8-year-old boy
ASSESSMENT OF BIZARRES turns the card over because he is scared of the witch
and the giant.
No single response can be judged out of context In response to the question, What does each
as meaningful. giant think? a 7-year-old girl expresses her aggres-
As with any single score or personality test alone, sion by imitating the giant of the third card. She
one cannot make a decision based on a single says, grrrr . . . I hope I could kill everyone, so that
response but must examine the response in the con- nor God nor furniture exists! [prompt (hereafter
text of the entire protocol. The kinds of factors one indicated by (?))]. This is an irritated giant. He
seeks in the protocol for confirmation are as fol- doesnt take care of himself. He is holding a club
lows: with which he wants to kill everyone but he cant (?)
God took his club so he decided to kill him with his
foot for revenge. meanest and why, cannot be rated according to

In response to the question, Who do you think their level of reality testing.
is the real wolf in Little Red Riding Hood A bizarre response rated as Creative is charac-
[LRRH]? a 10-year-old boy sticks his tongue out, terized by a firm grasp of the actual and possible
imitating the wolf in Card 1. realities of the fairy tale, while at the same time
In response to the question, What does each introducing an original, idiosyncratic, and rare nar-
wolf think? a 7-year-old girl imitates the wolf on rative. The response contains the basic story, but
Card 3 by growling and says, I am going to eat there is a possible twist to itan imaginative turn of
this LRRH. Hes running. (?) He starts eating her events that appears smart, humorous, and yet still
shoulder first by putting her bones down and ties realistic.
her hand. (?) LRRH recovers and the wolf growls
grrrr; I am going to kill both people and doctors. Creative Examples
1. Ten-year-old girl, re: Witch 3: [She is] thinking

Categorizing the Bizarre Response of going and telling the dwarfs that Snow
White [SW] is an evil witch in disguise and out
Based on the review of what constitutes a bizarre
to harm them.
response in other projective tests along with the
2. Ten-year-old girl, re: Witch 2: [She wants] to
findings of this researcher, the following guidelines
take SW to a castle and capture her there. She
were developed to determine the presence and
will pretend that shes SW and then go as SW
level of pathology of a bizarre response in terms of
to the dwarfs.
process and product:
3. Ten-year-old girl, Q: What can a wicked witch
do?: She can make ink come out of tap water,
the appropriateness of ego control and regres-
put cockroaches in toys, cast spells on dolls,
sion to primary process thinking.
have it rain frogs for a whole month, have
the extent of reality distortion.
snakes come out of the gutter and turn a
the primitiveness and strength of the affects
giraffe into a lizard.
expressed.
4. Eight-year-old boy, re: Giant 1: [He is think-
the level of logical coherence of the response.
ing of] going to the sky because the earth is
the ability of the subject to maintain a distance
too small for him.
from the task at hand and the percept.
A bizarre response rated as Neurotic is charac-
Based on these guidelines, bizarre responses
terized by the childs own projected conflicts that do
were categorized as severely disturbed, neurotic, or
not distort the reality of the card, yet make it per-
creative. A number of responses that were rated as
sonal to reflect his/her main concerns.
bizarre and yet void of any fantasy or obvious psy-
chotic process were categorized as concrete/des- Neurotic Examples
criptive/nonsense bizarres.
The first question one must ask in order to cate- 1. Ten-year-old girl, Q: Which is the real wolf?:
gorize a bizarre response as disturbed, neurotic, or The third, because hes ugly, mean, and is
creative is: to what extent does the response hold on very jealous of LRRH because she eats what
to, distort, or ignore the reality of the fairy tale? he cant, because he lives in the woods and
Note: Cards that invite a reality-based response are cant find food.
those that ask for a version of the specific fairy tale. 2. Ten-year-old girl, re: Wolf 2: He sees a rich
Responses to questions that ask the child to imagine dog with his master and he thinks that he too
what a wicked witch can do, or to explain who is the would like to be that rich, have the love of his
master and the grace of a dog. must have been here when we were at work
3. Ten-year-old girl, re: LRRH in scene 1: Shes and harmed SW. Lets go to work and get our
crying because something happened to her tools. We wont go to work tomorrow; you will
mom. Shes in the hospital and LRRH is wor- stay home because the evil witch will come.
ried. The fake Dwarfs went to work and the real
4. Ten-year-old girl, re: LRRH in scene 2: She ones stayed home . . . [interrupted by examin-
looks sly. Shes thinking of fooling other chil- er] (rambling speech, loose associations).
dren. (?) She will say to them, come outside I 3. Ten-year-old boy, re: Giant 3: He will eat the
have good food, have a candy bar . . . so they person and he will pierce him with his stick.
will like her and believe she is good when she (?) He will break his ribs and maybe eat them.
is not. And he starts to break them. I will put him
inside of me. The other giant who didnt eat
A bizarre response rated as Disturbed contains him is stupid, my brother will eat half and I
one or more of the following characteristics: a clear will eat the other half but he doesnt give him
distortion of the fairy tale content, primitive materi- anything, he eats it all (raw material).
al usually kept from consciousness, thought distur- 4. Eight-year-old girl, re: Giant 1: [He is thinking
bances (rambling, incoherent response, loose asso- of] killing SW because the Wicked Witch had
ciations, idiosyncratic language), clear loss of 3 giants and she told one to grab her and kill
boundaries from the card (personal involvement/ her because the witch didnt like that the
over involvement), strong affective reactions, and a Dwarf came and saw SW dead, and to bring
contamination and/or perseveration in the respons- her back to life because SW went for the first
es. time at their home and they shouldnt have
The following question makes a helpful distinc- killed her (content and process distortion,
tion: How evident is the disturbance in the content contamination, confusion).
of the response and how evident in the process? 5. Eight-year-old boy, re: Giant 3: Hes very vio-
Each aspect of the response entails different charac- lent and he wants to step on everyone and kill
teristics. them with his club. I am taller than him, come
A disturbance in process signifies a loss of on lets measure ourselves [puts card on floor
thought control with incoherent, rambling answers, and measures himself] (personal, loss of
personal reactions observed during the test admin- boundaries).
istration and/or in response to a card, and an inabil- 6. Eight-year-old boy, re: Witch 3: I have such
ity to conform to the demands of the testing situa- hard nails that I can stab SW, I can cut her
tion due to the press of internal needs. head in two and then with my cane I will hit
her in the belly and she will die. (?) Because
Disturbed Examples she hates her because she wants to be the most
beautiful in the world (remains within story,
1. Ten-year-old girl, re: LRRH 2: She hates her crudeness, desire for superiority, aggression
grandmother. Thinking of not taking her any dominance).
food, and instead giving her something poi- 7. Eight-year-old boy, re: Witch 3: I must
sonous (distortion of the fairy tales content, become the devil; I must kill more mothers,
strong affect). brothers and sisters with my stick. She loves to
2. Ten-year-old boy, re: Witch 3: Where is SW? kill. (morbid content).
She must be in the woods, without her clothes,
she had an old dress of her mothers. The dress A fourth category of bizarres, Descriptive/non-
was fake. The Dwarf thought that the witches sense/concrete, was created to contain answers
that appear off, without necessarily implying a 1. Eight-year-old girl, re: Dwarf 2: [He wants] to
disturbance. These responses are also clearly void eat a mushroom and not humans (?) People
of any imaginative quality. dont hate him; they help him because he is
huge. (?) [He] feels strange because other
Descriptive/Nonsense/Concrete Examples dwarfs hate humans and he loves them. Re:
Dwarf 3: to find something (a human) to eat
1. Nine-year-old boy, prompt: The Wicked because he is hungry. (?) Hes hungry and he
Witch can . . . : make trees disappear. (?) She hates humans. (?) He feels uncomfortable
doesnt like them. because they are small and he is big.
2. Thirteen-year-old boy, re: preferred ending to 2. Eight-year-old boy, re: Dwarf 1: [He] wants to
LRRH: second scene so that I can tape it and help LRRH in case anybody tries to hurt her
watch it. [big bad wolf]. Re: Dwarf 2: [He] doesnt want
3. Nine-year-old girl: Which of the dwarfs would to help LRRH and [wants to] bring the wolf
SW wish to marry? Why?: Card 3 because his himself to eat her. Re: Dwarf 3: [He wants] to
moustache is very long and his eyes are black. help LRRH through the forest protecting her
from anyone hurting her.
Special Issues
When classifying a response that reveals a con-
There are instances in which it is extremely diffi- tamination, one should consider whether the
cult to differentiate between a disturbed and a cre- response indicates that the child is overwhelmed by
ative response, especially when the child keeps the his/her emotions and reactions to the story or to
reality of the fairy tale fairly intact. his/her internal world, or whether it indicates a lack
of fantasy:
1. Nine-year-old boy, re: LRRH 3: To take
something to her grandmother, honey, 1. Nine-year-old boy, re: LRRH scenes: The
onions, chestnuts, because shes ill (?) A gift of child is crying because the giant will break her
a battery operated LRRH that goes ding head.
dong. 2. Eight-year-old boy, re: Giant 3: He is an old
(Note: although this response contains ele- giant and he has a club with which he wants to
ments of depersonalization, it nevertheless kill SW and drink her blood because he lives
remains within the possible confines of the off of blood like Dracula. Hes mean.
fairy tale. However, a careful evaluation of the 3. Eight-year-old girl, re: Giant 3: [He wants] to
rest of the childs responses reveals such a go and whack SW with this stick. Hes jealous
level of disturbance that puts a potentially cre- because shes so pretty and his wife is very
ative answer in the disturbed range.) ugly and jealous.
(Note: In an effort to substantiate a response, a 4. Seven-year-old boy, re: Dwarf 1: [He is] think-
child with enough prompting might produce a ing of killing the wolf so that he saves LRRH.
bizarre response. Thus in the scoring of a He looks down and senses the wolf. Hes not
response as bizarre or not, one must consider afraid of him because hes a good hunter.
how much the response is prompted by the (Note: Sometimes a theme perseverates and
examiner.) intrudes in or contaminates a childs fantasy.
A large number of contaminations occur
In other instances, it is the sequence of the between the giants and Snow White. A logical
responses to a set of cards, rather than the separate explanation is that the giants follow the dwarfs
response, that makes the response bizarre: and the witches, both of which are in Snow
Whites tale. Thus this kind of contamination Examples of Perseveration within a Card Set
between giants and Snow White should be
interpreted with caution. The aforementioned 1. Eight-year-old girl, re: Dwarf 1: [He is hoping]
example, however, is a perseveration of the that his pants dont drop, they are wide. Re:
LRRH theme in the dwarfs.) Dwarf 2: Because he has large shoes, hes wor-
ried he might trip over them. Re: Dwarf 3:
Hes worried that the mushroom might grow
Perseveration of themes and repetitions may
and bury [cover] him (self-consciousness, anx-
occur within a set of cards or between them. These
iety, self-esteem).
may signify either a press of internal demands, a
2. Nine-year-old boy, re: LRRH scene 1: The
rigidity in ego control and an inability for imagina-
child is crying because the giant will break her
tive responding, and/or a state induced by per-
head. Re: LRRH scene 2: Shes crying
formance anxiety (in response to the testing situa-
because shes scared. (?) The giant wants to
tion) that blocks the childs creative potential.
kill her with his club in the rain, because its
better. Re: LRRH scene 3: The child is happy
Examples of Perseveration Across Cards
with Grandmother [GM], but even so the
1. Nine-year-old boy, re: Giant 3: He wants to giant will break her head (depression, anxiety,
kill her [the princess] himself, on the head so crudeness, fear of aggression).
that she bleeds, because he wanted to sell her
and there was nobody to sell her to and he The Content of the Bizarre Responses
wants to break her head. Re: SW scene 3: The
mother who drinks blood and the children One can draw tentative conclusions researching
that drink blood. the thematic content of bizarre responses. Within
2. Eleven-year-old girl, re. Wolf 3, Q: How will the disturbed bizarres, a large number of themes
he get up? He cant. (?) He has hurt his leg on include fear of aggression, anxiety, and sexual pre-
the rocks. Re: Dwarf 1, Q: How will he get occupation. Substantial self-esteem and abandon-
up?: He cant because he has sprained his ment issues appear alongside depression, aggres-
ankle as he was walking. sion type A responses, oral aggression, and oral
3. Twelve-year-old girl, re: LRRH 1: Shes a doll needs. Splitting, denial, and undoing seem to be the
that cant think or feel because only humans primary defense mechanisms. They also include a
can. Re: Wolf 2: Hes a doll and he cant show significant number of morbid content responses.
his teeth or tongue, he has no feelings,
because hes just a doll. 1. Twelve-year-old boy, re: LRRH scene 2:
(Note: An answer such as this, which could When she was young she was very poor, an
otherwise indicate imagination, can also be so orphan, she lived in an orphanage and was
repetitive as to be considered unimaginative. tortured. Everybody teased her and threw pil-
An unusual response, possibly related to feel- lows, dirty sheets and ripped shoes. She put a
ings of depersonalization and depression, can sheet over her so that shes not cold (content
be considered both creative due to its origi- distortion, morbid content, depression).
nality and noncreative due to its concreteness 2. Eight-year-old girl, re: LRRH scene 1: She is
[in this instance, LRRH is a lifeless picture with her stepmother, who is punishing her
rather than a depiction of a fantasy character]. and beating her and LRRH is crying. Shes
The perseveration of the theme and the repe- not loved (there is no way that this is her
tition of the narrative lead to categorization of mother, there are no bad mothers). Re:
the above as a noncreative bizarre.) LRRH scene 2: Shes crying, she lost some-
one. (?) Her mother, she died. Ending: her tamination from SW, splitting, fear of aggres-
mother returns. (?) She may have died or got sion, depression).
killed somewhere and she returned (persever-
ation, content distortion, splitting, undoing, Examples of Morbid Content
denial, fear of loss/abandonment, depression). (death, blood, devil)
3. Eight-year-old girl, re: SW scene 1: During
the night while she was sleeping a prince 1. Six-year-old girl, re: Giant 1: He wants to eat
came and asked her to marry him. He was 300 people a day. He likes blood and scary
nice and handsome and he didnt pick on her movies with ghosts. Blood is like water to him,
like the second one. Re: SW scene 2: A man humans are his food, he squeezes their blood
wants to marry her and she doesnt, she in a hole and then drinks it.
pleads with him, tells him she hates himhe 2. Nine-year-old boy, re: SW scene 2: He is bad
picks on her, pushes, pulls her hair (content and his wife is bad and they both drink the
distortion, fear of aggression). blood from the childs stomach.
4. Eight-year-old girl, re: Dwarf 1: He wants to 3. Nine-year-old boy, re: LRRH 1: She saw
eat SW because shes prettier than him (con- something she was scared of. (?) A dead ani-
tent distortion, perseveration, crude material, mal. (?) Thinking of burying it.
oral aggression, self-esteem). 4. Eight-year-old boy, re: Wolf 2: He wonders
5. Nine-year-old boy, re: LRRHs ending: The what will happen when he grows old, will it be
story ends with her as a bride (content distor- the end of the world? Hes afraid of death. (?)
tion, sexual preoccupation). Hes worried that a hunter will throw him
6. Nine-year-old boy, re: Dwarf 2: [He is think- over a cliff and split his head in two.
ing of] not playing with SW but of eating all 5. Eight-year-old girl, re: Giant 3: [He wants] to
the mushrooms and of killing people. (?) Hes go somewhere and when he sees SW to kill
bad and he has a moustache. (?) He would hit her so that she bleeds, so that they eat her
them with a gun and a knife (oral need, liver, so that they can hypnotize her so that
aggression A, undoing). she sleeps and he takes his club and butchers
7. Thirteen-year-old boy, prompt: A Wicked her so they can eat her liver.
Giant can . . . : Sat [on] people if he gets angry, 6. Eight-year-old boy, re: Witch 3: She looks like
and put them put them in jail and let them a vampire, angry. Someone might have killed
starve and if necessary burn their bones (fear her so she became a ghost and wants to kill
of aggression, crudeness, oral need). him.
8. Eleven-year-old boy, prompt: A Wicked
Giant can . . . : Kill so that SW becomes his, The issue of the real and the fake hero
and he can rape a girl (sexual preoccupation, emerged in only a few responses of the test proto-
aggression A). cols but merits further investigation. The following
9. Eight-year-old girl, re: LRRH scene 1: [Shes] responses are examples of this theme, along with
crying to her stepmother. Shes mean because the lifeless doll theme (see perseverations exam-
she punishes her for no reason. Re: LRRH ple). A possible interpretation is feelings of deper-
scene 2: LRRH [is] sad (you can see it from sonalization.
her hands). Because her stepmother curses at
her, spanks her. Re: LRRH scene 3: LRRH is 1. Twelve-year-old boy, re: Who the Wolf eats:
with the normal mother, the good one and is I would eat the second one because she is not
happy. They are talking and LRRH is telling the real LRRH, just dressed like her. Re: SW
her of what went on in the other cards (con- scenes: This isnt the real king. (?) Its another
one and hes watching TV. 2. Nine-year-old girl, re: Wolf 3: Hes mean. He
2. Twelve-year-old girl, re: Dwarf 2: He is defi- has come to eat me. He has eaten the three
nitely a doll; he is neither smiling nor moving LRRHs and wants to eat the fourth as well.
his hands. He doesnt look human, hes not Hes thirsty now. Hes thinking of drinking
feeling or thinking anything, hes a doll. some water at the river and come back so as
3. Eight-year-old boy, re: Witch 2: She looks like to eat me.
a doll. She is a mother who wants to do magic 3. Eight-year-old girl, re: SW scene 2: Another
with her hands not a stick. She wants to have prince sits with her and tells SW about him-
an alternative. If she doesnt succeed with the self. Re: wished-for ending: [The] first scene
hand she will use the stick. Shes feeling very because the prince has a feather in his hat, is
well. normally dressed while the other prince has
nothing on his head.
Apart from the thematic content of the disturbed
bizarres, the process/form of the response contains Examples of Rambling/Incoherent Responses
certain key elements:
1. Seven-year-old boy, re: LRRH 1: The child is
Examples of Idiosyncratic Language crying because she lost her father and her
mother is saying shush. Re: LRRH 2: Shes
1. Seven-year-old boy, re: Giant 2: He is laugh- thinking of her father. Shes alone and sad
ing because hes not thinking. A laugh fell on because her father died; but he didnt really
him and he laughed. The witches left so hes die, hes in the woods. Re: LRRH 3: The little
laughing. Hes going to get the hiccups girl is happy and her mom too because she
[demonstrates]. told her that her father hasnt died. Both are
happy because daddy is coming back to see
Examples of Personal/Loss of them. He had gone for wood. Her brother is
Boundaries/Over Involvement the one who died, they had handcuffed him.
He is sad with the baby that mommy gave
1. Seven-year-old boy, Q: Who is the Scariest
birth to from the pipi, and they killed it (dis-
Wolf?: When he gets really angry I am scared
tortion of content and form, depression, anxi-
of him. Hes salivating and hes after me.
ety, loss, denial).
When he is running after me I feel that I must
call the hunter to come and kill him. Tell me
Within the neurotic bizarres, anxiety and depres-
his number so that I know.
sion predominate strikingly in most responses. Self-
2. Eleven-year-old boy, prompt: The Wicked
esteem issues, oral needs, fears of rejection and
Witch can . . . : She can go to hell! [angrily].
abandonment, morality and sexual preoccupation
3. Six-year-old boy, Q: Who is the Scariest
also emerge. An interesting finding is that, among
Witch?: [The] first because she can turn me
these responses, aggression is no longer Aggression
into a car. Do you know I was two people
A, as in the disturbed range, but mostly retaliative.
when I was born?
Examples of Concrete Responses 1. Twelve-year-old girl, re: Wolf 2: Hes thinking

of whether its right or wrong to eat LRRH
1. Twelve-year-old boy, Q: Who is the Real because she has a basket and he doesnt know
Giant? The third; he is the tallest king and if whether or not she has anything in there that
we measure him with the pencil, hes the king can kill him (ambivalence, fear of aggression,
and he has flat shoes. morality).
2. Twelve-year-old girl, re: Dwarf 3: He might be 2. Ten-year-old girl: First LRRH because she is
evil even though it doesnt show and he wants happy. (?) I like eating happy children. The
SW to die, and he might be happy she got poi- happy ones are always smiling (incorpora-
soned. (?) He might be in love with her step- tion).
mother and they both want to kill her (sexual 3. Ten-year-old boy: Third LRRH because all
preoccupation). wolves are sad and she is happy (incorpora-
3. Eight-year-old boy, prompt: LRRH ends with tion).
. . . : Second scene, the author would then 4. Twelve-year-old boy: Third LRRH because I
write and LRRH was caught in a storm and would not want her to take food to her GM
died of cold. (depression). and I would eat her because shes a good girl.
4. Eight-year-old girl, re: Wolf 1: They have I dont want good people to exist (aggression
done something to him, people have beaten envy).
him and hes crying. Hes thinking of hurting 5. Ten-year-old boy: Third because she looks
those that beat on him. Re: Wolf 2: [He] wish- sad. I would eat her to save her from her sor-
es he wasnt an animal so they wouldnt beat row.
on him (aggression retaliation, depression).
5. Eight-year-old girl, prompt: The Wolf eats . . . : This theme occurred in a creative manner in the
The ugliest so that I dont eat the pretty one following protocol:
and nobody marries her (sexual preoccupa-
tion, self esteem). 1. Eleven-year-old girl, re: Witch 1: I dont like
6. Eight-year-old girl, prompt: The Wicked this, its too joyful. (?) Witches usually dislike
Witch can . . . : Destroy a happy person/kill a happy things. (?) She wants to remove the
friend of another who will be sad/ kill the sis- rainbow, call the clouds from the sky. (?) She
ter of someone who will be sad (anxiety/ feels hatred for the rainbow because she hates
harm-loss). nature when its happy.
7. Eight-year-old girl, re: Witch 3: I must make 2. Ten-year-old boy, re: Giant 1: He is going to
this little girl not exist in the world. She will bring the sun down, he likes darkness. (?) The
turn her into a witch that does bad things to witch made him wicked and sent him to bring
people so that they wont want her either the sun down.
(anxiety/ rejection). 3. Seven-year-old boy, prompt: The Wicked
8. Seven-year-old girl, prompt: Who is the Witch can . . . : Make the sky not shine any-
Scariest Witch?: Third, because I harmed her more and that there be no daytime.
when I shouldnt have. (?) I hit her. (?) (Note: The difference in this response that ren-
Because she was bad and wanted to kill SW ders the rating bizarre creative rather than
(aggression retaliation, morality, over involve- bizarre neurotic is the level of the depressive
ment). feeling expressed and the poetic manner in
which it is articulated. Nature enters once
A recurring theme among Neurotic bizarres is again, a common theme in creative respons-
childrens indirect expression of depressive feelings es.)
in their choice of which LRRH the wolf would eat:
Thus a preliminary analysis reveals bizarre
1. Ten-year-old girl: Second LRRH because she pathological (disturbed and neurotic range)
thinks of good things that may happen and he responses that reflect unresolved conflicts, intolera-
doesnt want them to happen. He wants to eat ble and unmanageable affects/needs, unfulfilled
her so she doesnt feel joy. wishes, primary process thinking and signs of
thought disturbance. Examples of Nature/Environmental/

Humanitarian Concern
Creative Bizarres 1. Eleven-year-old girl, re: Wolf 2: Hes watching
Among the creative bizarres, we find unusual a strange sunset and he has never seen such a
responses that remain within the confines of the thing. (?) He feels something unique, since he
fairy tale reality, yet twist it in an original way, or has never seen such a thing.
responses that express in a sublimated (also indi- 2. Ten-year-old boy, prompt: A Wicked Giant
rect, socially acceptable) manner personal concerns can . . . : Destroy the environment with what
that are usually existential or humanitarian in he eats, like giant soda cans.
nature. Altruism and humor emerge as the main 3. Ten-year-old girl, prompt: A Wicked Giant
defense mechanisms. Anxiety, too, fuels many such can . . . : Destroy the Amazon forests so that
responses, while aggression appears in a wish-fulfill- they cant breathe. He may carry all the sand
ing capacity. Most aggressive themes have to do from Africa, throw it over the cities so we
with a desire rather than an act of aggression, and drown in it; can melt with his hands the ice-
the type of aggression is usually aggression domi- bergs so that the earth floods and becomes a
nance. Overall, normal protocols contain responses vast sea; can take then Earth and throw it in
that, on the one hand, stick to the story with few space where there is no time or space and get
personalizations and, on the other, contain an in there himself and destroy it completely.
increased number of altruistic themes, such as the 4. Ten-year-old girl, prompt: A Wicked Witch
desire to help, morality, and ambivalence. can . . . : Do something bad to humanity. (?)
Wreck a building with archeological things,
which are valuable for people, to take away a
Examples of Aggression (Wish)
technological advance that helps them and
1. Ten-year-old girl, re: Witch 3: [She is] thinking then it will take them a long time to recreate it.
of a way to incriminate SW for something she
has done. (?) She killed the hunter so they Examples of Humor
would put SW in jail and she would no longer 1. Ten-year-old girl, re: Wolf 1: Should he eat her
be the prettiest (aggression envy). [LRRH] raw or roasted?
2. Twelve-year-old girl, re: Witch 3: [She] wants 2. Eight-year-old boy, re: LRRH 2: [She is]
to rule the world but she cant because shes thinking of pretending she is the wolf to her
old. She would want grandchildren so she grandmother as a joke.
could abuse them, order them around like ser-
vants. She would also want a young husband Original Examples
who would do all the work, and when she
would die she would give him her name and 1. Eight-year-old boy, prompt: The Wicked
turn him into a magician that would rule the Giant can . . . : Break a printing press. (?) They
world (aggression dominance). want to make a copy of him and print it in the
newspapers.
Example of Morbidity 2. Nine-year-old girl, prompt: Snow White
wants to marry . . . : [Card 1] because the oth-
1. Ten-year-old boy, prompt: Which wolf scares ers clothes have a lot of patches. SW is white
you?: Third; he has large teeth, a wild look as snow, if she marries a dirty one he will dirty
and his fur looks dirty, as if it stinks of other her clothes.
dead animals-wolves eat dead animals.
CONCLUSION American Journal of Psychiatry, 144, 12881292.

Berg, M. (1986). Diagnostic use of the Rorschach with
Investigating idiosyncratic responses in terms of adolescents. In A. I. Rabin (Ed.), Projective techniques for
adolescents and children (pp. 111141). New York:
their creativity or their pathology is an arduous task,
Springer.
especially when the level of pathology is not clearly
Coulacoglou, C. (2003). Fairy tale test manual. Toronto:
severe. A bizarre response within an otherwise Multi-Health Systems.
normal protocol is rarely strictly problematic, yet Dudek, S. Z. (1980). Primary process ideation. In R. H.
it may contain the seeds for a latent or a yet-to-be- Woody (Ed.), Encyclopedia of clinical assessment (pp.
diagnosed issue within a childs psyche. Thus, it is 520539). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
helpful to make the distinction between a creative Exner, J. E. (1978). The Rorschach: Current research and
bizarre and a neurotic/disturbed bizarre. advanced interpretation (Vol. 2). New York: John Wiley.
These preliminary investigations of bizarre Exner, J. E. (1993). The Rorschach: A comprehensive system
responses lead to a categorization of each response (Vol. 1). New York: John Wiley & Sons.
in terms of its hold on reality, its originality, and its Exner, J. E., & Weiner, I. (1982). The Rorschach: Current
research and advanced interpretation (Vol. 2). New York:
level of ego control over the press of internal needs.
John Wiley.
How much is the response an appropriate expres-
Hansburg, H. G. (1986). The separation anxiety test. In
sion of unconscious strivings, sublimated in an A. I. Rabin (Ed.), Projective techniques for adolescents and
acceptable, articulate, and imaginative manner? children (pp. 85108). New York: Springer.
How much is the response a direct, unmodulated, Haworth, M. R. (1986). Childrens apperception test. In
and inappropriate expression of these strivings, A. I. Rabin (Ed.), Projective techniques for adolescents and
stimulated more by the childs anxieties rather than children (pp. 3772). New York: Springer.
its coping abilities? Holtzman, W. H. (1986). The Holztman Inkblot
Pathology and creativity often appear to be inter- Technique with children and adolescents. In A. I.
twined, yet one clear distinguishing feature is the Rabin (Ed.), Projective techniques for adolescents and chil-
childs mindfulness over his/her activity and ability dren (pp. 168192). New York: Springer.
Jamison, K. R. (1989). Mood disorders and patterns of
to perform within the boundaries of the testing situ-
creativity in British writers and artists. Psychiatry, 32,
ation, respecting the question and the rules of lan-
125134.
guage and communication. Observations of the Jamison, K. R. (1993). Touched with fire. New York: Free
childs attempts to formulate and articulate his/her Press.
responses are as important as the content of the Juda, A. (1949). The relationship between highest mental
response itself. capacity and psychic abnormalities. American Journal of
Further research on the bizarre response would Psychiatry, 106, 296304.
provide more information on these initial catego- Kessel, N. (1989). Genius and mental disorder: A history
rizations and help particularize the distinguishing of ideas concerning their conjunction. In P. Murray
features of each category. Moreover, cross-cultural (Ed.), Genius: The history of an idea. Oxford, England:
investigation of protocols with bizarre responses Basil Blackwell.
Lazar, B. S., & Harrow, M. (1980). Primitive drive-domi-
may point to some universal features of normali-
nated thinking. In R. H. Woody (Ed.), Encyclopedia of
ty and pathology alongside specific cultural trends
clinical assessment (pp. 497511). San Francisco: Jossey-
in the deviant response. Bass.
Loro, A. D. (1980). Disturbed thinking. In R. H. Woody
(Ed.), Encyclopedia of clinical assessment (pp. 490496).
REFERENCES San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Ludwig, A. M. (1989). Reflections of creativity and mad-
Andreasen, N. C. (1987). Creativity and mental illness: ness. American Journal of Psychotherapy, 43(1), 414.
Prevalence rates in writers and first-degree relatives. Post, F. (1994). Creativity and psychopathology: A study
of 291 world-famous men. British Journal of Psychiatry, Rychlak, J., & OLeary, L. (1965). Unhealthy content in
165, 2234. the Rorschach responses of children and adolescents.
Prentsky, R. A. (1980). Creativity and psychopathology: A Journal of Projective Techniques, 29, 354368.
neurocognitive perspective. New York: Praeger. Sandblom, P. (1982). Creativity and disease: How illness
Rapaport, D., Gill, M. M., & Schafer, R. (1991). Diagnostic affects literature, art, and music. Philadelphia: G. F.
psychological testing. Connecticut: International Stickley.
Universities Press. Young, G. R., & Wagner, E. E. (Eds.). (1999). The hand test:
Rausch de Traubenberg, N. (1986). Le Rorschach, espace Advances in application and research. Malabar, FL:
dinteractions. [The Rorschach: Interaction space.] Krieger.
Bulletin de Psychologie, 39 (1115), 659661.
PART III
THE STUDY OF DEFENSE MECHANISMS

Chapter 5
THE DEVELOPMENT AND CROSS-CULTURAL

SIGNIFICANCE OF DEFENSE MECHANISMS
CARINA COULACOGLOU
INTRODUCTION anxiety (e.g., superego, instincts, external pressures)

that gives rise to them.
The Origin and Theories of One significant revision in classical Freudian
Defense Mechanisms defense theory was proposed by Brenner (1982),
who emphasized a functional approach (Cooper,
he origin of some defenses may be traced to as 1989) to defense interpretation. According to this
T early as the first few months of life. Although
only a handful of references discuss the origins and
approach, anything is usefully regarded as defensive
when it functions to reduce anxiety and tensions.
development of defense mechanisms, the theories Brenner focused on the egos breadth in accom-
of Melanie Klein, Margaret Mahler, and Anna plishing the reduction of anxiety or depressive
Freud have shown that the mechanisms of denial, affect. Brenners approach is influenced by the work
splitting, and introjection (oral incorporation) of Hartmann, Kris, and Loewenstein (1964), who
appear during the first twelve months of life and are emphasized the ego as an organ of adaptation and
closely related to the childs relationship with the accommodation that has access to the use of
mother figure. defense, among a variety of ego functions, to cope
While the earliest theories of defenses focused with both external and internal pressures.
more on maintaining internal equilibrium, contem- Schaffer (1968) attempted to delineate the
porary theories of defense are seen as part of a set dynamic properties of the ego. He argued that
of relational and cognitive patterns that develop in defenses always attempt to block the expression of
the context of close relationships. undesirable content, while at the same time they
Sigmund Freuds first paper on the subject of express undesirable impulses.
defense describes defense mechanisms as the cor- Defense has intrafamilial and sociocultural
nerstone on which the whole structure of psycho- dimensions and implications. Anna Freud pointed-
analysis rests (Freud, 1894/1962, p. 209). Over the ly noted that all defense mechanisms serve simul-
course of his writing, Freud moved from the use of taneously internal drive restriction and external
the term defense as synonymous with repression, adaptation, which are merely two sides of the same
to the articulation of defenses such as projection, picture (1965, p. 177).
isolation, reaction formation, regression, and undo- Winnicott (1965) differentiated between defense
ing and splitting of the ego. organized against impulses, on the one hand, and
Anna Freud (1936) subdivided the larger concept defense organized against more traumatic environ-
of defense even further, citing a number of exam- mental failure leading to defensive efforts such as
ples of other defenses depending on the source of false self adaptations. Along similar lines, Modell
93
(1984) proposed a two-persons theory of defense. 1. High-adaptive level. These defenses allow
According to this model, defensive organization optimal adaptation to stress factors, increase
involves a falling back on the self and the avoidance gratification, and permit conscious perception
of expressed needs toward others. Modell calls this of feelings, ideas, and their consequences,
response self-sufficiency as a defense against thereby creating the best balance among con-
affect. Kohut (1984) defined defensive structures as flicting motivations. Such mechanisms
attempts to safeguard an enfeebled self. include, humor, suppression, sublimation,
Kernberg (1975) emphasized that a particular self-assertion, self-observation, affiliation, and
type of defensive organization is characteristic of altruism.
borderline personality. In his view, the mechanism 2. Mental-inhibitions level (compromise forma-
of splitting in particular and other defenses such as tion). These defenses exclude from conscious-
projective identification, denial, primitive idealiza- ness threatening ideas, feelings, memories, or
tion, and devaluation are usually indicative of bor- wishes. These mechanisms include displace-
derline personality. ment, dissociation, isolation, intellectualiza-
Interpersonal psychoanalysis and relational- tion, reaction formation, undoing, and repres-
conflict theory (e.g., Mitchell, 1988) have con- sion.
tributed to the understanding of the differences 3. Minor image-distorting level. These defenses,
between defense and resistance in the therapy situ- including depreciation, idealization, and
ation. Within contemporary psychoanalytic theory omnipotence, operate to regulate self-esteem.
defense is no longer conceptualized as a strictly 4. Disavowal level. These defenses keep out of
intrapsychic outcome. Instead, defense and resist- awareness stress factors, thoughts, impulses,
ance are conceptualized as constantly being affect- or unacceptable feelings of responsibility,
ed and shaped by interactions with significant oth- each of which has been wrongly attributed to
ers. external causes.
5. Major image-distorting level. These defenses
Classification of Defense Mechanisms produce a major distortion or a faulty attribu-
tion of the self-image or that of others.
George Vaillants classification of defense mech- 6. Action level. These defenses are characterized
anisms (1976, 1993) is among the most widely used. by the use of action or withdrawal in the face
Vaillant categorized defenses according to their of internal or external danger. Such mecha-
adaptive functioning in adulthood as mature, neu- nisms are acting out, passive aggression, and
rotic, immature, and psychotic. Mature defenses splitting.
include anticipation, suppression, altruism, sublima- 7. Level of defensive disregulation. These
tion, and humor. Neurotic defenses include isola- defenses, including delirious projection, psy-
tion of affect, repression, reaction formation, and chotic denial, and psychotic distortion, testify
displacement. Immature defenses include projec- to the failure of defensive regulation in the
tion, schizoid fantasy, hyponchodriasis, passive- face of stressful factors. This causes a break-
aggressive behavior, acting out, and dissociation. down that is associated with reality testing.
Psychotic defenses include delusional projection,
psychotic denial, and distortion. Perry (1990b) proposed another classification
The American Psychiatric Associations Diag- system for defenses:
nostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
(DSM-IV) (1994) presents another classification, 1. Action defenses (e.g., passive aggression)
whereby defenses are categorized into seven levels 2. Borderline defenses (e.g., splitting)
according to their functions: 3. Disavowal defenses (e.g., denial)
The Development and Cross-Cultural Significance of Defense Mechanisms 95
4. Narcissistic defenses (e.g., omnipotence) Another way to classify defenses in children is

5. Other neurotic defenses (e.g., repression) according to the way children employ them against
6. Obsessional defenses (e.g., undoing) specific threats:
7. Mature defenses (e.g., sublimation)
Aggression, which is among the most prominent
Defenses can also be classified as other-orient- personality dimensions, can be understood as
ed, e.g., projection, and as self-oriented, e.g., a response to frustration and is triggered by
aggression turned inward (Laor, Wolmer, & internal or external stimuli. Common conse-
Cicchetti, 2001). quences of aggression in children include feel-
ings of guilt or punishment. Aggression is per-
Classification of Defenses Based on haps the sole developmental conflict that can
Childrens Responses to the FTT activate such a wide variety of defense mech-
anisms. In children the defense mechanisms
I have attempted to classify defenses according employed against aggression include displace-
to how they respond to conflicts and stressors: ment, reaction formation, undoing, negation,
denial, projective identification, aggression
Immature or childish maneuvers to deal with con- turned inward, and rationalization.
flicts or unacceptable feelings. This category Narcissistic desires or low self-concept. Defenses
includes defenses that characterize earlier commonly used against such feelings are
stages of development (e.g., regression) and negation, undoing, and compensation.
defenses that manifest themselves as impul- Anxiety, fear, or depression. Defenses employed
sive actions and are characterized by a lack of against these feelings include undoing, denial,
control (e.g., acting out). negation, reversal, and repression.
Refusal to accept conflicts or threats. These Sexual concerns or wishes. The defenses of
defenses choose to ignore, misperceive, or regression and repression commonly are used
refuse painful or anxiety-producing situations against concerns such as these.
or objects. Such defenses include negation, Negative mother image. When children perceive
denial, splitting, and repression. the mother as rejecting, depriving, harsh, or
Turning a negative situation into a neutral or posi- abusive, they often apply the mechanism of
tive one. Such defenses allow children to refuse splitting or denial.
to accept reality or to turn a threatening situa-
tion into a neutral or positive one. These Assessment of Defense Mechanisms
defenses include undoing, reversal, compen-
sation, and reaction formation. Assessment methods of defenses include self-
Redirection or projection of impulses or conflicts. report measures, projective techniques, and clinical
These defenses are used against aggressive interviews. Of the many measures, only three self-
impulses or unacceptable self-feelings by pro- report measures (for adults) will be presented, pri-
jecting them onto others or directing them marily because of their popularity:
toward less threatening targets. They include The Defense Mechanisms Inventory (DMI)
projection, projective identification, aggres- (Gleser & Ihillevich, 1969) is based on the assump-
sion turned inward, and displacement. tion that defense mechanisms resolve conflicts
Cognitive justifications to control impulses, con- between internal and external reality using one of
flicts, or threats. These defenses include ration- the following methods: attacking, distorting, or
alization and intellectualization. becoming selectively unaware of aspects of either
the internal or external world. The DMI assesses Clinical Data Interview and
five theoretically distinct defensive styles: turning Observation Methods
against the self (TAS), turning against the object
(TAO), projection (PRO), reversal (REV), and prin- DEFENSE AND COPING M ECHANISMS: Haan
cipalization (PRN). The DMI consists of ten stories (1963) made the first systematic attempt to examine
that describe situations assumed to capture com- defenses. She used written summaries of an average
monly encountered conflictual situations, such as of twelve hours of individual interviews for rating
competition, authority, independence, and sexual ten defense mechanisms and ten coping mecha-
identity. Normative data exists for adolescents, nisms. This method introduced a distinction
adults, college students, and different groups of psy- between largely maladaptive defenses versus adap-
chiatric patients. tive defenses. Haan (1963) found that IQ is general-
The Life Style Index (LSI) (Plutchik, Kellerman, ly positively related to coping mechanisms (mature
& Conte, 1979) attempts to provide a theoretical defenses) and negatively related to use of non-
framework for the assessment of defense mecha- mature defenses.
nisms. The index presents a circumplex model of The Ego Profile Scale (Semrad, Grinspoon, &
defense mechanisms, and their relation to affect, Frienberg, 1973) consists of forty-five items that
personality disorders, and each other is specified yield scores for nine defenses that clinicians rate on
(Conte & Plutchik, 1993). The LSI, which was the basis of clinical observation. The instrument
developed through a series of face-validity and fac- was designed for use on inpatients for whom pro-
tor-analytic studies with undergraduate students, longed behavioral observation was feasible.
consists of ninety-seven items with a usually true Research showed that two-thirds of the patients
or usually not true response format. The LSI demonstrated a shift away from using distortion,
offers scores for eight defense mechanisms: com- denial, and projection as they improved clinically.
pensation (including identification and fantasy), Vaillants Clinical Vignette Method (Vaillant,
denial, displacement, intellectualization (including 1971, 1976, 1977) is a glossary of eighteen defense
sublimation, undoing, and rationalization), projec- mechanisms derived from vignettes about life from
tion, reaction formation, regression (including act- interviews with subjects. In their examination of
ing out), and repression (including isolation and personality disorders, Vaillant and Drake (1985)
introjection). Norms for 147 normal adults are pre- reported that 66 percent of men with Axis II diag-
sented in the form of percentiles and T-scores. noses used mostly immature defenses, as compared
The original version of the Defense Style to 10 percent of those without Axis II disorders.
Questionnaire (DSQ) consisted of 97 items. It was Conversely, the use of mature defenses such as sub-
later reduced to eighty-one items (Bond et al., 1983) limation, humor, and suppression correlated nega-
and then increased to eighty-eight items (Bond, tively with the presence of a personality disorder.
1986) and a four-factor solution labeled Defense The Defense Mechanisms Rating Scales (DMRS)
Style 1 through Defense Style 4. The four factors are (Perry, 1990a) identify the use of twenty-seven
maladaptive action patterns, distorting defenses, defenses. Each defense has a definition, a descrip-
self-sacrificing defenses, and adaptive defenses tion of its intrapsychic function, a list of near neigh-
(Bond & Vaillant, 1986). The DSQ has been bor defenses and how to differentiate them, and a
rescored by Andrews, Pollock, and Stewart (1989) rating three-point scale. This rating scale concerns
into a three-factor solution and twenty defense the qualitative observation regarding whether the
scales, which is more consistent with the glossary of subject does not use, probably uses, or definitely
defense mechanisms listed in the third edition of the uses defense mechanisms.
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders The Comprehensive Assessment of Defense
(DSM-III-R) (APA, 1987). Style (CADS) (Laor et al., 2001) is a fifty-item
observer report that evaluates childrens use of Rorschach test: the first relies on formal Rorschach
defense-related behaviors. The twenty-eight defens- scores, the second on thematic interpretation of the
es derived from this assessment were factor ana- content of responses, and the third on a combina-
lyzed, which resulted in a three-factor solution. The tion of the first two.
defining factor of the first factor (i.e., other-oriented) The Lerner Defense Scales (LDS) (Lerner &
is projection; the defining factor of the second fac- Lerner, 1982) assess five defense mechanisms relat-
tor (i.e., self-oriented) is reaction formation; and the ed to borderline personality organization (splitting,
defining factor of the third factor (i.e., mature) is devaluation, idealization, projective identification,
humor. and denial), as described by Kernberg (1975).
The Ego-Defense Scale (Pfeffer, 1986) is one of The Rorschach Defense Scales (RDS) (Cooper,
the Child Suicide Potential Scales and relies on rat- Perry, & Arnow, 1988) measure fifteen defenses
ings from semi-structured interviews. The defenses across a range of psychotic, borderline, and neurot-
assessed include compensation, denial, displace- ic defenses. The RDS method specifies six to four-
ment, intellectualization, introjection, projection, teen manifestations per defense, relying primarily
reaction formation, regression, repression, sublima- on verbal content.
tion, and undoing. Defenses are rated for frequency The Defense Mechanisms Manual (DMM)
of use on a three-point scale. A total defense score (Cramer, 1991) provides a method for coding three
is based on the sum of scores from the individual defenses (denial, projection, and identification) that
defenses. may surface in the stories told in response to TAT
The Adolescent Ego Defense Mechanism cards. A defense is scored each time it occurs in a
Ratings ( Jacobson et al., 1986) studies defense single story, and the scores are summed over all the
mechanisms among three groups of adolescents: cards to result in a total denial score, a total pro-
diabetics, nonpsychotic psychiatric patients, and jection score, and a total identification score.
healthy high-school students. They assessed 12
defenses and produced a measure of overall defense Developmental and Empirical
success from transcripts of unstructured interviews. Studies of Defense Mechanisms
Defense mechanisms can be observed during
psychotherapy and in childrens drawings. Specialists began to focus on the evolution of
According to Benveniste (2005), games like tag defense mechanisms in the early 1970s. There are
(youre it) and cops and robbers are based on the two different approaches to the study of the chrono-
defensive operations of projection and identifica- logical evolution of defense mechanisms. The hor-
tion with the bad object. Contests and trials of izontal approach examines the emergence of
strength provide examples of oedipal rivalry and an defense mechanisms in relation to age or the psy-
opportunity for identification with the aggressor, chosexual stages of development, and the vertical
thereby turning passive into active. Dress up is approach proposes a hierarchy of defenses in terms
another game of identification. of their degree of complexity or the distortion of
reality that they operate upon.
Projective Techniques Among the most important studies of the devel-
opmental progression of defense mechanisms are the
Defense mechanisms have been examined ones by Ames et al. (1974); Blum (1985); Brody,
through various projective techniques. We will Rozek, and Muten (1985); Chandler, Paget, and
focus on the Rorschach and the Thematic Koch (1978); Cramer (1991); Engel (1962); Haan
Apperception Test (TAT), which explore defenses in (1977); Lichtenberg and Slap (1972); Semrad (1967);
a more systematic and consistent way. There are Semrad et al. (1973); Smith and Danielsson (1977);
three general strategies for rating defenses in the Stolorow and Lachmann (1978); and Swanson (1988).
Chandler et al. (1978) identified the cognitive identification.

development level of ten preoperational, concrete The stress resulting from maltreatment in child-
operational, and formal operational children, and hood has been found to affect the use of defense
their success or failure in explaining eight common- mechanisms (Finzi, Har-Even, & Weizman, 2003).
ly described defense mechanisms. The results indi- The researchers compared forty-one physically
cated that preoperational children fail to decode abused children and 38 neglected children aged 6 to
any defenses. Subjects at the concrete operational 12 years with children who were not maltreated.
stage could explain defenses involving simple Researchers employed the Ego Defense Scale to
reversions (e.g., repression and denial) and recipro- assess the use of defense mechanisms. The abused
cal operations (e.g., displacement and reaction for- children used regression, denial, projection, repres-
mation). Formal operational children were able to sion, and introjection more frequently than the neg-
decode defenses involving second-order proposi- lected children, who in turn, used these immature
tions (e.g., projection and introjection). defenses more frequently than the control group.
Brody et al. (1985) found that 6-year-olds are In another study (Sandstrom & Cramer, 2003),
more defensive than 4-year-olds in terms of attribut- ninety-five children aged 9 to 10 years were evalu-
ing less-frequent negative emotions and less-intense ated by their parents on the Child Behavior
emotions to themselves and others. Checklist (CBCL). The scores, derived from meas-
Haan (1963) originally described a set of twenty ures such as anxiety, aggression, withdrawal, and
adaptive styles with explicit definitions. She divided internalizing and externalizing problems, were
these styles into two groups: ten were described as compared to DMM coding of the childrens TAT
coping (healthy), and ten were described as defend- stories. The results indicated that the use of denial
ing (pathological). The value of Haans work was was greater among children with psychological dif-
that it (1) explicitly defined a hierarchy of defenses ficulties.
according to pathological significance, (2) provided The relationship between defense use and psy-
mutually exclusive definitions, and (3) demonstrat- chological problems was demonstrated on a sample
ed validity by correlating the assessment of defens- of 7- to 10-year-old children. The children complet-
es with important measures of mental health. ed the Response Evaluation MeasureYouth (REM-
Stolorow and Lachmann (1978) asserted that a Y) (Yasnovsky et al., 2003), a modified version of
developmental line corresponds with each mecha- the Defense Style Questionnaire (DSQ-78) for use
nism, and that the specific defense represents the with children. The self-report questionnaire was
success of a series of developmental achievements. later compared with a self-report instrument of anx-
Defense mechanisms have commonly been iety. The results showed that both mature and
assessed through the application of projective tech- immature defense factors were positively correlated
niques or psychotherapy (e.g., Benveniste, 2005). In with levels of anxiety.
Rorschach responses, Ames et al. (1974) found that
denial decreased with age in 2- to 10-year-old chil- The Study of Defense
dren. Mechanisms in the FTT
Cramer (1987, 1991) studied age differences in
the use of denial, projection, and identification in I examined the defense mechanisms in 873 pro-
childrens responses to the TAT. She found that tocols of nonreferred Greek children aged 6 to 12
denial was used more frequently by the youngest years. The mechanisms received a score of one each
children (preschoolers) and decreased steadily time they appeared in a childs protocol. The total
thereafter. Children in the middle-age (from 8 to 12 defense corresponds to the sum of scores for each
years) groups most frequently employed projection, defense mechanism. The results indicated that 68
whereas adolescents more frequently employed percent of children presented at least one type of
defense mechanism. Most children presented just Card 2: He will not eat LRRH (?) because he is a
one type of defense mechanism; fewer than 5 per- very good wolf and he feels pity for
cent of children presented more than two different LRRH.
types. The defense mechanisms that have appeared
in Greek protocols are: undoing, reaction forma- ii. Section B: Against Narcissistic Desires
tion, repression, regression, compensation, aggres-
sion turned inwards, denial, projection, projective Example
identification, rationalization, displacement, split-
ting, and identification with the aggressor. Q: What does each dwarf think/feel?
Unfortunately, a full review of all of these mecha- Card 2: Hes thinking that he wants everything
nisms is beyond the scope of the present chapter. his own way (?) he wants to have an easy
Consequently, the following discussion is limited to living without him making any effort.
those mechanisms most commonly found in at least Card 3: He is reasonable. He wants to live a
5 percent of Greek protocols; these include undo- good life but he knows that he has to
ing, reaction formation, splitting, rationalization, work hard for it (?) hes thinking that the
projection, negation, denial, and repression. more he works, the more will be the
The majority of defenses are reflected in the chil- gains later on.
drens responses to the question, What does each
one think and feel? and to the instruction iii. Section C: Against Low Self-Esteem
Describe what is going on in each scene. Negation
is commonly expressed in responses to the ques- Example
tions, Who scares you most? Why? Occasionally,
defense mechanisms are observed in responses to Q: What does each giant think/feel?
What can a wicked witch (or giant) do? and Card 1: He is isolated, nobody approaches him,
Name the witches (or giants). (In the examples they are scared of him (?) hes thinking,
throughout this chapter, (?) indicates that the Its no use, no one will ever get closer.
researcher probed the child to exemplify his/her Card 2: He looks satisfied, it seems that every-
answer.) body loves him and approaches him (?)
he is thinking, Come and keep me com-
U NDOING: In undoing, the individual amends or pany.
negates, in a verbal or a physical manner, unac-
ceptable thoughts, feelings, or actions. In the FTT, iv. Section D: Against Aggression
undoing is employed as a defense against superego
violations, narcissistic desires, low self-esteem, fear Example 1
of aggression, and aggression. The sections A
through E illustrate examples of undoing: Q: What does each giant think/feel?
Card 1: He wants to strike people, he does not
love them, he breaks down houses, does
i. Section A: Against Superego Violations bad things, he steals food.
Example Card 2: He is happy, he is nice, smiling, he is not
wicked, he does not break down houses,
Q: What does each wolf think/feel? he thinks that it is not right to break
Card 1: He is angry (?) he wants to eat Little Red down houses, trees, castles. He loves
Riding Hood right away (?) he is very people.
hungry, hasnt eaten for days.
Example 2 mother (?) she wants to take her home

and make her well.
Q: What does each witch think/feel?
Card 1: She wants to turn someone into an ani- Example 3
mal (?) maybe Snow White(?) because
she hates her. Q: What can a wicked giant do?
Card 2: She might be good and might want to Card 3: He can destroy the whole planet but if
turn everybody back into normal (?) the he is nice he can help people build their
other witches had turned them into ani- houses.
mals.
R EPRESSION: Repression, a derivative of denial,
R EACTION FORMATION: In reaction formation, consists of purposefully forgetting or failure to
unacceptable feelings and impulses are substituted acknowledge forbidden or disturbing wishes,
by their extreme opposites. High scores on the vari- thoughts, or experiences.
ables desire to help and anxiety (concern for others)
may signify reaction formation. Reaction formation
i. Section A
can be detected in responses to the question, What
does each one think? Repression can appear in protocols in the form
of I dont know or I cant think of anything in
Example 1 response to the question, What does each charac-
ter think/feel?
Q: What does each dwarf think?
Card 2: Hes thinking, Im happy that the witch
Example 1
gave SW a poisonous apple because she
was taller than we are and our friends Q: What does each witch think/feel?
disapproved (?) hes happy that SW ate Card 1: Shes doing magic but I cant figure out
the apple, he had wished for that (?) why (?) to some lady who took her
because she was taller. beloved husband away (?) She is going
Card 3: Hes thinking, oh! Poor girl, what has to stop her with magic; shell freeze her.
happened to you! And now where will
we get a prince to kiss her? I wish the Example 2
witch would had given the apple to me
instead of her (?) hes very sad because Q: What does each wolf think?
he lost SW. Card 3: He wants to devour LRRH, but he has
no idea as to how to deceive her.
Example 2
Q: What does each LRRH think? ii. Section B

Card 1: She wants to visit her grandmother Repression can be revealed in vague and elusive
because she is ill (?) she feels sorry for responses to the question, What does each charac-
her grandmother. ter think/feel?
Card 2: She wants to harm her grandmother
because LRRH is mean (?) she wants to Example
kill her and she feels angry.
Card 3: She wants to help her grandmother to Q: What does each LRRH think/feel?
get well (?) she feels sorry for her grand- Card 2: She looks as if she is ashamed of some-
one (?) of an adult who maybe asked her wolves (?) hes a very nice wolf and he
a question that she could not answer. doesnt want to eat little girls but make
friends with them.
iii. Section C
ii. Section B
Repression can also appear when the child focus-
es her attention on card details or describes the Denial may also appear in the form of negation
character with adjectives, rather than offering a spe- in which the individual negates painful or frighten-
cific response to the question, What does each ing thoughts and feelings and/or the implications of
character think/feel? events. Negation is frequently observed in respons-
es to the question, Who scares you the most?
Example
Example 1
Q: What does each dwarf think/feel?
Card 1: He is looking at his nose, he is the most Q: Which of the three giants scares you most?
stupid of the three, he looks puzzled, as Why?
if he does not know what a nose is. He is Card 3: I am not afraid of any of the three. They
thoughtful, he looks a bit happy, but not are only pictures.
too happy.
Example 2
DENIAL: The mechanism of denial refers to the
need to deny threatening or unpleasant parts of Q: What does each giant think/feel?
reality as well as ones own aggressive impulses. In Card 2: He wants to change his clothes because
the FTT denial can occur in many ways, as demon- they are torn. He is not bad, he doesnt
strated by the examples in sections A through F want to kill anybody.
below.
iii. Section C
i. Section A
Another type of denial is minimization, whereby
When the child changes the negative features of the child minimizes an aggressive or threatening
the threatening figure to their opposite, we observe action.
the mechanism of reversal, a subcategory of denial.
Example
Example 1
Q: What does each witch think?
Q: What does each LRRH think/feel?
Card 2: She wants to do something bad to SW.
Card 1: She sees the wolf and thinks how nice he
She does not want to kill her, only put
is and how helpful he could prove to
her in danger.
her.
Example 2 iv. Section D

Q: What does each wolf think/feel? When the child employs the mechanism of
Card 2: He is thinking that he made a new denial, he sometimes may reverse the reality of the
friendship with a little girl. Thank God fairy-tale plot.
hes not the same as the other two
Example i. Section A
Q: Describe each scene (from Little Red Riding The child attributes to others unacceptable per-
Hood). sonality characteristics and/or feelings (e.g., Others
Card 3: She is happy, she went to grandmothers are bad/afraid, not me).
cottage, she did not follow the wrong
path and she returned home safely. Example 1
Q: Which wolf scares you most? Why?

v. Section E
Card 3: If a baby sees him on television, she will
Denial may be revealed in misperceptions of the become scared and leave.
pictures threatening features or in distorted inter-
pretations of the content that a picture usually Example 2
evokes.
Q: Which giant scares you most? Why?
Card 1: Im not afraid of giants but my brothers
Example 1
are.
Q: What does each giant think?
Card 3: He wonders where he can find a job. Example 3

Example 2 Card 1: She is angry (?) the other witches had a
party and they didnt invite her (?) they
dont want her, she might be better than
Card 3: He holds a brush and wants to brush his
them and so they are jealous of her (?)
hair.
shes trying to figure out a way to go to
the party.
vi. Section F
Through denial, the child may refuse the reality ii. Section B
of her statements.
The child attributes to others responsibility for
forbidden thoughts and/or impulses (e.g., Its the
Example
others fault, not mine).
Q: What can a wicked witch do?
Card 3: She can pretend to kill a woman (?) Example 1
today we shall play theatre (?) she will
Q: What does each witch think?
pretend to kill.
Card 1: She is thinking of killing SW (?) because
the mirror said, Kill anyone who is more
P ROJECTION: In projection, feelings, impulses, or
beautiful than you, (?) so she is angry
thoughts that cannot be tolerated in oneself are
and ready to kill SW.
attributed to another object. To detect projection in
the FTT, the examiner should first determine with
Example 2
which character the child identifies. A response that
reflects projection may match one or more (in com- Q: Which is the most wicked giant? Why?
bination) of the types of projection described below. Card 3: This is the most wicked giant. He does
No significant age or gender effect was observed. not want to be bad, but a wicked witch
cast a spell on him, when he was a little and by any means (?) she wants to harm
child. people.
iii. Section C Example 3
The child projects onto others personal needs or Q: What does each witch think/feel?
insecurities to avoid feeling insecure or inferior (e.g., Card 1: He is thinking of killing Jack (?) because
Its the others who need help, not me). he stole his money and he wants it back.
Card 2: He decided not to kill for money since
Example 1 money doesnt bring happiness. (This
response also demonstrates the defense
Q: What does each dwarf think/feel? mechanism of undoing.)
Card 2: He is going to take food for the other
dwarfs to eat (?) so that they wont die S PLITTING: Splitting is often referred to as a
out of hunger (?) feels happy (?) he will primitive defense (Kernberg, 1975). The goal of
eat. splitting is to control anxiety with two simultaneous,
opposing reactions: one is searching for satisfaction,
Example 2 and the other is aware of the frustrating reality. In
splitting the individual conceives herself or others
Q: What does each wolf think/feel? as either all good or all bad, and therefore she fails
Card 2: He wants to help the other two wolves to integrate the positive and negative aspects into
(?) they could get themselves killed (?) if cohesive object representations. According to Klein
grandma tries to chase them with a (1946) the origins of splitting can be found in the
broom. early months of life, during which the infant divides
the maternal imago into good and bad.
RATIONALIZATION: In rationalization, the indi- As a defense mechanism, splitting can be very
vidual offers socially acceptable and apparently log- effective in reducing anxiety and maintaining self-
ical explanations for anxiety-producing acts or deci- esteem. Depending on the circumstance, splitting
sions. can have either a structuring (positive) or a disso-
ciative (negative) role in development.
Example 1 Splitting of the self or the object (usually the
Q: What does each wolf think/feel? mother) can sometimes be observed in the FTT
Card 2: He has already eaten and looks kind of responses, as demonstrated by the following exam-
puzzled (?) hes wondering if it was right ples:
to eat that animal (?) maybe he was a kind
and nave wolf so he didnt realize what he i. Section A: Splitting of Self
was doing (?) he was hungry.
In response to the question, What does each
Example 2 witch/giant think? a child may provide a positive
response that is followed by a negative response or
Q: What does each witch think/feel? vice versa. This type of splitting is demonstrated in
Card 2: She is a woman that used to be very nice the description of the characters interactions,
girl but she was unfortunate and so she reflecting fight or antagonism between positive and
became tough and cruel and now she is negative aspects of the self.
trying to take revenge for everything
Example 1 Card 2: She wants to do magic (?) in order to

take Snow White to the castle. When she
takes her there, she will give her sleep-
Card 2: She is good, shes neither wicked nor
ing pills (?) because she will operate on
angry and most probably she wants to
her, she will take out the goodness from
save somebody (?) she will take care of
inside her and replace it with the bad-
people and if they get killed she would
ness (?) She is angry (?) because its been
take the blame.
years she has been looking for Snow
Card 1: She is fighting with witch no. 2, shes
White and she wasnt able to find her.
wicked, young and looks like a queen (?)
Now its the first time she found her and
she wants to kill the second witch and
she wants to take her.
then, in turn, kill everybody.
A third form of splitting of self occurscommon-
Another way to express splitting occurs when a
ly in the witch cardswhere the witch performs dif-
child splits positive and negative aspects of self
ferent types of magic spells (positive vs. negative)
within the same figure. One of the most common
onto two different victims or at different times of the
examples concerns splitting between positive exter-
day.
nal appearance and a negative inner self (character)
or when splitting occurs between different parts of
Example 1
the body or clothing.
Example 1
Card 1: She is a nice witch (?) she thinks to be
Q: What does each witch think? nice during the morning and bad during
Card 1: She is thinking only of her beauty and the night.
how to make others bad, but maybe she
hides compassion inside her heart (?) Example 2
she feels better than others and wants
everybody to bow in her presence.
Card 2: The witch wants to help animals and
Example 2 harm human beings.
Q: Which is the giant in fairy tales? Why? ii. Section B: Splitting between
Card 1, because he looks bad from the waist
downward and nice from the waist upward.
Id and Superego
This type of splitting is often observed in the
Example 3
form of interaction among the three figures, where-
Q: What does each dwarf think/feel? by one figure wants to act in an aggressive, impul-
Card 2: Hes got a good hunch and a bad one (?) sive way and the others are trying to control
he is thinking, Im too bored, or How him/her, impose penalties or even act in the oppo-
nice would it be if I would go for a walk, site way, i.e., in a helpful/affiliative way.
(?) half of his sweater looks good and half of
it looks bad. Example 1
Example 4 Q: What does each witch think/feel?

Card 1: She wants to separate Snow White from
Q: What does each dwarf think/feel? the prince (?) she wants the prince to
love her and not Snow White (?) she is is drooling. He is too hungry to eat Little
sad (?) because the prince loves Snow Red Riding Hood. He is happy he has
White. found a pray.
Card 3: She is angry with the first witch (?) Dont Card 2: His good side told him not to eat Little
do it! Dont separate them because they Red Riding Hood because she is an
love each other shes telling her. innocent child. He is confused on
whether to eat her or not.
Example 2 Card 3: His good side told him dont bother!. He
thinks that he wont be able to hold back
Q: What does each witch think/feel? and that he must eat Little Red Riding
Card 1: She wants to do something bad, she is Hood. He is angry with his good side (?)
wondering to whom. She thinks that she because it is pushing him to do some-
is very angry and evil (?) because she is thing good.
a bad person (?) someone did something
bad, but she didnt like it, she would pre-
fer to do something bad, this is why she iii. Section C: Splitting of Object
is angry with that person. (mother/father)
Card 2: She too thinks bad things as the other
In response to the instruction to describe the
ones because she is a witch. Someone is
scenes from the story of Little Red Riding Hood, a
in front of her: Go and harm him! She
child may provide opposite descriptions of the
thinks that she is bad and the she must
mother, depending on the card that portrays her.
do bad things. She is very angry (?)
For example, the child may describe the mother
Maybe the person in front of her has
depicted on one card as a wicked stepmother or
told her something like: stop being evil,
witch, while he may present the mother on another
do something good.
card as a kind woman or fairy. Moreover, the child
Card 3: There is someone in front of her with
may describe the mother as dead in one card and as
whom she is very angry. (?) Maybe this
alive in another.
person has told her to become nicer and
she is angry (?) or maybe she is very bad
and has never done something good. Example 1
Card 1: LRRH begs the wicked stepmother to

Example 3
let her visit her grandmother.
Q: What does each giant think/feel? Card 2: LRRH wished for a mother who would
Card 2: This giant has always some sweets on love her and who is rich.
him, he is always eating some sweet, he Card 3: Her prayers are fulfilled and she finds a
doesnt want the sweets to end (?) he is nice mother who takes care of her.
happy (?) because he is eating sweets.
Card 3: This giant is angry with the second giant. Example 2
He is telling him: Dont eat so many
Card 1: Shes the LRRHs evil stepmother who
sweets, your teeth will rot!
is always scolding her and prevents her
from visiting her grandmother (?) her
Example 4
mother had died but this was not actual-
Q: What does each wolf think/feel? ly true.
Card 1: He saw Little Red Riding Hood and he Card 2: LRRH left home and is crying at the
riverbank in the forest (?) so that she between 6- to 7-year-old girls and between 8-
wont be scolded again by her mother, to 9-year-old girls, while it is 26 percent
aunt, whoever that may be. between 10- to 12-year-old girls. There was no
Card 3: She saw her mother outside and at first significant gender effect in any of these age
she thought that it was her imagination, groups.
but then she yelled, mom! and she 4. Projection: Projection was significantly associat-
talked to her about her adventure with ed to factor 1 (impulsivity, p < .003), factor 3
the woman who scolded her all the time. (dominance and guilt, p < .008), and factor 5
(possessiveness and anxiety, p < .001). There
Comparison between Second-Order was no significant age or gender effect.
5. Reaction Formation: Reaction formation associ-
FTT Factor Scores and Defense
ated significantly with factor 1 (impulsivity, p
Mechanisms < .006) and factor 3 (dominance and guilt, p <
We examined associations between FTT factor .001). Although there was a linear trend with
scores and defense mechanisms. This type of study age in boys (x2 = 4.460, df = 1, p < .035), the
concerns the meaningfulness and nature of the spe- usual Chi-square test did not attain signifi-
cific defense mechanisms. Each type of defense cance. There was no significant gender effect.
mechanism was evaluated by comparing children
who presented a certain mechanism with children Cross-Cultural Comparisons of
who did not, with respect to the factors of the sec- Defenses between Turkey, China,
ond-order factor analysis. We have noted significant India, and Greece
effects of age and gender.
The findings are presented in order, from the The FTT has been standardized in several cul-
most to the least frequently expressed defense tures, providing the opportunity to study in depth
mechanisms: the occurrence and the development of defense
mechanisms across several cultures, including
1. Undoing: Children using undoing showed Turkey, China, India, and Greece. Although it is not
higher scores in factor 3 (dominance and guilt, the forum to discuss each culture in detail, it is
p < .001). There was no significant age or gen- worth noting that religion plays a significant role in
der effect. the formation of a culture and each of these cultures
2. Denial: Denial was not significantly associated observes a different religion.
with any of the factors. No age or gender The defense mechanisms that appear most often
effect was detected. in all four cultures are undoing, denial, negation,
3. Negation: Children expressing negation projection, repression, and splitting (present in over
showed significantly high scores in factor 3 7% of the protocols for each culture). Undoing is the
(dominance and guilt, p < .001). There was no most popular defense and has the highest frequen-
significant age effect in boys. In girls, negation cy in all four cultures (see Tables 5.1, 5.2, and 5.3).
appeared to be rising with age (linear trend, p The following sections discuss the three most com-
= 0.019). The percentage is about 15 percent monly employed defenses in all four cultures.
TABLE 5.1.
PERCENTAGE OF PROTOCOLS THAT REVEALED
DEFENSE MECHANISMS IN EACHCOUNTRY
% Revealing DMs N
Turkey 77.6 500
China 60 500
India 60 1100
Greece 68 873
TABLE 5.2.
PERCENTAGE OF FIVE MOST COMMON
DEFENSE MECHANISMS IN EACH COUNTRY
Turkey China India Greece
Undoing 27.2% Undoing 14% Undoing 19% Undoing 17.3%
Repression 26.8% Splitting 11.6% Denial 10.4% Denial 15.8%
Splitting 23.2% Denial 9.2% Negation 7.8% Negation 14.5%
Negation 22% Negation 8.8% Projection 7.3% Projection 7.2%
Denial 16% Projection 8.2% Splitting 7% React. Form. 7%
TABLE 5.3.
FREQUENCY OF TYPES OF ANXIETY IN EACH COUNTRY
Turkey China India Greece
Deprivation 51.6% Deprivation 52% Deprivation 53.6% Insecurity 47%
Insecurity 49% Insecurity 51.5% Harm 45.4% Harm 44%
Rejection 42.7% Punishment 46% Punishment 41.5% Rejection 34%
Harm 39% Harm 43.7% Insecurity 41.3% Deprivation 29%
Concern 34.6% Self 39% Rejction 34.5% Concern 25%
Inability 32.2% Rejection 38.4% Self 23.8% Punishment 22%
Punishment 31.3% Death 21% Concern 23.2% Self 21%
Self 30%
TURKEY providing a neutral response.

Splitting is encountered frequently in Turkish
Interestingly, nearly 80 percent of Turkish chil- protocols. Splitting of self appears more often than
dren demonstrated at least one defense mechanism splitting of object (mother) and was observed in
in their responses to the FTT. Generally, Turkish responses to the question, What does each charac-
children responded to questions in a relatively ter think/feel? As depicted on one card, the char-
stereotypical manner, which allowed for little fanta- acter appears good, friendly, and helpful, but as
sy or creativity. The primary theme displayed illustrated on the other card, the same character
throughout the Turkish sample was ambivalence seems bad, destructive, and merciless. Splitting may
(mostly, type conflict ambivalence) between good- also appear in the names of witches or giants or in
ness and badness and between happiness and sad- responses to other questions. Splitting of object (and
ness. The ways personality development and per- in particularly the mother) is often observed as an
sonality dynamics are intertwined with culture in interaction among the witch figures. Finally splitting
Turkey are thoroughly discussed in Chapter 13, by between id and superego is relatively frequent.
Dr. Tevfika Ikiz. In summary, observations regarding the appear-
Undoing is the most common type of defense ance of splitting in Turkish protocols led to the fol-
mechanism observed in responses to the FTT, lowing:
although the underlying causes for using this specif-
ic defense may differ from one country to another.
1. Splitting and undoing often occur in response
In Turkey, undoing is primarily used against aggres-
to a single character.
sion, anxiety, and depression. For example:
2. Aggression, as it appears in the giant cards, is
Giant 1: He feels miserable (?) because he want- frequently motivated by lack of love or feel-
ed something that did not finally hap- ings of loneliness or rejection.
pen. 3. Regarding splitting of self, the nice character
Giant 2: He feels happy (?) someone made him helps those who are good to him, and the bad
laugh and he liked that. one harms those who hurt or reject him.
4. Occurrences of splitting of self often have to
Repression is the second most common defense do with the dissociation between external and
mechanism among Turkish protocols. It appeared internal aspects of self.
mostly in the form of I dont know or other vague 5. In most instances of splitting of self, indecision
and general responses, and it was employed as a and conflict exist in regard to whether one is
defense against aggression, depression, or anxiety, good or bad.
and sexual concerns. It negatively associated with 6. With regard to splitting of object, particularly
Factor 3 (materialistic and social attainments as cop- splitting of the mother, the bad figure mal-
ing strategies to insecurity, p < 0.01) in the second- treats the heroine while the nice one loves and
order factor analysis. Turkish children appear to use takes good care of her.
repression against insecurity when the specific
strategies (e.g., gaining wealth or finding a spouse) Example 1
are not effectively fantasized. For example:
This wolf is sad (?) I cant think of anything on Q: Who is the most wicked giant?
this issue (here repression is used against depres- Card 1: He has a good looking face but under-
sion). In response to the LRRH depicted on Card 2, neath it there is a devil hiding.
the child stated, She looks happy (?) maybe she
saw someone she loves or a strange-looking ani-
mal. Here, the child represses the sexual feeling by
Example 2 impulses), and as misperceptions of the threatening

features of a figure (usually the giant).
Card 1: He is thinking about nice things. He Example 1
does not have bad aspects (?) everybody
is jealous of him in his neighborhood This witch wants to beat SW because she
because he has done good to everyone. hates her because SW is younger. She feels
Card 2: His neighbors love him very much; for angry because she cant beat her because she
example, they call him every time there is old.
is a thief around.
Card 3: He always wants to do bad things. He Example 2
wants to destroy the trees (?) because he
is a bad person and nobody loves him. In response to the giant depicted on Card 3, He
wants to shave his beard with his club.
Example 3
Q: What does each witch think/feel? CHINA

Card 1: She wants to do something bad; she
wonders what to do and to whom (?) Undoing is the most frequently utilized mecha-
because someone did something nice nism among Chinese protocols. It is primarily
she didnt like that, she would have pre- employed against negative self-image, superego vio-
ferred that the person did something lations, feelings of rejection or loneliness, feelings of
bad and that is why she is angry at insecurity or fear, aggression, and sad or unfortu-
him/her. nate events. If we look at the nature of the anxieties
Card 2: She also wants to do bad things like the expressed by Chinese children, we can observe that
other two because she is a witch. insecurity anxiety and anxiety self-image rank
Someone is standing opposite her and is among the top five types of anxiety (from a total of
telling the other witches, Go and hurt 13). The following are examples of this mechanism
him! She thinks that she is bad and is in responses to the cards depicting the dwarf and
very angry (?) maybe the person oppo- LRRH:
site her told her something like, do
something good, stop being mean. Example 1
Negation in Turkey, as in other countries, is gen- Dwarf

erally applied against fear and insecurity or against
Card 1: He thinks that he cant help SW, and he
aggression. For example, negation against aggres-
wants to run away(?) he is afraid to be
sive impulses is often observed in response to the
transformed by the witch; he is trem-
questions, Which LRRH would you eat, had you
bling.
been the wolf? Why? Here, children answer by
Card 2: He is thinking, I can help SW. He wants
saying, No one because I am not a bad wolf.
to kill the witch.
Negation is also used against fear in response to the
questions, Who scares you most? Why? Rather
Example 2
than selecting a specific figure, children will declare,
No one scares me. LRRH
Denial appears in Turkish protocols in two com-
mon ways: as anxiety inability (against aggressive Card 1: She is thinking whether she can pick up
some flowers. the mother figure is commonly described as the

Card 2: She is thinking that she cannot pick up stepmother who maltreats LRRH; in the second
flowers; she should protect nature. card, the (step) mother abandons LRRH, or LRRH
thinks about her dead mother; while in the third
Splitting is the second-most-common mechanism card, LRRH finds her real mother or is adopted by
in Chinese protocols. Splitting correlates signifi- a kind person.
cantly with Factor 2 (helpfulness as reaction to
aggression) in second-order factor analysis, and it Example
occurs as a defense against aggression, whereby the
Card 1: She is the stepmother of the girl. She
character is divided into a kind, friendly, or helpful
wants to drive the girl out of the home.
person and into an aggressive, destructive, or ruth-
She wants to bear her own son to inher-
less person.
it the familys possessions. The girl feels
By comparing this mechanism in childrens pro-
being wrong, but she could do nothing.
tocols from other cultures, we noted the following:
Card 2: The stepmother drove the girl out of the
house. She has no place to live. She is
1. Splitting of mother is more frequent than split-
sad and wants to find her real parents
ting of self (55% vs. 36% respectively).
who had been driven away by the step-
2. Responses that reflect splitting arouse fantasy
mother.
material.
Card 3: She finds her real mother. She is very
3. Several examples of splitting of self were
happy.
observed in the names children gave to witch-
es or giants.
Chinese children appear to have ambivalent
relationships with their mothers, whom they often
Example 1
describe as either rejecting and harsh, or supportive
Witches and helpful.
Negation is the third most frequent mechanism
Card 1: Hate Queen among Chinese children. As in most cultures, nega-
Card 2: Nice Queen tion is commonly utilized against aggression or fear
of aggression.
Example 2
Example
Giants
Q: Which of the three witches scare you most?
Card 1: Bodyguard Why?
Card 3: Atrocity Card 3, because she wants to beat somebody.
She is very old and says, I do not want to beat the
Example 3 girl, I want to respect the old and love the chil-
Giants dren.
Card 1: Terrorist Denial is the fourth most frequent mechanism in

Card 3: Anti-terrorist Chinese protocols. It often appears in mispercep-
tions of the threatening features in the cards depict-
An interesting pattern occurred in the respon- ing the witch or the giant. Like negation, denial can
dents descriptions of scenes from the tale of LRRH be applied against feelings of fear or aggression. For
in regard to the splitting of mother. In the first card, example, an 8-year-old boy provided the following
response to card 3 in the witch series: She is look- Card 1: She is angry, wants to rule the world (?)
ing for SW. She wants to wear SWs dress. She looks how to get rid of the nice people who
happy. In response to the giant depicted on Card come in her way.
3, a 10-year-old girl stated: He wants to play tennis Card 2: She is angry with herself (?) she is not
with a friend; he is afraid that he will be defeated. able to do whatever she wants. She plans
The fifth most common mechanism, projection, is something, but it doesnt work (?)
used commonly as a defense against aggression and because her intentions are not good.
less frequently against anxiety and fear. It is posi-
tively correlated with Factor 2 (helpfulness as reac- Denial, the second most frequent mechanism in
tion to aggression) of second-order factor analysis. Indian children, is usually employed against fear,
We often observed projection is in response to the superego violations, or aggression. This mechanism
question, What can a wicked witch or giant do? appears in the form of reversals and the inability to
For example, an 8-year-old girl replied, A wicked perceive the aggressive or threatening aspects of a
giant tells you to steal something or asks you to beat figure (this is especially applicable to the giant
people. In response to the depiction of LRRH on depicted on Card 3), or as the characters inability
Card 2, an 8-year-old boys answer provides anoth- to perform an aggressive act.
er characteristic example of this mechanism: She is
not happy, she wants to harm, poison her grand- Example 1
mother(?) because the witch turned herself into
LRRH
LRRH.
Card 1: She is thinking whether to give the
apple. She is happy to see a big wolf and
INDIA that it is not a wild animal.
Example 2
In India, undoing is the most common defense
mechanism. It is used against a negative self-image, Witch
superego violations, fear, or deprivation. The types
of anxiety most often reflected in childrens Card 3: She looks like a devil and looks like she
responses are those of deprivation, harm, punish- will hit someone(?) now she is old, has
ment, insecurity, and rejection. Undoing is associat- no energy, so why kill people?
ed with Factor 5 (anxiety and depression versus
Example 3
aggressive impulses) in the second-order factor
analysis. Giant
Example 1 Card 3: He is sad because he doesnt have short

pants.
Giant
Negation is the third most commonly applied
Card 1: Thinking Jack took away all my things, I
defense mechanism against fear and anxiety.
have nothing now.
Card 2: He is happy he has magical hen, money. Example 1
Example 2 LRRH
Witch Card 2: She is feeling happy that strangers are

not there (?) she is thinking that they will being bad; it can also manifest as helping the
not come and kill me. good versus helping the bad (person, giant,
etc.).
Projection responses in Indian children-the 6. Splitting of self often centers on the theme of
fourth most common mechanismwhen compared stealing or robbery. The child may identify
to those in children from China and Greece, serve with the victim who robs/steals, while he may
more as a defense against anxiety and distress (e.g., identify with the robbers hunter or police
I am not suffering/worried/afraid; others are, or man.
I am OK; others are not) and to a lesser extent as 7. Sadistic elements and oral aggression some-
a defense against aggression. For example, when times appear in aggressive expressions.
asked, Which of the three witches scares you most?
Why? a 7-year-old boy replied, None, only a Example 1
small child will be scared of her. In response to the
dwarf illustrated on Card 2, a 10-year-old boy stat- Witch (splitting of mother)
ed, He is feeling OK, he has nothing to feel sad or Card 1: Stepmother secretly sends SW to the for-
happy; he wants to find something to help in the est. But the news spread around, and
well-being of other dwarfs (?) some magical power everybody knows the fact.
to increase their height (?) because others laugh at Card 2: Stepmothers sister is scolding her sister
them. that she should not punish innocent SW.
Splitting is fifth most frequent mechanism, and it She is advising her not to repeat this.
correlates with Factor 2 (object relations as regula-
tors of primary needs) of second-order factor analy- Example 2
sis. Chapter 12 discusses in detail family functioning
and parent-child relations in India, where, as in Giant (splitting of self)
most cultures, splitting relates to either the self or
the object (mother or father). Here, we present Card 1: He is thinking to strangle peoples neck,
some features of this mechanism that appear to and people will die, and he will eat
characterize the Indian culture: them.
Card 2: He is thinking, I am so big, and they will
1. Splitting of the mother can manifest in the die, and then he will throw them into the
interactions of the three figures in the cards water (?) he is killing people because he
depicting the witch; for example, the good wanted to be the king of the earth.
witch not only saves the heroine LRRH but Card 3: He is good and thinking, I will kill the
also destroys the evil figure. two bad giants with my club because if I
2. The good witch is usually a relative, such as an dont they will be the king of the earth
aunt. The split may be evident between the (?) he will be able to kill them, and he
mother and the stepmother. will be so big that he will help people to
3. In her efforts to save the heroine, the nice carry heavy things and crush robbers to
witch may seek help from supernatural forces death; if elephants are sick he will carry
or animals. them to their mother.
4. In regard to the splitting of self and object, the
nice character is often assigned the role of Example 3
conscience or superego, to prevent aggressive Giant (splitting of self)
actions or transgressions.
5. Splitting is not limited to being good versus Card 1: He is anxious, he is seeing a girl going,
but there is a tiger there, so he is stop- Example 1

ping her. He is thinking that if he is not
able to stop her, the tiger will eat her. Giant
Card 2: He is happy because he has saved the Card 2: He does not wish to kill anyone, he loves
girl from the tiger. He is thinking that it people (?) he wants to earn their confi-
is good to have saved the girl because dence.
lots of people are dying in his country
because of illness. So at least, he could Example 2
save a life.
Card 3: He is a bad giant. He is unhappy LRRH
because the other two giants have saved
Card 1: She is happy because her grandmother
the girl. He is thinking that if all the peo-
is very well and she is not scared because
ple in his country die he will be able to
there are hunters outside her house.
rule the country.
Denial, the third most frequently encountered
mechanism, is employed against fear, aggression,
GREECE
and superego violations. It is often expressed in the
form of minimization, or as the aggressors inability
In Greece, undoing is employed against a variety or incapacity to carry out his plans.
of causes and is most commonly used against super-
ego violations, depression and anxiety, negative Example 1
self-image, or aggression.
Witch
Example 1
Card 2: She is not sure if she wants to kill SW;
Dwarf she thinks it will be better if she hits her
rather than kill her (?) if she resorts to
Card 2: He feels sad because the witch killed violence she may be imprisoned for
SW. ever.
Card 3: He feels happy because SW revived from
the witchs spells. Example 2
Example 2 Witch
Witch Card 3: She is very annoyed because SW is pret-

tier and younger than her and because
Card 2: She wants to hit SW. (?) She wants SW to she cannot perform any magic spells as
be ugly. she does not have her magic wand.
Card 3: She must not hit SW because she is old
and she will die soon. Greek protocols used the next most common
mechanism, projection, is almost always against
The Greek protocols used negation, the second aggression and in response to the question, What
most common defense mechanism, almost exclu- can a wicked witch do? For example, A wicked
sively to defend against aggressive impulses. To a witch can transform a good prince into an evil magi-
lesser extent, they used it against feelings of fear and cian.
anxiety. Reaction formation, employed only to defend
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PART IV
CLINICAL APPLICATION OF
THE FAIRY TALE TEST
Chapter 6
THE FAIRY TALE TEST IN THE PERSONALITY ASSESSMENT

OF CHILDREN WITH LEARNING DISORDERS
MARILENA SOUYOULDZOGLOU
INTRODUCTION general intelligence; (3) the damage should be

developmental and present during the school years
his study, which attempts to assess the person- and not later; (4) external factors that could ade-
T ality of children with learning disorders (LDs),
has been the subject of a doctoral dissertation at the
quately explain the difficulties in school achieve-
ment should be excluded; and (5) the disorders
Panteion University of Athens (2001). should not be directly explicable in terms of
impaired vision or hearing (World Health
Diagnostic Concept and Organization, 1992, p. 304).
Psychological Assessment More specifically, LDs include reading disor-
dersfor which the term dyslexia is also usedas well
According to the fourth edition of the Diagnostic as written expression disorders and mathematical
and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, the diagno- disorders (American Psychiatric Association, 1994).
sis of LDs applies to cases in which an individuals In the Greek school system, LDs are defined as
achievement on standardized tests of reading, math- reading, writing or mathematical disorders in chil-
ematics, or writing expression is significantly lower dren with no mental retardation and they stem from
than what is expected for the particular age, school, perceptive inaccuracies which influence stimulus
and mental level. The difference between the encoding. These are usually revealed by difficulties
achievement and the intelligence quotient (IQ) is in reading, spelling, comprehension, verbal reason-
considered significant when it corresponds to more ing, written expression or mathematical reasoning.
than two standard deviations below the mean. LDs Dyslexia is considered the main LD as it contains
also influence academic achievement and daily elements of all different types of LDs. Initially,
activities that demand reading, writing, and mathe- dyslexia appears as a difficulty in possessing and
matical skills (American Psychiatric Association, elaborating the written language, but it is actually
1994, p. 47). associated with all the functions of language that
The ICD-10: Classification of Mental and Behavioral also extend to mathematical reasoning (Pedagogic
Disorders considers five criteria for the diagnosis of Institute, 1996).
specialized developmental disorders of academic A diagnosis of dyslexia requires that the child has
skills, namely that (1) these disorders should be dif- an average level of intelligence (IQ at least 90) and
ferent from the normal variations of school achieve- that there is a significant discrepancy between the
ment; (2) the damage should be particular and childs intelligence skills and achievement in read-
should not be explicable only by the presence of ing and spelling. Achievement in these two areas
mental retardation or from insignificant deficits in must be at least one chronological year lower than
119
that of children of the same age and school class for behavioral problems and LDs is usually 40 to 50%
the first two grades of elementary school, a year and depending on the kind of problems considered
a half lower for the third and fourth grades, and two (Prior, 1996, p. 117).
years lower for the following grades. Children with LDs share the same basic needs
A child with difficulties in learning is usually and impulses as other children, such as the need for
referred to a childrens mental health center upon approval, self-sufficiency, ability, and superiority,
the teachers suggestion. The evaluation is mainly but their impairments may impede the fulfillment of
psychometric and educational and includes: (a) these needs (Thompson, 1989). If the needs go
basic scales of intelligence (Weschler, 1992; Georgas unfulfilled, their adjustment is threatened, and emo-
et al., 1998; Raven, 1938) to exclude mental retar- tional and behavioral problems may appear.
dation and evaluate the various cognitive skills, and Children with mild disabilities are considered to be
(b) the evaluation of reading, spelling, writing, and high-risk not only for academic failure and school
mathematics using special tests according to the dropouts, but also for the development of emotion-
childs school level. al disorders, adjustment and behavioral problems,
The evaluation investigates mainly the childs and difficulties in adult life ( Jones, 1996).
cognitive skills and weaknesses. It identifies difficul- The present study advocates that, in order to
ties in visual and auditory perception, memory, plan appropriate therapeutic intervention, psycho-
concentration, and problem solving; and impair- logical assessment is required to evaluate a childs
ments in reading and reading comprehension and negative affects associated with LDs. The use of the
written expression; and suggests remedial tech- projective Fairy Tale Test (FTT) allows the study of
niques. the personality as a whole. More specifically, it eval-
Children with LDs usually indicate emotional uates twenty-six personality variables that encom-
problems resulting from a frustrating experience in pass needs and desires, fears and anxieties, motiva-
schoolacademic failure or rejection by peers and tional aggression, depression, and self-esteem. It
adults. The evaluation of affective characteristics is also evaluates ego functions such as thought
particularly important in a child with LDs. These process, defense mechanisms, and reality testing.
factors inhibit ones ability to learn and succeed,
since they determine the degree to which the indi- Personality Characteristics
vidual will try to learn a specialized learning sub- of Learning Disorders
ject (Bloom, 1976, p. 104). For a child to succeed in
learning, she must believe that she has the abilities Children with LDs are usually described as more
to execute the expected work and that her success is anxious and unwilling to pursue new endeavors.
due to her own efforts and abilities (Dweck, 1975; They tend to give up easily, and they readily expe-
Brookover et al., 1965). According to several stud- rience frustration. They believe that successes and
ies, the correlation between intelligence tests and failures result from external factors, such as luck
school achievement accounts for only twenty to 50 (external locus of control), and thus they rely more
percent of the variance associated with predicting on external help than on their own abilities (Meyen,
achievement from intelligence quotients alone. The 1990).
impact of noncognitive factors in academic success The lack of motivation and persistence negative-
accounts for fifty to 70 percent of the variance ly influences these childrens academic and social
(Zigler, 1968, as cited in Jones, 1996, p. 239). abilities. This long-lasting experience of failure may
Children with LDs have a higher risk of devel- result in the development of learned helplessness
oping emotional, social, or behavioral problems (Licht, 1983) and the belief that failure is unavoid-
than children without LDs (Prior, 1996). More able. Thus, these children may feel incompetent,
specifically, Prior suggests that the overlap between even if they are able to succeed (Thomas, 1979).
The Fairy Tale Test of Children with Learning Disorders 121
Children with LDs are also described as impul- Research results have shown that the following
sive, aggressive, and difficult to approach. Many of emotional and social characteristics are related to
them have the tendency to alienate others. They LDs.
provoke hostile and competitive comments, and 1. P ROBLEMS CONCERNING SELF-IMAGE AND
they are less capable of accepting tenderness SELF-ESTEEM: The problems associated with self-
(Meyen, 1990). esteem have been clinically observed and empiri-
The failure in school and the frustrations of cally examined (Griffiths, 1970). Searcy (1988) has
dyslectic children are known to create emotional emphasized that activities that aim to improve chil-
difficulties, which in turn affect performance in drens self-esteem should be included in the educa-
school (Polychronopoulou, 1995). tional programs for children with LDs.
The psychological repercussions of LDs have Self-esteem develops mainly through interaction
been systematically examined. As mentioned with significant others (Wylie, 1974), and parental
above, children with LDs have a higher risk of hav- approval is considered fundamental for the devel-
ing affective or behavioral problems than normal opment of positive self-esteem (Coopersmith, 1967).
children do. Prior (1996) suggests that the behav- As the child enters school, this new environment
ioral problems most frequently related to LDs plays a significant role in the development of aca-
involve acting out and under controlled or demic self-esteem. During this period, the develop-
externalizing behaviors that bring the child into ment of self-esteem is based either on experiences
conflict with his external environment. These of success and personal pride or on experiences
behaviors include provocative, aggressive, disturb- related to feelings of ambivalence and unworthiness
ing, impulsive, and antisocial acts such as fighting, (Erickson, 1959).
bullying, disobedience, and uncooperative behav- Children with LDs express feelings that are more
ior. Usually, this results in a diagnosis of conduct negative about themselves compared to children
disorder, oppositional defiant disorder, or antisocial without LDs (Prout, Marcal, & Marcal, 1992; Sood,
disorder. Prior (1996) writes that the prevalence of 1994). They also display lower academic self-image
these kinds of behavior problems is estimated at than children without LDs (Bryan, 1986; Chapman
about 9 percent of boys and 2 percent of girls. & Boersma, 1980). The tendency to express nega-
Behavioral problems that concern internaliz- tive feelings about themselves affects not only aca-
ing or overcontrolled behaviors or emotional demic skills but also global self-esteem (Black, 1974;
problems are less frequently studied in LDs. These Butkowsky & Willow, 1980; Chapman & Boersma,
behaviors include social withdrawal, anxiety, fear- 1979; Rogers & Saklofske, 1985).
fulness, sadness, and depression, which are rarely Moreover, lower self-esteem may result from
recognized because the problem lies within the indi- children acknowledging their differences and/or
vidual; not in his relationship with the environment. from their eventual participation in special pro-
Girls with LDs are more likely to present difficulties grams.
of this kind, because they behave quietly in the Leondari (1994) compares self-images of Greek
classroom and therefore their learning disorders schoolchildren with LDs to those of their peers
attract less attention (Prior, 1996). without LDs. She concludes that children with LDs
The failure experienced by children with LDs who participate in special classes regard themselves
has a significant psychological impact. They receive more negatively, in regard to both academic and
criticism and comments from their parents and general self-esteem, than their peers without LDs
teachers, and their peers often reject them. As they and than low-achieving peers who follow a normal
are often left behind, they develop a characteristic school program.
self-image that is different, insufficient, and hope- 2. EXTERNAL LOCUS OF CONTROL: At 4 to 5
less. years of age, children without LDs have an external
locus of control for both successes and failures; at 6 ated with the feeling that they would not be able to
to 7 years of age, this locus becomes internal for control things that could happen to them. Students
successes; and at 10 to 11 years of age, it becomes with LDs experience a more negative self-image
internal for both successes and failures (Lawrence & and higher levels of anxiety because of the way they
Winschel, 1975, as cited in Jones, 1996, p. 240). perceive their inadequacies and their low status in
Children with LDs do not follow this trajectory; school ( Jones, 1985).
instead, the orientation of the locus of control 6. DEPRESSION: Significant levels of depression
remains more external than their peers without LDs have been found in 10 to 20 percent of children
(Rogers, 1983, as cited in Jones, 1996, p. 240). The with LDs (Stevenson & Romney, 1984). Indeed,
introversion developed by children with LDs con- many studies indicate that a loss of self-esteem and
cerns failure, commonly considered as the result of high levels of performance anxiety, and even clini-
their behavior and does not involve successes that cal depression, are further complications of LDs
are attributed to chance or to others actions (Levine, 1987).
(Chapman & Boersma, 1979). 7. SOCIAL DEFICITS: Deficits in academic self-
3. MOTIVATION FOR WORK: Children with LDs concept usually co-exist with poor peer acceptance,
demonstrate lower motivation for work and school rejection, deficits in positive social behavior and
than their peers without LDs (Gregory, Shanahan, excessive negative social interaction patterns
& Walberg, 1985). This lack of motivation may (Gresham, 1988). Teachers, parents and peers rate
result in long-lasting academic failure. When stu- students with LDs as deficient in task-related inter-
dents doubt their mental abilities, they consider personal and self-related social skills domains
efforts for success to be in vain (Lerner, 1993). (Gresham and Reschly, 1986).
4. LOWER EXPECTATIONS: Children with learning 8. P EER RELATIONS: Peer relations seem to be
difficulties have lower self-confidence concerning difficult for children with LDs, as children with
positive learning results (Bryan, 1986), since they learning disorders are rejected or ignored by their
have negative perceptions about their abilities and peers (Mercer, 1987, p. 449). When children with
relatively low expectations regarding future LDs try to take initiative for social interaction, they
achievements (Chapman, 1988). Poor self-image, may have to face rejection by or the ignorance of
the external locus control, and low expectations others ( Jones, 1996). Many believe that children
concerning their achievements appear to negatively with LDs react negatively to others because they are
influence their level of persistence and their efforts incapable of comprehending social understanding
to learn, leading them to failure. In other words, (Weiss, 1984).
there is a retroactive relationship between experi- 9. PARENTS AND TEACHERS: Parents and teach-
ences of academic failure and negative feelings ers view children with LDs more negatively than
(Rogers & Saklofske, 1985). they view children without LDs (Lerner, 1993).
5. ANXIETY: Anxiety is higher in children with Parents, teachers, and peers tend to reject children
LDs than in children without LDs (Stein & Hoover, with LDs because of inappropriate social behavior
1989; Thompson, 1989; Prout et al., 1992; Sood, (Bryan, 1986).
1994). Failure in learning leads to low self-esteem Chapman and Boersma (1980) have found that
and increased anxiety (Lerner, 1993), and high anx- mothers of children with LDs respond more nega-
iety is associated with low self-esteem (McCandless, tively to their childrens achievements than mothers
1967) and with reduced effectiveness of cognitive of children without LDs. In another study, the same
abilities (Tobias, 1979). authors suggest that mothers of children with LDs
According to Margalit and Zak (1984), the high have fewer positive interactions with their children
rating in anxiety demonstrated by children with than do mothers of children without LDs (Boersma
LDs as compared to children without LDs is associ- & Chapman, 1978). Hilliard and Roth (1969) have
also observed that mothers of children who are less study by Wagner (1980) that required children to
successful in school are more rejecting and less draw a person verified that children with LDs cre-
accepting. According to another study, parents of ate drawings that suggest developmental immaturi-
children with LDs are less affectionate and put ty and tendencies toward aggression or withdrawal,
more pressure on their children regarding their anxiety, and idiosyncratic responses (bizarres).
achievement in school (Owen et al., 1971). However, this study does not inform us about the
As the above discussion has shown, the emotion- exact number of the sample size, the results were
al difficulties of children with LDs are secondary and not based on an objective way of scoring, and there
are related to failure at school and childrens frustra- was no comparison with a control group.
tion (Critchley, 1970; Thomson, 1990; Varma, 1997). According to a study conducted with Kinetic
It is clear that emotional and learning disorders Family Drawings (Raskin & Bloom, 1979), anxiety
interact, because development is a dynamic process and feelings of isolation and rejection that develop
and childrens growing organism develops as a as a result of school failure appear early on in a
whole (_nastassiou, 1998, p. 36). Difficulties in childs school career and persist into adolescence.
learning create emotional problems (e.g., low self- However, this study does not provide an objective
esteem, anxiety, depression, aggression, withdrawal) way of scoring; moreover, there is no comparison
and social difficulties (e.g., environmental rejection) with a control group sample (Raskin & Bloom,
that negatively influence the learning process and 1979).
the development of personal capacities. The objective of the present study is to underline
These results are primarily based on studies that the need for a global evaluation of the personalities
used objective tests. The following section discusses of children with LDs, which would serve to identify
the use of projective tests for the assessment of per- the affective variables and the specific characteris-
sonality in children with LDs. tics of their personality. The present study also aims
to encourage the use of the projective Fairy Tale
The Use of Projective Techniques Test as a diagnostic means.
The main projective technique that has been Experimental Hypotheses

used with children with LDs is the Rorschach,
which differentiates children with LDs from normal The primary hypothesis of this study is that chil-
children by evaluating their general personality dren with LDs would have the same basic needs,
characteristics. Results from these studies have desires, and impulses as normal children. However,
revealed the following personality characteristics children with LDs experience frustrations because of
for children with LDs: perceptive inaccuracies, repetitive failures and their inability to meet the
unusual responses, limitations to emotional expres- demands of a rejecting environment. As a result they
sion, and low self-esteem (Blood, 1984; Champion develop a negative self-image, and they experience
et al., 1984; Williams & Miles, 1985; Acklin, 1990; lower motivation for work and learning, accompa-
Harper & Scott, 1990; Kuchta, 1990; Rodriguez- nied by higher levels of anxiety and depression.
Sutil, Calonge & Scout, 1992). Their frustrations lead to high aggression and low
The majority of relevant studies have used small self-esteem, while rejection from their social envi-
samples (N < 41), and the comparison of the group ronment increases their emotional needs
samples has been executed with Exners norms (Souyouldzoglou, Atsarou & Coulacoglou, 1999).
(1974, 1978, 1984, 1985) in the case of a much larg- More specifically it is expected that children with
er sample. LDs will obtain higher scores on the variables of
Although it did not compare the results of chil- Need for Affection, Need for Affiliation, Need for
dren with LDs with those of normal children, a Protection, Anxiety, Depression and Aggression.
However, in regards to Aggression, no research data ly, the sample did not include children whose diffi-
exist on the type(s) of aggression on which children culties in learning are due to mental retardation,
with LDs may score higher. Furthermore, children affective disorders, and environmental deficiencies,
with LDs will have a more negative relationship sensory or physical handicaps. Children with LDs
with their parents and, finally, their self-esteem will who were not acquainted with the content of the
be lower in comparison to the control participants. fairy tales were also excluded.
The control group (CG) consisted of 110 chil-
dren, between 7 to 12 years of age, selected from
METHOD AND DESIGN public schools in the Athens area (M = 10.14 years,
SD = 1.69). The CG was selected from the Fairy
Participants Tale Tests (FTT) original sample (N = 800), in order
to match the LDs group with regard to sex, age, and
The sample of children with LDs consists of 100 social class. According to the teachers evaluations,
children, between 7 and 12 years of age (M = 10.31 which were completed with the Rutter Behavior
years, SD = 1.82). Diagnosis of LDs was provided Evaluation Scale for teachers and parents, children
by the guidance centers. This was the first time that in the CG do not have any learning or behavioral
these children had been referred for evaluation. problems (Coulacoglou, 1993).
Selection of children of the present sample complies The demographic characteristics of the children
with the exclusion criteria of LDs. More specifical- with LDs are presented in tables 6.1, 6.2, and 6.3.
TABLE 6.1.
CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO AGE OF CHILDREN WITH LEARNING
DISORDERS (LDs) AND OF THE CONTROL GROUP (CG)
LDs CG
AGES (in years) frequency % frequency %
78 24 24.00 28 25.46
910 26 26.00 30 27.27
1112 50 50.00 52 47.27
Total 100 100 110 100
TABLE 6.2.
CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO SEX OF CHILDREN WITH LEARNING
LDs CG
AGES (in years) frequency % frequency %
Boys 69 69.00 62 56.40
Girls 31 31.00 48 43.60
Total 100 100 110 100

TABLE 6.3.
CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO SOCIAL CLASS OF CHILDREN WITH LEARNING
LDs CG
SOCIAL CLASS frequency % frequency %
Low 35 35.00 23 20.90
Middle 55 55.00 65 59.10
Upper 10 10.00 22 20.00
Total 100 100 110 100
The average intelligence quotient for children RESULTS

with LDs is 98.6 (90110) according to the intelli-
gence scale for children (WISC-III) (Georgas et al., Personality Variables
1998).
Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was applied to
Procedure compare the control and clinical groups (see Tables
6.5 and 6.6). Principal component analysis was used
The FTT was administered during the regular to group the variables into principal personality
procedure of the psychological assessment within components.
the guidance center by a group of psychologists. From the analysis of the main components of the
The group included the researcher and two psy- FTT variables, four factors were extracted (see
chologists trained in the administration of the test. Table 6.7).
The scoring of the protocols was done separately by
the researcher and the author of the FTT. The inter-
rater reliability coefficients (r), along with the corre- Discussion of Factors
sponding p-values (p) are presented in Table IV.
Defense mechanisms were scored 1 for every time 1. R ELATIONSHIP WITH THE MOTHER: A positive
they appeared in a protocol. The group also com- relationship with the mother, as well as maternal
piled a report consisting of: (1) demographic char- affection and support, help the child develop a bet-
acteristics of each childs family (SES, education ter relationship with the environment and reduce
level, family situation, etc.); and (2) the synthesis of his anxiety and fear. Furthermore, both the support
the family and the members names, which may be and the approval reinforce self-esteem and form a
useful with regards to the evaluation of certain safe basis for development. On the other hand, sep-
responses. Information concerning family relation- aration anxiety obstructs the childs self-confidence
ships, diagnosis, current medical problems, lan- and trust in others, and leads to a lack of self-
guage disorders, and IQ were also noted. The vari- esteem, anxiety, and depression (Bowlby, 1979).
able Relation with Father is not included into the Children, whose parents and caregivers are emo-
data analysis due to its low variability across the tionally available, affectionate, and supportive, will
sample (< 5%). develop a competent and lovable self-working
model. However, children who experience their
TABLE 6.4.
INTERRATER RELIABILITY OF FTT VARIABLES,
PEARSONS COEFFICIENT (r) (N = 30)
FTT VARIABLES r p
Ambivalence 0.988 0.000**
Desire for Material Things 0.990 0.000**
Desire for Superiority 0.984 0.000**
Sense of Property 0.961 0.000**
Aggression as Dominance 0.984 0.000**
Aggression Type A 0.976 0.000**
Aggression as Defense 0.907 0.000**
Aggression as Envy 0.952 0.000**
Aggression as Retaliation 0.982 0.000**
Oral Aggression 0.998 0.000**
Fear of Aggression 0.450 0.013**
Oral Needs 0.964 0.000**
Desire to Help 0.974 0.000**
Need for Affiliation 0.124 0.514**
Need for Affection 0.931 0.000**
Anxiety 0.988 0.000**
Depression 0.976 0.000**
Relationship with Mother 0.925 0.000**
Adaptation to the Fairy Tale Content 0.539 0.002**
Bizarres 0.867 0.000**
Repetitions 1.000 0.000**
Morality 0.950 0.000**
Need for Protection 0.988 0.000**
Self-Esteem 0.934 0.000**
Sexual Preoccupation 0.980 0.000**
p <0.01 * p <0.05
TABLE 6.5.
MEANS (M), STANDARD DEVIATIONS (DS), AND CRITERIA OF STATISTICAL SIGNIFICANCE OF
THE FTT VARIABLES IN THE LEARNING DISABILITIES (LDs) AND CONTROL GROUPS (CG)
LDs CG
FTT VARIABLES M SD M SD F p
Ambivalence 4.93 4.54 5.49 4.43 0.889 0.347
Desire for Material Things 0.76 2.16 0.72 1.28 0.700 0.792
Desire for Superiority 2.12 3.99 0.87 1.52 8.492 0.004**
Sense of Property 0.33 1.18 0.28 0.92 0.176 0.674
Aggression as Dominance 1.59 2.83 0.80 1.70 5.145 0.024*
Aggression Type A 3.43 3.61 2.44 2.38 4.319 0.039*
Aggression as Defense 0.30 1.32 0.10 0.42 2.460 0.118
Aggression as Envy 1.33 2.10 0.95 2.03 2.220 0.138
Aggression as Retaliation 1.17 2.08 1.23 1.86 0.005 0.942
Oral Aggression 0.69 1.46 0.59 1.05 0.188 0.664
Fear of Aggression 3.63 2.39 5.01 2.09 23.071 0.000**
Oral Needs 5.74 3.43 4.40 2.40 10.737 0.001**
Desire to Help 0.77 1.60 0.78 1.42 0.006 0.935
Need for Affiliation 2.08 2.19 1.60 1.54 3.538 0.061
Need for Affection 0.92 1.82 0.47 1.00 4.420 0.037*
Anxiety 5.96 4.00 3.85 2.48 20.851 0.000**
Depression 2.08 2.14 1.48 1.43 3.592 0.059
Relationship with Mother -0.35 0.86 0.20 0.83 18.966 0.000**
Adaptation to the Fairy Tale Content 44.67 8.41 47.39 4.52 5.767 0.017*
Bizarres 0.88 1.37 0.20 0.52 19.458 0.000**
Repetitions 1.36 1.61 0.71 1.02 11.930 0.001**
Morality 1.75 2.08 1.40 1.77 1.514 0.220
Need for Protection 0.80 1.85 0.47 0.94 3.149 0.077
Self-Esteem -0.87 1.17 -0.04 0.78 35.942 0.000**
Sexual Preoccupation 1.13 1.64 0.72 1.18 4.026 0.046*

TABLE 6.6.
MEANS (M), STANDARD DEVIATIONS AND CRITERIA OF STATISTICAL SIGNIFICANCE IN THE
CATEGORIES OF ANXIETY IN THE LEARNING DISABILITIES (LDs) AND CONTROL GROUPS (CG)
LDs CG
ANXIETY CATEGORIES M SD M SD F p
Anxiety Harm/Death 1.09 1.89 0.55 1.22 5.945 0.016*
Anxiety Disapproval/Rejection/
Punishment/Prohibition 0.53 1.21 0.20 0.53 7.344 0.007**
Anxiety Deprivation 0.83 1.23 0.25 0.58 18.937 0.000**

Anxiety Inability 0.28 0.72 0.17 0.48 1.341 0.248
Anxiety Illness 0.12 0.62 010 0.40 0.121 0.728
Anxiety Loneliness 0.13 0.66 0.14 0.44 0.015 0.901
Anxiety Helplessness 0.23 0.77 0.37 0.91 1.219 0.271
Anxiety Self-Image 0.27 0.61 0.29 0.68 0.046 0.830
Anxiety Insecurity/Confusion 0.73 1.18 0.56 0.87 1.321 0.259
Anxiety Concern for Others 0.44 0.93 0.55 1.18 0.599 0.440
Anxiety Hard Work 0.25 0.90 0.09 0.31 3.292 0.71
* p < .05 ** p < .01
TABLE 6.7.
RESULTS OF FIRST-ORDER ANALYSIS
Factors Loading
Relationship with the Mother

Relation with Mother -0.690
Aggression Type A -0.0484
Anxiety -0.591
Fear of Aggression -0.619
Emotional Frustration
Need for Affection -0.798
Need for Affiliation -0.707
Aggression as Retaliation -0.494
Assertiveness
Aggression as Dominance -0.742
Desire for Superiority -0.631
Sense of Property -0.579
Reality Testing
Adaptation to Fairy Tale Content -0.501
Bizarres -0.716
attachment figures as avoidant, emotionally un- the ability of children with LDs to adapt their
available, and unsupportive will develop a self- answers to the fairy tale content. In cases where the
working model unworthy of love and without any adaptation to the fairy tale content is high, the num-
abilities (Bowlby, 1969). ber of bizarres is reduced.
For children with LDs, secure attachment with Responses that are considered to be relevant to
the mother seems to be the most important factor, the fairy tale content are those related to the story,
as it is the first factor extracted in the analysis. In those that are completed, those that reflect specific
normal children the mother-image factor appears to elements of the storys narrative, and those in which
be the second most important in the factor analysis the children do not insert personal fantasies.
sequence (Coulacoglou, 1993). High adaptation to the fairy tale content and
2. E MOTIONAL F RUSTRATION: Frustration, rejec- reduced number of bizarres suggests a tendency
tion, and isolation in children with learning disor- toward controlling reality that secures ego control.
ders seem to increase their emotional needs and the The bizarres of children with LDs reflect person-
needs for maternal affection, approval, and friendly al fantasies that do not always signify psychopathol-
relationships with their environment. Children with ogy.
LDs require social contacts, as they may otherwise In the FTT factor analysis for normal children,
prefer isolation to avoid negative experiences in the variable Adaptation to the Fairy Tale Content or
interpersonal relations (Kuchta, 1990). reality testing hold the first place (Coulacoglou,
Frustration, lack of satisfaction, and displeasure 1993).
provoked by internal or external negative stimuli In sum, according to the factor analysis, the basic
may inspire aggression as retaliation and counterat- personality components for children with LDs
tacks aimed at the environment, which the child include affective frustration, the need for affection
may consider responsible for the frustration. and support, relation with others, and most impor-
According to the FTT study, there is no such fac- tantly, attachment to a caring and supportive moth-
tor among normal children (Coulacoglou, 1993). er. Furthermore, assertiveness in relation to the
3. ASSERTIVENESS: To compensate for feelings of childs self-esteem reinforcement and adaptation to
inferiority and to increase self-esteem, children with reality reflect an efficient ego control. Relationship
LDs desire dominance and superiority. Not only with the mother, approximate to mother image in
they want to overcome others, but they also wish to children (Coulacoglou, 1993), assertiveness and
exceed, dominate, assert, and defend whatever reality testing are also principal components opf
belongs to them, including objects or feelings. The normal childrens personality.
childrens assertiveness regarding the desired On the other hand, emotional frustration, the
objects appears to be some kind of competition or second factor in children with LDs, is associated
dominance that develops in children 2 to 3 years with frustrations brought about by rejection and iso-
old. Some children succeed better in asserting the lation from the subjects environment, and empha-
desired objects in relation to place or time (Bee, sizes the importance of a positive and secure rela-
1995). tionship with mother. Children need this kind of
Assertiveness appears in FTT factors in normal relationship to form a safe base for the development
children but does not include the variable sense of of their self-esteem. Furthermore, they need
property. Assertiveness is also an important charac- approval, support, and protection to avoid intensifi-
teristic in children without learning disorders, as it cation of their anxieties and fears. Finally, children
appears in the same place in the factor analysis need supportive and available parents who will help
sequence (Coulacoglou, 1993). them develop high self-esteem and a solid relation-
4. R EALITY TESTING: This factor demonstrates ship model for other relationships.
Defense Mechanisms (DMs) 1. Frequencies and percentages of DMs in chil-

in Children With LDs drens protocols for both children with LDs
and the CG (see Table 6.8).
Quantitative Analysis
2. Means and standard deviations of DMs for
Quantitative analysis of the Defense Mechanisms children with LDs and the CG (see Table 6.9).
(DMs) included the following measures:
TABLE 6.8.
FREQUENCIES AND PERCENTAGES OF DEFENSE MECHANISMS IN CHILDREN
WITH LEARNING DISORDERS (LDs) AND OF THE CONTROL GROUP (CG)
LDs CG
N = 100 N = 110
DEFENSE MECHANISMS frequency % frequency %
Undoing 31 31.00 15 13.63
Negation 21 21.00 15 13.63
Rationalization 21 21.00 14 12.72
Denial 10 10.00 2 1.81
Repression 10 10.00 2 1.81
Projection 8 8.00 9 8.18
Displacement 7 7.00 3 2.72
Reaction formation 7 7.00 11 10.00
Regression 3 3.00 1 0.90
Intellectualization 2 2.00 2 1.81
TABLE 6.9.
MEANS (M) AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS (SD)
FOR DEFENSE MECHANISMS
LDs CG
N = 100 N = 110
M SD M SD F p
Defense
Mechanisms 1.48 1.73 0.70 1.02 16.009 0.000**
** p < 0.01
Children with LDs and the CG employ the DMs compared to children with no negative feedback
that are commonly used by 7- to 12-year-old chil- (Cramer, 1999).
dren and that are presented in most of the projec- Children with LDs score high in anxiety and low
tive tests. Children in both groups appear to prefer in self-esteem. In such cases, ego mobilizes the DMs
undoing (against aggression, fear of aggression, or in order to cope with stressful situations.
narcissistic vulnerabilities), negation (against aggres-
sion, fear of aggression, or anxiety), denial (against
aggression, fear of aggression, anxiety, or frustra- DISCUSSION
tion), and rationalization (against aggression, anxi-
ety, or negative effects). The application of the FTT confirms differences
Undoing, negation and denial share common between children with LDs and normal children in
characteristics: denial of the reality (denial) or regard to certain characteristics (including self-
denial of a part of the reality (undoing). In undoing, esteem and anxiety) that have already been studied
time is reversed in order to deny an idea or an in previous research. Furthermore, some differ-
action (Brusset, 1994). In negation, an idea is simul- ences are revealed in personality parameters, such
taneously proposed and denied or cancelled. as needs, desires, and certain ego functions, which
Concerning the developmental phases, denial, have not been studied previously. Finally, the pres-
undoing and reaction formation first appear in the ent study reveals four main personality components
anal phase (1.5 to 5 years of age), whereas rational- exhibited by children with LD.
ization appears later in latency period (6 to 11 years According to the results of the FTT, children
of age). In particular, denial is a primitive defense with LDs differ from normal children in relation to
used in earlier stages and based on less complicated thirteen personality characteristics. The studys first
cognitive processes. Later in life, DMs lose effec- hypothesis, concerning important differences in
tiveness once the subject is able to perceive that an some variables between the two populations, is con-
unacceptable emotion or idea has been covered firmed: children with LDs exhibit low self-esteem,
from as a defense. The development of more com- higher levels of anxiety, extended need for affec-
plex cognitive abilities allows the use of more com- tion, and poor relationships with their mothers.
plex defenses (Cramer, 1990). Rationalization cor- The hypothesis pertaining to aggression is also
responds to the adoption of rational principles in confirmed: children with LDs score significantly
order to help one cope with conflicts or external higher than normal children in two aggression
stressors. The illusion of understanding provides the types: aggression as dominance and aggression type
child a sense of dominance or dissociation from the A.
external threat. As a result, anxiety decreases and On the other hand, the hypotheses regarding an
self-esteem increases (Ihilevich & Gleser, 1986). extended need for protection, need for affiliation,
The above table illustrates that children with LDs and depression are not confirmed.
use significantly more (p < 0.01) DMs in their FTT In addition, the results indicate differences in
protocols (children with LDs, M = 1.48, SD = 1.73; relation to several variables that had not been
CG, M = 0.70, SD = 1.02). included in our hypotheses: children with LDs
In addition, the use of DMs not only increases demonstrate a significantly higher rating in oral
because of stress and anxiety, but also because of needs, desire for superiority, repetitions, bizarres,
anger at being criticized and the threat to self- and sexual preoccupation. Additionally, significant-
esteem (Cramer, 1999). Furthermore, children ly lower ratings appear in fear of aggression and in
experiencing feelings of failure are more likely to adaptation to the fairy tale content.
use DMsin particular the less mature, but age- In accordance with previous findings (Prior,
appropriate, defenses of denial and projectionas 1996; Jones, 1996), the present study suggests that
children with LDs have a greater tendency to devel- Furthermore, availability, encouragement of com-
op emotional or behavioral problems. munication, and parental support offer the child the
The study of personality using the projective right conditions in which he can feel secure.
FTT reveals that the particular affective difficulties Therefore, the childs fear and anxiety are reduced.
that children with LDs experience can be attributed According to Bowlby (1969) a person who devel-
to frustrations from their extended environment ops a secure attachment is less vulnerable, as long as
and to the childrens relationships with their moth- the trust in the attachment figure is maintained. The
ers that may be unable to offer them with the nec- sense of trust continues to grow during childhood
essary emotional security. and adolescence and remains stable during adult
The analysis stresses the intense affective needs life. In particular, children and adolescents who
of children with LDs, as displayed in high ratings in have experienced insecure attachments to their sig-
need for affection and oral needs (express affective nificant others tend to feel fear. This may imply that
frustrations). Furthermore, the high rating in the their attachment figures had been unavailable or
variable of sexual preoccupation with the other sex indifferent during critical times. The main factors
also indicates the need for concern, affection, and leading to insecure relationships and fearfulness are
closeness. the threat of abandonment and the danger of
The factor emotional frustration concerns ones parental loss.
intense need for affection, love, and approval from Regardless of whether the secure relationship
the parental, friendly, and expanded environments. existed in early childhood, it can be changed with
Failure to satisfy these needs arouses feelings of the childs entry into the school environment.
revenge toward the frustrating environment. School brings significant change that causes the
Additionally, the affective needs are connected to child and his parents to confront the learning diffi-
frustrations that the child experiences as a result of culties and frustrations derived from the childs aca-
a negative relationship with the mother. Provided demic failures. Generally, parents emphasize school
that the child experiences the mother as rejecting, success. However, children with LDs and their fam-
prohibitive, punishing, and failing to provide him ilies frequently have to face academic failure during
with love, affection, security, and support, the child the first or second years of school, and they have to
suffers frustration and searches for satisfaction. cope with feelings of frustration despite their expec-
Emotional frustration is one of the basic personality tations (Maccoby, 1984).
components of children with LDs, which is not true In Greek culture, the mother is usually the per-
for children without learning disorders son involved with the childs homework and school
(Coulacoglou, 1993). performance, as she is traditionally responsible for
The relationship with mother factor emphasizes child rearing (Presvelou & Teperoglou, 1976).
the importance of a positive mother-child relation- Education remains a basic family value in Greek
ship, which is considered to be fundamental for the culture (Georgas, 1988).
childs later development. Moreover, the mother is The frustration that mothers experience derives
the central figure with whom the infant develops a from their childrens failure and from their inability
relationship. Consequently, any failure in this rela- to help, and this frustration negatively impacts the
tionship will have a negative effect on the childs parent-child relationship (Chapman & Boersma,
development (Bowlby, 1969, 1973, 1980). A secure 1980; Love, 1970). The great emphasis placed on
relationship provides the support, approval, trust, school failure, which leads to the parents frustration
and availability the child needs. If parents success- of their ambitions, is capable of reducing parental
fully provide their child a secure attachment, the capacity to meet their childrens personal needs,
child will develop high self-esteem and the ability to interests, and real abilities.
trust, collaborate with, and help others. Although the child constantly requires a secure
attachment and a safe, supportive, and approving marks a persons or objects impairment, which
base, she faces parental frustration. In fact, children stems from internal motives and cannot be justified
with LDs negatively experience relationships with from external causes; and (2) aggression as domi-
their mothers, as the mothers appear to be rejecting nance strives for self-confirmation through antago-
and punishing, and this, in turn, causes the chil- nistic and hostile behavior toward others. To com-
drens anxiety levels to increase. As the qualitative pensate for feelings of inferiority, children with LDs
analysis of the results shows, anxiety is primarily need to acquire strength, even if they must do so in
connected to corporal damage, as well as disap- an aggressive way, or to show off their abilities
proval, rejection, punishment, prohibition, and dep- through an aggressive behavior.
rivation. However, anxiety as inability, which According to our first hypothesis, no differences
would be expected because of the experiences of were expected between the two samples concerning
failure, is much less prevalent. the variable fear of aggression. However, as main-
The rejecting attitudes of both the mother and tained by the results of the study, children with LDs
the environment reduce self-esteem, which is based demonstrate significantly less fear of aggression
not only on success, but also on the value that the compared to the CG. The results show that children
child places on himself. The lack of security and with LDs (97%) more often express milder fears
protection has a negative effect on self-esteem. The when faced with danger and they provide more
FTT assesses general self-esteem and personal often common answers to the cards that stimulate
value, but not academic self-esteem. The childs fear of aggression than do children without LDs
personal value is affected by parental values and (60.9%).
others criticisms (Bee, 1995). Children with LDs use the defense of denial in
To compensate for her low self-esteem, the child some cases of external threat (9% of cases), whereas
with LDs has the tendency to develop the desire for children without LDs do not invoke it.
superiority. In the FTTs stories, the child identifies The study shows that children with LDs are more
with regal and sovereign characters in order to sur- likely to minimize or deny the fear of the aggression
pass others and overcome feelings of inferiority. of others. Fear may be experienced as uncertainty
The factor assertiveness suggests the tendency to and insecurity about ones integrity, as a sense of
strengthen self-esteem through dominance, superi- imminent corporal or psychological damage, or as a
ority, and the assertiveness of roles, objects, or feel- life threat. In a situation in which a person is uncer-
ings, even if one has to act aggressively to do so. tain about her ability to face the imminent threat,
Assertiveness is an important personality factor for she experiences fear (Izard, 1991). The acknowledg-
children without LDs; however, in this case ment of fear may strengthen the feeling of inade-
assertiveness does not include the variable of sense quacy or deteriorate self-esteem. Consequently, to
of property. Children without LDs may appear defend themselves, children with LDs either deny
demanding in order to validate and strengthen their and minimize fears or turn the sense of inadequacy
self-esteem, whereas children with LDs demonstrate into one of strength. For example, when asked,
a need to defend whatever they own because of Who scares you most? the child replies, I am
competition or fear of loss. Children with LDs seem brave, I am not scared of anyone.
to desire an assertive-aggressive state, rather than a The extended desire for superiority and strength
passive state, which would indicate acceptance of may reduce the fear of others aggression. Results
their inabilities and lead them to seek the protection from a study on aggression with normal children
of others. Despite our first hypothesis, the variable indicate that children with high scores on variables
need for protection is not higher. such as Aggression Dominance exhibit less Fear of
Frustrations mobilize higher aggression, which is Aggression in conjunction with a higher Desire for
exhibited as two types: (1) Aggression Type A Superiority. It may be argued that these children
may have suffered a blow on their self-esteem Most of the children with LDs use defense mech-
(Coulacoglou et al., 2002). On the other hand, anisms (67% compared to 40% of the CG) to avoid
aggressive behavior may also represent a defense anxiety stimulated by fantasies awakened by the
against fears (Schulman, 1984). stimuli-test images. Moreover, on average, these
The variable reality testing is constituted not children use significantly more defense mechanisms
only by answers affiliated with the fairy tale content, in each protocol (M = 1.48 compared to M = .70 of
but also by the reduced number of bizarres. the CG). These findings are consistent with this
Childrens abilities to provide adapted responses studys hypothesis, in which children with LDs were
that are not influenced by emotional factors and expected to use more DMs because of their height-
conflicts are determined by the sufficiency of ego ened anxiety.
functioning, logic, structural thinking, and the abili- The defense mechanisms used by both children
ty to distinguish between internal and external stim- with LDs and normal children are undoing, nega-
uli. tion, denial, and rationalization. These DMs
Children with LDs are significantly less able to exclude from consciousness ideas, feelings, memo-
adapt to the reality of the fairy tale content than ries, or fears that may threaten the person.
their peers without LDs, and they exhibit consider- Specifically, denial involves the denial of reality,
ably more repetitions and bizarres. More specifical- whereas undoing is used to deny or correct unac-
ly, qualitative analysis of the data shows that the ceptable actions or feelings. On the other hand,
responses of children with LDs are often incom- negation suggests that the person refuses to
plete and often need probing from the administra- acknowledge thoughts and feelings that have
tor; the responses are also relatively general in rela- already been expressed.
tion to the content of the fairy tale; and finally, According to Engel (1962), the mechanism of
although the content of the response may be irrele- undoing first appears in the fifth year of life and
vant to the fairy tale, the response provided by the lasts until preadolescence. Undoing seems to be the
child is coherent and rational in itself. The content mechanism favored in the FTT; the three similar
of the story may be changed by the projection of images in each set of cards easily stimulates oppo-
intense feelings or internal conflicts, and such pro- site responses.
jection is more often displayed by children with Denial is a cognitively simple mechanism that
LDs. However, despite the alteration of the story, appears in infancy (Cramer, 1990). As time passes,
there is a logical coherence in the childrens displays of denial change, and they are followed by
answers. In that sense, those responses do not other defense mechanisms, such as projection. The
reflect a disturbance in the thought process or a results of this study demonstrate a decline in the use
detachment from reality of children with LDs. of denial. However, the sample is small and rele-
The difficulty experienced by children with LDs vant research was not expanded. Therefore, it is
to adapt to the fairy tale content may be due to a important to investigate this matter with a larger
series of reasons such as: difficulties in focusing or sample.
maintaining their attention, a reduced capacity to Rationalization appears later in life (during the
memorize oral material, difficulties in oral expres- latency period) and presupposes the development
sion. In addition, childrens familiarity with fairy of cognitive abilities (Lichtenberg & Slap, 1972).
tales may be restricted as fairy tales are currently a
relatively marginal variety of story telling. Finally,
fear of failure often experienced by children with CONCLUSIONS
LDs (Williams, 1985), significantly limits the childs
responses to projective tests that often appear to be The remedial programs created for children with
simple (Blood, 1984) and stereotypically repeated. LDs primarily aim to improve cognitive abilities
and to strengthen basic academic skills, such as classroom.

reading, writing, and mathematics. The psychological evaluation performed in guid-
Children with LDs are placed in integrated class- ance centers for children should include personality
es in mainstream schools. However, even the best testing besides the standard intelligence, ability, and
educational methods may fail if the childrens emo- achievement tests. Therefore, each childs special
tional needs are not also considered. If the child difficulties are recorded, and it is easier to decide
experiences low self-esteem, feelings of failure, or whether a psychotherapeutic intervention program
anxiety, her focus on and motivation for learning is necessary. Specifically, projective testing
will be reduced. explained with the psychodynamic theory is a valu-
Demanding and frustrating family and school able tool for global and in-depth personality evalu-
environments reinforce feelings of inadequacy, ation. The Fairy Tale Test is one of the projective
which very often lead to behavioral problems (e.g., tests indicated for children with learning disorders.
aggressive or defiant behavior) or emotional disor-
ders (e.g., anxiety or depression). The goal of the
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Chapter 7
THE FAIRY TALE TEST IN THE PERSONALITY ASSESSMENT

OF CHILDREN WITH MILD MENTAL RETARDATION
MARILENA SOUYOULDZOGLOU
INTRODUCTION Adaptive functioning refers to the effectiveness

with which an individual meets the standards of
his study which attempts to assess the personal- personal independence and social responsibility
T ity of children with mild mental retardation
(MMR), has been the subject of a doctoral thesis at
expected according to his or her age and cultural
group. The adaptive behavior could be influenced
the Panteion University of Athens (2001). by several factors, such as education, motivation,
personality characteristics, social and professional
Diagnostic Concept and opportunities, and psychological disorders or gen-
Psychological Assessment eral medical problems that could coexist with men-
tal retardation (American Psychiatric Association,
The main characteristic of Mental Retardation 1994, p. 40).
(MR) is the significantly sub-average general intel- Children with MMR have slower development
lectual functioning (Criterion A) that is associated of motor, social, and language skills than their peers.
with significant impairments in adaptive function- The corresponding IQ ranges between 5055 to 70
ing in at least two of the following sectors of ability: (American Psychiatric Association, 1994).
communication, self-reliance, survival, social/inter- MMR is often diagnosed as the child begins
personal abilities, utility of communitys structures, schooling (Galland & Galland, 1997). Since they
self-guidance, functional academic abilities, labor, rarely present another handicap, children with
entertainment, health and security (Criterion B). MMR usually function in an environment that
Onset is before the age of 18 years old (Criterion C) treats them as normal (Reschly, 1988, as cited in
(American Psychiatric Association, 1994, p. 39). Jones, 1996). The first indication for MMR is usual-
General intellectual functioning is determined ly a combination of difficulties in academic matters
by the Intelligence Quotient (IQ), obtained by one as well as behavioral problems eventually resulting
or more of the individually administered general in school failure. In the U.S., children with MMR
intelligence tests, such as the Wechsler Intelligence represent the 11.5 percent of children with learning
Scale for Children or WISC-III (Wechsler, 1992), disabilities ( Jones, 1996) and the largest group of
the Stanford Binet (Thorndike, Hagen, & Sattler, children (85%) with mental retardation (MR). These
1986), or the Kaufman Assessment Battery for chil- children study in mainstream or special schools and
dren (Kaufman & Kaufman, 1983). Significantly compose the educational category educable.
sub-average intellectual functioning is defined as an In Greece, the number of children with MR
IQ of 70 or below (almost 2 standard deviations involves 0.3 percent of school population in pri-
below the average). mary education, or 18 percent of children with spe-
139
cial educational needs. No official figures exist for others (outer-directedness) (Turnure & Zigler, 1964;
the MMR category, but it most likely represents the Bybee & Zigler, 1998).
majority (approximately 85%) of children with MR. Adolescents with MMR often experience a sense
The psychological assessment of children with of emptiness and a sense of lack of meaning in life.
MR aims at the diagnosis and clarification of the sit- From the moment they notice they are somehow
uation at hand and their eventual progress, as well different from their peers, they realize their difficul-
as the planning of the most appropriate interven- ty in achieving desirable goals, while witnessing the
tion. Concerning the intellectual functioning, success of their peers (Levy-Schiff, Kedem, &
there are IQ scales, such as the Weschler Sevillia, 1990).
Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC-III, The acknowledgement of their MR, repetitive fail-
Weschler, 1992; Georgas et al., 1998) and the ures, and stigmatization increases feelings of low self-
Stanford Binet (Thorndike et al., 1986). Special esteem in children with MR (Zigler & Hodapp, 1986;
scales are used to assess adaptive behavior, Jones, 1992). Research has revealed that students
defined as the ability to acquire autonomy and with MMR view their intelligence negatively, per-
social responsibility. Such scales include the ceive their school status as low, and experience high
American Association Mental Deficiency Adaptive anxiety levels, low popularity, and low levels of hap-
Behavior Scale - School edition (AAMD ABS-SE; piness ( Jones, 1985). They have difficulties in devel-
Lambert et al., 1981), and Vineland Adaptive oping friendly relationships (Luftig, 1988a; Parker et
Behavior Scales (Sparrow & Cicchetti, 1989). al., 1995), and they experience rejection from their
The evaluation of emotional factors is limited, peers. Thus, their self-esteem remains low and their
due to the difficulty of finding an instrument that ability to adjust and develop social skills does not
can assess personality variables of individuals with improve, which results in further social isolation.
MR who experience difficulties in communication, Consequently, children with MR experience
their abstract reasoning ability is impaired, and stronger feelings of loneliness (Luftig, 1988b).
their self-knowledge is probably restricted (Clark & Difficulties in communication can be attributed to
Clark, 1974). limited cognitive, language, and social skills as well
as behavioral problems that drive away their peers
Personality Characteristics ( Jones, 1996). The emotional adjustment of children
with MR depends to a great extent on the family and
Recognizing the childs particular emotional dif- the social environment. Parents often experience
ficulties is crucial for the planning of proper special feelings of deception, depression, and ambivalence
programs aiming at providing a balance between (Blacher, 1984; Hodapp, 1988), while developing
the environment and the childrens strengths and either very low or very high expectations from their
weaknesses. childs progress and achievements (Marfo, Dedrick,
Children with MMR experience more social and & Barbour, 1998). In cases of MMR, a relatively
behavioral problems than children without MMR unstructured ego must cope with school failure, fail-
(Polloway, Epstein, & Cullinan, 1985; Polloway et ure in relationships with classmates and peers, feel-
al., 1986; Epstein et al., 1989). They often develop ings of insecurity, and serious disappointment to self-
behavioral patterns that differentiate them from esteem (Robinson & Robinson, 1976).
other children, mainly due to deficits in coping and
social skills. They adopt a limited number of prob- The Use of Projective Techniques
lem-solving strategies due to reduced cognitive abil- with Children with MR
ities. A failure to comply with the behaviors and
activities of their environment reduces their self- It is difficult to use projective techniques with
confidence and increases their dependence from children with MR, as these techniques require par-
The Fairy Tale Test of Children with Mild Mental Retardation 141
ticular levels of language, cognitive, and motor-per- used effectively with individuals in the mild range
ceptive functioningareas that appear to be defi- of MR, while differentiating them from individuals
cient in children with MR (Panek & Wagner, 1993). without MR (Reiss, 1994).
In order to obtain a valid evaluation, the test must The aim of the present study is to underline the
be suitable for the particular individual. The necessity of a global evaluation of the personality of
researcher must consider the individual skills, as children with MMR in order to identify the affec-
well as the requirements of the particular technique, tive variables and the specific characteristics of their
with respect to abstract reasoning ability, cognitive personality. It also aims at encouraging the use of
ability, and motor-perceptive ability (Panek, 1997). the projective Fairy Tale Test (FTT) as a diagnostic
Most studies have used expressive techniques dat- means.
ing back to 1980 including participants belonging to
a large spectrum of MR, but who may no longer Experimental Hypotheses
meet the DSM IV criteria for the diagnosis of MR.
Researchers state that the responses of children The general hypothesis of this study is that chil-
with MR are limited and descriptive; their language dren with MMR would have the same basic needs,
is short and poor (Panek & Wagner, 1979; Hurley & desires, and impulses as normal children. However,
Sovner, 1982; Bellak & Abrams, 1997). This is due in comparison to the control group, they are expect-
to the childrens general personality features associ- ed to experience higher levels of frustration due to
ated with cognitive deficiencies, such as the difficul- their repetitive failures, and therefore we expect
ty of expressing feelings and rigidity of thought that they will present lower levels of self-esteem and
(Panek, 1997). Studies on adolescents and adults higher levels of anxiety and depression than chil-
with MR have not focused on the individuals needs dren without MMR. Additionally, we hypothesize
and motivations; instead, researchers have made that the MMR sample will have a more negative
speculations on these variables from general per- Relationship with Mother, stronger Need for affec-
sonality dimensions derived from the subjects tion, Need for Affiliation and Need for Protection.
responses to projective tests. Studies using the We expect children with MMR to be more aggres-
Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) have shown that sive than children in the control group. Finally, due
the main issues expressed are aggression and feel- to their poorer intellectual functioning, we assume
ings of rejection, loneliness, and guilt. Comparative that children with MMR will have lower
studies of individuals with and without MR are lim- Adaptation to the Fairy Tale Content. With regards
ited (Panek, 1997), while the majority of studies con- to defense mechanisms we expect that the MMR
cern participants over 14 years of age. So far, MMR sample will employ defense mechanisms more fre-
as a distinct category along current diagnostic crite- quently than the control group in order to cope with
ria has not been studied with projective techniques. feelings of anxiety.
Panek (1997) suggests that studies should use pro-
jective techniques in a stable manner of administra-
tion and evaluation, without modification according METHOD AND DESIGN
to the childs mental level. Moreover, he argues that
diagnostic criteria should be based on contempo- Participants
rary systems of classification such as the DSM IV.
Additionally, we suggest that tests should evaluate The clinical sample consisted of seventy-three
personality variables that have not yet been specifi- children, ages 9 to 12 years (M=10.94 years,
cally studied, such as needs, desires, impulses, and SD=1.12). All children who participated studied in
ego functions, for instance, reality testing and specialized public schools in the greater Athens
defense mechanisms. Projective techniques can be area. They were diagnosed with MMR, and their
IQs ranged from 50 to 70. The causes of MMR original sample of the FTTs standardization
were attributed to organic, hereditary, or environ- (Coulacoglou, 1993), and it was matched with the
mental factors. clinical group according to age, sex, and social class.
The control group (CG) consisted of eighty-two The distribution of age, social economic status
children, between 9 to 12 years of age (M=11. 13 (SES) and gender of the sample of children with
years, SD=1.02), all students of public schools in the MMR and the control group are presented in
greater Athens area. The group was chosen from the Tables 7.1, 7.2, and 7.3 (N = number of participants).
TABLE 7.1.
CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO THE AGE OF CHILDREN WITH MILD
MENTAL RETARDATION (MMR) AND THE CONTROL GRIP (CG)
MMR CG
N % N %
910 22 30.14 30 36.58

AGES
1112 51 69.86 52 63.42
Total 73 100 82 100
TABLE 7.2.
CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO THE SEX OF CHILDREN WITH MILD
MENTAL RETARDATION (MMR) AND THE CONTROL GROUP (CG)
MMR CG
N % N %
GENDER
Boys 44 60.27 49 59.75
Girls 29 39.73 33 40.25
Total 73 100 82 100
TABLE 7.3.
CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO THE SOCIOECONMIC STATUS (SES)
OF CHILDREN WITH MILD MENTAL RETARDATION (MMR) AND
THE CONTROL GROUP (CG)
MMR CG
N % N %
LOW 46 63.02 48 58.84

SES
MIDDLE 22 30.14 26 31.71
UPPER 5 6.84 8 9.75
TOTAL 73 100 82 100

Procedure personality variables.

Our hypotheses were confirmed in terms of sig-
The FTT was administered to children with nificantly higher scores for the following variables:
MMR studying in specialized public schools. Relationship with Mother, Need for Affection, Need
Information regarding demographic characteristics for Protection, Anxiety, Depression, and
and personal background of the child was obtained Adaptation to the Fairy Tale Content. According to
from school records. the first hypothesis, children with MMR had signif-
The administration of the FTT was part of the icantly higher scores on the variable aggression
usual psychological examination procedure, which (without differentiating the type of aggression).
was conducted by a group of psychologists. The Children with MMR do not manifest differences
group included the researcher and two psycholo- between Aggression Type A and Aggression as
gists trained in the administration of the test. Defense. However, they do present a significantly
Administration lasted approximately 45 to 60 min- higher score in Oral Aggression and a lower one in
utes. The scoring of the protocols was done sepa- Aggression as Envy or Aggression Retaliation in
rately by the researcher and the author of the FTT. comparison with the CG.
The inter-rater reliability coefficients (r), along with The hypothesis concerning lower scores on the
the corresponding p-values (p) are presented in variable of Self-Esteem was not confirmed. Nor was
Table 7.4. Defense mechanisms were scored one for the hypothesis for a higher Need for Affiliation con-
every time they appeared in a protocol. The vari- firmed. However, we found differences in variables
able Relation with Father is not included into the that were not included in our initial hypotheses,
data analysis due to its low variability across the including: Ambivalence, Fear of Aggression,
sample (< 5%). Repetitions, Bizarres, and Sexual Preoccupations.
The group also compiled a report consisting of:
(1) demographic characteristics of each childs fam-
ily (SES, education level, family situation, etc.); and Defense Mechanisms (DMs)
(2) the synthesis of the family and the members in Children With MMR
names, which may be useful with regards to the
evaluation of certain responses. Information con- Quantitative Analysis
cerning family relationships, diagnosis, current
medical problems, language disorders, and IQ were To control our hypotheses about the DMs in chil-
also noted. dren with MMR, we studied: (1) frequencies and
percentages of DMs in childrens protocols (MMR
and control group, see Table 7.7); and (2) means and
RESULTS standard deviations of DMs in children with MMR
and the control group (see Table 7.8).
Personality Variables Children with MMR use significantly more DMs
(M=1.15, SD=0.98) than the CG (M=0.69,
Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) was applied to SD=1.01, p <0.01) (see Table VIII). Children with
compare the control group and the clinical group MMR employ DMs more frequently than children
for each FTT variable (see Table 7.5). in the CG as they need to cope with higher levels of
The control group expressed ambivalence to a anxiety, stress, and frustration. The choice of DMs
much stronger degree than the MMR group (see employed depends on their levels of cognitive func-
Table 7.6). tioning.
The results demonstrated that children with As Table 7.7 presents, seven DMs are detected in
MMR differ from the control group on a number of the protocols of our sample of children with MMR.
TABLE 7.4.
INTERRATER RELIABILITY OF FTT VARIABLES,
(N = 30)
FTT VARIABLES r p
Ambivalence 0.988 0.000**
Desire for Material Things 0.990 0.000**
Desire for Superiority 0.984 0.000**
Sense of Property 0.961 0.000**
Aggression as Dominance 0.984 0.000**
Aggression Type A 0.976 0.000**
Aggression as Defense 0.907 0.000**
Aggression as Envy 0.952 0.000**
Aggression as Retaliation 0.982 0.000**
Oral Aggression 0.998 0.000**
Fear of Aggression 0.450 0.013**
Oral Needs 0.964 0.000**
Desire to Help 0.974 0.000**
Need for Affiliation 0.124 0.514**
Need for Affection 0.931 0.000**
Anxiety 0.988 0.000**
Depression 0.976 0.000**
Relationship with Mother 0.925 0.000**
Adaptation to the Fairy Tale Content 0.539 0.002**
Bizarres 0.867 0.000**
Repetitions 1.000 0.000**
Morality 0.950 0.000**
Need for Protection 0.988 0.000**
Self-Esteem 0.934 0.000**
Sexual Preoccupation 0.980 0.000**
p <0.01 * p <0.05
TABLE 7.5.
MEANS (M), STANDARD DEVIATIONS (DS), AND CRITERIA OF STATISTICAL SIGNIFICANCE OF THE
FTT VARIABLES IN CHILDREN WITH MILD MENTAL RETARDATION (MMR) AND CONTROL GROUPS (CG)
MMR CG
FTT VARIABLES M SD M SD F p
Ambivalence 1.91 2.77 6.23 4.55 50.159 0.000**
Desire for Material Things 0.71 1.54 0.86 1.36 0.626 0.430
Desire for Superiority 0.53 1.43 0.98 1.56 3.554 0.061
Sense of Property 0.12 0.62 0.32 1.00 2.210 0.139
Aggression as Dominance 0.46 1.48 0.78 1.67 1.575 0.211
Aggression Type A 3.34 4.12 2.37 2.34 3.270 0.073
Aggression as Defense 0.15 0.65 0.09 0.43 0.381 0.538
Aggression as Envy 0.35 1.03 1.18 2.22 8.253 0.005**
Aggression as Retaliation 0.63 1.91 1.37 1.96 5.946 0.016*
Oral Aggression 1.12 2.27 0.56 1.04 4.223 0.042*
Desire to Help 0.58 1.55 0.97 1.57 2.235 0.137
Need for Affiliation 1.06 1.40 1.75 1.57 7.698 0.006**
Need for Affection 1.87 2.44 0.54 1.07 20.441 0.000**
Anxiety 5.52 5.332 4.08 2.56 4.297 0.040*
Depression 2.28 2.84 1.51 1.47 4.096 0.045*
Relationship with Mother -0.61 1.06 0.20 0.85 28.762 0.000**
Adaptation to the Fairy Tale Content 40.28 7.12 47.51 0.53 29.785 0.000**
Bizarres 1.31 1.72 0.19 0.53 29.785 0.000**
Repetitions 1.95 2.34 0.73 1.04 18.153 0.000**
Morality 1.67 2.73 1.43 1.78 0.426 0.515
Need for Protection 1.02 1.78 0.46 0.91 5.106 0.025*
Self-Esteem -0.23 0.56 -0.04 0.88 2.356 0.127
Sexual Preoccupation 1.57 2.09 0.86 1.27 7.007 0.009*
* p <0.05 ** p <0.01
TABLE 7.6.
TYPES OF AMBIVALENCE EXPRESSED BETWEEN CHILDREN WITH
MILD MENTAL RETARDATION (MMR) AND THE CONTROL GROUP (CG)
MMR CG
Types of Ambivalence f % f %
Indecision 23 31.50 55 67.07
Doubt 5 6.84 21 25.60
Alternative responses 1 1.36 10 12.04
Emotional conflict 0 0.00 0 0.00
Hesitation 2 2.73 21 25.60
(Percentages overlap because a response can belong to more than one category.)
TABLE 7.7.
FREQUENCIES (f) AND PERCENTAGES (%) OF DEFENSE MECHANISMS
IN CHILDREN WITH MILD MENTAL RETARDATION (MMR)
AND THE CONTROL GROUP (CG)
MMR CG
Defense Mechanisms f % f %
Undoing 29 39.72 10 12.19
Denial 22 30.13 9 10.97
Reaction formation 14 19.16 7 8.53
Repression 9 12.32 2 2.43
Projection 7 9.58 8 9.75
Negation 5 6.84 1 1.21
Rationalization 2 2.73 14 17.07
Those children seem to most employ the mecha- DM (denial and negation: 36.97%) while the per-
nisms of undoing (39.72%), denial (30.13%), reac- centage for the CG is much lower (denial and nega-
tion formation (19.16%) and repression (12.32%). tion: 12.18%). The use of a DM is determined by the
Reaction formation is a DM similar to undoing childs cognitive stage as well as by the complexity
(English & Finch, 1964). Although children with of the specific DM (Cramer, 1990). Miller and
MMR are still in the latency period (mean age: Swanson (1960) found a negative correlation
10.94 years), denialone of the more primitive between denial and IQ; therefore, denial correlates
DMspersists as one of the more commonly used with lower cognitive ability.
TABLE 7.8.
MEANS (M), STANDARD DEVIATIONS (SD), AND CRITERIA OF STATISTICAL SIGNIFICANCE (F, p)
FOR DEFENSE MECHANISMS IN CHILDREN WITH MMR AND THE CONTROL GROUP
MMR CG
M SD M SD F p
Defense
Mechanisms 1.15 0.98 0.69 1.01 8.030 0.005**
** p<0.01
Despite their age, children with MMR use DMs functioning of the child.
that are usually found at an earlier developmental According to the present study, a child with
stage: the anal phase (1.5 to 5 years of age). They MMR appears to manifest stronger affective needs,
use mainly the mechanism of denial, the use of such as the need for warmth, love, and approval,
whichaccording to the DMs developmental than children of the control group.
ordershould have already started to decline The child with MMR experiences his or her rela-
(Cramer, 1990). tionship with the mother as negative. The majority
Children with MMR rarely (2.73%) employ of children with MMR projected a rejective, rigid,
rationalization that is manifested during the latency and punishing mother image. This negative rela-
period, compared to the CG (17%), for whom this is tionship with the mother is due to the childs inse-
their preferred DM. Adoption and reference to gen- cure bond during the infantile period or to insecuri-
eral ideas and principles require high cognitive abil- ty that the mother may have experienced when the
ities, while defenses correlate to perceptual and cog- diagnosis of MMR was confirmed. Guilt, rejection,
nitive levels. The mechanism of rationalization in and feelings of shame are typical reactions of par-
latency and intellectualization in adolescence are ents who have children with MMR (Graliker,
strictly related to cognitive development Parmelle, & Koch, 1959; Papadatos, 1995). Such
(Lichtenberg & Slap, 1972). feelings of deception and associated frustration have
in turn a major impact on the parent-child interac-
tion (Marfo et al., 1998). The mothers negative
DISCUSSION experience in the family setting may also be respon-
sible for her rejective or punishing behavior
According to Snyder (1966), adolescents with towards the child, since taking care of the child is
MMR have a lower level of personal adjustment, considered the mothers responsibility and there-
which suggests a different developmental trajecto- fore the mothers negative feelings influence her
ry of their personality. These differences result from interaction with her child (Lillie, 1993).
the cognitive structure and mental level of the child One can interpret the childs (with MMR)
with MMR as well as from the various emotional stronger sexual preoccupationmainly expressed as
experiences the child undergoes in his/her environ- issues concerning marriage and loveas the search
ment (Sternlicht & Deutsch, 1972). for affective interaction.
The interaction of these factors creates emotion- Dependence on others, mostly parents, increases
al difficulties, plus an idiosyncratic perception and a the childs need for protection. Often, parents over-
way of responding to realitys demands, which cre- protective attitude inhibits the childs ability for per-
ate difficulties in social integration. Affective and sonal development; instead, overprotection results
cognitive factors interact to synthesize the global in a reinforced sense of being handicapped as well
as the search for security and help from others. abilities.

Despite our initial hypothesis, according to A reason that explains the significantly low scor-
which children with MMR would have lower self- ing regarding the childrens Need for Affiliation
esteem (because of the failures and frustrations could be the fear of rejection by others. We do not
these children experience in their lives), there was wish to suggest that children with MMR do not
no significant difference between children with need social interaction or friendly relations.
MMR and the control group. This could be attrib- However, as they are aware of their reduced com-
uted to several factors: first, to the difficulty in fol- munication skills, they might prefer to isolate and
lowing a projective test procedure, as in this type of avoid failure.
tests there are no predetermined questions; and sec- The supportive environment of the specialized
ond, to the development of the childs self-image. school does not encourage competition or feelings
The self-image of a school-age child with MMR is of jealousy. That may explain why the frequency of
the same as that of a much younger child with aver- Aggression as Envy and Aggression Retaliation is
age intelligence. Thus, the child with MMR lower in children with MMR. An individual adopts
encounters difficulties in accurately evaluating his a revengeful attitude when he/she recognizes that
abilities and in differentiating the various aspects of another person deliberately acts towards him/her in
his- or herself (Evans, 1998). The confused, exag- a hostile manner (Dodge, 1980). Ego abuse appears
gerated, and basically unreal self-image forms a to be less frequent in a supportive school environ-
cognitive characteristic of pro-operational mental ment, where the personnel settle any potential con-
development, independent of age. Low self-esteem flicts between schoolmates. On the other hand,
in the FTT appears in responses that refer to exter- revenge involves a desire to get even, which
nal features, and responses that provoke feelings of requires a basic understanding of justice (Fromm,
incapacity and/or failure. The body image of ado- 1977). Comprehension of the notion of justice in
lescents with MMR does not seem to be well deter- children with MMR is probably limited as they
mined (Evans, 1998), and the cognitive limitations may not be able of judging the ethical value of var-
do not favor the attribution of personal characteris- ious actions and behaviors.
tics. However, children with MMR manifest more
A third interpretation for the lack of difference in oral aggression, a more primitive form of aggression
self-esteem involves the fact that the present sample that goes back to the oral stage of development and
of children with MMR all study in specialized signifies a lack of satisfaction as well as a demand
schools, where the environment is supportive and for satisfaction. Reaction to frustrations and dis-
noncompetitive. As a result, these students do not pleasures contains traits of oral aggression (bites,
compare themselves with their peers in a main- name calling, spitting, etc.) suggesting fixation in
stream class neither with students in a specialized this primary oral stage of psychosexual develop-
class, and therefore they develop fewer feelings of ment, in which the infant bites to manifest a lack of
failure. According to the results of certain studies, satisfaction when deprived of the maternal breast.
placing a student with MMR in a mainstream On the contrary, as is evident from the low per-
school could create emotional difficulties for the centage in the variable Oral Needs, children with
child (Battle, 1979; Schurr, Towne, & Joiner, 1972). MMR do not manifest their emotional needs
Our view is that children with MMR do not through nutrition, which is also typical of the oral
experience failure in a specialized school, because stages development.
the educational curriculum in this particular setting In a study by Coulacoglou (1993), the variables
is specialized, based on the abilities of each child, Oral Needs and Oral Aggression are negatively cor-
and his or her participation in various activities is related in normal children. This study illustrates
scheduled according to his/hers specific needs and that orality is one of the main personality character-
istics. Considering that older children manifest and kills. Their responses indicate that the major-
more Oral Needs than younger ones, children with ity of children with MMR are much more intimi-
MMR resemble normal children of a younger age dated by physical abuse than are children from the
who manifest oral aggression at a higher degree. control group. Thirty percent (30%) of children with
Oral aggression could be interpreted as tension that MMR use verbs that reveal corporal punishment,
can not be openly manifested. Children scoring compared to 14 percent of those in the control
higher on Oral Aggression are considered to be less group.
obedient or subordinate and more aggressive To a certain extent, strong anxiety and fear in
(Coulacoglou, 1993). children with MMR are due to failure of dominat-
Their inability to respond to the environmental ing in their environments because of limited coping
demands, along with their repetitive failures and abilities (Sternlicht & Deutsch, 1972).
frustrations, increases their anxiety and fears and In addition, the mothers negative attitude
stimulates depressive attitudes. Indeed, confirming towards the child does not provide him/her with a
our first hypothesis, children with MMR present secure base that will help him or her develop a
higher levels of anxiety. Anxiety and fear are main- trusting relationship with the environment.
ly associated with dangers related to physical harm Consequently, rejection and social isolation increas-
or death. These types of anxiety are common in es anxiety, especially when confidence is lacking
children between 7 to 12 years of age. The similari- and the need for protection is intense. Moreover,
ty of this type of fear between normal children and the parents overprotective attitude may increase
children with MMR led researchers to the conclu- the childs fear of the environment, since he or she
sion that the processes that incite normal fear (such has not been offered the chance to develop reality
as fear of snakes) are to a great extent biologically testing skills and better coping strategies in relation
determined (Gullone, 1996). Qualitative analysis of to eventual threats (Gullone, 1996).
the responses in the FTT suggests that children with The child sense of rejection and inability to rely
MMR express a much stronger anxiety than do on his or her strength create pressure, which in turn
children in the control group concerning physical increases depression. Findings from other studies
harm as well as death but also loneliness, separa- confirm the occurrence of high levels of anxiety and
tion, abandonment and loss of love. These findings depression in children with MMR (Cochran &
support the results of a research from Gullone and Cleland, 1963; Rutter et al., 1976). Parental depres-
King (1993) and Guarnaccia and Weiss (1974) that sion represents another strain factor associated with
involved children with MR. depressive symptoms in children with MMR (Kobe
Gullone (1996) suggests that children with MR & Hammer, 1994). Children with MMR experience
are mostly afraid of animals, darkness, supernatural rejection and disapproval, and they almost always
phenomena and less of human beings and external fear loss of love, or indicate a weakness to tolerate
dangers. These kinds of fear are typical of younger loneliness. The children participating in the present
children who have a lower level of cognitive elabo- research were mostly in prepubescent period dur-
ration and are not able of appropriately evaluating ing which problems of identity crisis become appar-
possible imminent threats. However, data from the ent. Adolescents with MR commonly experience an
present study indicate that fears of children with existential sense of emptiness and a lack of interest
MMR are associated with human beings, and in in life (Levy-Schiff et al., 1990).
particular with a mother image that is perceived as Some personality variables seem to be influ-
threatening or punishing. Seventy-six percent (76%) enced mostly by cognitive factors and to constitute
of children with MMR from our sample project distinctive characteristics of children with MMR.
onto the mother figure threatening characteristics, Their responses to the test pictures expressed less
expressed by the use of verbs like hits, abuses, ambivalence, indecision, or hesitation in terms of
their actions, while they do not express conflict diverge more than children of the CG from the fairy
between opposing actions or feelings. These char- tale content because of their disabilities in reading
acteristics are reflected in the low percentage of the and comprehension, their limited memory ability,
variable ambivalence (indecision, doubt, alternative and attention span. The poor Adaptation to the
responses, emotional conflict, and hesitation). The Fairy Tale Content should not be considered as an
limited expression of ambivalent responses could outcome of a disorder in thought but explained in
be interpreted according to the Piagetian stages of terms of cognitive limitations. Therefore, whenever
cognitive development: children with MMR have this appears in childrens responses, it may be an
not reached the stage of formal operations that indication of possible MR and would then necessi-
would enable them to elaborate different proposi- tate further investigation.
tions, alternative choices, and disjunctions. This Children with MMR also tend to give repetitive
observation is confirmed by research findings with responses. Their responses are not very elaborate
normal children, where stronger ambivalence is but are simply descriptive and repetitious; these are
observed in children between 11 and 12 years of typical responses given by children with MR in
age who have a higher mental aptitude response to projective tests (Wagner, 1983; Butler,
(Coulacoglou, Souyouldjoglou, & Atsarou, 2003). 1961). The use of other projective tests (TAT, Hand
According to Piagets developmental theory, chil- Test) has also revealed the poverty of content and
dren begin to develop formal reasoning around that the stereotypical aspect of their responses (Scha_e,
age (Piaget, 1964, 1972). The elaboration of alterna- 1962; Butler, 1961; Wagner, 1983). This type of
tive choices also presupposes anticipation of an response could be attributed to cognitive limita-
actions positive and negative consequences. A tions, such as limited imagination and poor memo-
childs difficulty in predicting those consequences ry. Furthermore, inflexibility of thought character-
and his or her limited moral judgment are responsi- izes children with MR, who prefer repetitions not
ble for the inability to judge actions as either good only because of cognitive inefficiencies but also in
or bad (Sternlicht & Deutsch, 1972). order to avoid failure (Sternlicht & Deutsch, 1972).
Low inhibition of children with MMR reduces Bizarres responses, more often found in children
their hesitation to discharge the impulses, drives, with MR protocols, can be attributed to limited cog-
and conflicts between good and bad behavior. In nitive abilities but also to the projection of personal
accordance to the results mentioned above, hesita- conflicts and fantasies. Although they are irrelevant
tion is associated with a high percentage in morali- to the story content, these responses do not reflect a
ty and appears to be functioning as a defensive disturbance of internal logic and they do not
process against aggression, in order to preserve ego include violent or morbid issues, like those com-
control against impulse discharge (Coulacoglou et monly found in children with severe emotional dis-
al., 2003). As children with MMR have an ineffi- orders. We believe that they reflect the childrens
ciently developed superego (Sternlicht & Deutsch, cognitive disabilities as well as their personal preoc-
1972), they do not hesitate to explicitly convey their cupations and are not signs of psychopathology.
impulsive tendencies. With regard to the confrontation of unpleasant
According to the analysis of formal characteris- feelings, such as anxiety, fear, and rejection that
tics of the FTT, that is, the evaluation of the vari- may be provoked by the thematic content of the
ables Adaptation to the Fairy Tale Content, projective technique, the ego of a child with MMR
Repetitions, and Bizarres, we observe the following: employs DMs such as undoing and denial. Children
the perception of the typical features of the story mobilize these DMs under conditions of pressure
structure, such as the internal logic and verbal and anxiety, in order to protect the psychic balance
aspect of the responses, differ between children and preserve the egos coherence. As the qualitative
with MMR and the CG. Children with MMR analysis of DM has shown, in terms of frequency,
children with MMR use twice as much DMs than Children with MMR express a stronger Need for
children from the CG. Affection from their family and social environment.
Another interesting finding, possibly indicating Imminent threats of violence or loneliness stimulate
the cognitive distinction between the two groups of anxiety, since they are not self-reliant and experi-
children, is the frequency with which they use ence difficulties in social contacts.
rationalization. Rationalization is the type of DMs The children of the present sample live in sup-
mostly used by children in the CG, while it is the portive school and family settings. In the first set-
least and seldom used type of DM used from chil- ting, the school tends to adjust its demands to their
dren with MMR. Children with MMR employ abilities, while in the latter, families may come to
common DMs, except the mechanism of rationali- terms with their childs limitations through counsel-
zation, which presupposes the use of abstract rea- ing and supportive programs. In the latter, the par-
soning. The majority of children in the sample are ents ambitions and expectations regarding their
also between 10 and 12 years old, and they employ child are realistic. However, these children seek
more immature mechanisms than their peers in the more approval and protection: they depend on oth-
control group, who more frequently employ the ers: parents and teachers. They need help with
mechanism of rationalization. social relationships as well as coping with pressure
from everyday life.
The results confirm the differences between the
CONCLUSIONS two populations and allow us to formulate further
hypotheses based on psychological theories,
Differences in the personality structure of chil- research findings and clinical experience. It is clear
dren with MMR, in comparison to children from that psychologists should emphasize the evaluation
the CG, seem to result mainly from the cognitive of affective variables along with the mental and
component that differentiates these two groups. As adaptive functioning in order to plan suitable edu-
discussed, impairments in adaptive functioning cational and psychological interventions for chil-
mainly due to a lower intellectual development gen- dren with MMR.
erate rejective attitudes from both the family and Counseling with the parents and the family is also
the wider social environment, and it is as a result of extremely important. Parents should be in touch
the difficulty to cope with this that children with with their childs needs and interests, be indulgent of
MMR develop low self-esteem, use more DMs, and their limitations, be neither overprotective nor
so forth. For both groups, the structure of personal- authoritarian, have realistic expectations, and pro-
ity results from an interaction from both environ- vide a secure and supportive environment.
mental and cognitive factors. It is the difference at
the cognitive level first, between those two groups
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Chapter 8
CHILDREN WITH PSYCHOTIC SYMPTOMS:

TWO CASE STUDIES
IOANNA G IANNOPOULOU, ANASTASIA ATSAROU, AND DAFNE STAMATOYANNI
INTRODUCTION chosis.
From the 1930s until the early 70s, psychologists
Psychosis in Childhood invoked the concept of childhood schizophrenia
as a distinct clinical entity with specific diagnostic
sychosis corresponds to a generic term referring
P to a severe mental disorder, with or without
organic damage, characterized by a disturbed per-
criteria (Potter, 1933). The definition of childhood
schizophrenia was broadened to include all forms of
severe mental disorders in children; autism and
sonality and a loss of contact with reality causing a other developmental disorders were seen as child-
significant deterioration of normal social function- hood manifestation of adult schizophrenia. As a
ing (Stedman, 2000). Von Feuchtersleben first used result of this broad grouping, the literature regard-
the word psychosis in 1845 (Beer, 1995), as an ing childhood schizophrenia before 1980 refers to
alternative to insanity and mania, and it stems diagnostically heterogeneous psychopathological
from the Greek term soul (psyche) and the suffix groups and does not differentiate autism or perva-
-osis, referring to a diseased or abnormal condi- sive developmental disorders from psychotic disor-
tion. ders.
Interest in childhood psychosis traces back to the During the 1970s, research findings concerning
nineteenth century. Maudsley was first to describe a the phenomenology of various childhood psychoses
condition he termed the insanity of early life in (course, onset, family history, and associated fea-
his textbook Physiology and Pathology of the Mind tures) led to the recognition that schizophrenia aris-
(1867). His view was that insanity in children must ing in childhood and infantile autism were distinct
be of the simplest kind, given that mental faculty in clinical syndromes, each with its unique and distinct
children is not yet organized. Kraepelin (1919) intro- phenomenology, theories about causes, and longi-
duced the term dementia praecox to distinguish tudinal course (Kolvin, 1971; Rutter, 1972).
patients with a psychotic disorder that usually Schizophrenia in childhood was again seen as con-
began in early adult life and ran a progressive and tinuous with the adult form of the disorder, given
deteriorating course from the more benign and that young patients presented with essentially the
episodic course of manic-depressive disorder. He same clinical picture as adults. The current interna-
suggested that 3.5 percent of cases of dementia tional classificatory systems of mental disorders,
praecox had the onset of their illness before the age ICD-10 (World Health Organization, 1992) and
of 10, with a further 2.7 percent arising between the DSM-IV (American Psychiatric Association, 1994),
ages of 10 and 15. This led to an increased interest which are categorical and based on descriptions of
in understanding the developmental aspects of psy- the pattern of symptoms, do not distinguish in diag-
154
Children with Psychotic Symptoms 155
nostic criteria between the presentation of psychot- ty to apply adult rules of logic or notions of reality.
ic disorders in children and in adolescents. It is difficult to differentiate delusions from the
bizarre ideas, fears, and fantasies that immature
Phenomenology and children or adolescents express. Children may
Developmental Issues experience hallucinations in the absence of evi-
dence of a psychotic or organic brain disorder.
Psychotic disordersparticularly schizophrenia, Internal localization of hallucinations is more com-
albeit rare in childhoodare an important clinical mon in younger children and makes it more diffi-
entity and present distinctive diagnostic and clinical cult to differentiate these experiences subjectively
challenges. Children and adolescents experience from inner speech or thoughts (Garralda, 1984).
the same range and types of psychotic symptoms as Developmental immaturity makes children more
do adults, although some evidence suggests devel- susceptible to environmental stressors and cognitive
opmental and quantitative variations in symptom distortions; it may be difficult to distinguish halluci-
presentation (Werry & Taylor, 1994). Chronological nations in young children from sleep-related and
and developmental age greatly contribute to the other developmental phenomena, such as imagi-
clinical picture of psychosis in childhood. nary friends, fantasy figures, overactive and vivid
Developmental, environmental, and cognitive fac- imaginations, and so forth. Transient hallucinations
tors significantly influence the detection, form, and relating to monsters, pets, or toys can occur in
context of psychotic symptoms in children, since acutely anxious but otherwise normally developing
there is a significantly more extensive range of nor- preschool children (Rothstein, 1981). Similarly,
mal functioning and of other types of experiences older children can experience hallucinations in the
or disorders in children than in adults. The childs absence of other signs of psychosis, associated with
behavior may simply be a result of immaturity other conditions, such as severe anxiety or post-
rather than a deviation from a normal pathway traumatic stress disorder.
( Joshi & Towbin, 2002). Prognostically, these hallucinations are benign,
Recent studies examining child- and adolescent- as they do not predict later development of a psy-
onset psychoses have reported similar patterns of chotic disorder (Garralda, 1984). The negative
symptom dimensions as in adults (Maziade et al., symptom dimension includes affective blunting
1996; Hollis, 1999). (numbing or dulling of affect), abolition (apathy and
The studies also provide evidence that these lack of interest in socializing), and alogia (poverty of
symptom dimensions are not unique to schizophre- thoughts when expressed in words). Negative symp-
nia and can be identified in a broad spectrum of toms can appear very similar to nonpsychotic lan-
psychotic disorders. guage and social impairments seen in children with
The positive symptom dimension includes hal- pervasive developmental disorders (PDD) and can
lucinations and delusions. Hallucinations are per- also be confused with anhedonia and depression.
ceptions without an external stimulus and can occur The disorganization dimension includes disor-
in any of the areas of the five senses as well as with ganized speech and bizarre behavior, factors that
somatic sensation. Hallucinations are often delu- usually indicate disorganized thinking. The latter is
sionally elaborated. Delusions are fixed false beliefs, also called formal thought disorder, as it relates to
which are not in keeping with the persons educa- the form of the organization of speech rather than to
tional and cultural background, are held with con- its content. The clinical signs of formal thought dis-
viction, and are not amenable to logic. Delusions in order include loosening of association, frequent
children are fluid, less complex, and less frequent derailment or incoherence (illogical thinking),
than in adults. They often are difficult to establish, digressive speech, tangentiality, circumstantiality,
particularly in younger children, due to the inabili- echolalia, and perseveration.
Two issues, however, merit attention in assessing These cannot be ascribed to psychosis without a
the presence or absence of form thought disorder. concomitant presence of a thought disorder but
First, the frequency of loosening of associations and need to be closely monitored.
irrational thinking significantly decreases after Although schizophrenia is very rare before the
about 6 to 7 years of age in normally developing age of 6 years (Werry, 1996), retrospective studies
children (Caplan, 1994). Second, formal thought suggest that neurodevelopmental abnormalities,
disorder might appear very similar to the pattern of language and motor problems, and unusual person-
incoherence and loose of associations seen in chil- ality styles are precursors of this condition. Social
dren with immature language development (Hollis, withdrawal, shyness, and disturbances in adaptive
2002). Disorganized speech is an inherent compo- social behavior constitute the first signs of dysfunc-
nent of many of the developmental disorders, seen tional premorbid development, indicative of a risk
particularly in those with good language skills, as for developing a psychotic illness (Eggers, Bunk, &
for example, in high functioning autistic individuals Krause, 2000). However, it is important to recog-
or those with Asperger syndrome (Dykens, nize that a socially odd child is not necessarily schiz-
Volkmar, & Glick, 1991). It is not always easy to dif- ophrenic, given that social and cognitive impair-
ferentiate the erratic, impulsive, and odd behavior ments presented by children with PDD overlap
exhibited by immature young people from the closely with the premorbid phenotype of schizo-
bizarre behavior of psychotic children or adoles- phrenia.
cents.
The research evidence to date points to negative Recognition and Assessment of
symptoms as the best predictor of both diagnosis
Psychotic Symptoms in Children
and outcome. Negative symptoms and an insidious
onset are specifically associated with schizophrenia Most psychotic disorders are relatively rare in
and often have profound effects on social and edu- childhood, but because they tend to be chronic or
cational functioning. Positive symptoms (i.e., delu- relapsing, causing serious distress and disability to
sions and hallucinations), however, lack diagnostic the young person, they constitute an important clin-
specificity, as they are common in patients with psy- ical entity that warrants investigation. The problem
chotic mood disorders, especially adolescents. of differentiating the psychoses from each other but
Similarly, the dimension of disorganization (i.e., also from nonpsychotic conditions through diagno-
bizarre behavior and formal thought disorder) sis is a common one.
shows less clear-cut associations with any specific The main diagnostic challenges are in differenti-
diagnostic category and therefore cannot be regard- ating childhood-onset schizophrenia from affective
ed as pathognomic of schizophrenia. Interestingly, disorders with psychotic symptoms, PDD, and
this group of symptoms has not been shown to cor- severe personality disorders. Psychologists have
relate with the severity of reality distortion. described and proposed new labels for children
Cognitive impairmentsin particular the im- with atypical psychotic features that do not strictly
paired ability to concentrate, focus, and sustain fit the diagnostic criteria for schizophrenia, such as
attention on a taskare usually seen in children pre- Multiple Complex Developmental Disorder
senting with a psychotic disorder. Confusion and (MCDD; Cohen, Paul, & Volkmar, 1986; Towbin et
disorientation usually denote a psychotic disorder al., 1993) and Multidimensionally Impaired
secondary to an organic origin. Atypical mental Disorder (MID; Kumra et al., 1998). The MCDD
experiences in children, which are reflected in replaces terms of borderline psychotic states and
unusual behaviors and odd beliefs, can be recog- borderline personality disorder, as defined for both
nized as prodromal or prepsychotic signs only after the adolescent and adult populations (Ad-Dabbagh
the manifestation of frank psychotic symptoms. & Greenfield, 2001).
Psychologists diagnose schizophrenia in children Although the SCZI appears to be clinically useful,
and adolescents using the same criteria as for adults. reliable, and valid among adult populations (e.g.,
The condition is characterized by greater disorgan- Jorgensen et al., 2000), results have been mixed
ization (incoherence of thought and disordered among children and adolescents. Research has indi-
sense of self) and more negative symptoms (Hfner cated that the SCZI may be a nonspecific indicator
& Nowotny, 1995). Premorbid developmental and of though disorder (e.g., Holaday, 2000).
social impairments are more common in child- and The Perceptual -Thinking Index (PTI) was creat-
adolescent-onset schizophrenia than in other child- ed to address these problems and to increase
and adolescent-onset psychoses. The premorbid Rorschachs diagnostic accuracy (Exner, 2000). The
phenotype of schizophrenia currently is conceived PTI is a five-variable index that draws from
in terms of impaired sociability and developmental Rorschach indexes of both perceptual distortion
language disorders, attention-deficit hyperactivity and cognitive slippage. Two components of both
disorder, and autism-spectrum disorders (Hollis & SCZI and PTI have often been implicated as poten-
Taylor, 1997). tial indicators of thought disorder: M- (human
A comprehensive diagnostic assessment of the movement responses with poor form quality) and
child should include: interviews with both the child X-% (the percentage of responses with poor form
and the family to elucidate a detailed history of quality) (Exner, 1993). Rorschach indicated that M-
symptom presentation and course, a mental state might be one of the most important and efficient
examination, a physical examination to exclude variables in differentiating between schizophrenic
general medical causes of psychotic symptoms, and and non-schizophrenic patients (Exner, 1993).
a cognitive psychometric assessment to elucidate Similarly, X-% has been an effective variable in dif-
specific cognitive deficits and the cognitive level of ferentiating patients with thought disorder (e.g.,
the child, which influences his or her ability to Kleiger, 1999).
understand and express psychotic symptoms.
Although psychological testing, including per-
sonality and projective techniques or tests, are not CASE STUDIES
indicated as a method for diagnosing schizophrenia,
they can provide helpful information for detecting This chapter presents case studies of two children
thought disorder, particularly in children who are with psychotic personality structure. Both children
relatively uncommunicative and difficult to engage have been assessed with the Rorschach and the
in formal interview. The two case vignettes present- Fairy Tale Test (FTT). The analysis of results should
ed in this chapter illustrate the value of using the help clinicians obtain a better picture of what each
FTT in aiding a comprehensive assessment of chil- measure has to offer in terms of the childs person-
dren referred to a child psychiatrist for evaluation ality.
following an educational psychologists concerns
that they were presenting psychotic symptoms. Case Study 1: J
A common finding in using the Rorschach con-
cerns its accuracy in distinguishing between patients Brief Historical Background
with or without psychotic symptoms (e.g., Exner,
1986, 1993; Hilsenroth, Fowler, & Padawer, 1998; J is a Greek 12-year-old boy living in Athens
Jorgensen, Anderson, & Dam, 2000). Many of these (Greece), who was referred for evaluation because
studies have used the Rorschach Schizophrenia of a three-month exacerbation of chronic behav-
Index (SCZI; Exner, 1993), a summary of ioral problems. The behaviors included repeated
Rorschach variables, assessing disordered thinking, episodes of cursing, impulse difficulties, difficulties
inaccurate perception, and interpersonal ineptness. separating reality from fantasy and in organizing
thoughts rationally and sequentially, and diffused jected to verbal and physical bullying. At the age of
tension and irritability, causing explosive outbursts 10, he was transferred to a special educational set-
of anger towards his foster mother for no specific ting for children with learning difficulties, where he
reason. He was described as being overengaged is doing well.
with fantasy figures and was observed carrying on The WISC-III IQ test showed a mild discrepan-
conversations with himself and his animal toys; he cy between verbal and nonverbal abilities, favoring
expressed grandiose fantasies of special powers and nonverbal skills: Full IQ 80, Verbal IQ 78, and
exhibited idiosyncratic anxiety reactions, such as Performance IQ 87. These results were believed to
sustained periods of uncontrollable giggling, laugh- reflect accurately Js abilities at the time of testing.
ter, and silly affect that was inappropriate in the Given the early onset of his difficulties, consis-
context of the situation. tent impairments in his social behavior and sensi-
J is the youngest of five children in his biological tivity, impaired cognitive processing (which does
family. He is tall and thin; he wears glasses, rarely not resemble the formal thought disorder seen in
makes eye contact with another person, and speaks childhood-onset schizophrenia), and impaired regu-
with a lisp. His voice has a high pitch and sounds lation of affect, he was given a provisional diagnosis
almost effeminate. Three of his siblings have been of MCDD (Cohen et al., 1986; Towbin et al., 1993).
adopted, and one (who is said to have a moderate
learning disability and severe behavioral problems) FTT Report
is in foster care. J was received into foster care at the
age of 3 months because of his biological mothers Js full responses to the FTT are included in
inability to care for him. Js biological mother and Appendix A. The psychologist who administered
maternal grandmother are said to have a mild the test to J reported that J introduced himself to her
learning difficulty, whereas his biological father is in English. During testing, J was carried away by the
said to have an antisocial personality disorder. At test pictures, and while initially the content of his
the age of 9 months, J was placed in a long-term response was relevant to the story, he went on by
(permanent) foster home, but he has not been told saying totally unrelated (to the test situation) things,
that his foster parents are not his biological parents. with an idiosyncratic content (as in his response to
His foster parents are separated; as a result J has no the Dwarf in card 3, see Appendix A). As a result,
contact with his foster father. Js relationship with the examiner often tried to bring him back to the
his foster mother, who is unemployed, is satisfacto- reality of the test situation.Overall, J participation
ry and appears securely attached to her. was good, and he seemed involved with the whole
A detailed developmental history revealed a per- process. The tone of his voice often changed
sistent, stable pattern of developmental deviations, depending on the content of his responses.
which were apparent by age 4. This pattern includ- Js narrations of Little Red Riding Hood (LRRH)
ed disturbances in socialization, cognitive process- and Snow White (SW) and the Seven Dwarfs contain
ing, activity and attentional regulation as well as significant distortions and plot changes. His limited
affect regulation. Upon entry into primary school, J capability to adapt to the content of the fairy tales,
was assessed as having special educational needs in conjunction with a large number of bizarre
and received support within the mainstream school. responses and the use of primitive defense mecha-
J was never able to relate appropriately to peers. nisms, indicate some form of psychopathology.
His idiosyncratic, intrusive behavior and inability to Js bizarre responses seem to have a psychotic
empathize caused other children to avoid him and content, as there is severe distortion of the fairy tale
sometimes to gang up on him. His socially odd content, magical thinking, and high levels of anxi-
manner, articulation, and rhythm abnormalities ety. According to Michalopoulous classification
caused further social isolation, and J. was often sub- (see Chapter 4) a bizarre response is rated as dis-
turbed or psychotic when it contains, among others, does not want to eat LRRH
a clear distortion of the fairy tale content, thought so that his teeth will not
disturbances (such as loose associations or idiosyn- break. Maybe Satan is inside
cratic language), and a clear loss of boundaries from him and thats why he feels
the card (personal involvement/overinvolvement).2 sad, because he wants to
Aggression is either oralas seen in the Wolf make everything on his own
cards and expressed as a means of showing off but he doesnt want anyone to
power and force, gaining in terms of self-esteemor help him, but Satan does.
it is defensive when a situation threatens Js status
and security. J expresses his aggression, and at the Wolf (Card 3): He wants to eat LRRH but
same time moral consciousness appears in the form Satan is not inside him[...].
of self-punishment, observed through his anxiety-
type illness or harm. Finally, Js negative self-imagereflected in the
Through the mechanism of negation, J attempts use of statements such as he is stupid[...]he feels
to cope with the opposing drives of life and death. ugly[...] as well as his anxiety deprivation and help-
Anxiety-type death in particular appears to over- lessnesssuggest that Js family environment is inad-
whelm J: equate in fulfilling Js basic needs.
The following is a summary of the themes reflect-
Dwarf (Card 2): He thinks of eating poisonous ed in the seven sets of cards based on Js responses:
mushrooms. Mostly, he wants
to die, to commit suicide but I a. In the LRRH cards, J expresses sexuality and
dont want to commit suicide, sexual identity issues as a wish to get pregnant
I want to be immortal but and give birth but also as vindictiveness over
there are no immortals[...]. losing a mate or companion (see Figure 8.1).
(negation expressed through
overinvolvement) b. In the Wolf cards, there is a double identifica-
tion with the wolf and the victim. J expresses
J employs splitting in his efforts to identify with aggression as a maneuver to defend the weak
the good or the bad character or to clarify his ones in Card 1, while in Card 2 he uses psy-
own potential to be good or bad: chotic denial as well as projection against his
aggressive impulses, whereby he transfers the
LRRH (Card 2): Here she is crying. She is pre- responsibility of aggressive acts onto a super-
occupied that her grandmoth- natural force, such as Satan.
er may have killed the wolf or c. In the Dwarf cards, J expresses depressive
that the wolf may have bitten thoughts in an overt and bizarre way, and his
the grandmother and got poi- death anxiety appears to be overwhelming.
soned, alienated, and herself d. In the Witch cards, Js responses reveal depri-
became a wolf, too. vation and anxiety helplessness. He uses the
mechanism of denial of fear in the form of the
J employs the mechanism of projection to cope inability of the threatening figure: the witch.
with his feelings of aggression: e. In the Giant cards, J openly expresses of
hatred and defensive aggression though an
Wolf (Card 2): His teeth are decayed and he interaction among giants. His responses to
2. Refer to Chapter 4 for a full discussion on the classification of idiosyncratic (bizarre) responses.
Figure 8.1. This drawing was made by J when asked to draw a person or himself. J drew himself as a queen, which indi-
cates part of his issues with his sexual identity.
Card 2A reflect a negative self-image as well adequately function in interpersonal interactions.

as his anxiety over being rejected by others. His relationships are superficial and characterized
f. Js responses to the LRRH cards are very by emotional distance; thus others may view him as
revealing in terms of their psychodynamic awkward, inept, and insensitive to their needs and
connotations; in Card 2 the wolf and the interests. As a result J is very socially isolated,
grandmother appear to be one and the bound- inhabiting his inner world without enjoying real
aries between aggressor and victim loosen up, contact with others.
while incorporation is also evident. It is In relation to himself, J seems to be unaware of
unclear whether the evil incorporates the his inner experience most of the time; he neither
good, or vice versa. The quality of the moth- focuses on it nor analyzes it. However, there may be
er-child relationship appears to be positive, a tendency to experience dysphoric feelings when
but it is of minor importance, as the major he compares himself to other children. This com-
theme concerns Js confusion between the parison may not be made on purpose, but, when it
aggressor and the victim. does occur, it may initiate negative feelings.
g. In the SW scenes, Js adaptation to the content Emotions play an interesting role in his life, since,
of the tale is significantly better than in his on the one hand he is easily stimulated by emotion-
responses to the previous cards. ally laden situations, and, on the other, he has a ten-
dency to internalize his feelings. That is, J is attract-
Rorschach Report ed by emotionally-tinged situations and becomes
enlivened by them. He tends to internalize his emo-
Js full responses to the Rorschach are included tions, but when he is unable to do so, he shows his
in Appendix B. J appears to be a socially immature feelings without modulation, and as a result his
individual whose thinking and reasoning is often emotional expression may at times seem more
awkward, concrete, and inappropriate. As a result, intense and childish than is age appropriate. His
he approaches life guardedly, avoiding to thorough- interest in emotional intensity does not lead to sat-
ly partake in complex experiences in order to avoid isfactory emotional interactions, since others may
dealingor failing to deal withlifes demands. feel that he acts immaturely, that his emotional
J shows a marked tendency towards approaching reactions are incongruous with the situation at
life in an emotionally and intellectually restricted hand, or that his reactions do not correlate with
way through minimal analysis and processing of his their own emotions.
experience. It seems that his goal is to be exposed It is possible that J is dealing with issues around
to as little external stimulation as possible in order his sexuality. However, it appears that he feels
to remain organized and under control. The threat uncomfortable expressing such concerns, thus he
of overstimulation leading to decompensation is may do so in an indirect way when the situation does
ever-present. It is possible however, that in this test- not seem to permit it. Given his difficulties with
ing situationas perhaps in all new situations that appropriate interpersonal interactions, his ability for
require him to perform for an outsiderhe made indirect, covert expression of such issues is an advan-
even more effort to remain guarded in order to tage, portraying that he is at times able to control the
function as best he could and to cope with the emo- way in which he thinks and expresses his concerns.
tional threat that this situation represented.
Overall, J seems to be an emotionally immature Case Study 2: P
individual with serious difficulties in his social skills,
communicating, understanding others, and express- Brief Historical Background
ing himself. He seems unable to grasp people in
their real dimensions, to understand them and to P is a Greek 10-year-old boy, who lives in Athens
and is in the fifth grade of primary school. He is interpersonal skills, emotional lability, attention
thin, his posture is bowing, and he has a slight deficit, and brief, recurrent, and stress-induced psy-
hump. His father is a Greek cardiologist, and his chotic symptoms, a final diagnosis was made of
mother is Spanish and works as a secretary in a for- Multidimensionally Impaired Disorder (MDI)
eign Embassy in Athens. P has a younger brother (7 (Kumra et al., 1998).
years old) who has been diagnosed with autism The WISC-III IQ test showed a mild discrepan-
spectrum disorder (ASD). This is the second mar- cy between verbal and nonverbal abilities, favoring
riage for both parents. Their relationship is bad; nonverbal skills: Full IQ 96, Verbal IQ 94, and
they fight regularly, and they dont share any emo- Performance IQ 100. These results were believed to
tional bond with their children. Ps father has occa- reflect accurately Ps abilities at the time of testing.
sional extramarital affairs.
Ps early development, up to 3 years of age, is FTT Report
reported as normal, and according to parental
account, Ps problems started after the birth of his Ps full responses to the FTT are included in
brother and were further exacerbated when his Appendix C. The psychologist who administered
brother was diagnosed with autism. During his pre- the test reported that, during the administration, P
school years, P exhibited difficulties in activity looked distracted and had great difficulty in con-
(hyperactivity) and attentional regulation (short centrating and thus responding to questions. Every
attention span and distractibility) as well as behav- now and then the administration process was inter-
ioral problems in the nursery school and at home rupted when P mentioned irrelevant thoughts or
(aggression, defiance, oppositionality), which performed actions that were relatively inappropri-
caused difficulties in his peer relationships. His par- ate to the test situation. For example, he mentioned
ents describe P as a loner, socially isolated, and that he likes biting his hands, and that he smokes
engaging in repetitive questioning, but also using three cigarettes a day.
neologisms. The parental relationship is poor and Ps responses to the FTT reveal his disturbed
characterized by chronic tension and high levels of mode of thinking. Overall, his difficulty to adapt to
discordance. P has an ongoing experience of being the fairy tale content, along with the large number
rejected by his father, who makes derogatory com- of bizarre responses, serve as an index of psy-
ments about his abilities and calls him crazy and chopathology. In addition, he revealed an intense
needing to be locked up in a mental hospital. preoccupation with sexual matters, as well as an
Both factors have had undoubtedly a profound obsession with death (an outcome of depression)
effect on Ps psychological development in child- (see Figure 8.2). Furthermore, Ps responses demon-
hood. strated high ambivalence, a strong need for affec-
At the age of 6 years, P was diagnosed as suffer- tion, low self-esteem, aggression as envy, and anxi-
ing from childhood-onset schizophrenia. Ps mother ety. More specifically, Ps anxiety refers to the fear
declined admission to an in-patient unit, and P was of getting hurt, to be left helpless and deprived.
treated on an outpatient basis with antipsychotic He expresses aggressive impulses, feelings of
medication (mainly Risperidone) and individual depression, and anxiety in a primal and flagrant
psychotherapy. His clinical progress was character- way.
ized by periods of slight improvements interspersed Moreover, Ps responses indicate an intense sex-
with periods of highly disruptive and disorganized ual preoccupation, along with a lack of inhibition in
behavior. Careful history-taking revealed that stress relation to these matters. At some point, he com-
usually precipitated such episodes. Given that Ps bined sexual insinuations with religious content,
premorbid history includes transient features of per- such as hatred expressed indirectly towards Virgin
vasive developmental disorder, as well as impaired Mary, Jesus mother.
Figure 8.2. This drawing was made by P in a free-drawing task. P indicated that his drawing represented the Devil.
P also expressed depression in an explicit man- ness, depression, and the need to make friends
ner. More specifically, he demonstrates depression (as particularly expressed in Card 3).
through expressing that he feels old, bored with life, e. The Giant cards reveal the theme of sexual-
empty, and worthless. ized aggression with religious content. His
At the same time, P is afraid of getting hurt or response to the third giant reflects denial of
that somebody will harm him, and generally, he aggression, through his inability to perceive
feels insecure and experiences his environment as the threatening/aggressive aspects of the pic-
hostile, aggressive, threatening, and deprived. As ture. His own loneliness is apparent, and the
far as we know, P experiences neglect as well as ver- happiness of others is a cause of envy.
bal and physical abuse in his family and in particu- f. The cards depicting scenes of LRRH reveal,
lar by his father. for the majority of children, the quality of the
His low self-esteem appears more clearly in the attachment to the mother. In Ps case, this
cards of the dwarfs: he is very short, he thinks relationship is of secondary significance. More
how small his hands are. specifically, the mother assumes a protective
P uses two defense mechanisms to cope with role, and there is a double identification with
aggressive impulses: (a) denial of aggression (in the wolf, as in Ps responses both LRRH and
Giant Card 3: He wonders whether he is going to the wolf share their feelings of loneliness and
sell wood or iron or if he is going to open a store affective needs.
with motorcycles?) where his response reflects g. The scenes from SW reveal strong feelings of
neutral or nonthreatening, nonaggressive content depression expressed through a desire to die,
on an overly aggressive picture; and (b) minimiza- but with a light of hope revealed through
tion (He is thinking what to dowhether he will SWs desire to offer a photograph of her and
commit a murder or beat a human being). the prince to the dwarfs to keep their memory
Furthermore, he demonstrates his need for affili- alive.
ation throughout the FTT. This might reflect the dif-
ficulties he encounters in his relationships, as well as Rorschach Report
the rejection he experiences from his social envi-
ronment because of his emotional and mental diffi- Ps full responses to the Rorschach are included
culties. in Appendix D. P presents as a boy with psychotic
Ps responses reflect the following main themes: symptomatology that leads him to a severe distor-
tion of reality and serious difficulties in perceiving
a. In the LRRH cards, P interchanges roles things as they really are and in understanding the
between LRRH and the wolf or between the correlations among events in the world. He seems
aggressor and the victim, as this is the way he to feel alone, cold, and isolated, helpless, and in
feels about himself. need for support from others that he fears he will
b. In the Wolf cards, P displays anthropomor- not receive, thus is forced to cope with lifes diffi-
phism and expresses deprivation, sexuality, culties on his own, in a defensively aggressive man-
and aggression. ner. An undercurrent of sadness runs through his
c. In the Dwarf cards, P expresses sexual feel- more pronounced psychotic presentation.
ings, as well as a negative self-esteem (which is P seems to pervasively distort reality, perceiving
apparent especially in his response for Card events in an idiosyncratic way most of the time.
3). His negative feelings about himself center Even in cases where the meaning of things is bla-
on the hands, the major means for handling tantly obvious, he tends to perceive them in a way
a sexual object. that is heavily tinged with his own projections, fears,
d. The Witch cards reveal the themes of loneli- and wishes, rendering his understanding of events
and his communication with others very peculiar. aggression. At times, less often, he attempts to pseu-
Some emotional issues seem to be recurrent and to do-intellectualize situations that scare or sadden
cause him a lot of distress, leading him to further him, stripping them of their emotional impact by
distortions of reality as a way to cope with the dys- behaving as if he can intellectually process, under-
phoria that they produce. stand, and contain them.
More specifically, P appears to be socially isolat- Ps view of himself is that of a torn, ineffective
ed, to feel very different from others, and to being that differs significantly from his peers, almost
respond to this with deep feelings of loneliness. as if he were alien to them, an extraterrestrial. He
Despite his social difficulties, he is aware of others seems pained by his social isolation, which he expe-
and shows a distant but usually present interest in riences as a massive rejection from his peers, further
them. He strongly feels the need for closeness and accentuating his view of himself as peculiar and
support but has difficulty experiencing these needs defective.
without ambivalence and the fear that they will not
be satisfied. He hopes that relationships can be ful-
filling and warm, but he feels unable to freely CONCLUSION
receive care from significant others. He often expe-
riences his strong need for connectedness and close- The FTT and the Rorschach were administered
ness more as a desire for a symbiotic relationship to two children ( J and P) who present psychotic
that will help him feel safe rather than as a mutual symptoms. Both tests revealed a series of personali-
type of interaction. When confronted with close- ty characteristics that are central to each childs per-
ness, he reacts with discomfort, as closeness (physi- sonality and psychopathology. However, the
cally and psychologically) feels icy cold; he longs Rorschach has a long history of use in the assess-
for it but doesnt know how to be soothed by it. ment of underlying thought disorder and in differ-
What seems to be of particular interest is Ps view entiating psychotic from nonpsychotic thinking in
of adult male and female figures, which he views as cases where the patient is reluctant to openly admit
highly sexualized and threatening. Particularly his to psychotic thinking. Accordingly, this test has
perspective on women entails dangerous sexuality, mainly been used in clinical samples for diagnostic
sexuality that hurts, or bites. One may wonder purposes.
how this affects his relationship to women and par- By contrast, the FTT is a projective personality
ticularly his primary caretakers. On the one hand test for children that evaluates a large number of
he may be seeking care and support, but, on the personality parameters and their interrelations. In
other, when he does receive affection he may this sense, it appears that the FTT is more analytical
become frozen, too overwhelmed by his sexualized in nature than the Rorschach, decomposing a
view of women and the threat that they entail. childs personality in a series of components and
His fear that others will not be able to support defense mechanisms.
him (or that closeness to them is overstimulating A comparison between the two reports for each
and dangerous) leads him to feel that he has to sur- case reveals the extent to which the tests findings
vive on his own. He often responds to this fear by overlap between them, as well as further informa-
an omnipotent, reality distorting and thus hollow tion specific to the FTT or the Rorschach. For
fantasy that he has the means to survive completely instance, in Js case, both tests revealed Js poor real-
on his own. He becomes defensively aggressive, ity contact. In addition, the tests have uncovered Js
showing off his prowess through acting aggres- strong sexual preoccupation, his low self-esteem,
sively and probably leading others to feel bothered and feelings of rejection.
or even threatened by him with no understanding In addition, when taken separately, each test
of the underlying fear and loneliness that spark this brings out additional and interesting findings. More
specifically, the Rorschach stresses that J often Another striking finding from these profiles con-
avoids being confronted with complex experiences cerns the dual identification with both the aggressor
and situations in order to remain composed and and the victim and the unique, creative way that the
under control. Js social functioning is significantly transformation from victim to aggressor (and vice
affected by his emotional immaturity and thinking, versa) takes place. This is apparent in Js description
which is often awkward, concrete and inappropri- of Card 2 from LRRH, in which the grandmother
ate. and the wolf take on the roles of both the aggressor
Js responses to the FTT, on the other hand, and the victim:
reveal anxiety related to death, high levels of defen-
sive aggression, and feelings of deprivation. LRRH (Card 2): She is crying. She is preoccu-
Moreover, it appears that J employs the mechanism pied that the grandmother
of splitting in dealing with his dual identity of both might have killed the wolf or
aggressor and victim. that the wolf might have bit-
Similarly, both the Rorschach and the FTT have ten the grandmother and she
shown Ps distortion of reality (leading to a highly was poisoned and she was
idiosyncratic way of perceiving and interpreting it), deformed and she became a
strong sexual preoccupations, loneliness, need for wolf, too.
affiliation, ambivalence, low self-esteem, and
aggression. Moreover, the Rorschach seems to be Similarly, in Ps responses of what LRRH is
more indicative of how P relates with his peers and thinking or feeling (Card 3), he makes LRRH into
significant others. Based on Ps personality, the the wolf:
Rorschach stresses the awkwardness in Ps social
functioning and how this leads to social isolation LRRH (Card 3): She is scared I guess; (?) its
and low self-concept. In addition, according to difficult; (?) she is scared that
these findings, it appears that Ps desire for affilia- a hunter will come and he
tion and affection reflects more a need for a symbi- will shoot her because he will
otic relationship than for a reciprocal type of inter- think she is the wolf.
action with the others.
Interestingly, although both tests detected high According to Lafforgue (1990), fairy tales could
levels of aggression in P, his responses to the FTT be an effective means for establishing rapport with
indicate that feelings of envy trigger aggressiveness. psychotic and autistic children. When appropriate-
Additionally, the FTT shows that P is experiencing ly chosen, a tale conveys a reservoir, acting as a
high anxiety, he feels old and tired as if his life has container of the childs aggression. This authentic
lost its meaning, he is impulsive and finds relief in function filters the aggression according to a simpli-
thoughts about death. fied representation of real life (the tales plot, its
A comparison between the FTT profiles of both characters, etc.). Hence, there is no need of soften-
children reveals some significant similarities: ing the harsh or cruel elements of fairy tales in
order to make them less threatening to children, as
1. a large number of bizarre responses, usually those may be the most relieving ones in terms of lib-
expressed through fairy tale plot distortions, erating their impulses.
commonly revealing anxiety, aggression, or Despite the differences between P and J, their
sexual concerns; similarities suggest the necessity for further studies
2. high levels of aggression; involving children with psychotic symptoms and
3. high levels of depression; thought disorder. These studies would allow the
4. and negative self-image. establishment of a generic FTT personality profile
typical of children with a psychotic personality the pathology. The study of the personality of a
structure. The Rorschach and the FTT provide sup- child with some form of psychopathology plays a
plementary information specific to what each test significant role in choosing an appropriate thera-
assesses. However, the FTT goes beyond any diag- peutic intervention.
nostic purposes, revealing the personality behind
Appendix A
Js Responses on the Fairy Tale Test and Scoring Sheet
(Scoring of Variables and/or Defense Mechanisms follow the childs response in brackets)
LITTLE RED RIDING HOOD
Here are three pictures of LRRH. What does each one think and feel? (Why?)
Card 1:
She thinks of food or birth (?) she feels hungry. Maybe she thinks of birth, in case her belly is pumped. She
has a great fantasy [AFTC1, B, AMB3 (alternatives), SEXPREO2, ON1]
Card 2:
She thinks of the brain . . . of the prince. She thinks of her prince. She is thinking of killing him, in case he
found another woman. She is glad, because maybe it is true maybe its not. [AFTC1, B, AGRRET3, SEX-
PRE1, DENIAL]
Card 3:
She is afraid of the wolf, in case he eats her. But she doesnt show that because the others will call her a
coward. She feels scared [AFTC2, ANX1 (insecurity), ANX1 (rejection), DENIAL]
Which of the three is the one of the story? Why?
This one (Card 3). Because she is not hungry and she is not shy.
Which one would you eat had you been the wolf? Why?
This one (Card 1), if he had to choose, because she is the most sensitive. Otherwise, all 3 of them.
WOLF
Here are three wolves. What does each one think and feel? (Why?)
Card 1:
He thinks of eating LRRH. I dont know, he is stupid. He thinks of eating the bad queen because of what
she is doing to SW and to LRRH. He feels very hungry because he is foolish. Why does he want to eat the
girl? Is he stupid? [AFTC1, SE-1, B, AGRDEF3, ANX2 (helplessness), DOUBLE IDENTIFICATION]
Appendix AContinued
Card 2:
His teeth are decayed and he thinks of not eating LRRH so that they dont break. He feels hungry but he
doesnt show it. He is domesticated. Maybe Satan has been inside him and thats why he feels sad because
he wants to do everything by himself, he doesnt want anyone else to help him, but Satan is helping him.
[AFTC1, B, ANX2 (illness), D1, ON1, DENIAL]
Card 3:
He is thinking of eating LRRH but Satan is not inside him (?) because he is hungry. He feels hungry.
[AFTC1, B, ON1, UNDOING, SPLITTING]
Which is the wolf in the story of Little Red? Why?
This one (Card 3). (He chose the card and he hides it behind a piece of paper). Because he is the most wild.
Because he is stupid. Normal wolves must be domesticated.
Who scares you most? Why?
(No answer. The examiner repeats the question). [NEGATION] This one (Card 2). Because he is good. I
would take him to my place. He mustnt be sad, he must be savage, to show his wickedness [NEGATION,
REVERSAL, B]
DWARF
Here are three dwarfs. What does each think and feel? (Why?)
Card 1:
I dont know! I am not in every persons mind (?) to become young or to become immortal or never die.
Because he doesnt want to see death (?) he wants to be young (?) because he wants to do more things. He
feels ugly [AFTC1, ANX3 (death), ANX1 (self), SE-1, B, REPRESSION]
Card 2:
He wants to eat poisonous mushrooms. Most of all, he wants to die, he wants to commit suicide, but I dont
want to commit suicide. (?) I want to become immortal, but there are no immortals. He feels better because
he might have fever. He might have eaten ice-cream and he has a sour throat. [AFTC1, B, ANX3 (death),
D3, AMB3 (conflict), NEGATION, OVERINVOLVEMENT]
Appendix AContinued
Card 3:
He is very well. Probably, he fought at Russias mountains. It seems to me as if he is Russian or Australian.

He thinks of vomiting (?) When I want to relieve myself, this is what I do. He may feel heavy from his activ-
ities, the bank, and the debts. He feels better because he can fight the estate agent so that he doesnt take
his land. If he doesnt have land he wont be able to work. Without a job, he wont have money. Without
money he wont have a house. Without a house he will be homeless. If he is homeless, he will die. [AFTC1,
B, ANX3 (death), ANX3 (helplessness), LACK OF BOUNDARIES, OVER-INVOLVMENT]
Which is the dwarf of the Snow White story? Why?
This one (Card 2) . . . later J chooses Card 1. (?) Because he looks as if he is more wise.
Which of the three does Snow White wish to marry? Why?
This one (Card 2). I dont know, because he is more handsome, the rest of them are old. But she wouldnt
want to marry anybody because they are short.
WITCH
Here are three witches. What does each think and feel? (Why?)
Card 1:
To do magic, voodoo, tell tales, rotten luck, nagging. Because she is bad. She feels better. Have you seen
any witch feeling worse because she does magic? [AFTC2]
Card 2:
Nothing, she is a gypsy woman, she is not magic. She thinks of a place to stay, to find food, water etc. She
feels worse because she is hungry and she is thirsty [AFTC1, ANX2 (deprivation), NPRO1]
Card 3:
To kill all the good persons or to conquer the whole world, but she cant even catch a Pelican. He thinks of
that because Satan too wants to conquer the world. He feels worse because her plans did not go well,
because the world might throw her soured tomatoes. [AFTC2, FA2, ANX3 (helplessness), DENIAL]
Which is the witch in fairy tales? Why?
This one (Card 1). She is luxurious, she has long nails and she wears make-up
Appendix AContinued
Which of the three scares you most? Why?
This one (Card 3). The scarecrow. She is ugly.
Which is the most wicked? Why?
This one (Card 2). She is like an old maid, she is ugly.
What can a wicked witch do?
Magic, Satans staff. Do you do spells? She likes them.
Name the witches:
Card 1: Silence [B]

Card 2: Small dragonet
Card 3: Skull [B]
GIANT
Here are three giants. What does each think and feel? (Why?)
Card 1:
He expresses contempt to the other two because he hates them (?) I dont know why he hates them. He
feels nice because he says, if I express contempt to them they will attack me so I will kill them or they will
fight and they will die in the battle. [AFTC1, B, AGRDEF3]
Card 2:
He is thinking of pretending to be stupid so that he goes to a circus to gain lots of money. He is stupid. (?)
Puppeteer. He feels nice that he will go to the circus because the whole world will watch him and they will
throw him tomatoes. They might call him the circus beast. [AFTC1, B, SE-1, DMT2, ANX2 (rejection)]
Card 3:
He feels nice. (?) Because . . . nothing . . . nothing . . . nothing (?) He feels nice because he will kill the
other two (?) because they might take his place or take his wife too. [AFTC1, B, AGRDEF3]
Which is the giant in fairy tales? Why?

Appendix AContinued
This one (Card 3) after he had already chosen the other two. I dont know. He holds a cudgel.
Nobody. Nobody. (?) I am not scared. This one (Card 3). (?) He holds a cudgel. [NEGATION]. Afterwards,
he commented about another child and he said that Card 3 would scare that child a lot. [PROJECTION]
This one (Card 3). He holds a cudgel.
What can a wicked giant do?
He can kill people. (?) I am not answering. Read my mind! (?) Because he is older (in low voice).
Name the giants
Card 1: Orestis
Card 2: Thomas
Card 3: Panagiotakis
SCENES FROM THE STORY OF

Here we have three scenes from the story of Little Red Riding Hood. Please describe what is going on
in each picture.
Card 1:
Her mother is scolding her because she brought back the basket and the wolf could have attacked her. The
mother feels good. She scolded LRRH for her own good. LRRH feels better because the wolf didnt eat
her. [AFTC2, MOR1]
Card 2:
She is crying. She is preoccupied that the grandmother might have killed the wolf or that the wolf might
have bitten the grandmother and she was poisoned and she was deformed and she became a wolf too.
[AFTC1, B, D2, AMB3 (alternatives), OA3, MOR2, SPLITTING OF SELF, PSYCHOTIC SPLITTING]
Appendix AContinued
Card 3:
They are both glad (?) LRRH with her grandmother are joyful and happy because the wolf didnt eat them
[AFTC1, DENIAL]
With which card does the story end? Why?
This one (Card 3). All of them are happy.
With which card would you like it to end? Why?
This one (Card 3). The are all joyful that they escaped from the wolf.
SCENES FROM SNOW WHITE

AND THE SEVEN DWARFS
Here we have three scenes from the story of Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs. Please describe what
is going on in each picture.
Card 1:
Richard is getting married with SW. They feel good, each one, for the other. They are thinking of having
children. [AFTC3, SEXPREO1]
Card 2:
SW talks to her father. She is preoccupied with money. Maybe Richard does not have money to get mar-
ried. She feels worse about that. [AFTC1, ANX2 (deprivation)]
Card 3:
They are all glad that SW will marry Richard. SW is thinking of kissing Richard. [AFTC3, SEXPREO1]
This one (Card 3 or 1). They are all glad that SW will marry Richard.
This one (Card 1. Then he chooses card 3. He finally chooses 1). Because they love each other, the queen
and the king.
*(e.g., divorced, single parent, adopted child)

Ambivalence (AMB)
Aggression as Retaliation (AGRET)
Oral Needs (ON)
Desire to Help (DH)
Anxiety (ANX)
Depression (D)
Repetitions (R)
Self-Esteem (SE)
Morality (M)
Bizarre Responses (B)
General Comments:
Appendix B
Js Responses on the Rorschach
Card 1:
1. A butterfly. (Further prompting was given. He turns the card upside down). Just that.
Inquiry: What makes it look like a butterfly?
The big wings.
Card 2:
2. Two little elephants.
Inquiry: What makes it look like elephants?
Two elephants rubbing their trunks. I dont know if they are in the circus. These elephants are small. You
said small? Because their trunks are small. An elephant has a long trunk, at least 56 meters. You said they
may be in the circus? Yes, because they look like they may be dancing. Or maybe its just the issue of friend-
ship. What do you mean? Actually it looks more like they are just touching their trunks. Instead of hold-
ing hands like friends they are rubbing their trunks.
Card 3:
3. (Turns the card upside down and then again.) A monster.
Inquiry: What makes it look like a monster?
Hands, head, teeth and the mouth. Giant hands. Giant hands? They are weird. Big. No human has such
big hands.
Card 4:
4. A fog. Humans usually know what fog is. But it could also form monsters. Or the desert. Some peo-
ple see reflections in the desert.
Inquiry. What makes it look like fog?
Because it is a monster. No human looks like that. And its black. Usually fog is gray. What makes it look
like a monster? Big head, weird hands, and no feet.
Further prompting for more answers was given. No, nothing else.
Appendix BContinued
Card 5:
5. (Turns the card upside down and then in normal position again.) A fog monster. Just fog creating weird
shapes. You know what fog is? Thats what it looks like.
Inquiry: What makes it look like fog?
It has a weird shape like a monster. Monster? Weird hands and weird feet and a weird head. Weird head?
Because it is small. Weird hands? Because they are big. Finito.
Card 6:
6. (Turns the card upside down and then again in normal position.) Small pause. Looks like a big thin rod. And
this is MOUXLA on it. I dont know if it is a rod or a monster with a small head. Mouxla? Because it
is gray. Everything is gray. Clouds, sky, the road, seals, elephants, mist, butterfliesrarely, but some-
times even butterflies are gray. Or gray paint.
The monster is here. Hands, head, weird feet.
Card 7:
7. (Turns the card upside down and then again.) It is made by the fog. A lot of fog comes together and it
becomes huge. Big head, small feet, no hands.
Inquiry: What makes it look like fog?
Because it has a small head, hands and small feet. It is fog.
Card 8:
8. 2. . . . No, no, it isnt. 2 leopards that are going up. Normal feet.
Inquiry.
They have a normal head and feet and they are going up.
Card 9:
9. A cane deep in the earth.
Inquiry: What makes it look like a cane?
It has something normal about it.

Appendix BContinued
You said earth? Yes, its green.
Card 10:
10. The yellow are fish
Inquiryrepeat answer.
Cause they are yellow and small.
Card 11:
11. A scorpion.
Cause he has big teeth and a big mouth. They didnt draw his stomachit couldnt fit into the image so
they left it out.
Card 12:
12. Two elephants.
They are normally big but these ones are very skinny. Elephants are more than 100 kilos. These ones
are skinny.
Card 13:
13. A crab.
Because he has pincers.

Appendix C
Ps Responses on the Fairy Tale Test and Scoring Sheet
(Scoring of Variables and/or Defense Mechanisms follow the childs response in brackets)
Here are three pictures of LRRH. What does each one think and feel? (Why?)
Card 1:
How should I know? She is thinking that a wolf will come and it will hurt her. It will swear at her. [AFTC1,
B, ANX1 (harm)]
Card 2:
Is she the same? She says how nice that I am going to grandma to give her the things I brought; tomatoes,
carrots, fruit and vegetables! She is poor. (AFTC2)
Card 3:
She is scared, I guess (?) its difficult (?) she is scared that a hunter will come and he will shoot her because
he will think that she is the wolf. [AFTC1, B, AMB1 (hesitation), ANX3 (harm)]
Which of the three is the one of the story? Why?
This one (Card 2). Because she is smiling.
Which one would you eat had you been the wolf? Why?
This one (Card 3). Because she looks like a person.
WOLF
Here are three wolves. What does each one think and feel? (Why?)
Card 1:
The poor wolf is crying because he has nothing to eat and he says how am I going to live now and he
feels alone. [AFTC1, ANX3 (deprivation), D2]
Appendix CContinued
Card 2:
He is thinking about the skyline, that he is going to travel to the skyline. His travel will be in the mountains
and the woods. He is thinking of finding a girl, of being loved and get engaged. [AFTC1, B, SEXPREO2,
ANTHROPOMORPHISM]
Card 3:
He is thinking wicked things, to eat someone with little hunger but a lot of wickedness. He is going to eat
a monkey (?) He threw a stone at his back. [AFTC1, OA2, RATIONALIZATION]
Which is the wolf in the story of Little Red Riding Hood? Why?
This one (Card 1). Because at the end of LRRHs fairy tale, he went to eat the grandma and the hunter shot
him, and he is crying and says how am I going to live now? [D2, ANX2 (helplessness)]
Who scares you most? Why?
This one (Card 3). Because he is savage, and he is the stronger, the tallest and very decided. He doesnt
know what he is doing, he is mad; he does whatever comes in his mind.
DWARF
Here are three dwarfs. What does each think and feel? (Why?)
Card 1:
He is thinking how short he is and he sees the floor near his head. He feels distracted. [AFTC1, SE-1]
Card 2:
He is in love with Snow White. He wants to kiss her and he is very decided. Yes, he will kiss her. [AFTC1,
SEXPREO2]
Card 3:
He is thinking how small his hands are. He is thinking of the other two and whether he is going to love a
woman and live. He is dreaming of having bigger hands to catch the woman. [AFTC1, B, SEXPREO3,
AMB1 (doubt), SE-1]
Which is the dwarf of the Snow White story? Why?

Appendix CContinued
This one (Card 3). Because he is smart, from the eyes and his laugh. [COMPENSATION]
Which of the three would Snow White wish to marry? Why?
This one (Card 2 ). He is the most handsome one and nice.
WITCH
Here are three witches. What does each think and feel? (Why?)
Card 1:
She is thinking that Snow White is very beautiful. She wants to kill her, to hurt her. She is thinking about
lying to her husband that she didnt kill her, and kill her. (?) She hates her (?) she is the most beautiful one
in the whole country. [AFTC2, AGRENVY3, ANX1 (disapproval)].
Card 2:
She is thinking that she will die because she is old. She feels good. She wants to go to hell. She has her
friends there and she wants to leave life because she is bored (?) Because she is tired. [AFTC1, B, D3,
DENIAL]
Card 3:
She is thinking how she will sell the apples in the market, because she wants to take the money and go to
a hotel to find people that understand herthe hotels waiters. She lives alone in a hut, with a rabbit.
[AFTC1, B, NAFIL2, D1]
Which is the witch in fairy tales? Why?
This one (Card 3). She holds a stick and she is old.
This one (Card 1 or 3). Card 1 because I am afraid of her voice; Card 2 because I am scared of her eyes,
her hair. [FA1]
This one (Card 2). I dont know (?) she is wearing a straight dress.
Appendix CContinued
What can a wicked witch do?
She can make you disappear, take you to hell, get horns, and make you her servant. [ANX2 (helplessness),
B]
Name the witches:
Card 1: Vasiliki
Card 2: Dimitra
Card 3: Sofia
GIANT
Here are three giants. What does each think and feel? (Why?)
Card 1:
He is thinking about what to do: murdering or hitting a person. He has been kicked in his wee-wee with
high hills. (?) He kissed Mother Marys daughter and she didnt want to. She slapped him and kicked him
in his dick. [AFTC1, AMB2 (indecision), B, SEXPREO3, AGRRET3, DISPLACEMENT]
Card 2:
He is thinking what he is going to eat, what kind of dirt he is going to take, if he will get full of mud, if he
will cut his hair, if he will curse (?) he is thinking what kind of prank this asshole will do. [AFTC1, B, AMB1
(indecision), SE-1]
Card 3:
He is wondering whether to sell wood or iron, or opening a store with machines. He is pleased because he
is thinking and he likes thinking. [AFTC1, DENIAL]
Which is the giant in fairy tales? Why?
This one (Card 3). He looks like he comes from fairy talesyou can understand it when you see him. He is
the shortest. Card 1 is the tallest. He wears nice clothes.
This one (Card 2 ). He seems crazy and I am afraid of crazy people (?) They might do something bad to
me (?) Give me drugs. I am afraid of their face. [ANX3 (insecurity)]
Appendix CContinued
This one (Card 3). He holds a wooden stick, he will kill a human being, or he will kidnap children that ride
in the village. He wants to do something. He is bored of his lonely life. He wants to work and he thinks
that this is work and of course he likes work a lot. [AGRENVY3, D1]
What can a wicked giant do?
He can break the whole earth into pieces and then go away to another planet, a million times bigger than
our planet. He can go with a helicopter. [B, AGRA2]
Name the giants:
Card 1: Takis
Card 2: Giorgoshe is crazy, fool, I am afraid of him.
Card 3: Makis
SCENES FROM THE STORY OF

Here we have three scenes from the story of Little Red Riding Hood. Please describe what is going on
in each picture.
Card 1:
Her mother is scolding her because she went to the wolfs house in order to talk about their problems. The
wolf does not have anything to eat and LRRH gave him food and talked to him nicely. LRRH has other
problemsshe cant go cycling by herself. She wants to go out alone. [AFTC1, B, DH1, NAFIL1]
Card 2:
This is after her mother scolded her. She is crying in her room. She loves her mother and she doesnt want
to fight with her because she went to the wolfs house. [AFTC2, D2, NAFCT1]
Card 3:
The mother and the child became friends again. She said sorry, I will not go to the wolfs house again, we
will go together; another time, said mom, together with the gun or with a knife, because we dont know
what he might do. [AFTC1, B, ANX2 (harm), NPRO1, AGRDEF2]

Appendix CContinued
This one (Card 3). Because, first, in Card 1, they argued, then she was sad and in Card 3 they became
friends again. [NAFIL1]
This one (Card 2). Because, the fairy tale can continue and keep us in suspense. What will happen with
LRRH who is sad? Will they become friends again? [RATIONALIZATION]
SCENES FROM SNOW WHITE

AND THE DWARFS
Here we have three scenes from the story of Snow White and the seven dwarfs. Please describe what is
going on in each picture.
Card 1:
Now he is saying to her I love you, I am in love with you, I dont want to be away from you and I want
you to love me forever, and I want to sleep with you tonight. [AFTC2, SEXPREO1, NAFCT3]
Card 2:
Lets assume he is the same one, but now he has a beard. They got old, and they got married, they have
lived many years. Snow White got old and they are discussing how years went by, and they are saying now
we are going to die together. They are happy because they will die together. [AFTC1, B, D2, NAFCT2,
REVERSAL]
Card 3:
Before dying, the prince went to his room to sleep while Snow White is playing outside in the balcony with
the dwarfs. She says be quiet, my husband is asleep. There, she announces that she and her husband will
die. I will give you a photograph to think about me and my husband. [AFTC1, B, D3]
This one (Card 3). Because the prince and Snow White die. [D3]
This one (Card 3). Because, I preferred this one. They have lived everything with her husband; they got
engaged, they got married, years went by. [D1]
*(e.g., divorced, single parent, adopted child)

Ambivalence (AMB)
Aggression as Retaliation (AGRET)
Oral Needs (ON)
Desire to Help (DH)
Anxiety (ANX)
Depression (D)
Repetitions (R)
Self-Esteem (SE)
Morality (M)
Bizarre Responses (B)
General Comments:
Appendix D
Ps Responses on the Rorschach

Card 1:
1. A bat. A bat and those two are holding her to help her fly. And they are pulling her up. All three are
in the air. And these are the bats hands that help her fly. Or they can act as pincers, if she is in dan-
ger she can use them to fight, or she can eat with them, or hold something. Like hands. And from the
waist down she has something like a washing machine that is spinning really fast, like a machine help-
ing her fly on her own.
Inquiry: If you hold the card a little more you may see more things . . .
(Pauses for a while, looks out of the window.) No, thats it.
Inquiryrepetition of answer.
Yes.
What makes it look like it is turning?
Here, it is gray and this in here (rubs card) makes it look like it is turning. It may even go with 250 kilo-
meters per hour.
Begins with wish for help but also admitting helplessness. Also signifying he trusts those two people who
are testing him. But he also states he does have the weapons himself to fight for his life if needed. But to
the degree of becoming INC2.
Card 2:
2. Again, a bat. A bat? Or a vat? She has intense colors. Its a bat. But with color. Like two people here,
two Santa Clauses. They are sleeping and gradually getting inside the bat. She has a house in her body
and they are going in and out. And instead of legs they have water. Frozen water.
Inquiry: What makes it look like frozen water?
Because it has this lighter color here, like frozen.
Santa Clauses? Because they have these SKOUFOUS.
Again need for safety in anothers insides. Fetal. Need for warmth connected with freezing cold. So need
for safety while at same time contact with other is so frozen.
Appendix DContinued
Card 3:
3. Two women without hair in high heels. And here is a bra that they are holding and lifting up for oth-
ers to see. And the bra has teeth here. It bites. And here is a bow between them. And in the back
there are two guitars drawn on the wall to decorate the room, so that the room seems sexy.
Females viewed as showing off their sexuality. Sexuality bites, hurts, dangerous. Or femininity? Or
mom?
Card 4:
4. Like a rhinoceros with two tusks. Like the teeth that elephants have.
Inquiry: What makes it look like a rhinoceros?
Here it is. (Shows the shape of it.)
Male characteristics are also more aggressive, distorted, phallic, sexualized.
Card 5:
5. Again a bat.
Inquiry: What makes it look like a bat?
The wings here. And the legs. Oh, cutie cutie. No one is helping her fly. She has no help. And she
defends herself with these. Like hands that she can punch with. These fingers can grab a human, slit his
throat. Unless he has a gun. If a man wants to he can conquer anything, right? Here she has ears like a
dogs.
Now (after view of parents as sexualized?) you have to stand alone. Be defensive, aggressive, kill, fight
to survive. Or at least hope you will, right?
Card 6:
6. A tiger.
Inquiry: What makes it look like a tiger?
Mousouda, and these protrude like hair and these ears. He is standing, he has stopped. His belly is long
and narrow. And here are the legs. But with only two fingers. He doesnt use them. And here are the
claws, near his butt, near his waist. The spine is here.
What makes it look like a spine?

Appendix DContinued
It is straight. Holding him together like a zipper.
Zipper?
Yes, it is straight like zippers.
Then you have to move to a more aggressive, strong animal. But even here he falters, cant help him-
self, needs to be held together by a zipper.
Card 7:
7. A crab. Here. With 4 meter cheeks. Up and standing with his legs spread. And his thighs here in the
middle. Lots of claws everywhere. Even his legs can open and crash an animal like pincers. Eyes here
and the nose down here. Very luxurious eyes, like lenses, very strong eyes.
What makes them look luxurious?
He can see things when there is light and when it is dark. These eyes are very good eyes.
Again small animal, closer to him? But strong, supernatural, powerful, omnipotent.
Card 8:
8. A boat. With torn sails.
Inquiryrepetition of answer:
And this is the lower part of the boat, where the engine would be. And here is a KAGKELO that con-
nects the sails to the rest of the boat. And here are two panthers hanging from the boat.
Body is torn. Or actually your ability to sail, to move, is torn.
Card 9:
9. (Upside down.) An extraterrestrial. Like us. But different legs, different eyes, different face. The ears
are here. Hands here. Well, actually wings. And his legs. They have poison and they are long. Two
feet tall. And here are his thighs. And above the thighs the knees. It is the opposite from us.
Better if you just leave this world, be different, accept it, hide there.
Appendix DContinued
Card 10:
10. Very hard. I wish you could give me twenty more of these but not this one. I cant see anything. Like
a shark. A fish-shark. Here is the body. Generally it is a fish. In particular it is a shark. And all these
other figures are throwing things at himtheyre having a party around him. Ribbons, toys, it is all
like the carnival.
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from the developmental psychopathology perspective.
Ad-Dabbagh, Y., & Greenfield, B. (2001). Multiple In M. S. Keshavan & R. M. Murray (Eds.),
Complex Developmental Disorder: The Multiple Neurodevelopmental and adult psychopathology (pp.
and Complex evolution of the Childhood 213235). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Borderline Syndrome construct. Journal of the Hollis, C. (1999). A study of the course and adult outcomes of
American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 40(8), child and adolescent-onset psychoses. London: University
954964. of London.
American Psychiatric Association. (1994). Diagnostic and Jorgensen, K., Anderson, T. J., & Dam, H. (2000). The
statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed.). diagnostic efficiency of the Rorschach depression
Washington, DC: Author. index and the schizophrenia index: A review.
Beer, M. D. (1995). Psychosis: From mental disorder to Assessment, 7, 259280.
disease concept. History of Psychiatry, 6 (22(II)), 177 Joshi, P. T. & Towbin, K. E. (2002). Psychosis in
200. Childhood & Its Management. In K. L. Davis, D.
Caplan, R. (1994). Thought disorder in childhood. Journal Charney, J. T. Coyle, C. Nemeroff (eds)
of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, NeuropsychopharmacologyThe Fifth Generation of Progress.
33(5), 605615. pp. 613624. Baltimore, MD: Lippincott, Williams &
Cohen, D. J., Paul, R., & Volkmar, F. R. (1986). Issues in Wilkins.
the classification of pervasive and other developmen- Kleiger, J. H. (1999). Disordered thinking and the Rorschach:
tal disorders: Toward DSM-IV. Journal of the American Theory, research, and differential diagnosis. Hillsdale, NJ:
Academy of Child Psychiatry, 25, 213220. The Analytic Press.
Dykens, E., Volkmar, F., & Glick, M. (1991). Thought dis- Kolvin, I. (1971). Studies in the childhood psychoses.
order in high-functioning autistic adults. Journal of British Journal of Psychiatry, 6, 209234.
Autism and Developmental Disorders, 21, 291301. Kraeplin, E. (1919). Dementia praecox and paraphrenia.
Eggers, C., Bunk, D., & Krause, D. (2000). Schizophrenia Edinburgh: Livingstone.
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Developmental Disorders , 30, 2940. variant of very early-onset schizophrenia? Journal of the
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PART V
CROSS-CULTURAL APPLICATION
OF THE FAIRY TALE TEST
INTRODUCTION
hen I first decided to expand my research on schools, was ensuring the childrens familiarity with
W the Fairy Tale Test (FTT) to include stan-
dardizations in other countries, I was hesitant and
the stories of Little Red Riding Hood (LRRH) and
Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs (SW). While
skeptic about the outcome. My hesitation was based most children have heard the stories at least once in
on a number of reasons, such as the degree of chil- their lives, some childrenespecially those from
drens familiarity with the tales (as most cultures lower socioeconomic backgroundshad never
have their own unique folklore), the time-consum- heard them before. In those cases, administrators
ing process of training administrators and test first went to the schools to read the stories to the
administration, the difficulty in convincing parents children, and then went back after at least a week
and schools to collaborate, the large samples for the testing. This procedure was used in some
required, the necessity of my collaborators to persist countries (e.g., India), while in others the sample
through to completion, and, finally, the very nature consisted only of those children who already knew
of the FTTa projective test that requires individual the stories (e.g., China).
administration. Sample size varied from country to country,
Now, in 2007, as some standardizations have depending on factors such as the size of the popula-
been completed, while others are underway, I am tion of each country, the availability of schools to
confident that the FTT can, in fact, satisfactorily be participate, getting permission from parents, the
applied as a cross-cultural instrument of childrens feasibility of traveling, etc.
personality assessment. As all test-developers are The Russian sample was the smallest, consisting
well aware, there are difficulties in every attempt to of 600 children. For the other countries, the sample
standardize a test, and these difficulties increase size varied between 850 and 1,100 children.
when the test is administered on an individual basis However, only the Greek, Russian, and Indian stan-
and the target population consists of school-age chil- dardizations were fully completed when this book
dren. Testing children is a real challenge; for every was written. The results of the Chinese and the
child tested, one must ensure the parents consent Turkish standardizations are based on 500 children
and the schools collaboration. School-aged chil- out of a sample of 814 and 1,000 children, respec-
dren are usually tested within school hours, at tively. The Russian standardization is based on the
school, which is also a real challenge for the school, initial standardization of the FTT in Greece, which
which must accept the presence of an consisted of twenty-six personality variables instead
examiner/administrator and provide sufficient time of the twenty-nine that were derived from the re-
for every pupil to take the test. The collaboration standardization of the FTT in Greece.
and assistance of our many participating schools One remarkable finding from the FTTs cross-
have been central to the success of this project. cultural application is how well children from these
Finally, this project could never have taken place diverse countries identified with the fairy tale char-
without the childrens willingness to participate and acters presented in the test cards. This confirms the
their patience in responding to the FTT questions. cross-cultural nature of these tales and validates
One further difficulty that demanded extra effort Jungs theories on the similarities between fairy
from the supervisor of the study, as well as the tales and the collective unconscious. According to
197
that view, LRRH is not simply a blond or red- er, static; it corresponds to a dynamic and yet
haired young girl from France or Germany with a organized set of characteristics that uniquely influ-
red outfit; the wolf, a wild animal that lives in the ences a persons cognition, motivation, and behav-
woods; or the witch, a menacing old lady. It is not ior in various situations (Ryckman, 2004). In that
the external or physical attributes of the figure that sense, ones personality is not detached from the
initiate identification and projection, but the under- time and place where one lives; it is influenced by
lying symbolism. LRRH left the security of her the culture, which corresponds to the codes of man-
home to find herself alone, crossing a forest, meet- ners, dress, language, religion, rituals, and norms of
ing a wild animal, and experiencing the threat of behavior, such as law and morality, history, and the
being devoured as well as the relief of being saved, systems of belief that characterize a society. These
with the triumph of the happy ending. Children components are manifested in the artsmusic, liter-
regardless of genderproject onto her all kinds of ature, painting, theater and filmand influence a
anxieties and their ways of coping with danger and societys values, including those related to family
the unknown. and child rearing. Accordingly, a childs personality
While the majority of children recognized the can only be defined and understood within a broad-
figures on the cards, the giant was not very well er sociocultural context.
known. The stories of LRRH and SW have been A full review of the sociohistorical background
translated into most languages, yet stories with for each country is beyond the scope of this book;
giants, such as Jack and the Beanstalk and Tom however, the authors include an adequate descrip-
Thumb, have not. tion of the historical, social, and religious back-
The figures that stimulated the large majority of grounds of their respective countries to facilitate a
uncommon, creative, and original responses are the better understanding of the interpretation of results.
witch and the giant, possibly because those figures
are not linked to a specific story.
The FTT is a projective personality test. In that REFERENCES
sense, it attempts to describe aspects of a persons
character that remain stable throughout his life- Ryckman, R. (2004). Theories of personality. Belmont, CA:
timethe individuals character pattern of behavior, Thomson/Wadsworth.
thought, and feeling. Our personality is not, howev-
Chapter 9
THE APPLICATION OF THE FAIRY TALE TEST IN RUSSIA

E LENA SAVINA
INTRODUCTION Russian population now lives below the recognized

poverty level (Volkov & Denenberg, 2005).
National Character, Family, Economic difficulties have lead to high levels of
and Child Rearing in Russia stress, anxiety, and depression and have diminished
peoples perceived control over life choices
ussia is located at the intersection of the West (Carlson, 2001).
R and the East and therefore embraces features
from both Western and Eastern cultures. The
Centralization and high state-control were
prominent features of the Soviet economy and soci-
Russian culture combines two opposing mentalities: ety; before the reforms all power was concentrated
a rational, mind-focused Western approach, based at the federal level. Only recently have new regula-
on pragmatism and material relationships, and an tions given provincial governments more rights and
irrational, soul-focused Eastern spirituality, based responsibilities. Under Soviet rule, the state strictly
on mysticism and emotions (Butler & Kuraeva, controlled the economy, communications, and trav-
2001). This combination makes Russian culture rich el. The state played a parental role, providing its
and produces a unique way of thinking, feeling, and citizens the perquisites of a welfare system that
living (Butler & Kuraeva, 2001). resulted in passivity and a lack of initiative
In 1991, after the fall of the Soviet Union, Russia (Althausen, 1996). Paternalistic expectations from
as well as other former Soviet republics became the state are still strong in modern Russia. A survey
independent states.3 Today, Russia is rapidly chang- conducted in 2002 (N = 1,264) suggested that 64
ing, moving away from totalitarian institutions and percent of young people in Russia believe that the
values toward a more open, democratic society. The state should take care of all citizens and provide a
political, economic, and societal transformations in decent standard of living (Zorkaia & Diuk, 2005).
Russia during the past twenty years have been enor-
mous. The introduction of a market economy Russian National Character
resulted in the loss of a collective welfare system
and job security, unemployment, and periods of Culture plays a formative role in the cognitive
economic hardship and stagnation (Monee Project, and socioemotional development of the individual
1999). Many Russians are disappointed with the (Elliot et al., 2001). Markus and Kitayama (1991)
direction and pace of economic and political distinguish between two cultural construals of the
reforms. Researchers estimate that one-third of the self and of others: independent and interdependent.
3. In the text, references to the Soviet Union are used to describe the time when Russia was a part of the USSR; references
to Russia are used when discussing Russia as an independent state that is after 1991.
199
The independent construal involves a concept of Child Rearing and Family

the self as an autonomous and distinct entity and
stresses attending to the self and the appreciation of A one-child family is typical for the majority of
ones differences from others. On the contrary, the Russians (Rimashevskaya, 2004). More than 20 per-
interdependent self-construalwhich Russian cul- cent of families in Russia consist of single-parent
ture exemplifiesemphasizes the fundamental con- households (Rubinsky, 1996). Today, many parents
nectedness and relatedness to other people and have extra jobs to meet their financial needs, which
therefore motivates a person to fit in by maintaining ultimately decreases time spent with children. In
harmonious interpersonal relationships (Markus & Russia, child rearing is considered a womans job,
Kitayama, 1991). and therefore, fathers are much less involved in the
Foreign observers note that Russians express childs upbringing (Goodwin & Emelyanova, 1995).
much more warmth and friendliness in interperson- Because most Russian women work full-time, those
al relationships than do people from Western raising children are often in a situation of double
Europe and the United States (Smith, 1985). In their burden.
extensive study of Russian immigrants, Inkeles, et Traditional gender roles are very strong in
al. (1979) discovered through projective tests that Russia; they are not only reinforced but are consid-
Russians have a strong need for affiliation. For ered inevitable and even desirable (Buckley, 1992;
Russians, intimate relationships with family and Butovskaya, Artemova, & Arsenina, 1998). It is a
friends, which share both sorrow and happiness, common belief that fathers should educate their
serve as vital sources of emotional and intellectual sons while mothers take care of their daughters.
support (Althausen, 1996). Linguistic analysis sug- Often, fathers either display a demanding and
gests that communication is very important in authoritarian parenting style, or they withdraw alto-
Russian culture; for example, the word obsenie gether from the childs upbringing (Boss & Gurko,
(meaning communication or dialog) is widely used 1994).
in everyday discourse (Wierzbicka, 2003). Clinical observations suggest that independence
In their study, Inkeles et al. (1979) found that is very rare in Russian families, as family members
Russians had a strong need for love, dependence, are dependent financially and emotionally on each
care, and affection but demonstrate a relative lack other (Varga, 2003). Many families do not have
of concern for order, regularity, and self-control. strongly defined roles for family members.
Linguistic evidence suggests that Russians put great Therefore, each family member could functionally
emphasis on emotions: the Russian language is very replace any other member at any given time; for
rich in linguistic devices for signaling feelings example, grandparents often assume the role of the
(Wierzbicka, 1992). In Russian culture, strong emo- parents by taking care of the children.
tions have positive value (Benedict, 1979), and ver- Power struggles are a typical problem in many
bal outpourings of emotions are not only allowed dysfunctional Russian families. Under Soviet rule,
but considered a primary function of speech people had lack of control in important life domains
(Wierzbicka, 1992). such as career choice or where to live that appeared
Passivity and nonagentivity are also typical cul- to result in the tendency to exercise high control in
tural traits of Russians (Inkeles et al., 1979; interpersonal relationships (Varga, 2003). While the
Wierzbicka, 1992). Being sad, unhappy, or tired is normative imperative of Western culture is to
not considered inappropriate in Russia; Russians become independent from others and to construe
accept negative emotions as a natural part of life oneself as a unique and self-contained person
and even give these emotions a certain redemptive (Markus & Kitayama, 1991), this is not true in
value (Smith, 1985). Russian culture. Russias younger generation is
much more tightly and rigidly bound to the family
The Application of the Fairy Tale Test in Russia 201
than are those in Western countries (Varga, 2003). children may hurt themselves or be unsafe. Strong
In Soviet Union, children have traditionally emotional bonds between Russian parents and chil-
received special attention and treatment from both dren often lead to dependent relationships between
society and family, as they are considered the fami- them (Bronfenbrenner, 1970).
lys hope for a better future (Smith, 1985). Because The Soviet Union had a well-developed, highly
of their privileged position in Soviet society, chil- coordinated, and centrally controlled system of
dren were highly supervised and overprotected socialization and education (Butler & Kuraeva,
(Althausen, 1996). In modern Russia, many parents 2001). Child rearing in school and during after
invest a lot of financial, intellectual, and emotional school hours was highly controlled by educators
resources in their childrens upbringing. Parents who wanted to reduce the amount of time children
commonly sacrifice their own well-being for that of spent on unsupervised and wasteful activities
their children. For example, providing children a (Bronfenbrenner, 1970; Zajda, 1980). The idea that
good education is considered a priority in many schools should direct childrens socialization in a
Russian families, and parents devote all necessary socially approved way remains a commonly accept-
financial and psychological resources, often at the ed idea. After family, childrens collectivethat is, a
expense of their own needs, to ensure their chil- group united by common goals and activitieswas
drens education. the second major social context of upbringing in the
In Russian families, child-parent relationships Soviet Union (Bronfenbrenner, 1970). To this day,
are emotionally loaded, both positively and nega- childrens collective serves as one of the most pow-
tively (Bronfenbrenner, 1970). Russian babies erful methods of socioemotional and moral educa-
receive a lot of physical contact such as hugging, tion.
kissing, and cuddling. At the same time, child-par- A central goal of education in Russia is to teach
ent relationships are highly restrictive: parents children moral values. Russian educators consider
expect children to obey and comply to their rules moral norms to be important means to control and
and orders (Bronfenbrenner, 1970). A survey con- evaluate childrens behavior (Zajda, 1980). Moral
ducted in 2000 (N = 1,800) revealed that Russians education starts early, during preschool, when chil-
are inclined to use an authoritarian child-rearing dren easily learn new behaviors by imitating adults
style (Zorkaia, 2004). For instance, 66 percent of the and peers. Obedience and self-discipline are con-
respondents believed that adolescents do not have sidered important outcomes of moral education
the right to argue with their parents; 70 percent (Halstead, 1994). It should be noted, that the
believed that adolescents do not have the right to Russian concept of discipline has a much broader
argue with their teachers; 78 percent answered that scope than those of Western cultures. It encompass-
adolescents cannot refuse to carry out parental es moral qualities such as conscientiousness, social
orders; and 53 percent believed that occasional responsibility, honesty, modesty, and, so called, cul-
spanking is necessary for the childs own good tured conduct (Halstead, 1994.)
(Zorkaia, 2004).
Russian parents begin to limit their childrens
freedom and initiative at a very early age CONCLUSION
(Bronfenbrenner, 1970). For example, they tightly
swaddle their babies for a long period of infancy. In Russia today, the personality development of
Traditionally, this practice was justified for the safe- children is shaped by long-established cultural tra-
ty of infants, whom parents believed were in danger ditions as well as current societal challenges. Many
of harming themselves (Benedict, 1979). As soon as Russian families experience financial struggle and
children begin to crawl or walk, worried parents uncertainty about their future; however, they still
monitor them very closely, fearing again that their try to provide a good quality of life for their chil-
dren. In turn, Russian children are learning how to For many years, Soviet psychology developed in
live in a changing society. isolation; Soviet psychologists had very limited con-
tact with the outside world and knew little about
Russian Psychology: Past and Present world psychology. In turn, Western psychologists
were unfamiliar with the psychological research in
It is difficult to understand the current status of the Soviet Union, except for the writings of
Russian psychology without understanding the Vygotsky and Luria. Although several unique and
countrys past. In the twentieth century, psychology fruitful theories were developed, such as Vygotskys
in Russia was greatly shaped by societal cataclysms cultural-historical theory and Leontevs activity
and political upheavals. The beginning of Russian theory, Soviet psychology lagged far behind world
psychology was promising: the first psychological psychology.
lab opened in 1875, and the first Russian psycho- In the 1960s, the rehabilitation of Soviet psy-
logical society was established in 1885. Many psychology began. During that time, Western tests
chologists had intensive contacts with their including the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale
European colleagues. Between 1904 and 1914, (WAIS), the, Wechsler Intelligence Scale for
twenty-two works by Freud were translated and Children (WISC), the Minnesota Multiphasic
published in Russian; psychoanalysis received great Personality Inventory (MMPI), the Rorschach Test,
appreciation among Russian psychiatrists and psy- and the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) were
chologists (Vasilyeva, 2000). translated into Russian (Balachova et al., 2002);
In the 1920s, after the October Revolution, the however, the use of these tests was very limited.
building of a new society facilitated interest in the Despite positive changes in Soviet society, psychol-
study of child development (Valsiner, 1988). The ogy still remained an academic science; clinical,
interdisciplinary approach, called pedology, was school, and counseling psychology did not exist in
developed to provide physical and mental health the Soviet Union until the 1980s. The real develop-
for children. Pedology integrated information from ment of applied psychology started only when
different disciplines, including child psychology, Gorbachev initiated economic and political
physiology, and pedagogy, and translated this reforms. These reforms lead to the humanization of
knowledge into the practice of working with chil- many aspects of social life, which consequently
dren. Various tests were developed and used within raised interest in psychology. The negative conse-
this approach (Malykh et al., 2005). quences of the reforms, however, were the
Unfortunately, when Stalin came to power, the increased levels of stress, anxiety, and interpersonal
development of psychology was interrupted. Many tension. For example, researchers documented that
psychological journals ceased to exist; psychoanaly- from 1990 to 2000, psychological and emotional
sis and other approaches that were not in-line with disorders increased as much as 34 percent in Russia
official ideology were condemned and banned. In (Balachova et al., 2002). Worsening mental health,
1936, pedology was banned, and psychological testin turn, sped up the development of mental health
ing was prohibited for almost thirty years. Testing professions.
was believed to be incompatible with the ideas of Since the early 1990s, Russia has experienced a
unlimited developmental potential and environ- boom in psychology. Many classical works written
mental modifiability of development (Valsiner, by Freud, Erickson, Fromm, Rogers, and other well-
1988). Psychology became a pure academic science, known Western psychologists were translated into
and only theories based on Marxs philosophy were and published in Russian. Before perestroika, there
allowed to exist. Even all of the Vygotskys writings were only two professional psychology journals,
were forgotten until the 1960s, when the rehabilita- Questions of Psychology and Psychological Journal.
tion of Soviet psychology began. Today, the number continues to grow every year,
and the journals have become more specialized in Battery (Gutkina, 1987), and the Pathocharactero-
particular areas of psychology. For example, during logical Questionnaire for Adolescents (Lychko,
the past ten years, journals focusing on school psy- 1999).
chology, clinical psychology, psychoanalysis, ap- Unfortunately, the array of psychological tests
plied psychology, and family and group therapy Russian psychologists use is much more modest
have been established. At the same time, financial than that of their Western colleagues. A recently
difficulties have substantially reduced access to cur- conducted survey (N = 1,329) revealed that 70 per-
rent Western literature for Russian psychologists, cent of child psychologists in Russia reported the
and therefore libraries do not have money to sub- lack of instruments as one of the major obstacles to
scribe to Western psychology periodicals. successfully completing their work (Malykh et al.,
Changes in Russian society have produced new 2005). Russian psychologists also face the lack of
opportunities that have facilitated the development validity and reliability of the assessment instru-
of psychological practice. Demand for psychologists ments; for example, only the first edition of the
in business, educational, and clinical settings has WISC is available. Tests very commonly do not
significantly increased. School psychology was at include information about their psychometric prop-
the frontline of the development of psychological erties. Many so-called standardized tests are not
practice in Russia; in 1988, the position of school standardized on a representative Russian sample,
psychologist was established in educational settings, and therefore, psychologists mostly rely on qualita-
and today psychological services for children con- tive interpretation, while the use of norms is ques-
tinue to develop rapidly. For example, the number tionable.
of school psychologists in Moscow increased from One of the reasons Russian psychologists lack
six hundred in 1997 to two thousand in 2002 fully standardized tests is because standardization is
(Malykh et al., 2005). During the past ten years very costly. In Russia, research funding is limited,
child clinical and pediatric psychology has to devel- making it difficult to complete studies that require
oped. Today, psychologists working with children large samples. Another, perhaps more important
and adolescents are the largest consumers of psy- reason is that many psychologists in Russia lack
chological tests in the country. knowledge about test construction, statistics, and
In Russia, the most common areas of psycholog- psychometrics. As discussed above, Russian psy-
ical assessment of children and adolescents are (1) chology developed for many years as a purely aca-
psychological readiness to school; (2) intellectual demic science. Although theoretical clarity, logical
development and learning problems; (3) emotional explication, and elegance are strong facets of
problems; and (4) interpersonal problems including Russian psychological studies, the lack of modern
those related to the child-parent relationship. statistical analysis, an unclear methodology, and a
Russian psychologists utilize some well-known lack of references to recent studies conducted out-
Western tests such as the WISC, the Bender-Gestalt side of Russia are obvious weaknesses (Ritsher,
Test, the Childrens Personality Questionnaire, the 1997).
Kinetic Family Drawing Test, the Childrens Hopefully, the situation regarding psychological
Apperception Test, the Sentence Completion Test assessment is slowly improving. In the past ten
for Children, and the Rosenzweig Picture- years, a few companies have been established that
Frustration Study (childrens version). Several began to standardize and publish psychological
indigenous tests have also been developed and tests. From 2002 to 2003, the projective Fairy Tale
widely used, including the School Anxiety Test Test (FTT) was translated in Russian and standard-
(Prihogan, 2000), the Survey of Childrens Fears ized on a Russian sample; the test was published in
(Zakharov, 1988), the Real-Ideal-Social Self Draw- 2003 (Coulacoglou, 2003). The publication of this
ing (Spivakovskaya, 1988), the Readiness to School test was significant for several reasons. First, it was
the first projective test to be fully standardized on a interviewers how to administer the FTT and how to
Russian sample. Second, the FTT broadened the score the test results. Data were collected in
array of instruments Russian child psychologists can 200203.
use for the personality assessment of children.
Finally, the publication of the FTT in Russia will Material
facilitate research of childrens personalities within
both psychoanalytic and ego-psychology frame- The study employed the Fairy Tale projective
works, which will contribute to a greater diversity of Test.
Russian psychology.
The present study was designed (1) to examine
the effects of age, gender, and culture on personali- RESULTS
ty variables measured by the FTT; and (2) to study
both the personality organizations and needs sys- Part I. Age, Gender, and Cultural
tem in Russian children. Differences in Personality Variables
Measured by the FTT
METHOD Part I examines the results of the study relevant
to the effects of age, gender, and culture on the per-
Participants sonal variables measured by the FTT. The present
study includes twenty-six dependent variables and
The Russian sample consisted of 600 children three independent variables such as age, gender,
who were randomly selected from the public and culture. The effect of culture (specifically,
schools in Orel, Russia, the capital of Orel province, Russian and Greek) on personal variables was
with a population of 400,000. There were three age examined, disregarding age and gender effects.
groups: 7- to 8-, 9- to 10-, and 11- to 12-year-old chil- Multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) was
dren. Each age group was comprised evenly of boys conducted to determine the significance of mean
and girls. group differences between the two samples (Russian
Regarding the childrens families, 55.7 percent of and Greek) on the combined dependent variable.
the children came from intact families, 20.6 percent One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was per-
had divorced parents, and 13.7 percent had single formed as a follow-up test for each dependent vari-
mothers (10% of mothers did not report their mari- able.
tal status). The mothers education was distributed Gender and age effects were examined only for
as follows: 48.6 percent of mothers had university the Russian sample. MANOVA was performed
degrees, 37.4 percent had professional-school with the Russian data to determine the effect of gen-
degrees, and 14 percent had high-school diplomas. der and age on the combined dependent variable.
Teachers and mothers were required to give an After that, two-way ANOVA (age x gender) and
oral consent to conduct the study with their students Tukeys Post Hoc test were performed as follow-up
and children. tests for each dependent variable. Evaluation of nor-
mality led to the natural log transformation of all
Procedure variables except self-esteem, relationship with the
mother, relationship with the father, and adaptation
The children were assessed individually in their to fairy tale content, which were distributed fairly
classrooms after the school day. Six psychology normally.
majors from Orel State University performed the In the Russian sample, MANOVA results indi-
interviews. Dr. Carina Coulacoglou trained the cate that age (Pillais Trace = .249, F [50, 1142] =
3.24, p < .001), gender (Pillais Trace = .105, F [25, ated with self-image. Anxiety associated with the
570] = 2.67, p < .001), and gender x age interaction feeling of insecurity is decreasing with age, whereas
(Pillais Trace = .137, F [50, 1142] = 1.68, p = .002) anxiety associated with self-image is increasing
significantly affect the combined dependent vari- from 7-8 years to 9-10- years and then does not
able. MANOVA results for the effect of culture change. Concern for others and anxiety harm are
were also significant, Pillais Trace = .638, F (25, highest in 9- to 10-year-olds.
1373) = 96.64, p < .001. Fear of aggression is a variable similar to anxiety;
For the purpose of data description, personal however, fear is associated with a more concrete
variables measured by the FTT were categorized as danger or threat. For example, a 9-year-old boy
follows: emotions, aggression, morality and self- responded, Wolf thinks about food, he feels angry,
esteem, childrens needs, relationship with parents, he has sharp teeth, and he is so frightening! I do not
and thought processes. want that thirty-meter wolf would walk on our plan-
et! ANOVA indicates significant age differences in
Emotions the variable fear of aggression, F (2, 594) = 5.66, p
= .004. Tukeys test reveals that 9- to 10-year-old
This category encompasses such personality vari- children scored higher on this variable than 7- to 8-
ables as anxiety, fear of aggression, and depression. and 11- to 12-year-olds.
ANOVA results indicate that there are no gender or Regarding the depression variable, no gender or
age differences on the anxiety variable in Russian age differences were found in the Russian sample.
children. Analysis of the responses to the FTT Analysis of the childrens responses indicates that in
detected that the children displayed several types of some cases depression is associated with pessimistic
anxiety. Most responses (51.73%) related to anxiety attitudes and negative expectations (9-year-old girl:
were associated with feelings of insecurity (8-year- This giant is sad because he is sick and never will
old boy: Wolf feels danger somewhere). Other get better). In other cases, the cause of depression
types of anxiety were represented as follows: con- is low self-efficacy and helplessness (10-year-old
cerns about other people, 14.05 percent (11-year- girl: The dwarf is sad and angry because he is the
old boy: Dwarf is surprised that Snow White has smallest one; The giant is sad because he broke
fainted; he worries about her); fear of being the tree and could not do what he wanted to do).
destroyed, 13.02 percent (12-year-old boy: Wolf Depression is also associated with a very negative
feels danger; he is afraid to be crushed by a crowd self-image (9-year-old girl: The giant thinks that he
of antelopes); fear of being lost, 9.35 percent (10- is the worst, the ugliest; he is angry and even wants
year-old girl: Little Red Riding Hood is lost and to kill himself).
frightened); and anxiety associated with self-image, Comparison of Russian and Greek samples
5.89 percent (8-year-old girl: Giant worries that he shows that Russian children scored lower on the
smells badly). Very few responses represented variable anxiety (F [1, 1401] = 18.66, p < .001), but
other types of anxiety, such as anxiety disapproval higher on the variable fear of aggression (F [1, 1401]
(8-year-old girl: Little Red Riding Hood is afraid to = 18.74, p < .001) and on the variable depression (F
get a poor grade because her mother and grand- [1, 1401] = 19.62, p < .001).
mother will reprimand her).
Although gender and age differences were not Aggression
detected on total score on the anxiety variable, they
appear in the types of anxiety. Based on the fre- Aggression is considered a necessary element of
quency of responses, boys demonstrate higher anx- a childs development (A. Freud, 1968). The FTT
iety associated with the feeling of insecurity, while assesses several types of aggression such as aggres-
girls show higher anxiety harm and anxiety associ- sion type A (internally motivated or hostile aggres-
sion), aggression as dominance, aggression as retal- cakes. ANOVA shows significant age and gender
iation, aggression as envy, and oral aggression. As a differences in responses on the variable morality in
reminder, age and gender effects were computed Russian children, F (2, 594) = 4.45, p = .01. Tukeys
only for the Russian sample. ANOVA results yield test reveals that morality is higher in 7- to 8-year-old
significant main effect for age category on aggres- boys and 9- to 10- and 11- to 12-year-old girls.
sion type A, aggression as retaliation, and aggres- Greek children scored higher on morality, F (1,
sion as defense (F [2, 594] = 9.03, p< .001; F [2, 594] 1401) = 238.39, p < .001. However, one should
= 5.27, p = .005; and F [2, 594] = 8.01, p< .001, interpret these results with caution, because only
respectively). Tukeys test indicates that 7- to 8-year- 16.8 percent of Russian children provided respons-
old children scored higher on the variable aggres- es on the variable morality, compared to 50.1 per-
sion type A than older children. Thus, internally cent of Greek children.
motivated aggression decreases with age. On the Responses on the variable self-esteem typically
contrary, aggression as retaliation increases with reflect childrens concerns about their physical
age. A posteriori comparisons reveal that 9- to 10- appearance, perceived position in interpersonal
and 11- to 12-year-old children have higher aggres- relationships, and confidence/nonconfidence in
sion as retaliation scores than do 7- to 8-year-old their abilities. ANOVA indicates that in the Russian
children. No differences were detected between 9- sample, boys scored higher on the variable self-
to 10- and 11- to 12-year-old children. Regarding esteem (F [1, 594] = 5.65, p = .018), and in general,
the variable aggression as defense, 7- to 8-year-old Russian children scored higher on self-esteem than
children demonstrate higher scores than older chil- Greek children (F [1, 1401] = 158.50, p < .001).
dren. However, responses related to this variable
were very rare: only 7.7 percent of Russian children Childrens Needs
provided related responses (the same percent of
children was in the Greek sample). The need for affection is a basic need of children
No gender or age differences were observed on and is manifested as a desire to give or receive love,
the variables aggression as envy, aggression as dom- affection, and care. For example, a 7-year-old girl
inance, and oral aggression. Oral aggression was explained, Dwarf thinks that Snow White could
also rare in the Russian sample, as only 7 percent of get sick; he wants to take care of Snow White.
children provided responses related to this variable. ANOVA demonstrates that Russian girls scored
Interestingly, in the Greek sample this percentage higher on the variable affective needs than boys (F
was much higher69.1 percent. Except on aggres- [1, 594] = 6.07, p = .01). Comparison of the Russian
sion as defense, for which no cross-cultural differ- and Greek samples demonstrates that Russian chil-
ences were detected, Russian children scored lower dren have higher affective needs (F [1, 1401] =
than Greek children on all types of aggression. 111.72, p < .001). Interestingly, 58.2 percent of
Russian children provided responses related to the
Morality and Self-Esteem variable need for affection, as compared to 25 per-
cent of Greek children.
The variable of morality is similar to Freuds con- In the FTT, the need for affiliation is expressed
cept of the superego. Responses related to morality as a desire to have friends, to play, and to interact
reflect childrens feelings of guilt or shame associat- with children. ANOVA results indicate a significant
ed with their wrongdoings or noncompliance with main effect for age category (F [2, 594] = 4.29, p =
parental demands, or are statements reflecting .01) in the Russian sample. Tukeys test reveals that
acquisition of moral norms. For example, a 12-year- 7- to 8-year-old children have stronger needs for
old boy responded, Little Red Riding Hood came affiliation than 11- to 12-year-old children; however,
home; she is ashamed that she had not brought no difference is observed between 7- to 8- and 9- to
10-year-old children or between 9- to 10- and 11- to she had a father, who was telling her how to behave
12-year-old children. A cross-cultural comparison in the future in order to be respected and loved.
shows that Russian children scored higher on the ANOVA indicates no age or gender differences in
variable need for affiliation than did Greek chil- Russian children on the variables relationship with
dren, F (1, 1401) = 21.80, p < .001. the mother and relationship with the father. Cross-
ANOVA demonstrates significant age differ- cultural comparisons reveal that Russian children
ences in childrens scores on the variable sexual have more negative relationships with their mothers
preoccupation in Russian children, F (2, 594) = than Greek children do [(F [1, 1401] = 6.55, p <
6.66, p = .001. A posteriori comparisons indicate .001); however, Russian children had more positive
that 11- to 12-year-old children scored higher on relationships with their fathers than Greek children
this variable than 7- to 8- and 9- to 10-year-old chil- did with their fathers (F [1, 1401] = 9.24, p < .001).
dren. Russian children have more pronounced sex-
ual interests than Greek children (F [1, 1401] = Variables That Reflect Thought Processes
25.20, p < .001). Interestingly, more Russian chil-
dren (67.7%) provided responses on the variable This group of variables includes ambivalence,
sexual preoccupation than did Greek children (42.6 adaptation to fairy tale content, bizarres, and repe-
%). titions. ANOVA indicates significant age differences
On the variable oral needs, desire to help, and on the variable ambivalence in the Russian sample,
desire for superiority Russian boys scored higher F (2, 594) = 24.71, p < .001. Tukeys test reveals that
than girls (F [1, 594] = 6.45, p = .011 ; F [1, 594] = 9- to 10-year-old children scored higher than 7- to 8-
5.02, p = .025; and F [1, 594] = 4.37, p = .04, year-old children, and 11- to 12-year-old children
respectively) In general, Russian children have scored higher than 9- to 10-year-old children. No
higher oral needs than Greek children (F [1, 1401] = cross-cultural differences were detected on this vari-
4.45, p = .045); however, they demonstrate lower able.
sense of property and need for protection (F [1, ANOVA shows no gender or age differences on
1401] = 13.54, p < .001; F [1, 1401] = 263.40, p < the variable adaptation to fairy tale content.
.001, respectively). No cross-cultural differences Regarding cross-cultural patterns, Russian children
were found on the variables desire to help, desire scored lower than Greek children, F (1, 1401) =
for superiority, and desire for material things. 449.01, p < .001. ANOVA yields significant age
effect for the variable bizarres in the Russian sam-
Relationship with Parents ple, F (2, 594) = 10.53, p < .001. A posteriori com-
parisons reveals that 7- to 8-year-old children scored
The FTT measures the variables relationship higher than 9- to 10- and 11- to 12-year-old children.
with the mother and relationship with the father. Cross-cultural comparisons demonstrate that
Regarding the former, children reported negative Russian children exhibit fewer bizarre responses
relationships more often than positive relationships. than their Greek counterparts, F (1, 1401) = 51.12, p
For example, they often said that the mother repri- < .001. Examples of bizarre responses include a 9-
mands Little Red Riding Hood because she broke a year-old girls statement that The witch wants to
vase, did not obey mothers order, or talked to the bewitch the fairy tale so that it has a happy ending,
wolf in the forest. One girl exclaimed, Gosh, moms and a 9-year-old boy saying that Card 3 giant
always scold for no reason! Regarding relationship scares me most because he holds this thing and he
with the father, children sometimes described a will hit me to death; what will be left of me is a red
desirable, but not a real situation. For example, a 9- spot and a broken skeleton. No gender, age, or
year-old girl raised by a single mother said, Snow cross-cultural differences were observed on the vari-
White did not have a father, and she dreamt that able repetitions.
Part II. Factor Analysis of the FTT factor analysis because of low frequency of relevant
responses provided by children (fewer than 8%).
Results of Factor Analysis Principle component analysis followed by vari-
max rotation were conducted. Nine components
Factor analysis was performed to determine were extracted, which accounted for 56 percent of
which, if any, underlying structures exist for meas- explained variance. Results are represented in
ures on the personal variables. The variables sense Table 9.1 (variables with loadings less than .300 are
of property, oral aggression, bizarres, repetitions, not included in the table).
and aggression as defense were not included in the The first factor, fearfulness, includes variables
TABLE 9.1.
RESULTS OF FIRST-ORDER FACTOR ANALYSIS
Factors Loading
Fearfulness
Fear of aggression -.622
Aggression type A -.576
Anxiety -.538
Ambivalence -.479
Agression as retaliation -.373
Emotional Needs
Need for affection -.714
Adaptation to fairy tale content -.650
Aggression as envy -.491
Oral needs -.345
Moral Consciousness
Morality -.726
Desire to help -.611
Aggression as retaliation -.353
Relationship with the mother -.334
Assertiveness
Aggression as dominance -.832
Desire for superiority -.498
Continued
TABLE 9.1Continued.
Factors Loading
Acquisitiveness
Desire for material things -.768
Ambivalence -.508
Desire for superiority -.420
Father Image
Sexual preoccupation -.633
Relationship with the father -.592
Aggression as envy -.405
Self-Image
Self-esteem -.719
Depression -.383
Aggression as retaliation -.339
Affiliation Needs
Need for affiliation -.726
Oral needs -.545
Depression -.348
Need for Protection
Need for protection -.777
Depression -.453
Relationship with the mother -.357
with both positive and negative loadings. The vari- ferences between these variables. Statistically signif-
ables fear of aggression, anxiety, ambivalence, and icant correlations were found in 9- to 10- and 11- to
aggression as retaliation have positive loadings, 12-year-old children, r (198) = .185, p < .01, and r
while the variable aggression type A has negative (198) = .358, p < .01, respectively. These findings
loading. It was assumed that ambivalence may be a suggest that ambivalence may be a manifestation of
manifestation of anxiety. Correlational analysis was anxiety in older children.
performed for each age group to examine age dif- Factor 2, emotional needs, has variables with
only positive loadings such as need for affection, with the mother with negative loadings.
adaptation to fairy tale content, aggression as envy, MANOVA was conducted to determine genders
and oral needs. This factor reveals that children effect on the nine factors, and the results indicate
who have pronounced affective needs also have that age significantly affects the combined depend-
high oral needs and demonstrate aggression as envy ent variable, Pillais Trace = .042, F (9, 590) = 2.85,
and a good sense of reality. p = .003. One-way ANOVA, performed as a follow-
Moral consciousness, Factor 3, is defined by pos- up test, reveals that girls have significantly higher
itive loadings on the variables morality, desire to scores on the factors emotional needs and affiliation
help, and aggression as retaliation, and negative needs (F [1, 598] = 7.49, p = .006, and F [1, 598] =
loading on the variable relationship with the moth- 4.22, p = .04, respectively), while boys scored high-
er. This factor reflects that morality and altruistic er on the factor moral consciousness (F [1, 598] =
behaviors are connected; children with higher lev- 5.88, p = .02).
els of morality also demonstrate orientation toward The nine factors were submitted to the second-
the needs of others. order factor analysis. Because factors were correlat-
The fourth factor, assertiveness, includes the ed, oblique rotation was utilized. Principal factor
variables aggression as dominance and desire for analysis yields five second-order factors that
superiority, both of which have positive loadings. account for 44.4 percent of explained variance (see
These two variables reflect a tendency to control Table 9.2).
the environment. The second-order Factor 1, conscientiousness,
Factor 5, acquisitiveness, comprises the variables includes two factors with positive loadings, moral
desire for material things, ambivalence, and desire consciousness and self-image, and one factor with
for superiority, all with positive loadings. Because negative loading, fearfulness. This second-order fac-
ambivalence appears to be a manifestation of anxi- tor suggests that children who demonstrate higher
ety, possessiveness may serve as a protection morality have positive self-image and lower anxiety.
against anxiety. The second-order Factor 2, social appraisal, is
The sixth factor, father image, is defined by pos- defined by positive loadings on the factors emo-
itive loadings on the variables sexual preoccupa- tional needs and acquisitiveness, and the second-
tion, relationship with father, and aggression as order Factor 3, need for affiliation, has positive
envy. loadings on the factors affiliation needs and acquis-
Factor 7, self-image, includes variables the vari- itiveness.
able self-esteem with positive loading and the vari- Insecurity, the second-order Factor 4, includes
ables depression and aggression as retaliation with two factors with positive loadings, need for protec-
negative loadings. The data suggest that children tion and fearfulness, and one with negative loading,
who have positive self-esteem tend to be less father image. Finally, the second-order Factor 5,
depressed and demonstrate lower aggression as helplessness, is defined by negative loading on the
retaliation. factor assertiveness and positive loading on the fac-
Affiliation needs, the eighth factor, includes the tor fearfulness.
variables need for affiliation and depression with
positive loadings and the variable oral needs with
negative loading. Data suggest that children who DISCUSSION
demonstrate a high need for affiliation have higher
depression, but lower oral needs. The present research is aimed at the study of per-
Finally, Factor 9, need for protection, includes sonality development of latency-age Russian chil-
the variable need for protection with positive load- dren using the projective Fairy Tale Test. The laten-
ing and the variables depression and relationship cy phase of child development is characterized by
TABLE 9.2.
RESULTS OF SECOND-ORDER FACTOR ANALYSIS
Factors Loading
Conscientiousness
Moral consciousness -.621
Self-image -.614
Fearfulness -.345
Affective Needs
Emotional needs -.842
Acquisitiveness -.370
Social Appraisal
Affiliation needs -.845
Acquisitiveness -.443
Insecurity
Needs for protection -.797
Father image -.369
Fearfulness -.304
Helplessness
Assertiveness -.768
Fearfulness -.531
several major changes and accomplishments, drens interests are directed toward development of
including the strengthening of the childs superego mastery and competencies (Erikson, 1950).
and the integration of ego and superego functions This research suggests that childrens personality
(Furman, 1991). Children gradually lose their bonds development is significantly affected by gender. In
with the family and enter a broader interpersonal particular, girls have higher affective needs, while
context, and relationships with peers become more boys have more pronounced needs for superiority
important (Furman, 1991). Children mature cogni- and the desire to help. These findings resemble
tively, advancing to the concrete operations stage; results obtained in other studies: Harvey and Retter
their egocentric position diminishes and gives way (2002) found that latency girls have a higher need
to decentration, which is the ability to take into for love and belonging than boys, while Schroth
account the position of other people (Piaget, 1950). (1979) indicated that boys scored higher on the need
Latency is characterized as the period when chil- for power. These results reflect the acquisition of
gender-related traits: relational and expressive fem- There are several plausible explanations for these
inine traits, and agentive and instrumental mascu- findings. Older children have better cognitive skills
line traits (Block, 1972). to explain their behaviors, aggressive and other-
As previously discussed, a major developmental wise. Social interactions with peers are more intense
line in latency is the formation of the superego and significant for 9- to 12-year-old children than
(Furman, 1991). Data from the present research for younger children. Broadened interpersonal rela-
show that 7- to 8-year-old boys scored higher on the tionships with peers lead to both positive experi-
variable morality than girls of the same age, and 9- ences and to negative ones such as bullying and
to 10- and 11- to 12-year-old girls scored higher than unfair sharing. In their responses, children often
same-aged boys and 7- to 8-year-old girls. These referred to situations in which they were offended
results suggest that moral development in boys by their peers and wanted to retaliate, such as when
starts earlier than in girls. According to Anna Freud a 10-year-old boy responded, Giant is crushing
(1959), the superego emerges at the time when chil- everything; he is angry. He wants retaliation against
dren resolve the Oedipus complex. Given that boys other giants because they hurt him when he was a
resolve the Oedipus complex sooner than girls child. In other responses, aggression as retaliation
(Freud, 1959), it is reasonable to assume that the appeared as a desire to punish someone who
superegos of boys develop earlier than those of deprived a child of an opportunity or privilege, as
girls. The findings from the present research sup- when an 11-year-old boy observed, Wolf is angry
port this assumption. Additional evidence comes at another wolf; he wants to tear him apart because
from different lines of research. According to Piaget another wolf hindered him from catching a rabbit.
(1966), boys begin to understand the consensual Further findings suggest that 7- to 8-year-old chil-
nature of rules earlier than girls do, because they dren demonstrate higher aggression as defense,
tend to play in large groups. Large-group format which serves as protection against possible threats
requires rules negotiation and coordination of mul- or danger. This is congruent with the results that 7-
tiple perspectives, both of which facilitate moral to 8-year-old children demonstrate higher anxiety
development (Piaget, 1966). associated with the feeling of insecurity. These find-
Another gender-related finding from the present ings suggest that younger children feel more inse-
research was that girls and boys display different cure than older children.
types of anxiety. Although mean group difference As children age, they score higher on the vari-
for total score on anxiety was not significant, the fre- able ambivalence. With age, children mature cogni-
quency of types of anxiety was different for girls tively and are better able to tolerate ambiguity and
and boys. In particular, girls experience higher anx- contradictory experiences. Younger children have a
iety related to the fear of being destroyed and to higher need for affiliation, while older children
self-image. Therefore, girls may be more concerned demonstrate higher sexual preoccupation. In the
about their bodies and appearance than boys. Boys FTT, the need for affiliation often appeared as a
show higher anxiety associated with the feeling of desire to play with peers and to have friends. For
insecurity. example, a 9-year-old girl stated, Little Red Riding
The present study shows significant age differ- Hood wants to go home very quickly. She wants to
ences in the development of childrens personality. play with children, but there are no children in her
Unmotivated aggression appears to decrease with grandmothers house. A 7-year-old girl explained,
age, while aggression as retaliation appears to A wolf wants to find a friend, company. The sig-
increase. More specifically, 7- to 8-year-old children nificance of these activities decreases as children
have higher aggression type A (unmotivated aggres- age whereas sexual interests become more pro-
sion), and 9- to 10- and 11- to 12-year-old children nounced.
demonstrate stronger aggression as retaliation. Culture plays an important role in the cognitive
and socioemotional development of children. punishment, which often result from a childs non-
Comparison of the Russian and Greek samples compliance with parental orders. Because the culti-
shows that Russian children demonstrate lower anx- vation of dependence and obedience is a common
iety but higher fear of aggression. They also appear parental practice in Russia, children there may have
to be more depressed than their Greek counter- fewer opportunities to disobey their parents rules.
parts. The latter results are in-line with findings Thus, moral feelings and behaviors associated with
obtained by Jose et al. (1998), in which Russian ado- disobedience were not very prominent in the
lescents (10 to 14 years old) showed considerably Russian sample.
higher depression than American adolescents. In Another cross-cultural difference apparent in the
general, pessimism and a tendency for self-criticism present research is that Russian children have a
and self-depreciation are typical features of Russian higher need for affection than Greek children. The
culture (Rancour-Laferriere, 1999). significance of this is evidenced by the fact that
Russian children scored lower than Greek chil- 58.2% of Russian children provided responses on
dren on almost all types of aggression measured by this variable compared to 25% of Greek children.
the FTT. This may reflect the characteristics of Other researchers have also documented that
interpersonal relationships and child-rearing prac- Russians display a strong need for affection, and
tices in Russia. Because close interpersonal con- this need is promoted at a very early age
nectedness is highly valued in their culture, (Bronfenbrenner, 1970; Inkeles et al., 1979).
Russians negatively evaluate traits that may under- Affection is widely used by Russian parents not
mine harmonious relationships with others such as only to demonstrate love to their children but also
competitiveness, assertiveness, and leadership to show disapproval of childrens misbehavior. In
(Stephan & Abalakina-Paap, 1996). Russian parents fact, the withdrawal of love is a very common
monitor very closely their childrens behavior from parental disciplinary practice (Bronfenbrenner,
an early age to ensure that children behave in 1970). Such child-rearing traditions may exaggerate
socially appropriate manners. This may explain the need for affection in Russian children. The need
why overt expression of aggression is inhibited in for affiliation is also higher in the Russian sample,
Russian culture. and the importance of close and intense interper-
Russian children scored lower on the variable sonal relationships in Russian culture has been dis-
morality than did Greek children and only 16.8 per- cussed by many researchers (Althausen, 1996;
cent of Russian children provided responses rele- Inkeles et al., 1979; Stephan & Abalakina-Paap,
vant to this variable as compared to 50.1 percent of 1996).
Greek children. These results were surprising. The results from the present study suggest that
Based on linguistic analysis, Weirzbicka (1992 & Russian children have lower senses of property or
2003) has suggested that the emphasis on morality possession than do Greek children. The idea of pri-
is a particular feature of Russian culture. Russians vate property remains a relatively new concept in
have a tendency for absolute moral judgments and Russia and has not yet been fully assimilated by the
a preoccupation with truth. As mentioned above, people. For many years, all property in Russia was
the teaching of moral values is an important part of communal, and therefore, children were strongly
education in Russia (Halstead, 1994). Moral educa- encouraged to share their toys, candies, and other
tion is mostly focused on promoting empathy, pro- things.
social behavior, and moral conduct in children. The Factor analysis yields nine factors that reveal per-
lower score on the variable Morality obtained in the sonality organization pertaining to latency-age
Russian sample can be explained by the fact that Russian children. The first factor, fearfulness, posi-
the FTT assesses different aspects of morality asso- tively correlates with the variables fear of aggres-
ciated with feelings of guilt, self-blame, and fear of sion, anxiety, ambivalence, and aggression as retal-
iation, and negatively correlates with the variable tionship-oriented than boys.
aggression type A. Children who are prone to anx- The third factor, moral consciousness, reflects
iety seem to display fewer aggressive impulses. the moral development of latency children, and
Statistically significant correlations between the includes the variables morality, desire to help, and
variables anxiety and ambivalence observed in 9- to aggression as retaliation, all with positive loadings,
10- and 11- to 12-year-old children suggest that anx- and the variable relationship with mother with neg-
iety in older children may manifest as indecisive- ative loading. These results suggest that children
ness, doubt, and ambivalent feelings or thoughts. with higher levels of morality also have more pro-
The second factor, emotional needs, includes nounced desires to helpthat is, they are more ori-
positive loadings on the variables need for affection, ented toward the needs of others. Boys scored high-
adaptation to fairy tale content, aggression as envy, er on the factor moral consciousness than girls.
and oral needs. This factor suggests that children Interestingly, the results showed that the variable
who demonstrate strong needs for affection also dis- aggression as retaliation was positively associated
play aggression as envy. More specifically, the FTT with the factor moral consciousness. This associa-
measures aggression as envy and aggression as jeal- tion may appear paradoxical; however, it is logical
ousy. Envy is based on social comparison, e.g., if one considers the data from the normal develop-
when a person becomes aware of the superior ment perspective. In latency, the childs superego
attributes or characteristics of another person judges both the childs own behavior as well as the
(Parrott, 1991). An 8-year-old girl responded, The behavior of others. Externalization of the superego
witch wants to scold Snow White. She does not like is often combined with a need to seek punishment
her, because Snow White has superior beauty and (Furman, 1991). Therefore, children may use
intelligence. On the other hand, jealousy is trig- aggression to punish other people for their wrong-
gered by the fear of losing an important relationship doings or to restore justice. For example, a 10-year-
with another person to a rival (Parrott, 1991). For old boy explained, The witch wants to put a spell
example, a 7-year-old boy explained, The witch on children, they misbehave, steal, and come to her
wants to kill Snow White because the prince loves and call her names.
her and the dwarfs love her, but nobody loves the Some researchers refer to retaliation as retribu-
witch. tive justice (Hogan & Emler, 1981). The association
As previously stated, aggression as envy is asso- between morality and aggression as retaliation may
ciated with the need for affection. Therefore, chil- also reflect childrens beliefs in immanent justice
dren whose emotional needs are not satisfied tend (Piaget, 1966). According to Piaget, children at a
to act aggressively toward others, who, from their heteronomous stage of moral development (about 5
perspective, are better people or receive more love to 10 years old) believe that punishment should
and affection. One may assume that envy and jeal- inevitably follow a persons wrongdoings.
ousy develop from object relationships, specifically Tyson and Tyson (1990) argue that the superego
from the early frustration of the need to be loved. in early latency is not an exact internalized copy of
The association between oral needs and need for significant others, but often a distorted and unstable
affection supports the idea that the former may be version of them. The child oscillates between two
considered a substitute for the frustrated need to be opposite poles: at one pole behavior shows no inter-
cared for and loved. According to Mahler (1967), nalized moral standards; at the other pole behavior
the oral stage is critical for the formation of inter- is excessively moral and there is a tendency to
personal relationships. The quality of oral gratifica- supervise and report the transgressions of others
tions is important for later personality development. (Tyson & Tyson, 1990). In the FTT, children reveal
Girls scored higher on the factor emotional needs positive aspects of themselves (good me) in
than boys; as mentioned earlier, girls are more rela- response to one card and negative aspects (bad
me) in response to the other. For example, a 9- associated with low depression, while the need for
year-old girl gave the following response to the sec- affiliation is associated with higher depression.
ond card depicting Little Red Riding Hood: Little These results are congruent with findings from
Red Riding Hood is thinking how to cheat some- numerous studies documenting that depressed chil-
body, to lump the blame on somebody. She gave dren often feel lonely and worthless and demon-
the opposite response to the third card: Little Red strate a lack of social skills (Hammen & Rudolph,
Riding Hood thinks that she is kind and brave. 1996). Girls scored higher on the factor affiliation
Latency children often blame others for their needs than boys.
wrongdoings. In response to the second card depict- The second-order factor analysis was performed
ing the witch, the same girl said, The witch thinks to obtain a more condensed picture of the person-
how to find some girl and raise her inappropriate- ality organization of children. The second-order fac-
ly. In another example, a 7-year-old girl projected tor, conscientiousness, evidences that children with
her opposing thoughts on the cards that illustrate strong superegos are more likely to have positive
the dwarf. In response to the first card she said, self-image and demonstrate lower fear of aggression
This is an industrious dwarf, he takes care of every- and anxiety. One may assume that children who
thing. He wants Snow White to live with them. To follow moral norms and who have altruistic atti-
the second card, the girl responded, He is mean tudes feel good about themselves and accepted and,
and lazy. He wants to live alone. He is bad. I do not therefore, are less prone to anxiety.
like him. The second-order factors named affective needs
Following the psychoanalytic tradition, positive and social appraisal suggest that children with
aspects of the childs self are considered a represen- strong emotional needs or needs for social apprais-
tation of the childs ego-ideal (Tyson & Tyson, 1990). al demonstrate the need to acquire things and supe-
Children believe that those who do not meet the rior status. Acquisitiveness as a personality trait may
standards of the ego-ideals deserve punishment. develop as compensation for the frustrated basic
This is obvious in their responses to the question, needs for love and affiliation.
Which Little Red Riding Hood would the wolf Another second-order factor, insecurity, demon-
eat? Children answered that the wolf would eat strates that children who have high needs for pro-
Little Red Riding Hood because she is not neat tection also have negative relationships with their
(9-year-old girl), she is afraid (11-year-old boy), or fathers. Childrens feelings of insecurity appear to
she is not very beautiful, wanders around, and result from unsatisfactory relationships with their
does not want to go to her grandmother (9-year- fathers. Finally, the second-order factor named
old girl). helplessness suggests that children who have higher
Returning to the discussion of the results of fac- fear of aggression and anxiety are less dominant
tor analysis, the factor assertiveness, which includes and have lower desire for superiority and achieve-
the variables aggression as dominance and desire ment.
for superiority, was extracted. This factor may
reflect the childs desire to establish self-confidence
and self-assurance. The next factor, acquisitiveness, CONCLUSION
comprises the variables desire for material things,
ambivalence, and desire for superiority. Because The aim of the present research was the study of
ambivalence may be considered a manifestation of personality organization in 7- to 12-year-old Russian
anxiety, one may assume that the need to acquire children and revealed some gender-, age-, and cul-
things or superior status serves as protection against ture-specific traits and needs of the population of
anxiety. interest. It was demonstrated that girls appeared to
Factor analysis reveals that positive self-esteem is have more expressive and relational traits, while
boys had more agentive and instrumental traits. strategies which are sensitive to childrens age, gen-
The results suggested that boys acquire moral stan- der, and culture. Future research may explore how
dards and norms earlier than girls. These findings children social environment affect the develop-
were consistent with reports from many other stud- ment of particular personality traits and needs.
ies. Additional research may also study the association
The results indicated that age has a significant between the behavioral characteristics of children
impact on the personality development of children. and their personality organization as measured by
More specifically, it was found that unmotivated the FTT.
aggression decreased with age, while aggression as
retaliation became more pronounced; as children
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Chapter 10
THE APPLICATION OF THE FAIRY TALE TEST IN CHINA

YUHUI LI AND J IANXIN ZHANG
INTRODUCTION lowed the footsteps of Western psychology. The

predominant thinking favored experimental
The Historical Evolution approaches and gradually adopted Western theories
of Psychology in China of behaviorism, psychoanalysis, and Gestalt psy-
chology. During that time psychology was slow to
lthough modern psychology was brought to develop and expand, mainly because of the
A China from the West only in the late nine-
teenth century, both the study and discussion of
sociopolitical situation.
It was only in the early twentieth century that
psychological issues have a long history in ancient psychology diverged from philosophy and acquired
China. These were contained in diverse philosoph- status as an independent science. Chinese scholars
ical, political, military, and other forms of literature studying abroad played a significant role in laying
and were also expressed through various practices the foundation for the development of modern
in education, medicine, and human resource man- Chinese psychology, with the establishment of the
agement. Psychological Association of China (PAC) in
There is evidence of early psychological thought Nanjing, and in 1922 the publication of the first
in the writings of the ancient Chinese philosophers, Chinese psychological journal, Psyche. Chinas
such as Confucius (551479 B.C.), whose writings Central Research Academy founded the first
exerted a profound influence on the development Institute of Psychology in 1929, followed by the cre-
of Chinas cultural history. Confucian thinking ation of fifteen psychology departments and seven
emphasizes the importance of the human nature, psychological journals in the 1930s.
education, human development, and interpersonal Following the foundation of the Peoples
relationships. Other Chinese philosophies such as Republic in 1949, Chinese psychology was reestab-
Taoism and Zen Buddhism were also significantly lished under the auspices of the Communist party.
influential. Taoist thinking suggests that nature The new psychology science adopted the basic
keeps a proper balance in all its workings: If any principles of Marx, Lenin, and Mao.
activity moves to an extreme in one direction, soon- In the late 1970s, Chinese economic reform
er or later a change occurs to swing it back towards launched an open-door policy to the world, and the
the opposite. country reestablished psychology as a scientific dis-
Modern Chinese psychology came into existence cipline. Both the Chinese Psychological Society
around the mid-nineteenth century, when Western (CPS) and the Institute of Psychology resumed their
psychology and other influences were first dissemi- academic activities. The research and application of
nated there, as a branch of philosophy. From the psychology began to be carried out all over China,
1920s through the 1940s, Chinese psychology fol- and international exchanges in this field gradually
219
increased. Presently, in addition to the Institute of History of Psychological

Psychology at the Chinese Academy of Science in Assessment in China
Beijing, there are three other psychology institutes
and six psychological departments within Chinese Mental testing has been the most important con-
universities. tribution of Chinese culture to the field of psychol-
In the field of experimental psychology, the ogy (Higgins & Zheng, 2002). The roots of psycho-
Chinese language, with its ideographic characters, logical testing extend back roughly three thousand
has become a particularly appealing subject for years to the concepts and practices of ancient China
research. In developmental psychology, Chinese (Anastasi, 1988). Various methods were developed
scholars have published widely on concept devel- to evaluate talent and behavior, identify intelligence
opment, language development, personal and by response speed, elicit personality across situa-
moral development, gifted children, and slow learn- tions, and measure mental attributes through inter-
ers. Since the implementation of the national fami- views (C. D. Lin, 1980). Chinese emperors original-
ly planning and birth control program in the mid- ly used these methods to assess their officials com-
1980s, the single-child policy has been an appealing petency. By the Han Dynasty (206 B.C.A.D. 220)
topic for psychological study (H. Chen, 1985; Jing, the use of test batteries was quite common in the
1995). Finally, medical and clinical psychology not civil service examination system (Zhang, 1988).
only introduced Western psychotherapeutic mod- Tests had been quite well developed by the Ming
els, but also demonstrated the effectiveness of some Dynasty (A.D. 13681644), when a national multi-
traditional Chinese treatments (e.g., acupuncture) stage testing program, involving local and regional
and therapies (e.g., qigong and tai chi). testing centers, was also established.
Z. Wang (1993) comments that the majority of The modern scientific psychometric approach
recent psychological research in China has been was introduced into China in the first decade of the
closely linked with economic and social reforms, twentieth century, shortly after the first standard-
technological developments, and applications of ized psychological test (Binet-Simon Intelligence
psychology, such as the design of Chinese-language Test). In 1924, Lu Zhiwei published The Revised
computers and the effects of the aforementioned Manual of the Binet-Simon Intelligence Scale, and he
single-child policy. Yue (1994), on the other hand, revised it again in 1936 with the help of Wu
reflects on the need for Chinese psychologists to Tianmin (Zheng, 1985).
strengthen their theoretical roots and bind their In the following decades, scholars translated
work closely to life in China. In that sense, Chinese many other psychological and educational tests into
psychologists have reached a consensus on building Chinese, such as the Merrill-Palmer Scale in 1936
psychology with Chinese characteristics (P. Chen, and the Draw-a-Man test in 1938 (as cited in Gao,
1993). Bond (1996) notes that Chinese society is still Yan, & Yang, 1985). Testing became even more
shaped by Confucian values, such as filial piety and popular in China in the 1930s, with the founding of
industriousness, the saving of face, and networks the Society for Psychological Testing in 1931 and
of personal relationships. the publication of a periodical entitled Testing.
According to Higgins and Zheng (2002), the field However, psychological assessment, based on
of psychology in China has not yet fully developed. the notion of individual differences, was considered
Its development relies, to a large extent, on social the most anti-socialist branch of psychology by
factors and government policies. Despite the contri- the Chinese society and was totally abandoned dur-
bution of Western psychology, the study of the men- ing the years of the Cultural Revolution, around the
tal phenomena and behavior of the Chinese people end of the 1960s (Zhang, 1988).
must take into account Chinas ancient psychologi- Since the 1980s, several tests were revised,
cal heritage and culture. including the Stanford Binnet (Wu, 1982), the
The Application of the Fairy Tale Test in China 221
Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC; unique to the Chinese sample and was not observed
Lin & Zhang, 1986), the Wechsler Adult Intelligence in other cultural groups. In addition, relative to
Scale (WAIS; Gong, 1983), the Wechsler Preschool other cultures, texture responses were scarce among
and Primary Scale of Intelligence (WPPSI; Zhu, Lu, Chinese adults. Other differences between the
& Tang, 1984), and the Ravens Standardized Chinese sample and different cultural groups
Progressive Matrices (RSPM; Zhang, 1989). In the include the total number of responses to the test
field of personality assessment, revisions were made (lower than that reported for normal American
to the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory adults), the reaction time prior to the first responses,
(MMPI; National MMPI Coordinating Group, and the average time for giving a response (again,
1982), the Eysenk Personality Questionnaire (EPQ; longer than for American adults) (Yang, Tsai, &
Gong, 1984), the California Personality Inventory Hwang, 1963).
(CPI; Dai & Zhu, 1988), and the 16 Personality Finally, scoring systems for the evaluation of psy-
Factors Questionnaire (16PF; Dai & Zhu, 1988). chiatric patients were developed based on small
The use of projective tests, especially with adult samples of paranoid schizophrenic and other psy-
patients, is limited in the Peoples Republic of chotic patients in Taiwan (Ko & Yu, 1966; Yen,
China (PRC). Due to relative unpopularity of psy- 1965; Yen, 1983).
choanalytic theories, Chinese psychologists named
none of the projective tests in a survey of the 25 Recent Developments in
most frequently used psychological tests (X. Dai, Psychological Assessment in China
Zheng, Ryan, & Paolo, 1993). Moreover, the chal-
lenge of obtaining the specialized training required Recent work on the adaptation of personality
for evaluating and interpreting this category of tests assessment tools in Chinese culture has raised con-
contributes to their limited use. Nevertheless, clini- cerns of their cross-cultural significance and validi-
cal psychologists in Hong Kong frequently use pro- ty. A basic disadvantage in the process of such adap-
jective tests with children, such as the House-Tree- tations is the frequent omission of emic constructs
Person and the Make-a-Picture Story Test, since that are significant within the Chinese culture.
there are only a few objective personality tests avail- Cheung et al. (1996) stress the importance of includ-
able. ing the major culture-specific domains in the con-
The Rorschach Inkblot Test was one of the first struction of an assessment instrument, even more so
personality assessment tools studied in China. In when a tool aims to address a distinct culture, rather
the early day of clinical psychology, cross-cultural than to investigate cultural universals. Construct
application of projective techniques was facilitated validity of these tools is crucial in determining what
by the nonverbal nature of these tools and the sim- constitutes Chinese intelligence, personality, or psy-
plicity with which they can be administered. A nor- chopathology, not only in terms of their assessment,
mative study of Rorschach responses (N=347) was but also in terms of their theoretical conceptualiza-
conducted in Taiwan among the Chinese adults rep- tion.
resentative of the general Chinese population in The indigenization movement in Chinese psy-
terms of gender, age, education, and occupation chology began in Taiwan in the 1970s. Yang (1996)
(Yang, Chen, & Hsu, 1965; Yang, Su, Hsu & pioneered the movement with a focus on important
Hwang, 1962; Yang, Tsai & Hwang, 1963; Yang, personality constructs in Chinese societies, includ-
Tzuo, & Wu, 1963). The ten most popular respons- ing tradition, modernity, and social orientation.
es collected from this sample were found to be uni- Yang and his colleagues developed a number of
versally popular in a series of other cross-cultural scales to measure these indigenous social constructs
studies (Yang, Tzuo, & Wu, 1963). However, the P and studied changes in the personalities of Chinese
(popular) response of the turtle in card VI was people under societal modernization. Kos Mental
Health Questionnaire (KMHQ; Ko, 1978; Ko, comparison with the wealth of studies on childrens
1981)a Chinese adaptation of the MMPIwas intellectual performance, there are only a few stud-
Taiwans first attempt to develop a multidimension- ies that investigate childrens personalities. These
al personality instrument for clinical assessment in studies focus mainly on clinical populations (chil-
the Chinese cultural context. dren who have personality disorders or come from
One of the few examples of indigenous measures troubled families) and thus cannot be generalized at
that has received international attention is the the population level (Li & Kong, 1997).
Chinese Personality Assessment Inventory (CPAI; Furthermore, the majority of studies concerning
Cheung et al., 1996). The CPAI consists of person- psychological assessment of children employs
ality scales that overlap those covered by Western behavior scales for parents and teachers and, less
instruments (etic scales) as well as those that are par- frequently, interviews and observations as well.
ticularly relevant to Chinese culture (emic scales). Leung and Wong (2003) review the major psycho-
The scales of the CPAI-2 include: logical instruments used in China for childrens psy-
chological assessment. The most well-known instru-
Personality Scales ments are used for the assessment and evaluation of
- Social Potency psychopathology: the Child Behavior Check List
- Dependability (CBCL) with Parents as Informers and its two par-
- Accommodation allel versions, the Teachers Report Form (RTF) and
- Interpersonal Relatedness the Youth Self Report (YSR); the Minnesota
Clinical Scales Multiphasic Personality InventoryAdolescent
- Emotional Problem (MMPI-A); the Conners Parent Rating Scale
- Behavioral Problem (CPRS) and the Conners Teachers Rating Scales
Validity Scales (CTRS), used mainly to measure Attention Deficit
Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD); and the Fear
The development of the CPAI represents a sig- Survey Schedule for ChildrenRevised (FSSC-R;
nificant attempt to expand cross-cultural personali- Leung & Wong, 2003). Personality assessment stud-
ty assessment beyond that of test translation and ies using projective techniques in this field are
adaptation. Chinese psychologists are currently scarce (Zhong & Jing, 2005). Only a few clinical
studying different groups, in clinical and other psychologists in Hong Kong have used in their
applied settings, to validate the inventory in full practice projective tests such as the House-Tree-
along with all its subscales. Instead of merely apply- Person and the Make-a-Picture Story Test with chil-
ing Western advances in the field of personality dren (Dai et al., 1993).
assessment, this inventory seeks to develop cross- It seems that Chinese psychologists tend to be
cultural assessment approaches within a culturally reluctant on either bringing western projective tests
relevant framework. in or creating their own. In addition, the Chinese
culture is not particularly encouraging of people
Psychological Assessment openly and freely expressing their thoughts or emo-
of Chinese Children tions. Children learn from an early age to avoid
talking with strangers and to be reserved. Within
Most childrens psychological tests in mainland such a sociocultural setting, objective psychological
China use the Simplified Chinese Character tests seem somewhat ineffective when used with
Version of Concise Individual Intelligence Scale young children.
(CIIS-SC) and the Generalizing Ability in Based on these considerations, the nature and
Classification (GAC, Jin, Feng, & Chen, 2006; Cai structure of the Fairy Tale Test made it potentially
& Zhou, 1998) to evaluate and assess intelligence. In ideal for children personality assessment in China.
gies is crucial to their socialization.

Culture and Socialization Accordingly, Chinese culture promotes interde-
pendence among people, especially among family
The central philosophy of Chinas great tradi- members (Chao, 1995). The existence of an individ-
tion is Confucianism, the humanist philosophy ual within Chinese culture is realized through relat-
centered on ren (the fundamental quality of being ing to ones significant others and is defined by ones
human, or benevolence), yi (righteousness), and li social responsibilities. Social rules regulate and mon-
(ritual propriety). According to Confucianism, an itor this interdependent, relational self and define all
ideal, highly ordered, and harmonious society relies interpersonal contexts. Moreover, Chinese society
on a virtuous ruler, who establishes ritual order, and highly values humility and self-criticism and deems
on the individual, who cultivates him- or herself to that these should motivate the individual to better
reach the highest spiritual plane (tianren heyi: the serve the collective (Q. Wang, 2004).
unity of heaven and man) and become a sage or a According to the Confucian doctrine of filial
perfectly realized human (Hwang, 1988; Hwang, piety, children must pledge obedience and respect
1992; Liou, 1992; Mou, 1985). Self-cultivation, in to parents, who in turn are responsible for govern-
this context, refers to a process of self-realization ing (teaching and disciplining) their children (Ho,
through which the individual must actualize both an 1986). The term filial piety carries a set of intrinsic
ethical and innate sense of moral self and control. rules that guide children with regards to behavior
Confucianisms highest form of achievement con- towards their parents, living or dead, and ancestors.
sists of attaining or establishing virtue (lide). The Confucian tradition has had a clear impact
This Confucian great tradition tends to be ide- on child socialization. While Western cultures teach
alized by members of the upper classes, whereas the children to value independence and individualism,
little traditionordinary Chinese customs, habits, Chinese society emphasizes a broader social
ideas, and valuesrepresents the aspirations of aver- responsibility as well as socially desirable and cul-
age Chinese people; it is also described as the tra- turally approved behaviors such that promote social
ditional Chinese popular culture ( Johnson, harmony. Today the state of the Chinese family is
Nathan, & Rawski, 1985). These ordinary somewhat fluid, ranging from the traditional and
achievement values include wealth, official rank conjugal to the relatively isolated nuclear, although
and respect, longevity, perpetuation of the family increasingly the latter is becoming the norm.
line, integrity, and ethics. Among those, integrity Compared to Western parents, Chinese parents
and ethics are moral achievements that indicate a are less likely to use inductive reasoning; they tend
high degree of self-cultivation, a noble character to endorse restrictive and authoritarian disciplinary
and disposition, as well as moral conscience. The practices and emphasize obedience (Chao, 1994).
ultimate concerns and values for most Chinese peo- Chinese parents are not accustomed to being effec-
ple include issues of economy, reputation, biology, tively involved in their childrens upbringing. Early
and morality (A. Yu, 1994). parent-child interactions serve important but cul-
China is a collectivist culture whereby the inter- ture-specific functions in the formation of the self.
ests of the individual are regarded as subordinate to By operating within a parent-centered, self-critical
those of the group. Therefore, childrens socializa- framework, Chinese parents encourage their chil-
tion aims to help them develop behaviors that pro- drens compliance with authority, appropriate con-
mote the harmony and the welfare of the group or duct, humility, and a sense of belonging (Wang,
society. During this process, adults can often neglect 2004).
or underestimate childrens individual needs or feel- A series of studies investigated parental Chinese
ings. Helping children to understand collectivist attitudes and child socialization in Shanghai,
norms and values and learn group-oriented ideolo- Taiwan, Bangkok, Singapore, Honolulu, and Los
Angeles between 1991 and 1993 (Wu, 1996). the child must simply obey and not talk back to
Research methods included videotaping the daily them. This emerging tolerance, lenience, and indul-
routines of children from selected families, reflexive gence seem to be the result of rearing a single child
ethnography on three central issues using inter- who is more demanding, domineering, and defiant.
views of parents of 5-year-old children, and a sur- Ho (1993, 1994) argues that authoritarian moral-
vey in the form of a questionnaire. This survey stud- ism is a central characteristic of the Chinese pattern
ied parental attitudes towards child-rearing prac- of socialization guided by filial piety. Moralism puts
tices and discipline in 600 households in Shanghai an overriding emphasis on the development of
(mainland China). When asked, What is a good moral characteristics through education. It predis-
child? the parents most commonly responded that poses parents to be morally rather than psychologi-
A child should have good moral character, be intel- cally oriented. Children are expected to grow up
ligent, obedient, and have good health and good and have impulse control, behave properly, and ful-
personality (lively, active, autonomous, persever- fill their obligationsabove all, their filial obliga-
ing, confident and brave). When asked, What is tions. Ho (1987) remarks that filial piety is gradual-
an ideal parent? parents most often responded, ly declining and that the Chinese father-son rela-
One who is responsible about his child receiving a tionship is often characterized by emotional detach-
good education, conscientious about his childs ment, which is the outcome of an absolute parental
school achievements, able to coach his child at authority.
home, and responsible in disciplining the child. Chinese parental figures consider engaging in
The second most common response included ele- intimate communication and direct affective
ments such as: One who sets a good behavioral expressions to be inappropriate practices that can
model for the child. The third most common undermine their control and authority (X. Chen,
response was: One who looks after his familys Wu, Chen, Wang, & Cen, 2001). This notion is con-
needs and keeps its members in harmony. sistent with Confucian philosophy. Research
When asked about the goal of child training in demonstrates that, compared to Western parents,
the family, the most frequent responses were: (a) to Chinese parents appear less responsive and affec-
carry out moral education for the children especial- tionate with their children (X. Chen et al., 1998).
ly by teaching honesty and bravery; (b) to coach the Researchers have offered different views regard-
child to become knowledgeable and intelligent; (c) ing the relationship between parental guidance,
to enrich the childs good personality or character; power assertion, and the behavior of children in
and (d) to compliment and support the school by Chinese culture. Because of the emphasis on
ensuring that the child does his or her homework. parental authority, restrictive and controlling par-
In terms of discipline, mothers tend to be more enting does not lead to defiance in Chinese chil-
severe in their treatment of sons than fathers are. dren. In summary, research has consistently shown
This behavior follows traditional thinking that a that Chinese parents differ from their Western
severe father should not hesitate to use the rod to counterparts in the level of affective expression,
produce a filial son (xiaozi) (Ho, 1974). In Taiwan guidance, and power assertion (X. Chen et al.,
and Hong Kong, it appears that mothers adopt a 1998; C. Y. C. Lin & Fu, 1990).
more active and decisive role in disciplining their
children, due to the gradual increase there in
nuclear families (Ho & Kang, 1984). METHOD
New values have emerged with the arrival of a
generation of parents of only a single child. For Participants
instance, parents of a child of either gender now
oppose the idea that when they discipline a child, The Chinese sample consists of 500 children (out
TABLE 10.1.
DEMOGRAPHIC DETAILS OF THE CHINESE SAMPLE
Region N Age Group N Gender N
Shenzen 171 67 years 99 Boys 235
Han Dan 159 89 years 206 Girls 265
Beijing 109 1012 years 194
Dongying 56
of a normative sample of 814). All children who par- cities (namely, Zhongguancun, Jiujianfang, Han
ticipated were familiar with the tales of Little Red Dan and Dongying) can be compared with each
Riding Hood (LRRH) and Snow White and the other and the average of national development
Seven Dwarfs (SW). The sample represents an level. Economically speaking, Beijing rank the high-
analysis of 235 boys and 265 girls. Three age est, and Han Dan lowest among the four cities.
groups were formed: 67, 89, and 1012 years. Detailed demographic information of the sample is
Children were selected from four cities in northern, presented in Table 10.1.
central, and southern areas of China: Beijing,
Shenzen, Han Dan, and Dongying (see Table 10.1). Procedure
Beijing, located in the north, is the capital city of
China, the largest economic and political center of The children were assessed individually in a
the country. The children who participated in this quiet place at school during school hours.
study were recruited from two primary schools:
Zhongguancun Primary School and Beijing Material
Jiujianfang Primary School. Children enrolled in
the first school come from families of local resi- The FTT was employed as a measure to collect
dents, while children in the second school mostly data.
belong to families in which parents come from the
countryside around Beijing and temporally work in
the city. RESULTS
Shenzhen is an economically developed city
neighboring Hong Kong and located in southern Factor analysis was applied to the twenty-nine
part of China. Handan is a median size city in mid- personality variables. Principle component analysis
dle part of China, with a long history and econom- was followed by varimax rotation. First-order analy-
ically developmental level just at national average, sis led to the formation of twelve factors that com-
while Dongying is a small size city with petroleum prised 58 percent of the total variance (see Table
industry in Shandong Province, located in eastern 10.2).
part of China, developed economically at national Second-order factor analysis led to the formation
average level. of a five-factor model comprising 50 percent of the
However, in this present study, the four selected total variance (see Table 10.3).
TABLE 10.2.
FIRST-ORDER FACTOR ANALYSIS
Factors Loading
Hostile Aggression
Bizarres -0.621
Aggression type A -0.553
Adaptation to Fairy Tale content -0.691
Poor Mother Image and Depression
Depression -0.650
Need for affection -0.456
Anxiety -0.406
Relationship with the mother -0.402
Assertiveness
Aggression dominance -0.806
Desire for superiority -0.654
Sense of property -0.603
Insecurity
Need for protection -0.739
Aggression as defense -0.692
Envy and Approbation Needs
Need for approval -0.683
Ambivalence -0.600
Aggression as envy -0.538
Primitive Aggression vs. Fearfulness
Oral aggression -0.727
Fear of aggression -0.601
Instrumental Aggression
Instrumental aggression -0.767
Desire for material things -0.734
Continued
TABLE 10.2Continued.
Factors Loading
Helpfulness and Sociability
Desire to help -0.682
Need for affiliation -0.523
Self-Sufficiency
Sense of privacy -0.727
Self-esteem -0.498
Sexual preoccupation -0.441
Moral Consciousness
Morality -0.707
Oral needs -0.462
Retaliatory Aggression
Aggression as retaliation -0.792
Repetitions -0.534
Father Image
Relationship with the father -0.835
Oral needs -0.462
mental aggression correspond to sub-categories of

Discussion of First-Order proactive aggression. Proactive aggression, in con-
trast to reactive aggression, occurs in the absence of
Factor Analysis
any provocation and is coercive in nature. Hostile
aggression is internally motivated and often associ-
Hostile Aggression ated with hatred and pleasure. Instrumental aggres-
The factor of hostile aggression consists of the sion, on the other hand, aims at some form of
variables bizarres, aggression type A, and adapta- reward or object acquisition. A study by X. Chen,
tion to Fairy Tale content. It appears that the vari- Gen, Li, & He (2005), done in three cohorts (1990,
able of hostile aggression affects the extent of the 1998, and 2002), examined the relationship
childs reality testing and stimulates fantasy. between social functioning and adjustment in ele-
According to Dodge (1991), hostile and instru- mentary school children and indicated that aggres-
sive-disruptive children are likely to express their
TABLE 10.3.
SECOND-ORDER FACTOR ANALYSIS
Factors Loading
Instrumental Aggression and Guilt
Instrumental aggression (Instrumental Aggression, Desire for Material Things) -0.741
Moral consciousness (Morality, Oral Needs) -0.670
Helpfulness and Sociability as Coping Strategies against Negative Emotions
Poor mother image and depression (Need for Affection, Anxiety, Depression, Relationship with the Mother) -0.674
Hostile aggression (Adaptation to Fairy Tale Content, Bizarres, Aggression type A) -0.488
Helpfulness and sociability (Desire to Help, Need for Affiliation) -0.543
Insecurity (Need for Protection, Aggression as Defense) -0.396
Father Image as Regulator of Self-Concept and Aggressive Tendencies
Father image (Relationship with Father) -0.588
Envy and approbation needs (Need for Approval, Ambivalence, Aggression as Envy) -0.439
Primitive aggression vs. fearfulness (Oral Aggression, Fear of Aggression) -0.692
Self-Confidence and Achievement Motivation
Self sufficiency (Sense of Privacy, Self-Esteem, Sexual Preoccupation) -0.725
Assertiveness (Desire for Superiority, Aggression Dominance, Sense of Property) -0.550
Reactive Aggression vs. Social Approbation
Envy and approbation needs (Need for Approval, Ambivalence, Aggression as Envy) -0.427
Assertiveness (Desire for Superiority, Aggression Dominance, Sense of Property) -0.372
Retaliatory aggression (Aggression as Retaliation, Repetition) -0.800
anger and frustration in an explosive manner. and then desert them.

In the FTT, the target of hostile aggression is
often the destruction of the environment. The fol- Giant (Card 3): He wants to beat someone
lowing examples illustrate bizarre hostile aggression and beats flowers, grass, and
responses: trees.
What can a wicked giant do?: He can pick The two defense mechanisms associated with this
some flowers to smell. If they factor are reaction formation (p < 0.001) and pro-
are more fragrant than him, jection (p < 0.001). The following example reflects
he will tear them into pieces
the mechanism of reaction formation: low self-esteem, depression has been conceptual-
ized as an internalizing problem (Achenbach &
Giant (Card 3): He wants to destroy things, Edlbrock, 1981). Studies reveal that Chinese chil-
houses, put trees in a mess, dren tend to feel more depressed than American
make holes in the ground, children (Crystal et al., 1994). Chen, Rubin, and Li
and break glass. He is violent. (1995a) studied depression in elementary school
children in China and identified three potential fac-
Giant (Card 2): He wants to build and install tors for childhood depression: maternal rejection,
the damaged things; he wants marital conflict, and family income. They found
to help humans. that depressed mood, as an indicator of psychologi-
cal maladjustment, is associated with social incom-
The response to Card 2 illustrates reaction for- petence and externalizing problems. Child depres-
mation against the desire for destruction, expressed sion is also associated with social difficulties in
in response to Card 3. school and peer rejection.
The following example illustrates the mechanism FTT results demonstrate that depression is asso-
of projection: ciated with a negative mother-child relationship.
Depressive responses of Chinese children are
What can a wicked giant do?: If he is paid expressed as feelings of loneliness or abandonment
with a high salary, he can and depressive thoughts in connection with illness,
help other giants commit old age, or death. Typically, Chinese depressive
crimes. responses in children tend to report that someone
is not happy instead of saying that he or she is
In this example, the child projects onto others sad.
the desire to commit crimes. It appears that younger children are more likely
Data analysis reveals that hostile aggression is to perceive their maternal relationships as problem-
significantly higher in the youngest age group (6 to atic and negative, resulting in, greater feelings of
7 years, p < 0.008) and is also significantly higher in anxiety and depression. No sex differences were
Beijing (p < 0.01). It is assumed that younger chil- found in this factor.
dren face significantly more pressure from both Children in Beijing have been found to have a
their parents and teachers since they are transfer- more problematic relationship with their mothers,
ring from kindergarten to primary school. In addi- reflected in higher scores in anxiety and depression,
tion, children in Beijing were recruited from two compared to children from the other Chinese cities
primary schools, one of them with a majority of in this study. The following examples in response to
children from immigrant families from the country- LRRH illustrate the association between the vari-
side. These childrens parents are mainly blue-collar ables of relationship with the mother, anxiety, and
workers or servants from a lower socioeconomic depression:
status and thus may feel discriminated against.
These feelings may generate higher levels of aggres- With which card would you like it to end?
sions amongst them. (Card 2): This card shows the
miserable condition of
Poor Mother Image and Depression LRRH. Her mother never
cares for her. She cries in her
This factor consists of depression, need for affec- dark room for a long time.
tion, anxiety, and relation with the mother.
Clustering with loneliness, social withdrawal, and (Card 3): Her mum tells a story to
LRRH. LRRH is very glad, ration are pertinent features of the social and eco-
she thinks that her mum is the nomic reforms in China.
only person who cares about Assertiveness in children is a factor that seems to
her and takes good care of increase with age (p < 0.02); older children are
her in the world. more assertive than those from the middle age
group who, in turn, are more assertive than children
Splitting of the mother is the defense mechanism in the youngest age group. In addition, boys appear
associated with this factor (p < 0.01). This type of to be significantly more assertive than girls (p <
splitting is usually more common than the splitting 0.05).
of self, and it occurs as a defense against an author-
itarian mother image. The following examples are Insecurity
in reference to LRRH:
Insecurity consists of need for protection and
Card 1: LRRHs father found a stepmother. aggression as defense. The need for protection and
Her stepmother found she is beautiful the need to protect alternate among Chinese proto-
and always scolds her. cols. The need to seek help or protection is similar
to what Murray (1938) defines as the need for succo-
Card 2: Then her mom died, and no one cares rance, while the need to protect others is defined as
for her. She is crying, hiding in a cave. nurturance. Ho (1987) notes that children whose
She is quite wretched. mothers are insensitive and unresponsive to their
emotions and feelings can develop negative self-
Card 3: A warm-hearted man saved LRRH, concept and feelings of insecurity, loneliness, and
and the man says, I will look after you depression.
from now on. LRRH is very happy. This factor is culturally related, since aggression
as defense usually does not correspond to self-
Assertiveness defense (the desire to avoid harm or attack), but
rather it represents the defense of the weak and the
Assertiveness consists of desire for superiority, good. Children tend to give such responses in reac-
aggression as dominance, and sense of property. tion to the witch or giant cards, whereby the aggres-
This seemingly universal factor was also found in sor wants to harm the wicked persons to defend the
Greece, India, and Turkey. A similar personal innocent or good people.
dimension called social-oriented achievement moti- The following example reflects both a need for
vation was found through analysis of the Thematic protection and aggression as defense:
Apperception Test (TAT) data (E. Yu, 1974), as well
as childrens stories (Blumenthal, 1977). De Vos Giant (Card 2): He makes a trap for the wolf.
(1973) argues that dutiful service to ones family and He is very happy because the
clan constitute Chinese achievement goals. Yang wolf is trapped. The wolf
and Yu (1988) assert that what typically motivates always attacks people. He
Chinese individuals to achieve is the dynamic ten- wants to protect the princess
dency to reach an externally determined goal or so he must kill the wolves one
standard of excellence in a socially approved fash- by one, and the witches.
ion.
A study by X. Chen et al. (2005) of elementary In this example, the child identifies with the
school children indicated that increased require- princess while she perceives the giant as her protec-
ments for assertiveness, self-direction, and explo- tor against threat or harm.
Splitting is the one defense mechanism that is sig- influenced parental behavior and parental prac-
nificantly correlated with this factor (p < 0.002). The tices, and many Chinese parents and educators are
following example demonstrates the mechanism of concerned that parents in single-child families are
splitting of the father through one childs responses overindulging their children ( Jiao, Ji, & Kong,
to the Giant cards: 1986). This parental indulgence would increase a
childs confidence and inflate his or her ego.
Giant (Card 1): SW is in danger, and he is The following example reflects both a childs
going to help her. (?) SW is need for approval and aggression as envy:
beautiful. The witch is very
wicked and she wants to kill What can a wicked witch do? She is very jeal-
SW. ous. If someone is better than
her, she will kill him in order
Giant (Card 2): He is happy. He is the man of to be praised and accepted.
the witch. He is going to kill
SW. Dwarf (Card 3): He wants to do some scarifi-
cation and then to plant some
Giant (Card 3): He wants to kill the witch trees and vegetables. He is a
because she is very bad. bit happy. Some people have
praised him. He has done
In this example, the child identifies with SW. something for others and
Furthermore, the child projects the negative side of himself.
the father onto Cards 1 and 2 and the positive side
onto Card 3. The variable of envy and approbation needs is
significantly higher in the oldest age group (10 to
Envy and Approbation Needs 12-years, p < 0.02), and it appears increase with age.
This factor is also significantly higher in protocols
The factor of envy and approbation needs con- from the city of Han Dan (p < 0.01). The defense
sists of the desire for approval, ambivalence, and mechanism associated with this factor is projection
aggression as envy. It appears that envy among (p < 0.013), as the following responses illustrate:
Chinese protocols propels them to seek the
approval or admiration of others. The variable of Witch (Card 3): She is the queens minister.
aggression as envy commonly appears in the witch She is serving the queen. She
cards, whereby the child identifies with the witch. can use magic, too. She is
The main targets for aggression as envy are physi- thinking that SW is more
cal traits or happiness. The main motives that trig- beautiful than my master. I
ger feelings of envy are Oedipal feelings or sibling should change her into a
rivalry. The percentage of Oedipal feelings among stone, catch her, and dig her
Chinese protocols is relatively small (2%) compared heart out.
to other cultures (e.g., 5% in Greece and in Turkey),
and sibling rivalry is almost nonexistent since the Who is the most wicked witch, and why?
large majority of Chinese children are only chil- (Card 3): She sends the min-
dren. Thus, in this sample, feelings of envy com- ister to murder SW.
bined with approval needs seem to be triggered by
narcissistic needs and an inflated self. The single- The child projects his aggressive desires onto the
family policy implemented in the 1980s has greatly minister, who represents the witch and carries out
her evil plans. mental-proactive and hostile-proactive. Instrument-

al-proactive aggression is similar to covert antisocial
Primitive Aggression versus Fearfulness behavior such as lying and stealing, and it is gov-
erned by reinforcement principles such as aggres-
Primitive aggression vs. fearfulness includes the sion for object acquisition. Hostile-proactive aggres-
variables of oral aggression and fear of aggression. sion, on the other hand, overvalues the outcome of
Oral aggression is the most primitive form of aggression, while underestimating its impact on its
aggression. Compared with other types of aggres- victims; it involves domination or intimidation of
sion, oral aggression appears to be more impulsive another (e.g., bullying).
in nature, since fearfulness cannot restrain it, as the The following example illustrates the relation
following example illustrates: between instrumental aggression and the desire for
material things:
Witch (Card 1): She wants to eat SW and uses
the stick to order the hunter Witch (Card 2): She can kill the princess and
to kill SW and to eat her. She her family, rob all the treas-
is happy because eating SW ures, and become the richest
makes one live for ever. and most beautiful woman in
the world.
The youngest age group (ages 6 to 7) scores sig-
nificantly higher in this factor than do other age This factor appears to be significantly more com-
groups (p < 0.05). Primitive aggression vs. fearful- mon in the oldest age group (10 to 12 years, p <
ness appears to be lower among protocols from 0.00), as well as for boys in comparison to girls (p <
Dongying (p < 0.01). This may be due to the fact 0.02).
that the Province of Shandong (where this city
belongs) is the birth place of Confucianism, and Helpfulness and Sociability
therefore people from this province are more
respectful towards values such as courtesy and ritu- This factor consists of the variables desire to help
al. Oral aggression is prohibited within educational and need for affiliation. Chinese society, like other
values of Confucianism. collectivist cultures, highly values and encourages
pro-social attitudes and behaviors (Ho, 1986).
According to Hsu (1985), the supreme Chinese
virtue, jen, implies a persons ability to interact with
The factor of instrumental aggression consists of others in a sincere, polite, and decent fashion. Thus,
the variables of instrumental aggression and desire a primary task of socialization is to help children
for material things. Recently, researchers have learn how to control cooperative and pro-social atti-
emphasized the distinction between proactive and tudes and behaviors (X. Chen, 2000). For example,
reactive aggression in childhood (Dodge, 1991, part of the school curriculum in China is moral edu-
Dodge & Coie, 1987). While reactive aggression is a cation, in which students learn to cooperate and
defensive response to a perceived threat, fear, or help one another within a group setting. The dis-
provocation, proactive aggression is an unpro- play of caring and concern for others as well as
voked, offensive behavior intended to harm, domi- helping behavior are intended to lead to recogni-
nate, or coerce. Proactive aggression is considered a tion, respect, and reciprocal assistance from peers.
learned behavior controlled by external rewards. Helpfulness and sociability is significantly higher
Dodge and Coie (1987) further distinguished among children of the oldest age group (ages 10 to
between two types of proactive aggression: instru- 12 years; p < 0.01), and in the city of Han Dan (p <
0.01). The defense mechanisms associated with this is associated with self-esteem:
factor appear to be splitting (p < 0.001) and reaction
formation (p < 0.001). Wolf (Card 2): He is powerful, and he is pos-
ing. He sits on a brae, and
Giant (Card 3): I will destroy the country. I there is a group of bitches
will rule all the people. I am down looking at him. He is
the king. I will kill anyone showing himself. He thinks of
who defies me. himself as great. Many bitch-
es court him, and he is
Giant (Card 1): He is kind. He wants to make delighted. He thinks he is bet-
others to know, I am a good ter than others.
man. I can help you. I wont
destroy your country. Please Moral Consciousness
dont be frightened by me.
He is delighted (?) and says I The factor of moral consciousness consists of the
am your new friend. variables of morality and oral needs. Moral con-
sciousness is one of the most frequently expressed
These examples, from the same child, reflect personality variables in the FTT responses.
splitting of the self, whereby the child projects her Chinese children appear to show greater preoc-
negative aspects onto Card 3 and her positive cupation with moral correctness than do American
aspects onto Card 1 (the order of the cards corre- children. In a study using American and Chinese
sponds to the order of the childs responses). childrens narratives, where children were asked to
At the opposite end of helpfulness is selfishness. finish an incomplete story, Chinese children made
When selfishness appears in childrens responses it significantly more didactic statements concerning
is commonly punished, as illustrated by the follow- social standards and moral rules, made more refer-
ing example: ences to the story protagonists proper behavior and
moral character, and devised more instances of
Little Red Riding Hood: Which one would reparation and correct future behavior (Q. Wang &
you eat had you been the Leichtman, 2000).
wolf? Why? There is a negative correlation between moral
consciousness and oral needs. Oral needs may
Card 2: She only cares about her own express either real oral deprivation or emotional
safety and neglects her deprivation, and it appears that the stronger the
grannys happy life. childs emotional needs, the lower her or his moral
consciousness.
Self-Sufficiency In the FTT Chinese protocols, it is possible to
classify expressions of moral consciousness into
This factor consists of the variables of sense of seven categories, based on the content of the
privacy, self-esteem, and sexual preoccupation. It response (followed here by an example):
appears that Chinese children enjoy times of social
isolation in order to contemplate. Self-esteem is 1. Self-Improvement
associated with confidence in ones physical appear-
ance (or sexual attractiveness), mental abilities, or Scenes from LRRH: Because the child corrects
achievements. her bad habits and loves
In the following example, sexual preoccupation studying again, she will be
loved by her mom very much
when she is a grown-up. do anything evil.
2. Rejection by Others 5. Good Manners
Witch (Card 2): She is thinking, If I do bad Scenes from LRRH: LRRH made a big mis-
things again, others will not take. Her mom abuses her
like me. Because the witch is and is very angry. You do not
fierce, others walk the other respect the others so much,
way to avoid meeting her. and you even killed the most
adoring wolf in the forest,
3. Preaching which could have helped us
by eating the foxes that
Scenes from SW: SW is next to her father; her always do harm to us.
father is explaining the princi-
ples to be a person, tells her 6. Self-Punishment
not to get a rise out of some-
one. She should help others Giant (Card 2): He looks left and right.
when she meets them. She is Something suddenly falls
very modest and listens to her from above and smashes his
fathers preaching. leg. His leg is broken and
needs stitches. He is angry
4. Splitting Between Id and Superego (from the and wants to avenge himself.
same child) He tries to destroy houses.
Witch (Card 1): She is jealous. She wants to 7. Self-Criticism and Sense of Justice
take revenge on the princess.
The princess has a happy life, Scenes from LRRH: She finds something is lost
so she envies her very much. when she goes home. Her
mother is angry. LRRH is not
Witch (Card 2): She is scolding the first one happy but she doesnt dare
because she envies the others, blame her mother because it
(?) because the second is the is her fault. When my mother
mother of the first. Although is angry, she sometimes beats
she (the second) is a witch, me and sometimes she does-
she is upright, and she wants nt. I do not complain to my
her daughter to be a good mother because it is my fault,
person. She wants to make but sometimes my mother
her daughter a kind person. may treat me unjustly.
Witch (Card 3): She is the mother of the sec- The highest incidence of moral consciousness is
ond. She is scolding the first in children from the oldest age group (10 to 12
one too. She is saying, Even years, p < 0.01). This factor is also significantly high-
though my clothes are worn er among protocols from the city of Han Dan (p <
and I have to mend it by
hand, poor as I am, I wont
0.01). ized by affectional distance, perhaps even tension

and antagonism.
Retaliatory Aggression In the FTT, the child commonly reflects his or
her father relationship in responses to the Giant
Retaliatory aggression includes the variables of cards or in the second card of the scenes from SW.
aggression as retaliation and repetitions. Retaliation The following examples demonstrate a positive and
is one of the most common motives for aggressive a negative relationship with the father:
reactions. The concept of punishment is entailed in
thoughts on vengeance or vindictiveness, as in: Scenes from SW (Card 2): Papa is sitting. She
You hurt me, so Ill hurt you back. Among asks papa for an article, a
Chinese children, retaliatory aggression appears to happy thing, and gets a toy.
be a reaction against feelings of rejection, as in the She is happy because her
following example: mouth is laughing. It seems
that papa buys it for her. She
What can a wicked witch do?: She can kill doesnt need to ask him. Papa
people. (?) No one cares for knows what she likes.
her. (Positive relationship)
Retaliatory aggression is significantly higher Scenes from SW (Card 2): Her dad beat SW.
among children from the younger age group (6 to 7 Then SW will not obey to her
years, p < 0.01), and occurs significantly more fre- father. (?) SW could leave the
quently in Beijing (p < 0.03). Younger children may palace and live with the
have less self-control and thus be more direct in Seven Dwarfs. Her father
expressing their anger. Children from Beijing, on couldnt beat her. (Negative
the other hand, may score higher in this factor relationship)
because due to their privileged living area they may
be less tolerant to situation where they feel that their Discussion of Second-Order
status is under threat. Factor Analysis
Father Image Instrumental Aggression and Guilt

The Father image consists of the variables of In Chinese children, as in India, instrumental
relationship with the father and oral needs. The aggression appears to stimulate feelings of guilt
father plays a significant role in the Chinese house- more than other types of aggression do. This asso-
hold and occupies a central position within the ciation may be explained in relation to: (a) the
Chinese social context. According to Confucian underlying target of instrumental aggression: object
principles, of which filial piety is the cornerstone, acquisition; (b) an underlying urge or necessity for
the father-son relationship is one of the five most material goods, for which anxiety deprivation usu-
influential relationships, along with those between ally underlies instrumental aggression; (c) the
ruler and the minister, husband and wife, elder and motive of aggression, which appears to be more
younger brothers, and two friends. conscious than in other forms of aggression; and (d)
According to Ho (1986), the paternal role is that the action of material exploitation or stealing, which
of an educator-disciplinarian as well as a provider. is socially and morally condemned.
It is the role of the mother to be more protective Findings suggest that aggressive children experi-
and nurturing. Father-child relations are character- ence pervasive social and psychological difficulties
in China (X. Chen, Rubin, & Li, 1995b). Unlike this factor, children seem to utilize splitting of self (p
children in North America, aggressive children in < 0.001), reaction formation (p < 0.001), and pro-
China are likely to form a negative self-image jection (p < 0.001). All of these mechanisms are
(Chen et al., 1995b). Due to the emphasis on har- almost exclusively employed against aggressive ten-
mony and interpersonal relationships or other ori- dencies.
entation, Chinese children less frequently demon- The following example illustrates splitting of self;
strate aggressive expressions in daily life (Ho, 1986). the child identifies with the giant and projects his
This is consistent with the fact that in traditional negative emotions onto Card 1, while projecting the
Confucian and Taoist cultures, self-restraint and positive ones onto Card 2:
behavioral inhibition in interpersonal interaction
are an index of accomplishment, mastery, and Giant (Card 1): He wants to beat down all the
maturity (King & Bond, 1985). people on the ground (he
Data analysis reveals that instrumental aggres- wants to make himself the
sion and guilt is significantly higher among children strongest).
from the oldest age group (ages 10 to 12 years; p <
0.01) and among children from the city of Han Dan Giant (Card 2): He wants to protect the peo-
(p < 0.01). ple on the earth and prevent
The defense mechanism of rationalization is the other two giants from
associated with this factor (p < 0.005). The following hunting the humans on the
example illustrates how a child constructs a rational earth.
justification for an unacceptable action:
The child in the following example identifies
What can a wicked giant do?: He will do harm with the giant and employs reaction formation,
to people, and kill the rare expressing negative or unacceptable emotions in
animals. (?) There are only Card 1, and replacing them in Card 2 by their direct
rare animals in the forest, and opposites.
there are short of common
animals. So the giant has to Giant (Card 1): He will absorb all peoples
eat the rare animals. strength and destroy the
whole world. He feels good
Helpfulness and Sociability as Coping because he will become the
Strategies against Negative Emotions strongest person soon.
The ability to be affiliative and helpful consti- Giant (Card 2): He is a good man and he is
tutes a significant part of the Chinese childs per- smiling. He wants to help
sonality and way of life. First, it serves as a coping people do good things: pave
strategy in helping the child to deal with feelings of the meadow, build the build-
hostility and aggression; second, it helps the child to ings. He is so tall and strong,
overcome feelings of anxiety and depression; and and he does these things like
finally, it enables the child to feel strong and thus building blocks. He feels
cope with his or her own feelings of weakness or good; because he helps oth-
insecurity. ers, others will praise him for
This factor is significantly higher among proto- being a good person.
cols of children from Han Dan (p < 0.01).
In terms of defense mechanisms associated with The following example illustrates the defense
mechanism of projection, whereby the child identi- that a positive self-concept is related to better psy-
fies with the giant and attributes the responsibility chological adjustment (Chang, 1982; Leung &
of his aggressive tendencies to the master. Leung, 1992). According to Confucian thought, the
role of the self is not to express or manifest itself (as
Giant (Card 3): His master asks him to kill his it is in Western thought), but to develop the internal
personal enemy. He wants to moral self, which aims to conquer selfishness to
do this work well; otherwise restore mutual propriety. Self-realization as a
the master will punish him. process of internal self-development is considered
to be gradual and regimented (Tu, 1992). Whereas
Father Image as Regulator of Self-Concept Western ideals emphasize an understanding of the
self and how to master it, Confucianism stresses the
and Aggressive Tendencies
remaking and reforming of the moral self.
These factors are strongly affiliated with the
Chinese culture. It appears that the fathers role is Reactive Aggression versus
quite ambiguous; on the one hand, the father makes Social Approbation
the child feel ambivalent about his or her abilities
and therefore the child seeks his constant approval. In comparison to Western, individualist cultures,
On the other hand, the father appears to play a sig- China is a collectivist culture that emphasizes the
nificant role in appeasing his childrens aggressive individuals conformity to societal and in-group
tendencies, particularly oral or envious aggression. roles, especially in social institutions such as
According to Ho (1987), Chinese fathers usually schools. The society highly values and encourages
focus their attention on their childrens academic effortful control (Rothbart & Bates, 1998) of emo-
achievement and social behavior. Children of sensi- tional impulses in Elementary school childrens.
tive and affectionate fathers tend to become more Collectivist cultures value group harmony and
competent socially and academically than do their the individuals interdependence with the group
counterparts who have relatively cold and hostile (Triandis, 1995). Furthermore, these cultures associ-
parents. Paternal indulgence results from a lack of ate emotions such as anger and frustration with
parental coordination in child rearing. Findings by assertiveness and independence, which can be at
X. Chen et al. (2001) indicate a significant sex dif- odds with the maintenance of collectivist values
ference regarding the relation between paternal such as interdependent social interactions and the
power, assertion and aggressive behavior, which avoidance of interpersonal conflict (Markus &
suggests that girls are more sensitive than boys to Kitayama, 1991).
their fathers discipline. This last factor of the second-order analysis
This factor is significantly higher among girls (p seems to be increasingly more frequent as children
< 0.04) as well as among protocols of children from age (p < 0.03) and is significantly higher among chil-
the oldest age group (10 to 12 years; p < 0.01) and dren from Beijing (p < 0.04).
those residing in the city of Dongying (p < 0.02).
Self-Confidence and CONCLUSIONS

Achievement Motivation
The major characteristic of first-order analysis is
Research has shown that the relationships the emergence of various types of aggression
between self-concept and an array of other vari- included in separate factors: assertiveness, hostile
ables in Chinese societies are similar to those iden- aggression, primitive aggression, envy, and retalia-
tified in American samples. The general pattern is tory aggression. The present findings indicate that
aggression constitutes a significant aspect of the per- 36% respectively, among Chinese protocols).
sonality of the Chinese child. Another observation, Another interesting observation concerns the
which has also been made in other cultures, is the Oedipal conflict in Chinese protocols. In the major-
relationship between anxiety and depression, as ity of Oedipal cases, the witch wishes to kill SW
well as the perceived relationship with the mother. (who represents the mother) in order to marry the
Moreover, the factors of moral consciousness and prince (who represents the father). However,
helpfulness and sociability appear to constitute a Chinese children reveal the Oedipal conflict in a
universal personality dimensions of elementary much more concealed and indirect way. It may thus
school children. be argued that the relationship with the mother in
The factors emerging from the second-order fac- connection with a strict superego justifies the scarce
tor analysis are more culture-specific, revealing the expression of oedipal feelings in FTT protocols.
core structure of the Chinese child. These factors Following are two characteristic examples:
reveal coping strategies against aggressive impulses
(such as sociability), the role of the father in regu- What can a wicked witch do?: She wants to
lating aggressive outbursts and the childs self- know who is the most beauti-
image, the significance children attribute to the ful. She will not let someone
opinion of the social group, and finally, the rela- else be the queen, and she
tionship between self-confidence and the need to will not permit others to like
achieve and actualize ambitions. the king either.
Qualitative analysis of the data reveals the
employment of several defense mechanisms, such Scenes of SW (Card 2): The king disagrees with
as undoing, denial, projection, splitting, reaction SW marrying the prince
formation, and rationalization. The majority of because she is the daughter
these defense mechanisms are utilized against he loves the most.
aggression and feelings of anxiety.
Generally, the mother figure in China appears to With regards to anxiety, it is necessary to note
be quite strict and punitive. Splitting of mother is a the order as well as the frequency (in percentage) in
defense mechanism employed against a conflicting which different types of anxiety occur among the
perception of the mother image. Within the mecha- childrens responses in total. The six most-frequent-
nism of splitting, splitting of the mother constitutes ly-expressed types of anxiety among Chinese chil-
a larger percentage than splitting of the self (55% vs. dren are deprivation (51%), insecurity (50%), pun-
TABLE 10.4.
FREQUENCY (IN PERCENTAGES) OF TYPES OF ANXIETY ACROSS ALL CULTURES
India China Greece Greece
Deprivation (51%) Deprivation (51%) Insecurity (42%) Deprivation (51.6%)
Harm (43%) Insecurity (50%) Harm (39%) Insecurity (49%)
Punishment (40%) Punishment (45%) Rejection (30%) Harm (42.7%)
Insecurity (39%) Harm (43%) Deprivation (25%) Concern (39.1%)
Rejection (33%) Self (40%) Concern (22%) Inability (34.6)

ishment (45%), harm (43%), and self (40%) (see safely, her mother is very
Table 10.4). happy. (?) Once she does not
Out of these types of anxiety, two types appear recall this experience, other
to be culturally sensitive: anxiety punishment and wolves would want revenge if
anxiety self. Anxiety punishment is closely related they knew their ancestor was
to either moral development or to the severity of killed by the hunter because
the superego; anxiety self, which basically reveals of LRRH. Then LRRH will
the childs desire for improvement and to excel, is be eaten by the wolf sooner
associated with his or her social environment and or later. The offspring of the
social modernization. wolves and LRRH will hate
Regarding the qualitative analysis of anxiety, each other forever. If they
there is a large percentage of bizarre responses resolve the problem now, it
(55.2%) in Chinese protocols compared to that in will not have an effect on
other cultures (35%, 24%, and 37%, for Greece, their offspring.
India, and Turkey, respectively). The majority of
bizarre responses in China are creative in nature, The following two examples reveal the creative
revealing cultural issues, as well as a poetic and fantasy of Chinese children:
philosophical approach in dealing with lifes prob-
lems. A large number of bizarre responses reveal Witch (Card 2): A monster came and turned
issues with morality. Following are some character- the first one into the second
istic examples: one. She says, Change me
back quickly. The monster
Scenes from LRRH (Card 2): LRRH has vio- says, No way. Then he turns
lated the domestic laws, and the second one into the third
her grandfather imprisons her one.
at home.
Witch (Card 3): She wants to find SW, and so
Dwarf (Card 3): He is an old man, he wants to she turns into a man to help
have a grandson, too. (?) He SW to cross the river. (?)
should take it easy; he has a When SW goes to bed she
son after all. (?) He should be will turn into herself (she will
optimistic although he is turn into a witch) and practice
going to the end. magic spells in her room.
Witch (Card 3): She is angry; she becomes

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Chapter 11
THE APPLICATION OF THE FAIRY TALE TEST IN GREECE

CARINA COULACOGLOU AND E LENI KOTSONI
Whatever I say, I owe to the ancients and whatever thought I discovered myself I found later in the old scripts.
After Plotinus philosophy has nothing new to say, just as after Jesus life has nothing new to say.
The best we can do which I find both difficult and vital, is to express old truths in our own words.
S. Ramfos, 1995, Triodion
INTRODUCTION era (3301453), the Ottoman era (14531821), and

the Modern Greek state (182121st century).
Brief Historical Outline Twentieth-century Greek history has been charac-
of Greek History terized by a constant change, including the Asia
Minor disaster (1922), a civil war (1945-49), two for-
odern Greece is a parliamentary democracy eign occupations, ten military coups dtat, a seven-
M and has been a member of the European
Union since 1981. Situated in the southern end of
year dictatorship (the regime of the Colonels [mili-
tary Junta, 1967-74]), numerous constitutions, and
the Balkan Peninsula, Greece lies at the juncture of nearly fifty changes of government. However, these
Europe, Asia, and Africa. Heir to the legacies of events constitute only a brief glance at the complex
classical Greece, the Byzantine Empire, and nearly Greek history, which has profoundly influenced
four centuries of Ottoman rule, Greece is regarded Greek attitudes and culture and played a significant
as the cradle of Western civilization and the birth- role in shaping how Greeks define themselves.
place of democracy, as well as Western philosophy,
political science, major scientific principles, and The Impact of Geography
drama. Its particularly long and eventful history, in
conjunction with its cultural heritage, has funda- Two primary factors define Greek identity. First,
mentally informed Western and European cultures Greek nationality is not solely linked with the coun-
and has also had considerable influence on trys modern geographical borders. Ancient Greece
Northern Africa and the Middle East. was composed of city-states united by a common
The written history of Greece dates from the language, and as such had no clearly defined terri-
time of Herodotus (6th century B.C.), while archeo- tory. Second, its geographical location has meant
logical records chronicle complex events over an that Greek identity is influenced by the extent to
uninterrupted period of nearly 5,000 years, going which Greece is considered an Eastern or a Western
back to at least the second millennium B.C. Greek country. Neither truly Eastern, Western, nor Balkan,
history can be roughly divided in four major peri- Greece is better described as a unique juncture of
ods: Antiquity (1100 B.C.330 A.D.), the Byzantine East and Westa small spot on the map that has left
243
a permanent mark on nearly the entire world. Olympus.

Most gods were associated with specific aspects
Greek Mythology of life: Athena was the goddess of wisdom and
courage, Ares the god of war, Aphrodite the god-
Greek mythology has exerted extensive influ- dess of beauty, and Hermes the god of communica-
ence on the culture, and it remains part of Western tion. Regardless of their underlying forms, the
heritage and language. Mythological heroes and ancient Greek gods had many fantastic abilities;
their achievements constitute an integrated part of they were not affected by disease and could be
the Greek culture, and children become familiar wounded only on rare occasions. The Greeks con-
with these stories from early childhood, even before sidered immortality to be a distinctive characteristic
primary or even nursery school. Mythology is also of their gods.
an important part of the history taught in school, at Heroes also play a significant role in Greek
different levels and degrees of depth, depending on mythology, such as Hercules, Theseus, Perseus, and
the childrens age. Deucalion.
Ancient Greek stories concern gods and heroes, Hercules was a divine hero, the son of Zeus and
the nature of the world, and cult and ritual prac- Alcmena. He was the greatest of the Greek heroes,
tices. Though originally an oral-poetic tradition, a paragon of masculinity, extraordinary strength,
today Greek myths are known primarily from courage, ingenuity, and sexual powers. Although he
Greek literature. was less intelligent, Hercules relied on his wits on
Myths are also preserved in the Greek tragedies several occasions when his strength did not suffice.
from the fifth century B.C., in writings of scholars By conquering dangerous monsters and mastering
and poets of the Hellenistic Age, and in writers of almost impossible tasks, he is considered as protec-
the Roman Empire such as Plutarch and Pausanias. tor and the worlds benefactor, a mythical super-
Myths of origin represent attempts to explain the man. Hercules is best known for the heroic accom-
universes beginnings. In Ancient Greece, Heriods plishment of the 12 Labors (or tasks) and in joining
Theogony was the most widely accepted account; it of the Argonauts in the search of Golden Fleece.
starts with Chaos. Out of the void emerged Gaia Another famous mythological hero was Theseus,
(the Earth) and some other primary divine beings. a founder hero like Hercules and Perseus, all of
Without male assistance, Gaia gave birth to Uranus whom battled and overcame various foes.
(the Sky) who then fertilized her. From the union The famous epic poems the Iliad and the Odyssey
were born the Titans, the one-eyed Cyclops, and are both attributed to the Ionian poet Homer. Most
the Hecatonchires (Hundred-Handers). Cronus, the modern scholars consider these epics to be the old-
youngest of Gaias children, castrated his father and est literature in the Greek language, possibly
became the ruler of the gods, with his sister-wife equaled by Hesiod, dating to the eighth or seventh
Rhea as his consort and the other Titans as his century B.C.
court. This motif of father/son conflict was repeated The Iliad concerns events during the tenth and
when Cronus was confronted by his son Zeus. Rhea final year in the siege of the city of Ilium (Troy) by
persuaded Zeus to war against Cronus for the king- the Greeks. Here Homer devotes long passages to
ship of the gods. Ultimately Zeus and his siblings detailed descriptions of combat. He names the fight-
won the war and imprisoned Cronus and the Titans ers, recounts their taunts and battle cries, and offers
in Tartarus. gruesome details of how they wound and kill each
Following the overthrow of the Titans, a new other. Homeric warfare is considered some of the
pantheon of gods and goddesses emerged. Among most bloody and brutal in all of literature. The Iliad
the principal Greek deities were the Twelve offers a huge cast of characters and has been the
Olympians residing at the top of the Mount source of several popular Greek myths, such as
The Application of the Fairy Tale Test in Greece 245
Jason and the Argonauts, the Seven Against It is worth noting that one of the central values of
Thebes, and the Labors of Hercules. the in-group is what Greeks refer to as philotimo
The Odyssey is in part a sequel to The Iliad and (Vassiliou, 1966; Triandis and Vassiliou, 1972;
mainly centers on the adventures of the Greek hero Vassiliou and Vassiliou, 1973). Philotimo cannot be
Odysseus and his long journey home to Ithaca, fol- accurately translated in English; loosely, it refers to
lowing the fall of Troy. Odysseuss journey lasts honor. However, its meaning better corresponds
eleven years after the nine-year Trojan War. During to giving to others, being correct in fulfilling
his absence, his son Telemachus and wife Penelope your obligations, sacrificing yourself for others,
must deal with a group of unruly suitors who com- and respecting the others (Vassiliou, 1966).
pete to marry Penelope, assuming that Odysseus It may be argued that the sense of family respon-
has died. Odysseus experiences great adventures, sibility in Greece supersedes that of social responsi-
keeping the readers in suspense of whether he will bility. Despite the inevitable social changes and the
finally make it back home. Odysseus draws upon transformation that Greece has undergone in recent
his intelligence several times. years, the family structure has been able to maintain
its strength and vitality. Although urbanization,
The Family westernization and other influences are reshaping
the outward appearance of the family structure and
The family is the central social unit in Greece. life, the basic sense of family loyalty, the obligations
The familys importance and stability is fundamen- felt by its members still pervade Greek society.
tal within the Greek society regardless of region, Traditional roles of family members are
class or location. Loyalty to the family takes prece- described based on a series of studies of traditional
dence over all competing interests or ones own Greek family values (Georgas, 1989; 1991; Georgas
needs or wishes, while much of a persons life is et al., 2005). These traditional family values were
devoted to family obligations and responsibilities. determined by the Greek literature and by eliciting
Accordingly, Greeks maintain a very close relation- family roles through group discussion with students.
ship with their families, which provide economic Here follow a few examples.
and emotional security, placing, however, many The father should be the head of the family, han-
demands on its members. dle the money in the house, punish the children
During its history, the extended family consti- when they disobey, be the breadwinner, be the crit-
tutes the most characteristic type of Greek family. ic in the family, he should be concerned only with
The traditional extended family can be described as the serious matters in the family.
patrilineal in terms of lineal descent, patriarchal in The mother should be the go-between the father
terms of authority structure, and patrilocal in terms and the children, her place is in the home, she
of residence of married sons (Georgas et al., 2005). should live for her children, she should always
According to Triandis and Vassiliou (1972), the know where her children are, report to the father
Greek ingroup is composed of more than the the childrens problems, help her children with their
extended family, including, for example, best man homework, agree with the fathers opinion in mat-
(or maid of honor) at the wedding, the godparents, ters concerning the children, accept the decisions
in-laws and friends, based on the criterion that they taken by the father, yield and be compromising,
showed concern and support during times of need. give way when the father becomes upset, vote the
Appropriate behavior towards members of the same political party as the father, her first goal in
extended family consisted of cooperation, protec- life should be to be a good mother.
tion, and help, while appropriate behavior towards The parents are responsible for teaching children
members of the out-group was competition and to behave appropriately, they should know their
hostility. childrens friends, help them financially, they should
be involved in the private lives of their married chil- ed to family roles and functions (such as those
dren, and they shouldnt argue in front of them. described above) are a psychological measure of
The children should not talk back to their parents, changes in the family system. After determining
they should be seen but not heard, they shouldnt these factors, the next step consisted of comparing
have secrets from their parents, they should eat with the means of the values on each factor across differ-
their parents on Sundays, they have the obligation ent age levels.
to care for their parents when they get older, they The results of this comparison are rather inter-
should respect their grandparents. esting: the first factor (hierarchical roles of father
Finally, it is also worth noting that family prob- and mother) showed the greatest variability across
lems should be solved within the family, whose ages, while the scores also varied depending on the
members should be honorable (philotimoi), honor location (urban vs. rural). Athenians rejected these
and respect their familys reputation. traditional roles more than residents from small
Roles and responsibilities in the family have been communities. In addition, females rejected these
clearly defined, sometimes even written into law. roles more than males. Based on these results, it
The roles of each member of the family were insti- appears that family values associated with the patri-
tutionalized primarily by local communities and sec- archal authority of the father were rejected by peo-
ondarily by the larger society. Until the early 1980s, ple of all ages in Greece, or at least, they did not
the Greek Civil Code outlined the rights and respon- agree with them. On the other hand, young people
sibilities of husband and wife, until officially imple- in Greece agreed with values of the traditional
menting equality between the sexes in 1983. extended family with regard to the importance of
maintaining relations with relatives, respecting the
Changes in the Greek Family grandparents, offering help to parents, and so on. . . .
These values reflect the need of maintaining close
In studies of traditional Greek family values relationships and ties with kin. Taken together,
(Georgas, 1986, 1989, 1991), three factors emerge: these results indicate that the traditional family val-
(a) the first and strongest factor is the hierarchy with- ues are still functional with the present Greek fami-
in the roles of each parent, in compliance with the val- ly unit. In addition, the same data indicated that
ues of a traditional patriarchal extended family, family values, the types of residence patterns, and
whereby the father is considered as the head of the interactions with kin in Athens (the larger urban
family, and the mother as more submissive, com- center in Greece) are very similar to those of the tra-
promising, and caring with the children; (b) the sec- ditional towns. Thus, one could argue that the rural
ond factor corresponds to the responsibilities of the extended family in Greece has been transplanted to
parents towards their children, in terms of adopting the Athens, under the form of a urban extended family
appropriate behavior in front of the children, teach- (Georgas et al., 2005).
ing them good manners, keeping family conflicts Education is of paramount importance to a
within the family, etc.; finally, the third factor cor- Greek family, as it is still considered as a means for
responds to the responsibilities of the children towards gaining social recognition. Parents in Greece make
the parents and relatives defining how the children sure to provide everything they can for their chil-
should behave towards their families, by taking care drens education. In addition, within the actual edu-
of their parents when they get older, respecting the cational system Greek children have to decide and
elders and so forth. choose for their future very early on, around the age
The same three factors were obtained in a num- of 15 years or even earlier. As a result, children
ber of other studies with different populations and experience the pressure for succeeding which may
different age levels (Papademou, 1999; Bafiti, 2000), initiate competitive feelings and behavior among
which indicates a very stable structure. Values relat- them.
Religion threatened family cohesion and strength; and the

church must compete against a trend towards secu-
For both ancient and contemporary Greeks, reli- larism. Nevertheless, the long and complex Greek
gion is closely connected to the natural world and to history has generated a set of social patterns, com-
daily life. In modern Greece, religion permeates munication styles, and ways of thinking that exhib-
every layer of life, from family to politics, work to it both strength and elasticity. The strength refers to
recreation. Greek identity, at a national or individual a continuity with the past, persisting despite many
level, is also closely linked with religion. The vast hardships and impositions from outside forces. The
majority of Greeks (>90%) are Eastern Orthodox elasticity, on the other hand, stems both from a con-
Christians, which is the official religion of the state. stant need to adapt to change and from how Greeks
Greek culture absorbed early Christianity in a have repeatedly resisted invaders.
way that maintained a continuity with its past. The
coming of Christianity did not result in a break with Historical Review of
previous practices, beliefs, or even deities. The Psychology in Greece
Greek version of Christianity may even be more
indebted to its precursors (ancient religious beliefs, Psychology as a discipline has a relatively short
or classical Greek paganism) than most people real- history in Greece, despite the fact that many psy-
ize. Deities became saints, and the most powerful chological concepts have their roots in Greek phi-
deities became identified with the most powerful losophy. As Dafermos, Marvakis, and Triliva
saints, often preserving the same names and func- describe, In its great hurry to establish itself as a
tion, demonstrating the continuity between the two discipline and a profession, the field did not delin-
religions. For instance, the Greek god of sun, eate or identify its role within the Greek societal
Helios, became the prophet Elias; Theseus, who context, but adopted and took on the roles, prac-
killed the Minotaur became St. George, who slew tices and methods of psychology from other nations
the evil dragon; Athena Parthenos became Virgin such as the United States, Britain, Germany or
Mary; Dionysos, the god of wine, became St. France (2006).
Dionysios, who is said to have discovered the Psychology first appeared in Greece in the early
grapevine. twentieth century as a course in the Philosophy
As a result, todays Greek church corresponds to Department of the University of Athens. Until the
a blend between classical Greek paganism and 1960s the academic community refused to distin-
Christianity, full of a series of feast days and cere- guish psychology as an independent discipline. In
monies weaving through the year. However, it is 1987 an independent psychology department was
not only the faithful who observe this intensive cal- established in Greece within the School of Social
endar of spiritual obligations; all citizens commem- Sciences at the University of Crete. In the 1990s
orate these common Greek traditions, which also independent departments or programs were found-
mark a familys life and attitudes. Through this indi- ed at other Greek universities, which marked a new
rect route, religion also affects the Greek culture era of psychology in Greece.
and identity.
Although significant changes continue to take Personality Assessment in Greece
place in Greece, interpersonal relationships are
embedded in a traditional context, so that many of The personality of Greek children has been
the cultures more traditional features persist. A mainly examined with personality inventories or
massive urbanization has progressively caused behavior scales. Eysenck and Dimitriou (1984)
many Greeks to desert their villages; the pressures employed the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire
of both spouses working outside the home have on 1,117 boys and 1,199 girls ages 812 from public
schools in the Greek city of Thessaloniki. Factor the Greek childs personality using the Fairy Tale
comparisons indicated that the dimensions of psy- Test (FTT), a personality projective test for children
choticism, extraversion, neuroticism, and social ages 612.
desirability were identical in Greece and England.
Greek norms indicated that boys scored higher than Standardization and Restandardization
girls on psychoticism and extraversion, but lower
on neuroticism. Direct cross-cultural comparisons The FTT was originally standardized on a non-
revealed that Greek children scored lower on psy- clinical sample of approximately 800 Greek chil-
choticism and neuroticism than English children, dren ages 712 (Coulacoglou, 1993). The validity of
but considerably higher on social desirability. the FTT was examined through factor analyses and
Papatheophilou, Sokou-Bada, Michelogiannis, comparison with other personality instruments as
and Pandelakis (1988) examined the relationship well as with studies of internal consistency
between psychological disorders and school per- (Coulacoglou, 2002; Coulacoglou, Souyouldzoglou,
formance in 603 children ages 68 in the Athens & Atsarou, 2002). The FTT was restandardized in
area, using the Rutter Behavior scales for parents 20002003.
and teachers (Rutter et al., 1970). Both parents and
teachers tended to describe boys as more aggressive
and hyperactive than girls, while they described METHOD
girls as more anxious and phobic.
Motti-Stefanidi, Tsiantis, and Richardson (1993) Participants
conducted an epidemiological survey of the behav-
ioral and emotional problems of primary school The sample consisted of 873 Greek children (413
Greek children from Greater Athens. They em- boys, 460 girls). There were three age groups: 67
ployed the Child Behavior Check List (CBCL; years (N=292), 89 years (N=256), and 1012 years
Achenbach & Edelbrock, 1983) on a sample of (N=325). Children in the sample were all attending
approximately 500 children ages 611. The Greek public primary schools in the Athens area. The
sample scored much higher than the original U.S. socioeconomic status (SES) was 27 percent low, 53
sample and a German sample. Greek children also percent middle, and 20 percent upper.
scored high on such items such as arguing, demand-
ing attention, jealousy, nervousness, stubbornness, Procedure
irritability, cheating, and lying. The authors of that
study (Motti-Stefanidi, et al., 1993) argue that child- Examiners were licensed psychologists who had
rearing patterns of Greek parents may produce undergone a training session on test administration
behaviors that are considered acceptable or even with the author. All subjects were examined at their
desirable in Greece but could be interpreted as schools. Parents received a written consent form to
signs of psychological disturbance in other coun- sign. The examiner removed children from the
tries. An example is dependency: Greek parents classroomone at a timeand led each child to an
may encourage their children to be dependent on empty classroom.
them, and Greek children were rated high on
dependency on the CBCL. Material
The Application of the Fairy Tale Test The FTT was employed to assess the childs per-
sonality.
The present investigation is an empirical study of
RESULTS personality variables. Principle component analysis

was employed, followed by varimax rotation. First-
Internal Validity order analysis led to the formation of eleven factors
(see Table 11.1) that comprised 61.6 percent of the
Factor analysis was applied on the twenty-nine total variance.
TABLE 11.1.
Factors Loading
Assertiveness
Aggression dominance -0.781
Instrumental aggression -0.763
Oral needs -0.622
Impulse Control
Aggression retaliation -0.365
Repetitions -0.705
Adaptation to fairy tale content -0.715
Self-Concept and Depression
Depression -0.555
Self-esteem -0.715
Anxiety and Insecurity
Anxiety -0.697
Social Appraisal
Ambivalence -0.675
Continued
Factors Loading
Relationship with the Mother -0.369
Moral Consciousness
Desire to Help -0.701
Morality -0.699
Possessiveness vs. Primitive Aggression
Oral Aggression -0.496
Aggression Retaliation -0.491
Sexual Impulsivity
Sexual Preoccupation -0.739
Bizarres -0.414
Adaptation to Fairy Tale Content -0.302
Need for Approval -0.307
Hostility and Social Isolation
Sense of Privacy -0.734
Fearfulness
Aggression Defense -0.417
Aggression Envy -0.633

TABLE 11.2.
Factors Loading
Impulsivity
Sexual Impulsivity (Sexual Preoccupation, izarres, Adaptation to Fairy Tale Content, Need for Approval) -0.626
Hostility and Social Isolation (Sense of Privacy, Aggression type A) -0.479
Impulse Control (Need for Approval, Aggression Retaliation, Repetitions, Adaptation to Fairy Tale Content) -0.790
Sociability
Social Appraisal (Ambivalence, Need for Affilitation, Relationship with the Mother) -0.760
Self-Concept and Depression (Depression, Relationship with the Mother, Self-Esteem) -0.810
Dominance and Guilt
Assertiveness (Desire for Superiority, Aggression Dominance, Need for Approval) -0.752
Moral Consciousness (Desire to Help, Morality) -0.632
Fearfulness
Fearfulness (Fear of Aggression, Aggression Defense, Aggression Envy) -0.773
Anxiety and Insecurity (Anxiety, Need for Protection) -0.450
Possessiveness
Possessiveness vs. Primitive Aggression (Oral Aggression, Aggression Retaliation, Sense of Property) -0.869
Anxiety and Insecurity (Anxiety, Need for Protection) -0.385
Instrumental Aggression (Instrumental Aggression, Oral Needs, Desire for Material Things) -0.904

Second-order factor analysis led to the formation tion on the psychological identity of some of the fac-
of a 6-factor model (see Table 11.2) that comprised tors. More specifically: Factor 1 (impulsivity) corre-
66.4 percent of the total variance. lates positively with rule-breaking behavior, aggres-
sive behavior, and externalized problems (see Table
External Validity 11.3).
Association with the CBCL Association with the Beck

Youth Inventories
The Child Behavior Check List (CBCL/4-18;
Achenbach, 1991) is one of the most widely used The Beck Youth Inventories (BYI) of Emotional
parent report forms of childrens psychological and Social Development are five self-report meas-
behavior. The CBCL/4-18 was designed to measure ures that can be used separately or in any combina-
competencies and problems in children ages 418. tion to assess a childs experience of depression,
Competence consists of seven functions focusing on anxiety, anger, disruptive behavior, and self con-
activities and social and school competencies, while cept.
behavior problems contain 118 specific problem The inventories are intended for use with chil-
behaviors and two items that allow parents to write dren ages 714. Each inventory contains twenty
in other problems. Problem behaviors are organ- statements about thoughts, feelings, or behaviors
ized in a hierarchical factor structure that consists of associated with emotional or social impairment in
eight correlated first-order or broad-band factors youth. The children respond to each item by indi-
(withdrawal/depression, somatic, anxious/depres- cating how frequently the statement is true for
sed, social, thought, attention, delinquent, and them. The number of children administered the
aggressive), two correlated second-order or narrow- BYI along with the FTT was: N= 461.
band factors (internalizing and externalizing), and Correlations between FTT factors and Beck
an overall total problems factor. A score can be cal- Youth scales did not reveal any significant correla-
culated for each of the eight broad-band and two tions, although there was a trend between Factor 5
narrow-band factors and for total problems. (possessiveness and anxiety) and anxiety (r=.098*,
Associations between FTT second-order factor p<.037) as well as with disruptive behavior (r=.115*,
scores and the CBCL provided valuable informa- p<0.14).
TABLE 11.3.
SIGNIFICANT CORRELATIONS OF FTT SECOND-ORDER FACTORS WITH CBCL SCALES
(N = 816)
CBCL Broad-Band Scales FTT Factors Pearsons r Significance (two-tailed)
Attention Factor 1 (Impulsivity) .102 (**) .003
Rule-Breaking Behavior Factor 1 (Impulsivity) .121 (**) .001
Aggressive Behavior Factor 1 (Impulsivity) .127 (**) .001
CBCL Narrow-Band Scales FTT Factors Pearsons r Significance (two-tailed)
Externalized Problems Factor 1 (Impulsivity) .137 (**) .001
Total Factor 1 (Impulsivity) .115 (**) .001

Association with the Aggression to be beautiful so that all the

Questionnaire (AQ) princes will love her.
The AQ is an updated version of the Buss- Assertiveness may form the basis for future
Durkee Hostility Inventory (Buss & Durkee, 1957). achievements or personal fulfillment. This factor
It is a brief measure consisting of thirty-four items seems to increase with age, reaching a peak
scored on five scales: physical aggression (PHY), between 8 and 9 years (p<.004). No significant sex
verbal aggression (VER), anger (ANG), hostility differences were found.
(HOS), and indirect aggression (IND). An AQ total The second factor is instrumental aggression.
score is also provided, along with an inconsistent According to Coie and Dodge (1998), the feature
responding index (INC) as a validity indicator. that makes it aggressive is the use of threat or force
Each AQ item describes a characteristic related to obtain possessions. Instrumental aggression
to aggression, and the examinee rates the descrip- incorporates behaviors that portend self-serving
tion on a scale from one (Not at all like me) to five outcomes, while reactive aggression is more defen-
(Completely like me). The AQ is intended for sive in nature. A large number of children experi-
individuals ages 9 years and over (standardized on ence some degree of deprivation in their life. The
a sample of individuals ages 988). way they cope with such deprivations and their
Correlations of the FTT factors with the AQ resilience will affect future psychological develop-
scales revealed that factor 1 (impulsivity) correlates ment and mental health. There was no significant
with hostility (r=.128**, p<.006). sex or age effect.
According to the inconsistency measure of the The third factor is impulse control, which relates
AQ, 68 percent of tested children responded in an to the childs tendencies to control aggressive
inconsistent way. Because of this high percentage, impulses in order to gain approval from others. In
we examined the relation between this scale and the this case, high scores on adaptation to the fairy tale
other measures and found that, generally, children content (AFTC) demonstrate control; these respons-
described as disturbed in the other criterion meas- es closely match the plot of the story, thus inhibiting
ures responded inconsistently in the AQ. or diminishing the projection of unconscious mate-
rial. Atkins and Stoff (1993) found hostile aggression
to be uniquely correlated with poor impulse control
DISCUSSION on other measures. No significant sex differences
were found. The following response illustrates this
The Eleven First-Order FTT Factors point:
The first factor, assertiveness, appears to be a LRRH (Card 2): She is sly and thinks of doing
fundamental personality factor, found in other cul- something bad, (?) to kill
tures as well. Aggression motivated by dominance someone who has spoiled her
often aims to preserve or enhance the aggressors life. (?) She wants to kill him
power and control over others. Aggressors may so that everyone will be grate-
strike at their victims in an effort to impose their ful to her and so that he will
own way and thus assert their dominant positions not harm anyone else.
over their victims, as in the following example:
An interesting observation concerns the correla-
Witch (Card 3): The witch wants to kill a tion between the defense mechanism of acting out
princess to take away her and impulse control. Acting out appears to be uti-
beautiful heart. (?) She wants lized as a defense against aggression. For example:
Giant (What can a wicked giant do?): He her aunt, or who ever she is.
wants to fight with all the peo-
ple, remove his pants, as a Card 3: Then she saw her mother outside and
result from the large amount thought that she was dreaming and
of whisky that he had con- called mom! and told her adventure
sumed, and he will become about a woman who kept on scolding
crazy or go to hospital or her.
prison, (?) because he killed
someone. The fifth factor is anxiety and insecurity. The
most common types of anxiety expressed in the
The fourth factor is depression and self-concept. FTT are: harm, insecurity, deprivation, disap-
The quality of mother-child relationship fundamen- proval/punishment, rejection, loss/death, and self-
tally determines the childs psychological develop- image. In Greece the first five five most prevalent
ment. It appears that a negatively perceived rela- types of anxiety are: insecurity (47%), harm (44%),
tionship with the mother can cause feelings of rejection (34%), deprivation (29%), and concern for
depression and low self-esteem. Empirical work has others (25%).
suggested that quality of the parent-child relation- In the following example, the child identifies
ship is related to childrens self-esteem and social with SW:
competence (Kim & Cicchetti, 2004). Research has
shown that children who experience a secure rela- Dwarf (Card 1): He thinks of helping SW. He
tionship with their mothers have been found to be wants to protect her so no one
more sociable and competent than their insecure can frighten her.
counterparts, who exhibit more aggression and
withdrawal (Rose-Krasnor, Rubin, Booth, & In an interesting developmental trend, there is
Coplan, 1996). significant age effect, whereby the children in the
This factor increases as children become older 89-year-old age group appear more anxious than
(p<.000), suggesting that, at least for Greek chil- do those in the younger or older age groups
dren, the quality of the mother-child relationship (p<.000). Additionally, middle- and upper-class
improves as children gradually enter preadoles- children appear to be more anxious than lower-
cence. class children (p<.013).
The mechanism of splitting correlates significant- The mechanism of projection correlates signifi-
ly with this factor (p>.000). A child splits an cantly (p>.000) with this factor. In the following
ambiguously perceived mother figure into good example, the child projects anxiety onto the moth-
and bad, as in the following examples: er:
Scenes from LRRH Scenes of the story of LRRH: LRRH is very

sad because her mother does
Card 1: She is the evil stepmother of LRRH not allow her to visit her
who is scolding her and doesnt let her grandmother; (?) she is afraid
to go to her grand mother, because her of the wolf.
mother has died but that was a lie.
The sixth factor is social appraisal, which refers
Card 2: LRRH went to a creek in the woods to the childs need to seek reassurance and friend-
and sat down and wept because she ship. The results demonstrate that the childs need
didnt want her mother to scold her, or for affiliation correlates positively with the variables
of ambivalence. In the FTT, children most often girls (p<.011) score higher on this factor.
express ambivalence in the form of indecision. Several defenses correlate significantly with
Children who are ambivalent may show inability to moral consciousness, such as undoing (p >.000),
solve moral or social dilemmas, as in the response, reaction-formation (p>.000), splitting of self
The witch is thinking whether to kill or not to kill (p>.000), and negation (p>.001).
SW. This factor reveals that ambivalent children, The eighth factor is possessiveness vs. primitive
or those who lack self- confidence, are more prone aggression. It is expressed as the childs desire to
to express the need for affiliation. hold onto possessions, an unwillingness to share
Girls (p<.005) and older children (p<.000) have belongings with others, or anxiety over being
significantly higher scores on this factor. In terms of deprived of them. Belk (1985) suggest that the
defense mechanisms, reaction-formation is signifi- desire to control ones environment through posses-
cantly associated with social appraisal (p>.001). siveness appears to be a culturally approved trait.
The seventh factor is moral consciousness or For example, children develop a sense of compe-
superego. It refers to the childs feelings of guilt and tence by controlling their surroundings. Thus pos-
his search for ways to be forgiven for wrongdoings. sessions may be important in the development of
One way to overcome feelings of guilt or ambiva- self-definition and as a way of enhancing self-
lence between what is right and what is wrong is to esteem.
perform helping or altruistic behaviors. In real-life Two Greek psychoanalysts have studied the sym-
situations, researchers examine the desire to help in bolic significance of food and the process of eating
the form of prosocial or altruistic behavior, as in the in relation to Greek culture (Carapanos &
following examples: Potamianou, 1985). They classified the various
motives for employing the verb to eat, including
Example 1: She is a nice witch and wants to possession and dominance. They refer to some
save people. She wants to look Greek versions of Cinderella that present cannibal-
after them, and if they get killed, ism as a way to possess the attributes of the victim.
she will say it was her fault. In these versions, the mother plays a central role.
For instance, in one version, an old, poor mother
Example 2: She looks nice and thinks of how lives with her three daughters. The mother shows a
to transform a person with her clear preference for her youngest daughter, making
spells into a nice person who cares the other two jealous. Together, mother and daugh-
about others and takes upon his ters make a bet about knitting, vowing to kill and
back all the problems. eat the one who is slowest or least capable at the
task, who happens to be the mother. In other varia-
From a developmental perspective, prosocial tions, the plot is much more gruesome. Three sisters
behavior in children has been found to be positive- live with their mother in great poverty. As hunger
ly related to Piagets scheme of moral judgment gets the best of them, the older sisters slaughter their
(Emler & Rushton, 1974) and to Kohlbergs prohi- mother, cook her, and have a long feast.
bition and justice-oriented moral reasoning. To interpret the negative correlation between
A strict superego implies obedience to authority sense of property and oral aggression, oral aggres-
(LRRH should follow her mothers advice), desire sion appears to express a more primitive form of
for forgiveness (LRRH asks her mother to forgive possessing, controlling, and dominating the other.
her), imposition of punishment for wrongdoing (the By attacking and devouring, the character incorpo-
witch was punished and became weak and ugly), rates the victims attributes or qualities, imposes his
and feelings of guilt (the wolf feels sorry for having will, dominates, and thus expresses superiority:
eaten the little girl). Older children (p<.000) and
Witch (Card 3): She is transformed and thinks ably an association between the two. An epidemio-
of killing SW and drinking logical survey of 1,312 Greek primary school chil-
some of her blood to become dren in the Athens area (Pateraki & Houndoumadi,
more beautiful and have 2001) using the Olweus Questionnaire revealed that
everybody bow in her pres- 14.7 percent of the children self-reported as the vic-
ence. tims of bullies, 6.25 percent as bullies, and 4.8 per-
cent as both.
Possessiveness gradually increases (p<.007) as In a study of childrens anger, Eisenberg and
children become older. Damon found that childrens disruptive anger reac-
The ninth factor is sexual impulsivity. It appears tions negatively affected their social skills, which in
that children often find it difficult to restrain their turn related to lowered social functioning (1998).
sexual concerns and idiosyncratic thinking. The following examples illustrate this point:
Younger children have higher scores on this factor
(p<.039). In the FTT, sexual concerns appear in Giant (Card 1): He wants to break down
responses reflecting marriage, giving birth, sexual houses and other things. He
provocations, or sexual attraction. does not like people making
Sexual references in childrens language are also noise.
apparent in their play. Greek culture is fairly toler-
ant on expressions containing more or less explicit Giant (Card 3): He wants to uproot every-
sexual insinuations. Additionally, another factor thing because he does not like
that contributes to this phenomenon is the amount their sight. He only wants
of time children spend watching television at home, rocks and stones. He wants to
while their parents are at work, or busy with other be alone.
things. The vocabulary and general content of
many films, shows and serials on television often Younger children (p<.000) and boys (p<.043)
allude to sexual situations, jokes, and so forth. A score significantly higher on this factor.
recurring exposure to such situations from a very The eleventh factor is fearfulness, which like
early age in combination, with the impulsive com- aggression, forms a critical part of a childs psycho-
ponent of this factor, suggests that the child will not logical makeup. In the FTT, children express fear-
easily restrain from expressing his/her sexual con- fulness more accurately as direct fear of external
cerns or employing words usually used in a sexual aggression and employ defensive aggression against
context. it. They express aggression as defense in two ways:
The tenth factor is hostility and social isolation. to defend against an immediate external threat, or
The primary objective of hostile, emotional, or to protect someone weak or in need:
angry aggression is to cause harm. The most com-
mon justification for hostile aggression is hatred. Example 1: This witch wants to kill me. I will
Accordingly, sadistic pleasure may occasionally create a robot and will destroy her.
accompany aggressive actions. Social isolationa
desire to be left alone or to withdraw from social Example 2: The dwarf wants to kill the evil
eventsmay be a preferred option or a reaction to witch to protect SW.
rejection.
Although there has yet to be an examination of There is no significant age effect on this factor;
the direct relation between hostile aggression as however, girls have significantly higher scores than
measured in the FTT and bullying, there is presum- boys (p<.001).
Second-Order Factor Analysis endless drinking, sexual encounters, wild transfor-

mations with the use of masks, retreats into the for-
The first factor is impulsivity, which has come to est, and group hysterical behavior.
be associated with several childhood behavioral In relation to the Dionysian orgies is the myth of
problems such as attention-deficit hyperactivity dis- the Maenads. The Maenads were female worship-
order (ADHD) and conduct disorder. The high rate pers of Dionysus. The mysteries inspired these
of hostile aggression in the aggressive/ADHD women to ecstatic frenzy; they indulged in extreme
group may indicate a relationship between hostile violence, bloodletting, sexual activity, and mutila-
aggression and poor impulse control (Halperin, tion.
Matier, Bedi, Sharma, & Newcorn, 1992). Younger The factor of impulsivity consists of a series of
children have significantly higher scores on this fac- first order factors and variables expressing various
tor (p<. 006). types of aggressive behavior. Our data suggest that
However, the present data were not obtained aggressive behavior among Greek children is facili-
from a clinical child population. A high score in tated by low impulse control. More specifically, it
impulsivity does not constitute a pathological find- appears that impulsivity and a heightened emotion-
ing. Indeed, impulsivity in Greek children corre- ality, typical of people from Greece, and from
sponds to a cultural trait that could also be attrib- Mediterranean countries in general, lead to stronger
uted to inconsistency between the parents regarding aggressive behavior among children in general
their approach to discipline. Indeed, the lack of dis- (Vagenas, 2002). Aggressive behavior among Greek
cipline or appropriate discipline has been found to children is turned outwards, and may also be
be a common cause of behavioral problems in chil- approved by the childs family or social milieu.
dren (Leung et al., 1998). Appropriate discipline Indeed, aggression is usually viewed as a positive
may prevent the spoiled child syndrome, charac- rather than a negative trait within the Greek culture,
terized by self-centered and immature behavior, as it is often associated with persistence and tenaci-
and a lack of impulse control. ty, virility, and the aggressive behavior so common
Greek parents may often disagree on their disci- within a Greek family (Vagenas, 2002).
plinary practices and attitudes. In addition, parental Younger children have significantly higher scores
attitudes do not remain consistent; the same parent on this factor (p<. 006).
may choose a different attitude, or even adopt con- The second factor is sociability, a form of social
tradicting attitudes over time. Moreover, Greek reinforcing, whereby the child expects and seeks
youngsters learn early that the parent will forget a reassurance and approval from others. Given the
command entirely if the child ignores it. This atti- factors that constitute sociability, the higher the
tude is learned so early and becomes so deeply held depression and the lower ones self image, the high-
that it carries over into adult life, where so many er the social appraisal or need to seek the support of
rules and regulations are routinely ignored in Greek friends and comfort of true friendship. Older chil-
culture. dren (p<.000) and girls (p<.016) have higher scores
There are several instances of impulsive behav- on this factor.
ior in Greek mythology, and in particular in the Greeks tend to be extraverted and seek friend-
lives of the Olympian gods. Dionysus, for example, ships and relationships that last over time. There
represents the intoxicating power of wine. He was are several allusions in Greek philosophy that
also known as Bacchus or Liberator, helping the emphasize the value of friendship. One of Platos
person to escape from oneself through madness, dialogues, Lysis, discusses the nature of friendship.
ecstasy, and intoxication. During the Dionysian Socrates also proposes several possible notions
orgies, the devotees surrendered to their senses in a regarding the true nature of friendship. While
primitive and irrational manner. Orgies included Socrates does not reach any definite conclusion, he
suggests that the common pursuit of the good and abounds in great achievements and impressive vic-
the beautiful is the true motivation for friendship. tories. For instance, Alexander the Great (Greek
The theories Epicurus (341271 B.C.), one of the king of Macedon, 4th century B.C.) was one of he
major philosophers of the Hellenistic period, focus most successful military commanders in history,
on materialistic metaphysics, empiricist epistemolo- undefeated in battle. By the time of his death he had
gy, and hedonistic ethics. He values friendship high- conquered most of the world known to the ancient
ly, and says that it dances around the world, Greeks. Children learn of the achievements of
telling us that we must wake to blessedness. He Alexander the Great and many other ancient Greek
consistently maintains that friendship is valuable heroes, either real or mythological, from a very
because it is one of the greatest means of attaining early age. The pride felt nationally for our historical
pleasure. Friends, he says, provide one another the heritage enriches narcissistic feelings as well as feel-
greatest security, whereas a life without friends is ings of dominance.
solitary and beset with peril. One can also argue that, during the last century
The third factor is dominance and guilt. The alone, Greeks have had to struggle with significant
myth of Cronus provides an explicit example of historical changes and events. The ruthlessness of
aggression motivated by dominance. Cronus these events has possibly contributed to the shaping
envied the power of his father, Uranus, and over- of the Greek personality, which is known for always
threw by beating the Cyclops and Ecatonheires and trying to overcome difficulties and seek a more
setting the Titans free. But even so, he was unable dominant and assertive role.
to find some peace of mind: Cronus learned from Family structure may also play a role in the devel-
Gaia, his mother, and Uranus that he was destined opment of an inflated ego in children. As explained
to be overcome by his own son, just as he had over- above, Greeks traditionally have extended families.
thrown his father. As a result, he swallowed his chil- The presence of grandparents, uncles, and aunts is
dren as soon as they were born, to preempt the essential in a familys life. Recent socioeconomic
prophecy. When Zeus, the sixth child was born, changes have a significant impact on the family size;
Rhea sought Gaia to devise a plan to save the chil- the number of children per family has significantly
dren and to eventually avenge Cronus for his acts decreased. Accordingly, members of the extended
against his father and children. When Zeus grew up family often concentrate more attention and care on
he encountered his father, in a vast war called the only one child, or two. In conjunction, children gain
Titanomachy, wherealong with his brothers and greater importance within their families, which also
sisters and the help of the Gigantes, Hecatonchires, contributes to an inflated self-image or self-centered
and Cyclopshe overthrew Cronus and the other attitude from an early age.
Titans. Among the various types of aggression found in
During the Hellenistic period (5th-3rd centuries the FTT, aggression as dominance was the only one
B.C.), when Greek philosophy and arts flourished, found to be associated with morality (Coulacoglou,
the Greek self-image was inflated, resulting in a con- Souyouldzoglou, & Atsarou, 2002). This factor
temptuous attitude towards others. The Greeks vic- appears to be culturally sensitive, as morality was
tory over the Persians also contributed to an inten- found to correlate with other types of aggression in
sified narcissism. This inflated narcissism is also other cultures (see chapters about the application of
implied in Politica, where Aristotle divided humani- the FTT in India, Turkey and China). This factor
ty into two main categories: the Greeks and the bar- increases significantly as children get older, reach-
bariansa barbarian being anyone who did not ing a peak at 89 years (p<.001). It appears that, as
share the Greek culture and language. children grow older, they perceive the use of phys-
The past is one way to explain dominance as a ical aggression as less justifiable and more costly in
pertinent personality function: Greek history terms of social and personal consequences (risk of
injury). a customary standard of living.

The fourth factor is fearfulness. Both anxiety and The most frequent objectives for instrumental
fear constitute important personality dimensions. aggression in the FTT are food and money. This
King, Gullone, and Ollendick (1992) examined the type of aggression appears to have an international
relationship between self-reported fear and anxiety value, as it takes place other cultures such as China
in a large sample of normal Australian children and and India (see corresponding chapters). Instru-
adolescents. They found that children exhibited mental aggression increases with age, reaching a
more fear with high anxiety than with low anxiety. peak at 89 years. There is a lack of any defense
Fearfulness increases as children become older, mechanisms significantly related to this factor. In
reaching a peak between 89 years (p<.002), and contrast to other types of aggression, which use a
girls are more fearful than boys (p<.003). variety of defenses, instrumental aggression is per-
An interesting finding concerns the correlation haps perceived as more justified, as it is closely
between the mechanism of projective identification linked to survival and preservation.
(4.6%) and fearfulness. This means that occasional-
ly the feared object is the childs own aggressive
potential projected onto the enemy, as in: I am CONCLUSIONS
afraid that the other will do to me what I want to do
to him. It would seem that the complex nature of Greek
The fifth factor is possessiveness, which may be culture has a pervasive effect on the development of
culturally sensitive. Being possessive means having personality. Quantitative analysis, and particularly
control over others and ones belongings. Anxiety second-order factor analysis, reveals that five out of
relates to the possibility of losing ones possessions six factors include some form of aggression.
and thus not being in control. Aggression dominance appears to be the most
Possessiveness and retaliation in its most brutal prominent type, stimulating feelings of guilt, possi-
form may be found in the myth of Jason and bly more often than other forms of aggression.
Medea. Medea is best known in most stories as an Expressions of dominant aggression are often vio-
enchantress. She is said to have fallen in love with lent and sadistic. Another interesting finding relates
Jason after he obtained the Golden Fleece. Jason, to oral aggression, which appears to be a form of
however, abandoned her to marry a princess. As a possessiveness.
vengeance, the enraged Medea bewitched a robe Regarding defense mechanisms, acting out
with magic herbs and sent it to the princess as a gift. relates to the factor of impulsivity and appears in
As soon as the princess wore it, the garment imme- Greek children more frequently than in those from
diately caught fire and burned her to death. As a other cultures. Additionally, reaction formation is a
final touch to her revenge, Medea decided to have defense mechanism always employed against
Jason kill her own two sons. aggression, revealing the underlying motivation of
There is significant age effect whereby children the childrens desire to help or their altruistic behav-
in the 89-year-old age group appear more posses- ior.
sive and anxious than those in the younger and Qualitative analysis also revealed some interest-
older age groups (p<.001). The mechanisms of split- ing findings intricately commented with the Greek
ting and projection are significantly correlated with culture.
this factor.
The last factor is instrumental aggression. Oedipal Feelings
According to Fromm (1973), with this adaptive type
of aggression, the individual aims to obtain what is The Oedipus complex occurs quite frequently
necessary or desirable for the preservation of life or across Greek protocols (5.7%), at least compared
with non-Western countries such as India (1.5%) and the witchs kingdom or take her place. Children
China (2.2%). Although there are no specific studies usually identify with the dwarf and regard SW as
regarding the occurrence of such feelings, we pro- the sibling (a newcomer) who gets all the attention
pose some tentative interpretations, based on the from the other dwarfs.
fact that Greek culture supports a constant bodily
contact between parents and their children, as in Sadistic Aggression
holding, hugging, kissing, and bathing. Parents and
child often share the same bed even when the child A large number of aggressive responses reflect
becomes older. sadism. Torture, sadism, and conspiraciesmotivat-
Oedipal feelings are frequently observed in ed mostly by retribution and dominanceabound in
response to the question, What does each witch Greek mythology. A striking example is Cronus,
think/feel? The child often responds with state- who envied the power of his father, Uranus the
ments like, The witch wants to destroy SW and ruler of the universe. Cronus attacked Uranus by
marry the prince herself. In cases like this, the cutting off his genitals, castrating him and casting
child identifies with the witch, and SW represents the severed member into the sea.
the mother. Responses to the second card of the Another mythological example of sadism is the
scenes of SW also revealed Oedipal feelings, where- story of Prometheus, a Titan known for his wily
by the father forbids his daughter from getting mar- intelligence and for stealing fire from Zeus to give to
ried to the prince, or SW prefers the company of the mortals. Enraged, Zeus chained Prometheus to
her father to that of the prince. a rock, where an eagle ate his liver, which regener-
ated every day. Years later, Hercules set Prometheus
Sibling Rivalry free by killing the eagle.
Sadistic responses express hostile aggression
Childrens responses also commonly include ele- (type A), as aggression dominance and retaliatory
ments of sibling rivalry (5%). Like Oedipus conflict, aggression. Such responses usually occur in reaction
sibling rivalry appears much more often than in to witches and giants:
other cultures (India 0.8%, China, 0.2%). This may
be because children tend to be the center of atten- Giant (Card 2): He wants to eat people,
tion in Greek families. With the arrival of a new- devour their houses, trees,
born child, the siblings lose their privileges in the cars; he is having fun every
family, and as a result, they may either experience evening when eating people.
feelings of antagonism or regress to earlier stages of He is very happy to scare
development. Although this was not specifically people.
studied, it seems that when siblings are involved in
arguments or fights, parents appear to take sides. Witch (What can a wicked witch do?): She
Parents often show a preference for one child over can kill small animals, run
another. after them, kill birds, squeeze
Childrens responses reflect sibling rivalry, espe- them with her stick, smash
cially regarding the cards of the witch and the them, catch people from their
dwarf. Children commonly identify with the witch throat and choke them to
and claim that SW is the sibling she wants to get rid death.
of because she is younger, healthier, everybody
loves her, and so forth. Additionally, children reveal A possible explanation for Greek childrens
sibling rivalry when they articulate the witchs aggressive impulses may relate to family attitudes
desire to destroy SW because she wants to take over and forms of discipline. The media frequently
reports on family aggression and violenceeither the dwarfs to kill her.

among parents or between parents and children.
Unfortunately, parents still widely use corporal Witch (What can a wicked witch do?): She
punishment to impose discipline and obedience. can make ink come out of the
Research from 1994 to 1997 at the Department of tabs, she can put cockroaches
Family Relations in the Institute of Child Health in in childrens toys, and she can
Athens, involving 591 structured interviews with make a rain of frogs.
mothers of 6- and 12-year-old children, revealed
that 65.5 percent of mothers used physical punish- Desire to Help as Reaction Formation
ment to discipline their children, and mothers of 6-
year-olds were three times more likely to use such The cards of the giant commonly inspire
punishments than mothers of 12-year-olds (Fereti & responses expressing the desire to help; responses
Stavrianaki, 1997). are rated as such when the character wishes to offer
Although we cannot accurately detect the origins help to another character in need of assistance.
of aggression and violence in the Greek culture, Apart from this quantitative interpretation, some
aggression and violence does abound in the nation- responses were also evaluated as the defense mech-
al mythological and literary heritage. anism of reaction formation. This occurs if such a
response follows an aggressive one to the previous
Creativity and Fantasy card. Reaction formation was among the most fre-
quently employed defense mechanisms (4th in
Many idiosyncratic responses reflect fantasy and order of most frequently employed defense mecha-
creativity. Another distinct feature of Greek proto- nisms, 8%), when compared to other cultures
cols, this appears to be related to culture. The (China, 7th with 5%; India, 8th with 3.9%).
Greek, Indian, and Chinese cultures all have a long Greek religious values and beliefs may possibly
history of ancient civilizations as well as a long his- account for this factor. Philosophical concepts of
tory of mythology, literature, and philosophy. It prosocial behavior and sympathy have roots in reli-
seems that this wealthy spiritual tradition nourishes gious doctrine. In Christianity, one of the com-
the minds and hearts of a culture and gradually mandments is love thy neighbor as thy self, and a
becomes part of the individuals psychological person who expresses their love to a neighbor
makeup. (through helpful actions) can expect reward and
The following are examples of Greek bizarre recognition. Christian orthodox principles com-
responses: monly claim the necessity of loving, taking care of,
and helping others in need. Greek children are
Scenes from SW (Card 2): This is LRRHs familiarized with these principles from an early age,
grandfather, and he is talking both within their families, but also in schools, where
to SW. He is advising her to religious education forms part of the curriculum.
take care in order to avoid the One child said the following in response to the
troubles that LRRH fell into. question, What does each giant think and feel?
(responding in reverse order):
Witch (Card 2): She wants to do something so
that SW loses her beauty. She Card 3: He is very mean and he wanted to
does not have to kill SW her- destroy the world; (?) he didnt love
self. She can give her the mir- anybody and he couldnt stand them;
ror that can convince her to (?) he wanted to become king of the
commit suicide or convince earth.
Card 2: He wanted to help people; (?) he is on aggression in children through the Fairy Tale Test].
very kind and he loved them very Revista Iberoamericana de Diagnostico y Evaluacion
much; he wanted the best for them. Psicologica, 13(1), 927.
Dafermos, M., Marvakis, A. & Triliva, S. (2006).
Deconstructing Psychology in Greece, Annual Review
of Critical Psychology, No. 5.
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Chapter 12
THE APPLICATION OF THE FAIRY TALE TEST IN INDIA

N ILANJANA SANYAL AND MANISHA DASGUPTA
INTRODUCTION Indigenous tests are the outcome of cultural

experiences. Investigators develop these tests by
Historical Overview of Psychological designing instruments that are sensitive to cultural
Assessment in India features. Recently, Sahoo (1995) has developed the
Test Indigenization Survey Instrument (TISI) to
he history of psychological assessment in India assess the level of indigenization of tests used in
T is a relatively short one. Mitra (1972) remarks
that up to 1921 research on construction and vali-
India. Sahoo considers two sets of parameters: con-
tent and context. Content parameters include: con-
dation of psychological tests was conducted by cept, language, items, and format. Each of these
Christian missionaries engaged in educational components is operationalized. Sahoo intends that
work (p. 418). Only after 1950 did published evi- the use of these measures will provide feedback
dence point to the construction of Indian tests, about existing tests and will help in the future devel-
including the Guilford-Zimmerman Temperamental opment of indigenous tests.
Survey, Cattells HSPQ, 16 PF, Maudsley Person- Recently, researchers have begun to focus on the
ality Inventory (MPI), Minnesota Multiphasic development of measures that consider cultural
Personality Inventory (MMPI), and Edwards bias. J. B. P. Sinha (1975) developed a measure of
Personal Preference Schedule. Personality invento- dependence proneness, a very important disposi-
ries and adjustment inventories were developed tion found among Indian people. D. Sinha (1984)
during 1950-1960. has developed a new form of the Embedded Figures
Since that time the development and adaptation Test (EFT) in which the stimulus picture is present-
of different types of psychological tests have been ed alongside the story. Mehdi (1985) has developed
important components of doctoral work at Indian a verbal test of creative thinking. Prakash (1994) has
universities. Psychologists attempted to produce developed a measure of values using proverbs and
adaptations in major Indian languages such as J. Pandey (1981) has developed a measure of ingra-
Hindi, Urdu, Gujrati, Marathi, and Bengali. tiation tactics. These tests represent significant
These attempts to develop culturally valid tests efforts to indigenize psychological tests in India.
in India have been complex and formidable tasks, The two Handbooks of Psychological and Social
given that the plurality of the sociocultural system is Instruments (Pareek & Rao, 1974; Pestonjee, 1990)
a significant aspect of Indian life. The cultural mosa- demonstrate tremendous development in the vari-
ic of Indian society represented by various reli- ety of instruments that have been developed.
gions, languages, ethnicities, and castes complicates However, the concepts have frequently been bor-
the process of developing tests that are fair to vari- rowed from the Western psychological literature.
ous members of the culture. The self-report measures using the pattern of atti-
264
The Application of the Fairy Tale Test in India 265
tude scales often use examples from Indian social Projective tests/techniques
situations and life experiences. In this way, the con- Semi-projective tests
tent is somewhat contextualized. This strategy part- Structured personality tests (structured inven-
ly overcomes the problem of cultural bias. tories)
However, the conceptual mapping remains prob- Structured diagnostic personality inventories,
lematic as there has been no serious attempt to and
understand the presence of the phenomenon in the Assorted inventories
culture and its distribution (Srivastava & Misra,
1996; Srivastava, Tripathi, & Misra, 1996). This chapter focuses our attention solely on pro-
Studies of indigenous psychology in India have jective and semi-projective tests.
focused on the relationship between religion or spir-
ituality and the transpersonal growth of the self
(Verma, 1997). The indigenization movement PROJECTIVE TECHNIQUES
attempts to integrate the logical positivistic
approach of Western psychology, the ancient wis- Projective tests present a difficult problem for
dom of psycho-spiritual nature, and folkways psychologists who administer and analyze them. In
reflecting the social realities (Sinha, 2000). In terms order to gain information about the individuals pri-
of personality assessment, there is little systematic vate world of meanings, patterns, and feelings
study and development of indigenous Indian meas- (Frank, 1939), the projective techniques appear to
ures, despite the theoretical discussion and devel- have a significant role. Employing a projective test
opment of Hindu concepts of personality (Asthana, effectively requires a subject with an average intelli-
1968). For example, in the clinical assessment of gence and verbalization capacity, so that his or her
children and adolescents, scholars have merely cognitive ability permits the interpretation of the
translated Western tests and renamed them, leading meanings of the perceptions, along with the set of
to the erroneous impression that these tests have internal image-orientations. Actually, a number of
been developed especially in India (Kapur, 2000, psychoanalytic studies demonstrate that creative
p. 416). productions by poets and authors are the result of
Verma (1974) reviewed some widely used per- ego complex adaptive processes including sublima-
sonality tests in India, such as the Eysenck tion, identification, ego expansion, and creative
Personality Inventory, the Childrens Personality regression. (Sanyal, 1992; Halder, 1931; Basu,
Questionnaire, and the Thematic Apperception 1988; Ghosal & Dutta, 2006). Hence the need to
Test (TAT). In many of these instances, adaptation delve into the emergent canvas of projective tech-
involved translating the test and eliminating the niques.
items that the authors did not consider to be cultur- The nature of the stimuli is crucial for obtaining
ally relevant. interpretable responses. However, the stimulus
The development of a childs personality is a value of any object has as much to do with the men-
complex process of expansion and growth, during tal make-up of the subject, which is largely cultural-
which he or she needs careful help and guidance to ly produced. Thus, projective test items are difficult
reach emotional maturity. Therefore, it is necessary to adapt and have many problems related to inter-
to improve the traditional personality assessment pretation. In the Indian context, some attempts
instruments that specialists use to evaluate the have been made that demonstrate the difficulties
childs personality dynamics, as personality changes inherent to such an approach.
over time. One such example is the case of the famous TAT
Personality tests belong to one of the following by Murray (1938). It is instructive to compare the
five broad categories: original form of the test with two adaptations done
in India, one by Uma Chaudhary (1960) and the means of closely investigating personality traits,
other at Allahabad by Manovigyanshala (1962). especially with children. A test that involves draw-
Chaudhary reduced the number of cards and dras- ing, for instance, has an advantage over other tech-
tically changed the context to Indianize the test. niques in that it is easy to administer and collect the
The Bureau of Psychology stated that in view of relevant data. Currently, the three most popular
the fact that the original pictures are essentially for- instruments that use drawings as a means to assess
eign in content, it was considered essential to mod- personality are: the Bender Visual Motor Gestalt,
ify them so that it may facilitate identification of the Draw-a-Person Test (DAP), and the Optional-
individuals coming from the Indian background. Content Drawings.
Faces and dresses with minor changes in the back-
ground have been Indianized as far as possible The Bender Visual Motor Gestalt
without spoiling the stimulus value of the original
pictures (1962, page 3). Dwivedis (1974) version of the Bender-Gestalt
The administration procedure of TAT consists of Test (1938) is perhaps the most broadly used pro-
asking the child or adolescent to create a story for jective technique to date in India for diagnostic pur-
every picture shown. As a projective means, it is poses. This standardized test is also used in different
supposed to reflect the subjects attitudes, view- Indian universities as an assessment tool in practical
points, relationships with significant others, con- classes. Relevant studies by Mukherjee, Dutta, and
flicts, and dispositions. In India, TAT has been stan- Sanyal (1998) as well as Sanyal and Rajagopalan
dardized and used extensively with adolescents (2005) are worth noting.
(Tyagi, 1965; Chaudhary, 1960, 1967; Mehta, 1979).
Another important projective test is the Draw-a-Person Test (DAP)
Rorschach Inkblot Test. Asthana (1968) developed
Indian norms for Rorschach responses. Despite the The DAP and its variations confine the content
fact that the test was widely known, standardized, of childrens responses to relatively distinct identi-
and used by Indian researchers since the late 1960s, ties (e.g., man, woman, boy, girl). Harriss (1963)
few studies have been published to date. A few standardized adaptation is commonly used for per-
research studies concerning the Rorschach include sonality testing with Indian children. Sanyal et al.s
Sanyal, Dasgupta, and Chatterjee (2005) as well as (2006) research uses the DAP to assess the person-
Ahmed (1981) and Malik (1985). ality of a child with emotional problems.
Dossajh (1956) was one who pioneered the use of
Rorschach research in India. Asthana (1963) was Optional Content Drawings
probably the first Indian researcher to use the
Rorschach test for research in clinical settings and The specific task of drawing allows variations in
for assessing various personality aspects (Bhargava the content, as the child chooses what to represent.
& Saxena, 1995). Raychandhari and Kumar contin- Researchers in India commonly use the Controlled
ued to study the Rorschach in the 1960s and 1970s, Projection Test for Children. The psychologist asks
while Dubey conducted research on the test in the the child to draw anything that comes into his mind
1970s and 1980s. Verma and Pershad also con- and to relate the drawing to a story about an imag-
tributed to research for more than three decades. inary child. Having been provided with the frame-
work of the story, the child then answers a series of
Projective Techniques eleven questions about his or her parents, his pref-
Eliciting Motor Behavior erences, fears, fantasies, and feelings. The task is
considered to be a global test of social attitudes,
Expressive physical movements are a practical habits, and personal relationships for children ages
6 to 12 years. Since it offers both the story and the 1. The specific fairy tales used in the FTT are
childs drawing for interpretation, Optional Content well-known among middle- to upper-class
Drawing could be classified as a variation of the TA Indian children (Carlos, 2000).
T and the drawing method. 2. Indian children seem to project onto the char-
acters preconscious and unconscious material,
Semi-Projective Tests as do children from other cultures.
3. FTT seems to emphasize the mother-image.
The Picture-Frustration Study Additionally, it reveals the degree and type of
aggression as well as depression associated
The Picture-Frustration (P-F) Study evaluates the with the mother-image or the perceived moth-
reactions of children (ages 4 to 13 years) to frustra- er-image relationship. Indian mothers play a
tion and determines the direction of the childs significant role in their childs socialization. In
aggressioneither towards his- or herself or towards fact, in India, during early childhood, cultural
others (Rosenzweig, 1948). The pictures comprise expectations of boys and girls begin to
highly structured scenes of events that depict frus- diverge; the configuration of maternal identi-
tration stemming from interpersonal relationships. ty tends to produce a more intense, provoca-
The scoring system is relatively objective. tive mothering of male infants than of females
Sharma (1975) developed the School Situation (Kakar, 1978).
Reactions to Frustration Test (SSRFT) to study reac- 4. The typical socialization pattern is related to
tions to frustration among adolescents in the school personality features such as assertiveness,
setting. In addition, Dubey (1985) has developed an helpfulness, and reality-testing. One expects
original P-F Study that is suitable for subjects living responses to FTT probing to reveal the Indian
in rural areas. culture, while also allowing for reframing
given how a child was affected by his or her
Sentence-Completion Tests (SCT) upbringing and development. Wide exposure
to the FTT could enable Indian psychologists
This is a flexible combination of the word-asso- to uncover culturally specific values and child-
ciation method and the thematic approach. The rearing practices and how these strengths and
facilitator presents the child with printed forms con- weaknesses impact the personality develop-
taining 25 to 100 incomplete sentences and asks the ment of children.
child to complete them. 5. The FTT is the only available projective tech-
Pestonjee (1997) cites the following Indian ver- nique that incorporates a global psychodiag-
sions of sentence-completion tests: The Incomplete nostic approach to child pathology. As a diag-
Sentence Test, Deshpandes analysis of nostic tool, the FTT has an extended spectrum
stressful/conflictive thoughts, and Deshpande and that makes it applicable in India.
Tiwaris SCT (1986). 6. The FTT offers the child the possibility to rec-
ollect and reformulate parts of fairy tales. In
Significance of the Fairy Tale Test contrast to having to make up a story, children
(FTT) in an Indian Context experience less difficulty and frustration with
this type of task, especially those who are
The FTT is yet another projective test currently inhibited and have limited imagination.
in use. Due to the general lack of projective tests, its 7. The variety of drawing techniques used in the
standardization and use in India is decisive. The stimulus cards (watercolors, pencil, and ink)
suitability of the FTT in the Indian context rests on make the test more thought-provoking and
the following: elicit childrens emotions with relative ease.
8. While the vast majority of thematic tests focus the increased impact of the media; and the conse-
mainly on family and interpersonal relations, quent changes in lifestyle. Sharma (1981) proposed
the FTT also assesses a large number of per- that the Indian culture differs from other cultures in
sonality variables (Coulacoglou, 2002). several dimensions, such as caste, socioeconomic
hierarchy, Karma theory, and feudal system. Sinha
Cultural Factors Affecting (1982) conceptualized the Hindu (the major religion
Childrens Development in India) identity as the result of three factors: (a) the
intrapsychic structure conditioned by the indige-
In the complex process that contributes to the nous religio-philosophical approach, (b) familial-
development of a healthy childs personality, adapt- social-institutional relationships, and (c) contempo-
ability appears to be one of the key characteristics. rary Indian reality, which includes economic depri-
Psychological interventions aim to locate the main vation.
factors that affect the development of personality The ultimate aim of existence in the Hindu cul-
and to explore how they interact with the micro-, ture is moksha which means self-realization, tran-
meso-, exo-, and macro-systems of a childs person- scendence, salvation, or a release from worldly
al context (Brofenbrenner, 1979, 1989). According involvement. According to Kakar (1981), moksha is
to Brofenbrenner, the microsystem is the most cen- central to the imagery of the culture. Chitta, anoth-
tral circle and includes those settings of which the er key term in the Hindu culture of the psyche, is
child has direct personal experiencemost crucially, similar to the id of the psychoanalytic model. The
the family, as well as school, daycare, and the like. essential psychological theme of Hindu culture is
Next is the exosystem, which includes a range of the polarity of fusion and separation. The psycho-
system elements the child does not experience logical significance of this theme is its association
directly but that affect one of the microsystems, with the human fear of death. Hinduism attempts to
especially the family. The macrosystem includes the confront and resolve the fear of death in its elabo-
larger cultural or sub-cultural setting in which both ration of moksha as the ultimate goal of life.
the micro- and exosystems are embedded. Dharma is another central concept in Hindu phi-
In every culture there are positive and negative losophy, variously translated as law, moral
factors that affect the development of the childs duty, or conforming with the truth of things
personality. The following section discusses the sig- (Kakar, 1981). A persons dharma depends to a large
nificance and specific role of each of these factors in extent on the particular norms and customs of the
the Indian culture. family; it is modified by situational variables, such
as ones genetic heritage and the specific time and
The Indian Culture place in which he/she lives. Not living up to expec-
tations evokes feelings of envy (Das, 1976).
India has an ancient culture characterized by The ideal goal for a Hindu is to live in harmony
multiple philosophical approaches (sometimes con- within the multiple hierarchical relationships of the
tradictory), castes and creeds, languages, dialects, extended family. The two major Indian epics, the
religions, and customs. Indian society is conceptu- Ramayana and the Mahabharata, as well as a
alized as quite traditional and conservative. plethora of folktales, reflect allegorically both the
Nevertheless, during the last 50 years of the post- good and bad nature of human beings.
independence era, the nation has witnessed: According to the Hindu philosophy, this life
increased literacy and education; scientific, techno- cycle commonly encompasses four stages. The first
logical, industrial, and economic development; a two lead the person towards the fulfillment of
relatively stable democratic system, along with the responsibilities to the hierarchical extended family.
resulting urbanization and socioeconomic changes; The first stage evolves during childhood and ado-
lescence, preparing the person to enter the second limited to that of provider and disciplinarian.
stage and become a householder whose dharma 3. Child-care practices.
encompasses pleasure (kama), wealth, and power
(artha) in the fulfillment of family responsibilities. Disparities in Indian Parenting Styles
When one has fulfilled these responsibilitiesones
children having grown up and gone on to have their Khatri (1970) studied the different child-rearing
own childrenthen parents enter the third stage, practices in traditional Indian families. He suggests
and gradually turn to more spiritual pursuits. In the that the family environment of a Hindu male from
final stage, the individual ideally follows the path childhood to adulthood provides the necessary
toward spiritual realization. basis for him to develop into a trusting and secure
The unconscious occupies a central place in the individual, with a positive self-image and the capac-
Hindu world image and theory of the meaning of ity to give and receive affection. By contrast, in
human life. The origin and constitution of the cases where the male child does not adopt the roles
unconscious are metaphysical, its nature depending assigned to him by his family and the social envi-
upon the actions of ones previous life. Kharma is ronment, he is likely to develop interpersonal con-
not merely a doctrine of reincarnation, fatalism or flicts. Generalized differential behaviors and open
predestination; it is a promise of hope. favoritism towards males has laid the groundwork
Nandy and Kakar (1980) claim that the relation- for female children to develop a negative self-image
ship between personality and culture in India and a perception of the world as basically unfair.
includes: a prolonged infancy, the intimate bond However, this kind of child-rearing practice is less
between mother and son, the mothers indulgence, prominent in matriarchal families in India.
the identity development of the daughter (which Khatri considered the female child to be at risk
centers around the evolving role of motherhood in for several mental health problems. He also specu-
society), the significant role adopted by the female lated on whether such differential attitudes raise the
principle in the culture as a whole, the evolutions of threshold of tolerance for frustrations and tensions
masculine identity, and the need for the father as a in females. Similar studies have also been conduct-
mentor or guide. ed by Kapur (1990).
Several Indian contemporary psychologists
Sociocultural Factors in Child Rearing observed that the traditional child-rearing practices
that involve permissive toilet-training and physical
Research reveals consistent differences in child- closeness between the mother and the infant have
rearing practices that can be linked to social class the advantage of promoting secure bonding and
and culture (Sanyal, 2001). Parents with lower attachment. On the other hand, prolonging the
incomes tend to be more coercive, whereas middle- aforementioned closeness and permissiveness can
income parents are more explanatory and use also have adverse effects on the childs process of
inductive reasoning to discipline their children. The individuation and separation from the mother
constant stress of poverty has a significant effect on (Hoch, 1980; Ramanujam, 1977; Roland, 1976).
both parenting style and childrens development.
Key factors that influence Indian parenting styles Social Class
include (Kao & Sinha, 1997; Kakar, 1978):
As discussed above, parents of different social
1. Parental behavior that is primarily child-cen- classes exhibit dissimilarities and variations in par-
tered. enting styles. An examination of the differences
2. The mother being mainly responsible for the between urban and rural mothers indicated that
childs socialization, while the fathers role is rural mothers foster dependency (Seth, Saksena &
Srivastava, 1978; Bhogle, 1983) and are permissive ers are more encouraging and have better linguistic
in relation to feeding, playing, sleeping, and dress- competency than uneducated mothers, yet they also
ing their children (Rai, 1979). The parents of urban tend to be strict and to suppress childrens aggres-
families assign their children more duties than do sion (Seth, Saksena, & Srivastava, 1978). Rai (1979)
parents of lower classes families, and the former found that educated mothers, both in rural and
train their children to be more self-reliant and urban areas, use systematic rewards and punishment
responsible. Lower-class family members also and interact more with their children (Singh & Kaur,
appear to be more interdependent (Seymour, 1976). 1981). Furthermore, economic security offers mid-
Poverty is known to be associated with a variety dle-class parents the opportunity to devote more
of physical and psychological problems in children, energy and attention to their own basic needs and
adolescents, and adults (Baldwin & Revenson, those of their children, including a more education-
1986; Kelvin & Jarrett, 1985). Drastic economic al and stimulating environment (Hoffman, 1984).
changes generate more difficult, irritable behavior
and temper tantrums among young children Poverty
(Sanyal, 2001; Elder, Caspi, & Van Nguyen, 1988).
Economic deprivation, as a genuine source of frus- The daily stress that accompanies poverty gradu-
tration, most often leads to aggression in children ally weakens the family system. Parents become
and adults when associated with marked inequality depressed, irritable, and distracted, marital conflicts
in the distribution of societal resources (Braithwaite, arise, and childrens development is negatively
1981; Gold, 1987; Rutter & Giller, 1984). affected (Compas, Howell, Phares, Williams, &
Furthermore, an increase in aggressive behaviors Ledoux, 1989; Patterson, 1988).
appears more likely in cases where there is serious In fact, parents of low socioeconomic classes tend
disruption in the solidarity of ones extended family to be controlling, authoritative, and irrational; they
and community (as is more common in urban set- seldom solicit their childrens opinions and rarely
tings). Such situations are less likely to occur in mid- explain rules or requirements to their children.
dle-class neighborhoods where the ties between the These parental actions and attitudes can arouse
members of the community have been preserved aggressive behavior in children (Sanyal, 2001).
(Mussen, Conger, Kagan, & Huston, 1990). In contrast, middle- and upper-class parents are
Parents with low incomes often exhibit a sense more concerned with their childrens happiness,
of powerlessness and lack of influence in their social creativity, curiosity, achievements, independence,
relationships, whereas middle-class parents have a and self-control. Thus, they tend to be more demo-
greater sense of control over their own lives (Berk, cratic and permissive in their child-rearing practices
1996). According to Kohn (1979), the values and and show more warmth and affection (Bacon &
behaviors required to succeed in the business world Ashmore, 1987).
affect ones ideas about which traits to transmit to Figure 12.1 represents schematically the interre-
children; in turn, children are expected to incorpo- lations of poverty with childhood problems.
rate these traits in order to achieve future success. Poverty in the family results in constant financial
Education constitutes another factor that has a and emotional stress. depleting parents limited
significant influence on social class differences in resources and paving the way for marital conflicts.
child rearing. Educated, middle-class parents have Over time this affects the emotional health of chil-
generally acquired advanced verbal skills and dren who witness this stress (see Figure 12.1). This
learned to think in an abstract, subjective way. brings about childrens adjustment problems, which
Therefore, they are more likely to show an interest in turn impacts the mental health of the entire family.
in a developing childs inner characteristics Many researchers (Kapur, 1995; Gunthey &
(Richman, Miller, & LeVine, 1992). Educated moth- Sinha, 1983; McLoyd, 1990; Patterson, 1991;
Figure 12.1. Interrelatedness of poverty with adjustment problems in children.
Rafferty & Shinn, 1991) have found that children developing mental health problemswho live on
from families with strenuous living conditionssin- the streets, whose parents are prostitutes, prisoners,
gle-parent families, poor housing conditions or in or mental patients, and who live in tribes in remote
dangerous neighborhoods, and homelessnessrun a areas) necessitate the urgent implementation of
greater risk of developing some type of psycho- child welfare services (Phadke, 1993). A common
pathology. cause of neglect of children in India is the low eco-
nomic and educational status, particularly of
Ethnicity women. In cases of common misfortunes, like
death, disability, or divorce, women are basically
Ethnic groups differ in their beliefs and practices economically unequipped to manage the family.
concerning child rearing. However, given cultural Similarly, children in broken homes due to parental
values and other contexts, some of these differences alcoholism, mental illness, and extreme poverty
(mainly those of demanding parents) seem to have (especially those in slums and remote areas) are par-
an adaptive value (Berndt, Cheung, Lau, Hau, & ticularly at risk. Kapur (1995) highlights how the
Lew, 1993; Chao, 1982). In addition, the family mental health of children who are working or insti-
structure and the child-rearing customs of certain tutionalized is also constantly under threat.
ethnic minorities can buffer the stress and disorgan-
ization that tend to result from poverty. Working Children
Sociopolitical Factors Influencing Officials estimate that the number of employed
the Childs Personality children in India ranges from 20 to 100 million
(Chopra & Mullick, 1987). Traditional trades use all
A large number of Indian children at risk of forms of child labor.4 The hazardous nature of work,
4. Examples are carpet-weaving, sari-making, brassware, precious stone polishing, beedi-making, and glass bangle manufac-
turing. Excluded are osiery production and the manufacture of matches and fireworks.
including long hours, low wages, and physical dren who experience significantly fewer psychoso-
abuse, has an important impact on the development cial stressors in their early years of development.
of a working childs personality. Parents socioeconomic and educational back-
grounds influences child-rearing styles, which, in
Children in Institutional Care turn, affect childrens psychosexual development.
Damania (1988) states that children in institu- Family as Context for the
tions represent one of the most disadvantaged Development of the Childs
groups of children in the country. These children
Mental Health
experience severe emotional and behavioral prob-
lems. Most of the time, they underachieve scholasti- Family is the primary social network and context
cally and are unsuccessful at whatever tasks they for the development of the individuals mental
undertake; they are also at risk of developing per- health. Several principles and processes help to
sonality problems in adulthood. Researchers define how families can create a healthy environ-
Venugopal and Kodandaram (1983) and Murlidhar, ment for childrens development, which enables
Sekhar, Eswari, and Shariff (1983) have described children to adapt and learn to make loving contri-
the long- and short-term effects of institutionaliza- butions to their communities. Loneliness, despair,
tion, in terms of deficits in language, and cognitive self-destructive behavior, and maladaptive forms of
and social development. emotional coping can flourish in the absence of a
loving and supportive family (Friedman, 1998).
Adopted Children Anandalakshmy (1981) has developed a three-
dimensional model for the development of the
In India, adoption traditionally takes place within Indian personality in relation to the family.
the larger family, to ensure that property (what the According to this model, the richly developed inner
family owns) remains within families. Adoption by world of feelings, thoughts, and fantasies and the
childless couples rarely occurs (Kapur, 1995), prob- unusual ability to create a private internal space
ably due to a strong social stigma of adopting a child when there is little, if any, social privacyare central
whose origins are unknown: background, gender, to the Indian personality. Thus, ideally, the child is
appearance, and any possible handicaps constitute expected to grow up to be dependent, interdepend-
the primary deterrents. However, the present-day ent, and dependable (all at the same time) in rela-
scenario for adoption is gradually changing (Sohini, tion to his or her family (Neki, 1979). In this context,
1976; Baig & Gopinath, 1976; Modak, 1976). the pathology lies in the inability of either the moth-
er or the child to take on suitable roles.
Delinquent Children How the family works as a system and affects a
childs development depends upon the many possi-
The phenomenon of rapid urbanization in India ble patterns of interaction between family members
has increased the incidence of child delinquency and how other factors, within and outside of the
(Singh & Khan, 1983; Kaliappan & Senthilathiban, family, influence those patterns.
1984; Gokhle, 1982; Sen, 1982; Singh, Singh, &
Srinivasan, 1983). The majority of offenses that chil- Dimensions of Family Interactions
dren commit include petty mugging, picking pock-
ets, traveling without tickets, and the like. Researchers have identified several major differ-
Children from deprived socioeconomic and ences among families: the emotional tone of the
educational backgrounds tend to develop more family, the responsiveness of the parent to the child,
emotional and behavioral disorders than do chil- the manner in which the parent exerts control, and
the quality and amount of communication (Bee, attitudes towards his or her parents. Parental con-
1997). trol is significantly higher in older Indian males of
high socioeconomic status (Malhotra, 1990), which
Emotional Tone of the Family suggests that control (versus autonomy) seems to be
crucial in the development of emotional disorders
A key element for a childs development appears in India today.
to be parental warmth or hostility. A warm parent
cares about the child, expresses affection frequently Responsiveness
(or at least regularly), puts the childs needs first,
shows enthusiasm for the childs activities, and Parents who respond appropriately to a childs
responds sensitively and empathically to the childs needs increase the childs ability to: learn language
feelings (Singh, Singh, & Srinivasan, 1983; more rapidly, have a higher IQ, and experience
Maccoby, 1980). Hostile parents overtly reject their faster cognitive development. Children with
children. Chawla (1983) found that parents demon- responsive parents are more likely to: be securely
stration of warmth is a determining factor in pro- attached, be more obedient, and have better social
viding children with feelings of trust. skills than children with unresponsive parents
Children from warm, loving families in India are (Bornstein, 1989). In contrast, children with conduct
more securely attached to their parents during the disorder tend to be raised by parents who are reject-
first two years of life; they have higher self-esteem ing, hostile, and uninvolved in the childs activities
and are more empathic, more altruistic, more (Indiramma, 1986).
responsive to others distress, and have higher IQs
in preschool and elementary school (Maccoby, Methods of Control
1980; Simons, Robertson & Downs, 1989). In fact,
Ramanujam (1976) and Malhotra (1990) found that Children whose parents set clear, attainable rules
neurotic problems in children often correlate to the and standards can face a broad range of situations
lack of a close relationship with the parents, and demonstrate higher self-esteem than children
parental overexpectation and control, and punitive whose parents have unreasonably high expectations
and inconsistent discipline. Learning difficulties can or demands (Kurdek & Fine, 1994; Kapur, 1995).
also be an expression of a childs passive-aggressive Table 12.1 lists different disciplinary styles.
TABLE 12.1.
COMMON DISCIPLINARY STYLES PREVALENT IN FAMILIES
Style Techniques Basis
Power punishment
Threats
Power assertion Fear of punishment
Commands
Withdrawal of privileges
Physical withdrawl
Refusal to speak or listen to child Loss of parents support, affection
Love withdrawal Verbal expression of parents and approval
dislike for child
Threats to leave
Reason Appeal to childs reason, pride,

Induction
Explanations empathy
Although both power assertion and withdrawal proposes three specific parenting styles within the
of love are effective in an immediate disciplinary Indian culture:
situation, inductive discipline appears to be more
successful in relation to the development of the Authoritarian
childs self-regulation. Power assertion fosters the Permissive
development of an externalized conscience, while Authoritative
inductive discipline fosters an internalized con-
science and pro-social behavior (Brody & Shaffer, Maccoby and Martin (1983) proposed a varia-
1982; Kuczynski, 1984). Mujtaba and Furnham tion of Baumrinds categorization that emphasizes
(2001), and Ahmed, Waller, and Verduyn (1994) two dimensions: the degree of control and the
have conducted similar studies. amount of acceptance/rejection or responsiveness
(see Table 12.2).
Communication Patterns The parental climate or parenting style
inevitably reflects a set of attitudes and values,
The quality of the parents language impacts not which affects the childs development in a specific
only the childs language acquisition but also the way.
quality of the parent-child relationship. Parents
engaging in conversations with children (using com- The Authoritarian Type
plex sentences) and encouraging their responses
helps create a positive relationship (Badami, 1983; In relation to children who have experienced
Barnes & Olson, 1985; Baumrind, 1971; Bell & Bell, other parenting styles, children from/in authoritari-
1982). an families: tend to underachieve in school, are typ-
Through their mutual interaction, each of the ically less skilled in interactions with their peers,
aforementioned dimensions has a definite effect on and have lower self-esteem (see Table 12.2). Some
both the child and the parents child-rearing prac- children appear passive, while others may express
tices. The following section discusses how these pat- high aggression. Preschoolers are anxious, with-
terns are generated. drawn, and unhappy (Kapur, 1995; Kumar, 1975;
Sanyal, 2001; Baumrind, 1967). Boys are especially
Patterns of Child-Rearing Styles aggressive and disobedient, while girls are depend-
able, aspire less to experiment and explore the
Based on combining four aspects of some dimen- world, and usually retreat from challenging tasks
sions of family interactions, Diana Baumrind (1972) (Baumrind, 1971; Mehta, 1977).
TABLE 12.2.
DIMENSIONS OF CHILD-REARING STYLES
Level of acceptance/responsiveness
High Low
Levels of control Authoritative, Authoritarian, power

High
or demand reciprocal assertive
Low Indulgent, permissive Neglecting, uninvolved

The Permissive Type consistently negative outcomes have neglecting or

uninvolved parents (see Table 12.2). This specific
Children with indulgent or permissive parents parenting style results from parental depression.
do slightly less well in school during adolescence Miller, Christopherson, and King (1993) stress that,
and are more likely to be more aggressive than are by the age of three, children whose parents lack
children with authoritarian parents. This is particu- affection and control begin to demonstrate aggres-
larly true in cases where the parents are permissive sive behavior (usually by acting out). The resulting
with regards to aggression (see Table 12.2). Addi- disorders of these children persist over many years
tionally, children with permissive parents exhibit in their relationships with significant others. In ado-
immature social behavior with their peers (Kapur, lescence, they are more impulsive and anti-social
1995; Sanyal, 2001; Baumrind, 1967). They are less and underachieve in school (Block, 1971;
likely to take responsibility and are less independ- Pulkkinen, 1982). Moreover, they show deficits in
ent. They are also overly demanding and depend- many domains, including attachment and cognition
ent on adults and show less persistence on tasks dur- (Egeland & Sroufe, 1981; Radke-Yarrow, Cum-
ing preschool than do children with more control- mings, Kuczinski, & Chapman, 1985).
ling parents (Berk, 1996).
Other Aspects Concerning the
The Authoritative Type Dynamics of Family Relationships
The authoritative parenting style involves both
greater control and affection, where parents set
The Childs Characteristics
clear limits while responding to the childs individ- The family system is affected by the characteris-
ual needs (see Table 12.2). Children in such families tics of each child, such as his or her temperament,
typically show higher self-esteem and are more age, gender, and birth order (Muralidharan, 1973;
independent but are also more likely to comply Pathak, 1983; Malhotra & Randhawa, 1983; Bee,
with parental requests and may express more altru- 1997; Boer, Godhart & Treffers, 1992). For instance,
istic behavior. They are more self-confident, and parents generally have higher expectations from the
their behavior in school is achievement-oriented. In first-born5 along with a tendency to be more respon-
late adolescence, they are more likely to use post- sive to that childs needs. Similarly, the tempera-
conventional moral reasoning (Boyes & Allen, ment of the child is an important aspect in deter-
1993). In preschool there is a positive association mining personality; for example, a childs vulnera-
between authoritative parenting and both emotion- bility affects family care-taking patterns and can cre-
al and social skills (Sanyal, 2001; Denham, ate a cycle of unhealthy interactions that may result
Renwick, & Holt, 1991). Authoritative parenting is in behavioral problems (Kapur, 1995; Malhotra &
also linked with social and moral maturity and aca- Randhawa, 1983; Malhotra, Varma, Verma, &
demic achievement in high school (Block, 1971; Malhotra, 1986).
Dornbusch, Ritter, Leiderman, Roberts, & Fraleigh,
1987; Lamborn, Mounts, Steinberg, & Dornbusch, Siblings
1991).
It is relatively common for siblings within the
The Neglectful Type same family to develop fairly different personality
characteristics, because parents often behave differ-
As one would expect, the children with most ently towards each child (Dunn & McGuire, 1994).
5. In relation to this parental attitude, Bee (1997) indicates that usually first-borns are strictly disciplined.
In turn, these dissimilarities in the parenting styles cial or emotional support they need in order to
affect the relationships between siblings and create complete high school or to pursue higher education.
rivalry and hostility between them (Hoch, 1970; STEPPARENT FAMILIES: A number of theorists
Brody, Stoneman, McCoy, & Forehand, 1992). (Brand, Clingempeel & Bowen-Woodward, 1988;
Hetherington, 1989) emphasize the emotional and
Parents Characteristics social difficulties of children whose parents divorce
and remarry. Children experience an increased
Several researchers emphasize how the parents emotional burden when they must adjust to a new
personal history, qualities, and ideology affect the family condition after many years in a single-parent
family systemespecially parents personal beliefs family. This difficulty often stems from the fact that,
and how they perceive their child. The main after the original divorce, they are usually given
parental personality characteristics that influence more independence and also take on various fami-
the family system are depression and a parents own ly roles. Upon the stepparents arrival, family
internal working model of attachment (Richters & dynamics change, displacing children from their
Pellegrini, 1989; Main & Hesse, 1990; Ward & former roles. Problems are even greater when the
Carlson, 1995). parent has an especially close relationship with his
or her new partner.
Family Structure
Divorce
The structure of the family also impacts family
functioning, which, in turn, affects childrens behav- It is well-documented that parental conflict can
ior. have adverse effects on children. Children whose
parents engage often in physical or verbal fighting
The Type of Family System show more distress, anger, and aggression than do
children whose parents have a more balanced rela-
The gradual transition from a joint to a nuclear tionship (Singh, Palwal, & Gupta, 1972; Barnes &
family system has had many consequences for the Pai, 1983; Davies & Cummings, 1994). Family
development of the childs personality. However, dynamics are even more complicated when
Kapur (1995) argues that studies have not succeed- parental conflict is followed by divorce. Any change
ed in indicating a significant relationship between in the family structure is likely to produce short-
the type of the family and psychological distur- term disruption before the family members manage
bance. Kapur (1990) also finds that nuclear and to adapt to the new way of living. Divorce often
joint families use the same child-rearing practices. results in alterations in parenting style (for example,
Singh and Chauhan (1983) reveal that the type, size, parents might become more authoritative or
and occupational status of a family significantly neglecting). The first years after a divorce cause par-
affect the level of self-disclosure among adolescents. ticular strain; children typically become more defi-
S INGLE-PARENT FAMILIES: Children reared in ant, more aggressive, or depressed (Kumthekar,
single-parent families are at higher risk for develop- 1983; Bee, 1997), and their school performance
ing a variety of emotional and behavioral problems, often declinesat least for some time (Furstenberg &
including dropping out of school, teen parenthood, Cherlin, 1991; Hetherington & Clingempeel, 1992).
and delinquency (Bee, 1997). The commonly low
economic status of single-parent families leads to an Influences Outside the Family System
increase of parental stress and anxiety it also makes
it far less-likely that children will receive the finan- A wide range of experiences in parents lives out-
side the family also influences the interactions Maternal Employment and Day Care
between family members. Two eminent factors that
appear to have a substantial effect on the parents Hoffman (1989) comments that the phenomenon
behavior, and thus the childs development, are of maternal employment is part of the recent social
employment and the network of social support. changes in India. In an increasing number of Indian
families, both parents work, and others (nurseries,
babysitters, etc.) handle childrens daycare. As a
Parents Profession
result, there is a decline in the amount and quality
The mothers employment affects the family sys- of time that mothers spend with their children.
tem by improving the mothers self-image, increas- Infants can develop secure attachments to their day-
ing her feelings of power, and altering the distribu- care providers and thus be partially compensated
tion of labor between her and her husband within as for the typical mother-infant relationship (Goossens
well as outside of the home (Spitze, 1988; Blair & & van Ijzendoorn, 1990). Alternatively, infants with
Johnson, 1992). The effects on children are general- working mothers may be more independent and
ly positive, especially for daughters (Brofenbrenner, may develop more confidence in dealing with the
Alvarez, & Henderson, 1984). As already men- social environment. In addition, they seem to have
tioned above, job satisfaction is an important deter- better problem-solving skills (Sanyal & Bhowmick,
minant of the parents child-rearing practices, which 1992; Clarke-Stewart, 1989; Vaughn & Waters,
practices have long-term effects on the childs per- 1990). Maternal employment is also associated with
sonality. the development of creativity in Indian children
The entire family system is greatly affected by (Asha, 1983).
the fathers loss of a job. Paternal unemployment
increases strictness of child rearing and reduces Abusive Parents
marital satisfaction. Children often respond by
demonstrating disruptive behavior. During such Wolfe (1987) reports, that in recent years, the
crises, both parents become less consistent and less phenomenon of child abuse is continually increas-
affectionate towards their children (Conger, ing in India. This trend seems to be the product of
Patterson, & Ge, 1995). Children in this situation personality and demographic variables such as:
exhibit a variety of symptoms, including depres-
sion, aggression, delinquency, and declined school a. a childs impulsive personality pattern;
performance (Conger et al., 1992, Conger, Ge, b. a silent/nonresponsive parenting pattern;
Elder, Lorenz, & Simons, 1994; Flanagan & Eccles, c. a typically noncongenial interpersonal profile
1993). The father and the rest of the family can of the family;
counteract these negative outcomes, which can d. socioeconomic status (S.E.S.) stress; and
always be softened with the provision of the neces- e. general apathy of the society towards expres-
sary emotional support of the father and the rest of sion of aggression on children (see Table 12.3)
the family.
Greenberger, ONeil, and Nagel (1994) and Parcel There are factors operating at different levels that
and Menaghan (1994) focus on the effect of the can either lead to child abuse or serve as compen-
nature of the parental occupation on family interac- satory determinants, which have a definite bearing
tions. Complex jobs that demand greater independ- on childrens development. Children who have
ence of the employee are usually linked with author- experienced physical and/or psychological abuse
itative parenting, whereas less-complex, more rou- are likely to become abusive adults themselves
tine jobs are linked with authoritarian control. (Sanyal, 2001, 2003).
TABLE 12.3.
FACTORS DETERMINING CHILD ABUSE
Ontogenetic level Micro-system level Exo-system level Macro-system level
RISK FACTORS
History of abuse Marital discord Unemployment Cultural acceptance of

Low self-esteem Children with behavior Isolation-poor social corporal punishment
Low IQ problems support View of children as
Poor interpersonal skills Premature or unhealthy Poor peer relations as possessions
children a child Economic depression
Single parent
Poverty
COMPENSATORY FACTORS
High IQ Healthy children Good social supports Culture that promotes a

Awareness of past abuse Supportive spouse Few stressful events sense of shared respons-
History of positive Economic security Strong, supportive ibility in caring for the
relationship with one religious affiliations communitys children
parent Positive school experi- Culture opposed to
Special talents ences and peer relations violence
Physical attractiveness as a child Economic prosperity
Good interpersonal skills Therapeutic interventions
Social Support for Parents factorsinfluences the personality development of

children. The family appears to have a major
The quality of parents social networks also impact on molding young personalities and can
affects the family system. Parents who have access establish childrens emotional health along with
to adequate emotional and physical supportfrom sound communication exchanges that have a bear-
one another or from friendsare able to respond to ing on the cognitive-conative-affective trio.
their children with more warmth, consistency, and
better control (Singh & Khan, 1983; Crnic,
Greenberg, Ragozin, Robinson, & Basham, 1983; METHOD
Taylor, Casten, & Flickinger, 1993). Their children,
in turn, perform on a variety of measures (Melson, Participants
Ladd & Hsu, 1993; Hofferth, Boisjoly, & Duncan,
1995). The Indian sample consisted of 1,082 children
Social support has a buffering effect that sub- randomly selected from the schools in three differ-
stantially lessens the impact of family stress. ent areas: Bangalore, Kolkata, and Delhi. There
Childrens mental health is highly dependant on the were three age groups: 67, 8-9, and 1012 years of
quality of the family relationships. age. The socioeconomic status of the childrens fam-
To sum up, a number of determinantsfrom soci- ilies was: 28.9 percent low, 42.58 percent middle,
ocultural and sociopolitical changes to familial and 28.52 percent high. Table 12.4 shows the distri-
structures, child-rearing styles, and other external bution according to region and religion.
TABLE 12.4.
DISTRIBUTION OF THE DATA ACROSS REGION AND RELIGION
Region N % Religion N %
Bangalore 488 44.98 Hindu 904 85.69
Delhi 275 25.36 Muslim 84 7.96
Kolkata 322 29.66 Christian 67 6.35
Procedure RESULTS
Facilitators assessed all children individually in Factor Analyses
school at appropriate times. For the majority of chil-
dren of lower socioeconomic class, facilitators narrat- Table 12.5 reveals the first-order factors. All
ed all three stories (Snow White [SW] and the Seven twenty-nine variables were included. Principal com-
Dwarfs, Little Red Riding Hood [LRRH], and Jack ponent analysis was carried out using varimax rota-
and the Beanstalk ([JB]) twice in the classroom and tion. First-order factor analysis resulted in the for-
then tested the children with the FTT one week later. mation of twelve factors, which accounted for 56.7
percent of explained variance (see Table 12.5).
Material Second-order factor analysis led to the formation
of six factors (see Table 12.6), which accounted for
The study employed the Fairy Tale Projective 61.7 percent of explained variance.
Test.
TABLE 12.5.
Factors Loading
Anxiety and Depression
Anxiety -0.632
Depression -0.584
Bizarres -0.312
Self-Esteem -0.366
Adaptation to the Fairy Tale Content -0.638
Continued
Factors Loading
Assertiveness
Desire for Superiority -0.794
Aggression as Dominance -0.714
Need for Approval -0.550
Primitive and Hostile Aggression
Oral Aggression -0.695
Instrumental Aggression -0.778
Desire for Material Things -0.752
Oral Needs -0.400
Insecurity
Need for Protection -0.745
Bizarres -0.498
Possessiveness
Aggression as Defense -0.616
Aggression as Retaliation -0.442
Relationship with the Parents
Relationship with the Father -0.744
Continued
Factors Loading
Helpfulness
Desire to Help -0.727
Self-Esteem -0.365
Moral Consciousness
Morality -0.756
Repetitions -0.414
Envy
Aggression as Envy -0.775
Repetitions -0.407
Bizarres -0.316
Self-Esteem -0.344
Social Withdrawal
Sense of Privacy -0.705
Oral Needs -0.395
Ambivalence
Ambivalence -0.787

TABLE 12.6.
SECOND-ORDER FACTOR ANALYSIS
Factors Loading
Envy and Guilt
Envy (Aggression as Envy, Repetitions, Bizarres, Self-Esteem) -0.901
Moral consciousness (Morality, Sexual Preoccupation, Repetitions) -0.754
Parent-Child Relations as Regulators of Primary Needs
Insecurity (Need for Protection, Bizarres, Relationship with the Mother, Need for Affection) -0.685
Possessiveness (Sense of Property, Aggression as Defense, Aggression as Retaliation) -0.594
Helpfulness (Desire to Help, Need for Affiliation, Need for Affection, Self-Esteem) -0.332
Relationship with the parents (Fear of Aggression, Relationship with the Father, Relationship with the Mother) -0.458
Moral Restraint and Cognitive Inhibition
Ambivalence (Sexual Preoccupations, Ambivalence) -0.862
Moral consciousness (Morality, Sexual Preoccupations, Repetitions) -0.509
Instrumental aggression (Desire for Material Things, Instrumental Aggression, Oral Needs) -0.390
Survival Coping Strategies
Assertiveness (Aggression as Dominance, Desire for Superiority, Need for Approval) -0.749
Instrumental aggression (Desire for Material Things, Instrumental Aggression, Oral Needs) -0.639
Helpfulness (Desire to Help, Need for Affiliation, Need for Affection, Self-Esteem) -0.417
Passivity vs. Aggressive Impulses
Anxiety and depression (Adaptation to Fairy Tale Content, Bizarres, Anxiety, Relationship with the Mother,
Depression, Need for Affiliation, Self-Esteem) -0.728
Primitive and hostile aggression (Aggression type A, Oral Aggression, Fear of Aggression) -0.711
Social Isolation and Parental Dependency
Social withdrawal (Need for Affiliation, Oral Needs, Sexual Preoccupation, Sense of Privacy) -0.795
Relationship with the parents (Fear of Aggression, Relationship with the Father, Relationship with the Mother) -0.495
Discussion of First-Order FTT Factors he is very poor. She is crying

because her father has be-
come poor.
Anxiety and Depression
Poverty and parental unemployment produces Assertiveness
sufficient stress in the family as to interfere with its
functioning and with the parents ability to be sen- As a factor, assertiveness consists of desire for
sitive and responsive to their childs needs. superiority, aggression as dominance, and need for
Economic stress also creates feelings of frustration, approval. Raphling (1998) argues that aggression is
anger, and helplessness. Stressful economic situa- either assertive or destructive: assertion is bound to
tions are predictive of parental negativism and use destructive aggression to accomplish aims usual-
inconsistency. Economic hardship affects family ly thought of as benign, since assertion is expansive
interactions by creating daily strains that result in by nature, and thus requires the destruction of the
parental depression. Parental depression, in turn, inevitable fantasized or real barriers to its success
impairs childrens socioemotional functioning (p. 798). Within the Indian culture, the correlations
(Eamon, 2001), through low levels of nurturance, between assertiveness and the defense mechanism
uninvolved and inconsistent parenting, harsh disci- of projection indicate that the desires to be unique,
pline, and conflicts in the marital relationship. set higher goals, or impose ones will are not social-
In terms of the defense mechanisms, undoing ly acceptable and thus children project these values
was significantly correlated with anxiety and onto others. Below are two examples of the relation-
depression. ship between desire for superiority, aggression as
Bangalore and Kolkata children scored lower on dominance, and need for approval (throughout,
anxiety and depression, probably due to an emo- (?) indicates prompting by the facilitator):
tionally protective environment typical of families
from these regions. Giant (Card 1): I am bigger than people but I
A major reason for depression among Indian want to be bigger than the
children as observed in the FTT responses relates to giants in cards 2 and 3. (?) I
the disturbing reality of material and affective dep- want to show people what I
rivation. The following responses are characteristic: can do by being big. (?) I
want to have my name in the
Dwarf (Card 1): Each dwarf feels sad because world of heroes.
they dont have parents to
look after them and think Witch (Card 1): She is looking very happy
about when to go to work and because the mirror has told
how to get food. her that she is the most beau-
tiful in the world. Then all the
Scenes from LRRH (Card 2): She is sad; she men will want to marry her.
has no parents; she is worried She can become Miss
about where to sleep and Universe. She is thinking that
what to eat. now I will be the most beauti-
ful in the world til I die.
Scenes from SW (Card 2): He is scolding her
because she is giving money Children belonging to high SES families tend to
back to her father. Before, her be significantly more assertive than their middle-
father was very rich, but now and low-class counterparts, due to their higher level
of self-confidence and achievement motivation. For enon of incorporation. The following example is
children from lower SES families, assertiveness typical of these types of responses:
compensates and protects them from potent self-
destructive anxieties (Sanyal, 1991, 2001). Giant (Card 3): He is angry and frustrated.
Children from both Delhi and Bangalore appear He wants to kill others as he
to be more assertive in fulfilling their ambitions. has become weakhe will eat
However, children from Delhi express their aggres- and become strong.
sion more directly, whereas children from Banga-
lore use aggression more instrumentally. Children Indian society tolerates such aggression patterns
from Kolkata, on the other hand, due to cultural for children in early stages of infancy and child-
influences from Bengal, express less aggression and, hood, accepting them as indications of immaturity,
instead, show higher levels of emotional needs, such but the same is not true for those in later years of
as the need for affection and emotional stability. childhood and adolescence. Still, aggressive behav-
ioral patterns are quite common among Indian chil-
Primitive and Hostile Aggression dren, probably due to an initially tolerant family
attitude towards young children that gradually
The underlying variables of the third factor are becomes more restrictive towards older children
aggression type A, oral aggression, and fear of and adolescents (Sanyal & Bhowmick, 1992; Sanyal
aggression. Aggression type A (or hostile aggres- & Banerjee, 2004; Sanyal, Ray, Das, & Ghosh,
sion) consists of reactions that are not justified by 2003). Both 6- to 7- and 8- to 9-year-old children
external causes, but instead are self-generated. express significantly higher primitive and hostile
Aggression may serve an adaptive or discharge aggression than their older counterparts. According
function. According to Feshbach (1970), hostile to Anna Freud (1981), younger children tend to
aggression is intended to inflict injury or pain upon explicitly display aggressive fantasies or impulses.
the victim with little or no advantage to the aggres- Children belonging to low-SES families rank the
sor (person-oriented aggression, as defined by highest in the dimension of primitive and hostile
Hartup, 1974). The child controls or punishes aggression, followed by upper- and then middle-
objects as representations of his or her bad self. In class children. This may be due to the formers
effect, the result is a need to be angry and to hate strong sense of deprivation regarding the basic
(Furst, 1998). needs of life, lack of formal education, and general
Oral aggression is the most archaic form of perception of an aggressive mode of behavior as the
aggression, with origins formed in the oral stage. social norm.
According to Abraham (1924), the oral character
has a deeply rooted conviction that everything will Instrumental Aggression
always be well . . . always some kind person [will be
there] to care for them and give everything they Another first-order factor is instrumental aggres-
need (p. 399). Mark Sylvan (1981) contends that sion, which consists of instrumental aggression,
the Hindu child generally experiences an extreme- desire for material things, and oral needs. Among
ly gratifying oral phase. Indeed, the Hindu tends to the common types of aggression expressed in
leave things not only to family but to God and fate. Indian protocols is instrumental aggression.
Dependency is a significant oral trait, and This According to Feshbach (1970), instrumental aggres-
demand for care may be expressed through sion is rewarding or advantageous for the aggressor,
extreme passivity or through highly active oral- independent of the victims discomfort, which prob-
sadistic behavior (Fenichel, 1945, p. 489). The FTT ably explains Indian boys being significantly more
oral aggression responses often reflect the phenom- assertive than girls, since Indian sociocultural struc-
ture is ostensibly more tolerant and/or protective and upper-class children appear to engage in more
towards boys openly expressing their aggression. socially approved patterns of behavior.
The following is a characteristic example of instru- In Bangalore, the Indian metropolis of techno-
mental aggression: logical achievement, material goods are highly val-
ued. This offers a possible explanation for why chil-
Witch (Card 2): She is planning to kill SW, so dren from Bangalore score significantly higher on
that she can get money for instrumental aggression compared to their counter-
herself and her son, then she parts in Delhi and Kolkata, which implies that they
can buy toys for him and are considerably more resilient and tend to use
make him study well. SW is aggression to satisfy their basic needs. Instrumental
beautiful so rich men will give aggression is more common in Muslims and
money and marry her. Christians than in Hindus.
Giant (Card 2): He is thinking of killing SW. Insecurity

(?) SWs stepmother has told
him to do so. He feels happy, Insecurity consists of the need for protection,
as when he will kill her he bizarres, need for affection, and relationship with
will get money and become the mother. Insecurity is the outcome of harsh pun-
rich. ishment, rejection, or helplessness, or a need for
shelter or protection from a stronger adult or from
Children who scored highest on this factor were God. Turning to God through prayer or wish is
from lower SES families, suggesting that instrumen- quite common among Indian protocols. The fol-
tal aggression may better serve their struggle for lowing example reflects the need for protection
survival through behaviors such as stealing or delin- from God.
quency. Individuals of lower socioeconomic status
have been shown to present significantly higher Little Red Riding Hood (Card 2): She is
rates of delinquent and aggressive syndromes happy because somebody has
(Wadsworth & Achenbach, 2005). In addition, praised her. She has done her
among children between 6 and 17 years, SES was work very carefully. She is
associated with parent and teacher reports of thinking: I have got some
aggressiveness and delinquency (McCoy, Frick, divine power; that is why I
Loney, & Ellis, 1999). The SES-linked differential could do the work properly.
incidence of such behaviors supports the hypothesis God has given her these
that factors associated with SES contribute to varia- demon powers so that no-
tions in levels of psychological problems. body hits her.
Economic disadvantage is also associated with
higher aggression in early development (Guerra, Six- to seven-year-old children present higher
Huesmann, Tolan, van Acker, & Eron, 1995). ratings on insecurity. Children from Kolkata score
Guerra and her colleagues examined three factors significantly higher on insecurity than do those
that could increase the risk of aggression among from Bangalore or Delhi. This may suggest that
urban children: economic disadvantage, stressful children from Bangalore and Delhi are more inde-
events, and individual beliefs. Their results indicate pendent and self-reliant than children from Kolkata.
that the effects of low economic status appear to be Insecurity is also higher in Muslims.
mediated by both stressful events and individual The following examples reflect fear of aggression
beliefs, such as approving of aggression. Middle- and a negative relationship with the mother:
Scenes from LRRH: She is beaten by her According to Sinha (1984), the Indian culture con-
mother for having talked to siders the individual a part of the society and not a
the wolf. She is crying. separate unit. Despite the increase of Western influ-
ences, the basic unit of the Indian social structure
Scenes from LRRH: Her mother beat her. She remains the family, rather than the individual
stole some sweets and ate (Sinha, 1988). However, with a negative parent-child
them up. The sweets had relationship, children split the parental figures into
been prepared for the festival. good and bad (supporting vs. rejecting). The more
secure the perceived parent-child relationship, the
Possessiveness less frequent the mechanism of splitting of object.
In relation to object relations, middle-class chil-
The sixth factor, possessiveness, includes the vari- dren have better relationships with parental figures
ables of sense of property, aggression as defense, than their counterparts in either low- or upper-SES
and aggression as retaliation. Sense of property or families. In contrast, upper-class children have
ownership concerns the defining of boundaries poorer object-relations than middle-class children.
between what is mine and what is not mine. Financial affluence most likely contributes to feel-
Retaliatory aggression is perhaps the first type of ings of social security and emotional independence,
learned aggression the child experiences in the form which in turn may prevent them from feeling the
of punishment (Fromm, 1973). Major elicitors of need to freely interact with others. Hence, emotion-
retaliatory aggression during the elementary school al investment in relationships with others does not
years include threats and derogations to ones ego often take place among individuals from upper SES
and self-esteem (Hartup, 1974). backgrounds (Sanyal, 2001).
Children belonging to low SES families score Children from Delhi have better object relations
highest on possessiveness, followed by upper SES than children from Bangalore or Kolkata, which
children, while children from middle SES class may also explain their choice of more practical ori-
score the lowest. This finding highlights a significant entations in life. In addition, independence seems to
social feature according to which both deprivation be a cultural trait that is valued in Delhi, reflected in
and possession of material things generate a stronger social interactions, food habits, and the value sys-
desire for it. In lower SES classes, possessiveness of tem that characterize its inhabitants (Kakar, 1978).
material things implies attainment of a more com- Parent-child relations appear to be better among
fortable living standard and a higher social status. Hindus than among Christians and Muslims.
Upper-class children feel insecure when faced with Data suggest that parents are consistent in their
the possibility of losing materials. Holding on to disciplinary methods towards children. The follow-
material objects or possessions signifies security, ing is an example whereby the childs mother trig-
comfort, and social status in life. In this respect, mid- gers her fear of aggression:
dle-class children seem to differ a little: They do not
experience a total lack of material comfort, yet they Wolf (Card 1): Hes crying because he has
have less anxiety over losing possessions. seen something and is feeling
very sad; (?) he is feeling sad
Relationship with the Parents because he had seen that a
daughter is being badly beat-
The underlying variables of the seventh factor are en by her mother in a house;
the relationship with the father, relationship with the (?) hell stop the mother from
mother, and fear of aggression. Strong emotional beating.
family bonds are ordinary in Indian culture.
In the following example, the child assigns SW He wants to enjoy the whole
the role of the mother and identifies with the dwarf. occasion.
Dwarf (Card 1): He is thinking whether SW Dwarf (Card 3): He is thinking how to make
will hit them or treat them SW better because he was not
nicely. He feels confused; he a servant of the stepmother.
wonders when SW will take He is feeling angry with Dwarf
care of them. 1 and 2. I think he will be able
to make her feel better.
Helpfulness
Children from the oldest age group are more
The factor of helpfulness in children consists of helpful than their younger counterparts.
the desire to help, need for affection, self-esteem, Girls score significantly higher on helpfulness
and need for affiliation. Predominant interpersonal than boys, probably due to their relatively higher
goals in India include being a good person, being emotional intelligence. Girls experience a stronger
considerate of the well-being of others, fulfilling need to approach and relate to others than boys.
ones duties, and helping others (Sinha, 1997). In Hence, girls tend to be more interactive within their
the present study, it appears that children offer help social milieu compared to their male counterparts.
and friendship to others in exchange for affection. Children of upper SES showed the highest
Helpfulness has been found to correlate significant- degree of helpfulness, due to a less authoritarian
ly with rationalization, reaction formation, and split- attitude within the family, which has fewer restric-
ting of self, indicating that helpfulness is not a spon- tions and prohibitions than families of middle or
taneous or genuine behavior, but rather a defensive lower SES. In addition, in upper SES families,
maneuver against latent hostile feelings. The fol- financial affluence and higher social status offer
lowing example consists a single childs responses more possibilities for broader social interactions.
to the Dwarf cards: Although Christian children constitute a religious
minority relative to the entire Indian population,
Dwarf (Card 1): He has seen SW and is feeling they score higher in helpfulness than children from
very happy because she has other religions. Their minority status may have
died. He was also jealous of encouraged them to develop an extended social net-
SWs beauty, (?) probably work to assure emotional security and stability.
because he was in the group
of SWs stepmother. He will Moral Consciousness
pick her up and send her to
her stepmother. Moral consciousness is composed of morality,
sexual preoccupation, and repetitions. Dharma is a
Dwarf (Card 2): He is having fun because he central concept in Hindu religion and has both a
was an enemy of SW. He religious and a secular meaning. Moral issues are
wants to have fun with SW diffuse in popular Indian sacred texts or epics. The
and play bad tricks on her. He Bhagavad Gita (500200 B.C.), sometimes termed
had much fun when SW died. as the Fifth Veda,6 carries the central message of
6. The Vedas are the oldest surviving scriptures of Hinduism. They correspond to a large corpus of texts originating in Ancient
India. Vedass verses are recited at prayers, religious functions, and other auspicious occasions. Currently, the study of these
texts is crucial in the understanding of Indo-European linguistics as well as ancient Indian history, and thus, culture.
Hinduism, which clarifies the meaning of duty, Childrens responses to the FTT regarding sexu-
action, morality, and death. ality are sparse and under the social disguise of mar-
The high rating of morality is related to the con- riage. Moral consciousness is expressed in various
servatism and authoritarian attitudes that character- ways such as feelings of shame, guilt, doing ones
ize the Indian society. In addition, strict traditional duty, asking for forgiveness, or being punished.
religious customs have a significant impact on child Sexual concerns appear to trigger such feelings.
development (Patel, 2005; Sanyal, 2001; Kapur, Following are two characteristic examples. To the
1995). question Who is the most wicked giant? a child
Social control around sexuality is equally as gave the following response:
strong and is profoundly internalized into the
Indian conscience. Roland (1988) writes: where Giant (Card 2): This one, because he turns
incestuous fantasies are present, there are also strict good girls into bad ones in
superego reactions. The modesty/shame morality is order to have sex with them.
an active part of womens ego ideal (p. 261).
Strictness over the control of sexuality outside The response of this child suggests that, since he
the family is also deeply internalized into the ego- cannot cope with the idea of good girls having sex,
ideal. Ego-ideal values of shyness and modesty in he wished to turn them into bad ones.
girls reinforce irreproachable behavior in public. In The following is another example of sexual
contrast to aggression, sexuality, especially with desires not being socially approved:
girls, is taboo, which is quite the opposite of
Western social patterns. Scenes from SW (Card 2): Snow White is feel-
Men often express anxiety over their sexuality ing guilty because she loves
and potency. The cultural concept is that too much the prince and her father
discharge of semen debilitates a mans health and doesnt like it, so she is saying
vitality. Indian men often perceive women as sexu- sorry to her father for loving
ally voracious, seductive, and powerful (Kakar, him.
1978). Psychodynamically, the Indian man tends
unconsciously to project his inner image of the sen- Envy
suously stimulating mothering figures of childhood
onto his wife and other women, thereby perceiving The tenth factor includes the variables of aggres-
the latter as highly seductive and dangerous sion as envy, repetitions, bizarres, and self-esteem.
(Roland, 1988, p. 262). Envy of others positions and accomplishments is
Shaming is used as one of the paramount means readily observable in Indian men, according to
of instituting control in child-rearing. Children are Rolands notes during therapy sessions (1988).
highly susceptible to shaming because they are fair- Indian children appear to be envious of both mate-
ly dependent on others (Lewis, 1971). It appears that rial things (e.g., toys, money) and affection.
sexuality is much more inhibited in Muslim families Aggression as envy corresponds to a sort of aggres-
than Hindus and Christians. Family honor depends sion through which impulses and fantasies are
a great deal on womens sexuality, particularly the released more easily, resulting in a large number of
daughters chasteness before marriage and her idiosyncratic responses (bizarres). Envy is induced
behavior in the in-laws family. Children are expect- when the victim possesses desired features or quali-
ed to obey a rigid set of rules in order for them to ties, such as beauty, fame, being loved by others,
ensure social approval. Interestingly, instead of the happiness, admiration by the opposite sex, etc., as
word guilty, Indians use the terms shameful or in the following example:
embarrassed.
Witch (Card 3): The witch wants to kill SW so associated with their materialistic orientation and
all the kings and princes of outlook towards a comfortable living. Envy appears
the country will want to to be stronger in Muslims than in Christians and
marry her. Hindus.
Incorporation is an extreme and culturally rele- Social Withdrawal

vant form of expressing envy, for example:
Social withdrawal consists of sense of privacy,
Witch (Card 3): The witch wants to kill SW oral needs, need for affiliation, and sexual preoccu-
and drink her blood. By pation. It appears that social withdrawal in children
drinking her blood she will is not a desirable outlet for solitude and meditation,
become the most beautiful but rather a forced outcome of loneliness.
lady in the world. Childrens withdrawal most likely reflects social
anxiety and self-perceptions of incompetence
However, incorporation is not always oral: (Rubin, 1985; Rubin & Mills, 1988). These negative
feelings and perceptions may be due to the childs
Witch (Card 1): The witch wants to become (possibly accurate) belief that he or she is being
the most beautiful, (?) by tak- rejected by the others (Hymel & Rubin, 1985), but
ing out SWs heart or by enter- also to the withdrawn childs frequent experiences
ing her body. of social failures within groups (Rubin & Krasnor,
1986). The following examples distinctly illustrate a
Indian children may also be envious of other sense of privacy:
peoples happiness:
Giant (Card 2): This giant is smiling and
Giant (Card 3): The giant wants to kill Jack thinking of hitting everybody
and his mother. (?) Jack was so that he could stay alone
happy; when Ill kill his and in peace.
mother he will be sad.
Giant (Card 2): This giant is thinking: Why
In the following example, the child incorporates dont people make friends
aggression as envy, bizarres and low self-esteem with me? Im not a bad per-
into a response: son. So he wants to stay
alone in his village where no
Witch (Card 3): She feels as if they have invit- one will disturb him.
ed her to a ball, but no one
will marry her, except the Giant (Card 3): He looks very angry and
dwarf; only the oldest guy in wants to beat up anyone who
the world will want to marry comes near him. He holds a
her. For that reason (because club. He wants to be alone.
she is old and no one wants to People are making fun of him
marry her) she will kill all the because he looks big.
young women.
Christian children appear to be more socially
Children from middle-class families have signifi- withdrawn than Muslim or Hindu children.
cantly higher scores on this factor, which may be
Ambivalence (Roland, 1988). Although Indian family settings do

not openly accept sexuality, many responses reflect
Ambivalence consists of ambivalence and sexual some sort of sexual preoccupation. Due to the social
preoccupation. This is similar to Factor 9. Ambiva- disapproval of sexuality, these thoughts trigger
lence in the form of indecision may work as a moral strong feelings of guilt or shame. The following
inhibitor to sexual desires and fantasies. example illustrates a connection between envy and
The majority of ambivalent responses reveals morality:
indecision, which may reflect some kind of moral
restraint, or a doubtful attitude towards facts. When Witch (Card 3): She wants to kill SW because
the child has better educational opportunities or a she is prettier than everyone,
better environment, the greater the chances of ques- because she is a princess. I
tioning or doubting himself and his capacities or should not kill her, I should
social environment. Upper-class children who have be a good stepmother be-
a better educational background and greater possi- cause I have to be kind to oth-
bilities in social experiences appear to be more ers.
thoughtful or concerned before making a decision
or taking a stance. In the following examples, single With respect to envy and guilt, girls score signif-
responses include both ambivalence and sexual icantly higher than boys. This could be partially
preoccupation, in the form of marriage: explained by the lower social status generally attrib-
uted to girls. The resulting social discrimination
Dwarf (Card 3): He doesnt know what to do, makes girls more competitive and envious of mate-
marry SW or not? He wants rial things than boys.
to marry SW because she is Moreover, girls appear to have more guilty feel-
the most beautiful in the ings than boys. High ratings in guilt could be
whole world and they will explained as the outcome of a strict superego com-
have a daughter and a boy. bined with a lowered social status for girls, which
Then hell be happy. If he makes them more self-critical than boys. In agree-
doesnt marry her he will be ment with psychodynamic contentions, the super-
alone and without love. egothe part of the ego that contains self-observa-
tion and self-criticismappears to be significantly
Dwarf (Card 3): He will be married tomorrow. more dominant among Indian girls.
He doesnt know what to do, From a cognitive or developmental perspective,
marry or not? He will be girls go through the first three of Kohlbergs (1976)
happy because he is getting stages of moral development faster than boys.
married, he will be sad that During the first stage, girls base moral judgments
his wife might fight with him. primarily on obedience and fear of punishment.
He hopes he will get a good During the second stage, moral action is motivated
wife. by the desire of reward or benefit. Girls ignore pos-
sible guilt reactions and view punishment more
Discussion of Second-Order Factors realistically. Finally, during the third stage, girls
actions are driven by the fear of the others disap-
Envy and Guilt proval, either real or imagined.
Children from upper SES have significantly
In the Indian, conscience is a powerful superego lower scores on envy and guilt than children from a
often armed towards angry feelings or sexuality middle or low SES background. The upper-SES
childrens lower scores on this factor indicate the eties. At the family level, this is even more pro-
familys greater sociofinancial security. Indeed, nounced, as the reputation of the family is consid-
socioeconomic security provides children the insur- ered a self-object, where ones behavior in public is
ance that their needs will eventually be satisfied. central to family esteem, and inversely, family rep-
Children from lower SES families have higher utation is central to ones self-esteem (Roland,
scores than those from upper SES families, due to 1998).
their daily exposure to poverty and all the psycho- Another important aspect of the self in Indians is
logical negative repercussions (e.g., sense of inferi- its dual structure. While a strong sense of family-self
ority or inadequacy). However, children belonging exists, observing and preserving the social etiquette
to middle SES families exhibit the highest scores on of hierarchical and family relationships, there is also
envy and guilt. This may be attributed to their ten- a highly private self where one maintains all kinds
dency to compare their possessions to those of of thoughts, feelings, and fantasies, which one only
poorer children as well as factors that have a reveals on a contextual basis within certain rela-
stronger impact on middle SES familiessuch as tionships.
sibling rivalry, larger families, and the impact of
globalization. Moral Restraint and Cognitive Inhibition
Parent-Child Relations as Moral restrain and cognitive inhibition appear to
Regulators of Primary Needs suppress instrumental aggression. According to
Furst (1998), a number of determinants can result in
Despite childrens natural tendency to perceive ego distortion with far-reaching consequences.
their parents positively, they often feel ambivalent These include: feeling that wishes are unacceptable;
towards them (Klein, 1932). Children perceive a being brought up in an environment in which the
parent negatively when they feel that the parent is expression of affect, both libidinal and aggressive, is
not satisfying their needs. In this case, splitting of prohibited; early experiences that predispose one to
object occurs as a defense mechanism, between a the elaboration of guilt, such as sibling rivalry and
good (supporting) parental figure and a bad (reject- envy; guilt towards a parent; and rejection of a par-
ing) one. ent. All of these, combined with the introjection of
It appears that the more insecure, possessive, and parental attitudes, result in narcissistic devaluation
affection-seeking the child, the poorer the quality and in the formation of a rigid and restricting super-
the mother-child relationship. When the parent- ego.
child relationship is based on secure attachment, the As reported throughout Rolands work, superego
parent reacts quickly to the childs needs and is gen- in the form of punishment appears most frequently
erally more responsive to the child than are parents in relation to either envy or aggression.
of insecurely attached children. Studies have shown The following example presents the responses of
that securely attached children are in general more a single child:
empathetic during later stages of childhood, less dis-
ruptive, less aggressive, and more mature than chil- Witch (Card 1): She wants to steal jewels, gold
dren for whom the quality of attachment is either ornaments, in order to
ambivalent or avoidant. become rich. If shes rich she
Family and social milieu is of paramount impor- can marry a prince who is
tance in India. Within an Indian setting, one always also rich. She can then kill the
experiences the self as intimate connected with oth- prince and get more money.
ers, in a we relationship, rather than the dualistic
I and you relationship common in Western soci- Witch (Card 2): She doesnt want to be
wicked. She would be pun- social in nature, consists of acting agreeable and
ished, and God will not allow affilliative in order to attain goals. The genuineness
her to be on earth for long. of such behavior is questionable. Indeed, according
to Roland (1988), Indians apparent compliance,
Feelings of guilt are more often triggered by such as the need to say yes or the need to please
instrumental aggression, which appears to be the at all times, reflects reaction formation against oral
most violent type of aggression. The following aggression, rather than empathy.
example illustrates the degree of violence involved No defense mechanisms have been found to cor-
in some of the responses: relate with this factor. It appears that these types of
aggressive fantasies and patterns of behavior consti-
Witch (Card 2): I will kill SW, take her skin, tute part of the coping strategies adopted by Indian
sell it in the market, and get children, and thus they do not trigger the deploy-
money. ment of any defense mechanisms.
Giant (Card 3): He wants to kill someone and Passivity versus Aggressive Impulses
feed him to his dog. Hes hun-
gry; he has no money to buy It appears that anxiety/depression and hostile/
him food. primitive aggression constitute opposite sides of the
same coin. Most importantly, the cause of these
Survival Coping Mechanisms emotional states and behavior resides in the degree
of deprivation Indian children experience daily.
The most common types of coping strategies Both material and affective deprivation in India
within a deprived and strict environment are mani- appear to be the source of the coping mechanisms
fested in either active domineering acts or in passive children employ and the associated emotional states
and submissive acts, such as trying to please others. and behaviors they express in their responses. The
A common facet of Indian character is generosity cause of these emotional states and behaviors is the
the importance of giving and being given; it may be disturbing reality of deprivation.
related to an oral character structure or a strong It appears that feelings of depression and anxiety
desire for sociability. are a more socially approved way of dealing with
Survival coping mechanisms correspond to a cul- lifes frustrations.
tural factor that requires special attention. It appears To ensure social approval, Indian children tend
that Indian children employ three ways of coping to undo patterns of behavior that are not socially
with the harsh everyday reality, which, for the accepted. In that sense, they repress their initial
majority, means deprivation of various kinds. One primitive and hostile aggression.
way to copeperhaps the most healthyis by being The following example illustrates the answers the
assertive, whereby one tries to overcome difficulties same child provided to the first and third Card of
or embrace challenges by being dominant and the Giant, respectively:
impressing others; by wanting to impose his/her
will; or by setting goals and ambitions that are often Giant (Card 1): He feels sad because he does-
beyond the mundane realities and contrarieties of nt have parents. He is wor-
living conditions. ried about how to eat and
Instrumental aggression is another means to where to sleep.
overcome deprivations by immediate and direct
gratification and is most likely expressed though Giant (Card 3): He has no parents; he is sad.
stealing or robbing. The third coping strategy, more He is ready to kill anybody
for money and thinks that need for approval to maintain and enhance self-
with that money he can be regard. Indians have gradually developed strong
happy and watch TV. inner boundaries of a private self, which society
greatly respects. While there is less overall accept-
The cause behind both responses seems to be a ance of developing a more individual identity in
feeling of deprivation that triggers feelings of social relationships, there is an acceptance of all
depression and aggression. kinds of idiosyncratic tendencies, given the belief
that a child comes into the world with all kinds of
Social Isolation and Parental Dependency tendencies from past lives (Roland, 2005).
One key feature of the Indian familial self is that,
The Indian sociocultural system is characterized as deeply emotionally enmeshed as Indians may be
by authoritarian attitudes that make it difficult for in their intimate relationships, they also maintain a
children to openly express and satisfy their needs, profoundly private self.
either material or emotional. It appears that closed
family relations isolate the child from his or her
broader social environmenti.e., the need to be CONCLUSIONS
with friends or interact with peers. The concept of
dharma 7 is believed to hold the individual and the The Indian childs personality must be studied
society together. In Indian social interactions, peo- within the Hindu cultural context. Hindu philoso-
ple are expected to de-emphasize individual prefer- phy is so rich and so profound that it affects almost
ences in comparison with the influential role of all aspects of ones life and personality develop-
ones extended family (Kakar, 1981; Sinha, et al., ment. Belief in dharma and the life goal of moksha
2002). greatly influences the course of personality devel-
Hindu culture not only recognizes an individ- opment by emphasizing the underlying humanistic
uals particular proclivities, but also accords a ideals of moderation, control, and responsibility.
remarkable degree of freedom in feeling, thinking, The key features of the Indian childs personali-
and maintaining a private self, while encouraging ty, as revealed through their responses in the FTT,
the cultivation of ones inner life, all of which runs are aggression (mostly hostile aggression, aggres-
counter to the considerable constraints on behavior sion as envy, oral aggression, and instrumental
in the social hierarchy. aggression), anxiety (mainly deprivation, harm, and
According to Anandalakshmy (1981), the rich punishment), depression, and morality (or super-
inner world of feelings, thoughts, and fantasies cre- ego).
ate an inner private space that characterizes the Roland (1988) stressed aggression as a central
Indian personality. The child is expected to grow up feature of the Indian personality. However, the
to be at once dependent, interdependent, and responses obtained from the FTT indicate a distinc-
dependable (Neki, 1979). Indian psychiatrists (Neki, tion between different kinds of aggression, each one
1976) emphasize the emotional bonding of kinship with distinct underlying motivations and feelings.
that enables the Indian person to live in emotional- Additionally, Indian children often attribute aggres-
ly close and responsibly interdependent relation- sion to causes outside the control of the individual,
ships, where the sense of self is deeply involved such as demons and madness. This may represent
with others, the relationships are governed by recip- some kind of rationalization or projection of chil-
rocal hierarchical principles, and there is a constant drens aggressive impulses.
7. The concept of dharma corresponds to the principle and the vision of an organic society in which all its members are inter-
dependent, having complementary roles.
While aggression is expressed in various ways, it poor and the needy is also a strong sociocultural
is worth noting some characteristics associated with value that is instilled in Indian children (e.g., a
the Hindu culture. The most common verbs among noble job is helping the poor).
FTT responses children used to express aggression A high moral consciousness or a strict superego
are: beat, kill, destroy, or eat (devour). In addition, was evident throughout Indian protocols, mostly
children use the same verbs to express fear of associated with aggression, and particularly aggres-
aggression. The responses suggest that killing sion motivated by feelings of envy and the desire
occurs for simple, even trivial reasons; it is impul- for material possessions.
sive and merciless. Killing of relatives, or the anxi- Punishment is often very severe both for the vic-
ety of being killed by them, also occurs for insignif- tim and the aggressor. One form of punishment is
icant causes (e.g., his mother refused to buy him becoming poor. Physical punishment is imposed by
clothes, so he killed her). the mother most commonly in the form of beating.
Oral incorporation appears to be a common fan- Extreme self-punishment may be suicide or death
tasy among Indian protocols, whereby the character imposed by an external force or God. The following
(the identification figure) devours another character are examples of punishment following aggression:
in order to absorb his/her desired features or quali-
ties (e.g., the wolf eats LRRH, or drinks her blood, Witch (Card 2): She feels that if she slaps and
because she is a nice girl; or, the witch drinks SWs insults SW, she will go into
blood to become as beautiful as her). her room and never come
At the opposite end of the emotional spectrum, out, she will not eat for days
overinvolvement appears quite frequently in chil- and ultimately she will die.
drens responses as an extreme fear of aggression.
In response to the question Who scares you the Witch (Card 1): She can kill a person, do
most? the child not only identifies with the victim black magic and can be killed
(e.g., this witch scares me most because she wants to by smart people and God.
eat me), but also the storys protagonist. Some char-
acteristic examples include: While she was going Qualitative analyses of responses revealed
to kill Snow White I came in between . . . and aspects of Hinduism. One of the most commonly
What if he eats me, as Little Red Riding Hood has observed was empathy, especially in the Dwarf
escaped and so he might catch me instead? The cards in which the dwarf is profoundly upset by
boundaries between reality and fantasy appear to SWs misfortune.
be loose when it comes to both aggression and fear There is a relatively small percentage of defense
of aggression. mechanisms in the childrens responses to the FTT.
Anxiety is encountered in almost every protocol. Among those, the most common were undoing,
The three most common types of anxiety are depri- denial, negation, projection, and splitting. A possi-
vation, harm, and punishment. Depression is usual- ble explanation of this infrequent use of defense,
ly associated with anxiety, especially deprivation. relative to children in other cultures, may be the
Deprivation is central to Indians everyday reali- high level of morality found inherent in Indian cul-
ty and pervasive among all socioeconomic classes. ture. As is well known, the major cause for trigger-
It is also the cause of many afflictions and naturally ing defense mechanisms is aggression. In India
affects the personality development of the Indian aggression is often associated with guilt or moral
people, independently of socioeconomic status. In restraint, and perhaps the need for the use of
that sense, deprivation may partly explain the level defense mechanisms is mitigated.
and types of aggression in the childrens responses, Finally, interesting findings were obtained with
as well as the anxiety and depression. Helping the regard to independent variables such as the childs
religion and geographical region. Further studies on Development, 56, 438447.

these factors benefit our understanding of the socio- Basu, A. (1988). Tagores Smaran Poems: A Psycho-
cultural aspects of personality development. analytic perspective. Samiksa (38), Parsibagan Lane,
Calcutta, pp. 318.
Baumrind, D. (1967). Child care practices anteceding
three patterns of preschool behaviour. Genetic Psychol-
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Chapter 13
THE APPLICATION OF THE FAIRY TALE TEST IN TURKEY

TEVFIKA TUNABOYLU-I KIZ, HAYRIYE E RTEM-VEHID, B ENGI P IRIM DSGR, AND Ayse E LIF YAVU
The hzn (melancholy) Istanbul is not just the mood evoked by its music and its people,
it is a way of looking at life that implicates us all, not only a spiritual state, but also
a state of mind that is ultimately as life affirming as it is negating.
Istanbul, Orhan Pamuk (2003)
INTRODUCTION In the Turkish system of law, both primary and

secondary education is free of charge, and it is com-
Recent Sociocultural pulsory up to 14 years of age. However, non-
schooling is still a major problem because Turkey is
Developments in Turkey
a vast country with marked regional differences.
urkeys geographical locationa bridge be- The western part of the country is the most devel-
T tween Asia and Europehas shaped its histori-
cal and political developments. The Ottoman
oped, while other areas are still developing (Smiths
& Hosgr, 2006). Sixty percent of the Turkish pop-
Empire ruled the region from the twelfth century ulation migrated to large cities, especially Istanbul,
until 1923, when Gazi Mustafa Kemal Atatrk Ankara, and Izmir. Most of the immigrants have lit-
established the Turkish Republic. It was the first tle or no education.
Muslim nation to become a republic. The sociocultural context in Turkey is character-
Atatrk (18811938) restructured the educational ized by traditionalism and an emphasis on family
system, which had been highly neglected and integrity, harmony in relationships, closeness, loyal-
undervalued during the Ottoman Empire. Among ty, and duties and obligations to family and in-
the major reforms were (a) replacing the Ottoman groups (Karakitapoglu-Aygun, 2004). Family, group
alphabet with Latin script, and (b) integrating membership, and social roles exert a significant
women into the educational system. Indeed, for influence in defining ones self and identity.
many years there have been more female academ- However, due to globalization and economic devel-
ics in Turkey than in any other Western country opment, Turkey has been undergoing a rapid social
(Yamaner, 2006). change since the 1980s. Especially during and since
Atatrks Turkey has produced tens of thousands the 1990s, socioeconomic change has been evident
of well-educated women who contribute to the through the adoption of more Western values, such
development of the nation as doctors, lawyers, engi- as more individualistic attitudes (Karakitapoglu-
neers, teachers, writers, administrators, executives, Aygun, 2002).
and creative artists.
303
Family and Child Rearing in Turkey fathers are, but both parents encourage competi-
tiveness in their sons (Pehlivanoglu, 1998). The
The population of Turkey consists of Turks (80%) father has a dominant role within the family, and he
as well as minority cultural groups (20%) such as is typically in charge for any significant household
Kurds, Armenians, Greeks, Laz, and Sephardic decisions. This structure persists even while Turkish
Jews. The majority (98%) of the population is society is evolving (Ataca, 2006).
Muslim. All of these groups have coexisted for cen- Turkish families are functionally extended. The
turies, creating a cultural mosaic that makes it majority of the families in Turkey still live in close
almost impossible to characterize a typical Turkish proximity, but this living configuration is in decline.
family (Ataca, 2006). In addition, there is no decrease in kin relationships
Nonetheless, it can be said that traditional due to urbanization or modernization (Duben,
Turkish families practice authoritarian parenting, 1982). Kagitcibas (1996) indicates that, despite the
obey family customs and values, and enforce trend in recent years whereby people have become
authoritarian control by punishment. Such families very individualistic, emotional interdependence still
do not allow children to question decisions and continues. Moreover, she maintains that in non-
expect that rules will be accepted and strictly fol- Western countries characterized by collectivistic
lowed. This style of parenting is mostly found in cultures, close family relations continue to exist.
families with lower socioeconomic status, while Research on decision-making in Turkey demon-
upper-class families, are gradually attempting to strates that families are characterized by a signifi-
incorporate both autonomy and dependence in cant hierarchic role differentiation and a relatively
their parenting style (Veziroglu, 1998). Although strong emphasis on harmony, cohesion, closeness,
there have been some changes over time, Turkish and caring, regardless of social class (Yalnkaya,
parents still do not welcome independence and 1990). Other research investigating child rearing
autonomy in their children (Kagtbas, 1996). and child temperament showed that obedience-
The traditional roles of men and women in demanding behaviors have a facilitating effect on
Turkish families have not changed. Turkish law pro-social development (Yagmurlu, Sanson, &
endorses a patriarchal family model in which the Kymen, 2005).
father is considered the head of the family. Gender An important longitudinal study conducted in
stereotypes, religious prescriptions, and patriarchal Turkey was Kagitcibass Value of Children
values also decree that the man should act as the (VOC) (1982), which began in the 1970s and
protector of and the financial provider for the fami- involved 2,300 married couples in 42 towns over
ly. Islamic tenets also imply male patronage of the three generations. This in-depth study examined
family (Guritz et al., 1994). the correlation between the development of socioe-
Researchers studying Turkish culture have found conomic status and parent-child relationships.
that familial, communal, and relational values still Follow-up studies were conducted in the 1990s.
predominate (Fisek, 1982). The differences between Results indicated that in the 1970s, Turkish families
boys and girls are strongly defined, and boys are desired children because they represented a series
considered the gratification of the family and the of financial benefits. Grown children were expected
ones who will eventually support the family finan- to look after their parents and provide them with
cially. Through the years, however, girls have financial security. Within this context of relation-
become equally or even more appreciated because ships based on dependency, value systems and
of their affective proximity to the family. close-knit family relationships reflected material
Another important finding is that in attending to needs, while values related to independence were
and fulfilling their childrens needs, mothers are diminished. Furthermore, the independence of the
more involved in their childrens development than child was not functional; family needs took priority
The Application of the Fairy Tale Test in Turkey 305
and, as a result, an emphasis on thinking of others care reasoning than justice reasoning among
and family approval overshadowed privacy and Turkish children. The main conclusion of the VOC
individualism. Today, although Turkish children study is that Turkish parents overprotection and
leave the parental nest after a certain age, they con- strict discipline attitudes may promote feelings of
tinue to care for their families both emotionally and caring among their children.
financially. Furthermore, even after the childs The most notable change over time in Turkey
departure from home, parents expect him/her to seems to be the increase in the educational level of
value and respect their opinions. As socioeconomic the mothers and the expectations of a male child.
development has progressed, parents no longer Mothers usually prefer that daughters stay close to
look to children for security in old age, and thus the home (Ataca & Sunar, 1999). Tezcan (1997) further
economic/utilitarian value of children has de- discusses the functioning and development of
creased. This may seem to suggest the emergence of nuclear families. The rapid modernization of the
nuclear families and autonomous children. Still, a Turkish society has played a significant role in the
closer examination indicates that while parents no transition from a traditionally large, extended fami-
longer expect material benefits from their children, ly to a nuclear family composed of the parents and
what is emerging in parent-child relationships is a children. Indeed, people immigrating to large cities
combination of material and emotional interde- to seek jobs soon form nuclear families mainly for
pendence (Kagitcibas & Ataca, 2005). socioeconomic reasons.
Follow-up studies of the VOC findings indicate a
sharp decrease in the economic values attributed to The History of Psychology and
children over the past few decades, accompanied Psychological Assessment in Turkey
by increased parental interest in their childrens
psychological well-being. When asked questions The Turkish Republic was founded upon the
such as What kind of a child do you expect to remains of the Ottoman Empire. Throughout the
have? nearly 80 percent of Turkish mothers of last years of the Ottoman Empire, the need to
lower socioeconomic status (living in a rural envi- import scientific knowledge and progressive prac-
ronment) answered, A good, kind, and quiet child, tices and techniques from the West aroused signifi-
obedient to his/her parents. Only 3 percent cant controversy. European instructors and experts
respond with variables such as independent and reformed medical schools, engineering faculties,
self-sufficient. Lifestyle changes will eventually and the army. Positivistic thought was becoming
increase the proportion of parents with this attitude. influential, especially through the work of German
In Turkey, parents tend to be overprotective of scientists. In 1915, in this climate, 20 professors
their children. Because parents also give impor- from Germany were invited to teach botany, anato-
tance to raising children who are well-behaved, my, and chemistry.
obedient, and respectful of the elders, child-rearing Psychology Professor Georg Anschtz played a
practices are characterized by strict discipline and key role in the establishment of Turkeys first exper-
punishment (Tezcan, 1997). Obedience being one of imental psychology laboratory in Istanbul in 1915
the most important values in Turkish culture, just 36 after Wilhelm Wundt established a laborato-
Tezcan (1997) believes that most parentsrather ry in Germany (Arkona, 1995). That same year, in
than demonstrating fairness and equality with their 1915, the teaching of psychology commenced in the
childrenfocus punishment on a lack of concern for form of courses taught in context of other disci-
the feelings of others or an unwillingness to serve plines. In 1917, the laboratory and the experimental
the elders. psychology courses were combined into a single
Kagitcibas (1982) claims that punishment and unit within the University of Istanbuls Department
strict discipline may foster the development of more of Philosophy. Over the following years, academics
began to take great interest in this new field, a training programs for professionals, mainly focusing
remarkable development was made contemporane- on the Revised Wechsler Intelligence Scale (WISC-
ously: the Binet-Simon Intelligence scale was trans- R) and the MMPI scales.
lated into Turkish before the American version was Among the most frequently used tests are the
created. projective, Draw a person (DAP) or Draw a fam-
At the end of the World War I, Sekip Tun, an ily tests, usually administered within school set-
eminent Turkish psychologist, was appointed head tings. A study has shown that children reflect
of a newly-founded Psychology Department. Tun, through their drawings the values of their culture
who had worked with Edouard Claprede, is widely and where they live. Girls of lower socioeconomic
considered the first Turkish psychologist. He also status groups always draw boys in the DAP test,
translated the works of Freud and James into Turkish which probably reflects the importance of men in
from French and remained active until 1933. traditional societies (Yalntas Taranc, 1999).
With the rise of the Nazis in Germany, a number Because the majority of psychologists in Turkey
of psychologists found refuge in Turkey. In 1936, belong to the field of clinical psychology, there has
Turkish psychologist Dr. Mumtaz Turhan returned been a lack of interest in standardization that has
to Istanbul from Germany and England, and began slowed the process. Indeed, only a few psycholo-
his academic career at the University. His presence gists are involved with the standardization of tests
on the academic staff was critical in the formation of and psychometrics in general.
the Applied Psychology Department (Togrol, 1972), Although well-known and widely used projective
formally founded by Professor Wilhelm Peters of tests for children, such as the Children Apper-
Jena University in 1937. At that time, Rorschach ception Test (CAT) and the Thematic Apperception
plates were also imported, and a private psycho- Test (TAT), have been translated and are currently
technical laboratory opened in Istanbul. used in Turkey, they have not yet been adapted or
The development of personality testing in standardized. Recently, Dr Tevfika Tunaboylu-Ikiz
Turkey is relatively recent (Kagtbas, 1994). and her colleagues have standardized the adoles-
Adequate test development or standardization cent version of the Rorschach test, and they are cur-
began in the early 1970s, leading to the publication rently undertaking work on the child version.
of several tests, including the Minnesota Multi- Research is also underway on the Turkish standard-
phasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) (Savasr, ization of the Rorschach in order to unify the cod-
1981), the Hacetir Person Inventory (zgven, ing system. The themes under investigation include:
1992), and the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire Psychosomatic Diseases and Rorschach; The
(Bayar, 1983). Between the early 1970s and the mid- Rorschach Answers of Simulating Patients; Chil-
1990s there have been several translations and dren with Hyperactivity and the Rorschach Test;
adaptations characterized by small sample sizes. Eating Disorders and Projective Methods.
These were usually the outcome of academic theses In Turkey, psychoanalysis and the Rorschach have
and dissertations (ner, 1994). Among the most developed concurrently. The psychoanalytical move-
recent accomplishments in this field was the stan- ment began in 1994, when a small group of psycho-
dardization and adaptation of the Revised Neo analysts (French-speaking psychologists and psychia-
Personality Inventory (NEO-PI-R) (Glgoz, 2002). trists) completed their training abroad and then
Academics working at various psychology returned to Istanbul. This small group, supported by
departments in Turkey have undertaken the major- the French Psychoanalytic Association, became the
ity of various test adaptations or standardizations. Istanbul Psychoanalytical Society in 2001.
ner published an extensive review of several psy- The development of the Rorschach in Turkey fol-
chological tests used in Turkey (1994), and the lows three important axes; the history of psycholo-
Turkish Psychological Association offers several gy, sociocultural changes in Turkish society, and the
growth of psychoanalysis in the country. public schools in Istanbul from 2004 to 2006. The
The Rorschach test is the radiography of the sample was comprised of 234 boys and 266 girls.
human spirit. This phrase belongs to the Turkish There were three age groups: 6- to 8-, 9- to 10- and
Rorschach pioneer Yani Anastasiadis, a Turkish cit- 11- to 12-year-old children. Regarding the socioeco-
izen of Greek origin, who translated many other nomic status of the childrens families, 32.6 percent
tests such as the CAT, the TAT, the Louisa Duss sto- were low, 50.8 percent were middle, and 16.6 per-
ries, and a series of questionnaires. cent were high.
Although the Rorschach remains a popular
method among students, it is generally not taught in Procedure
Turkish universities, with the exception of some ele-
mentary courses at the doctoral level. The academ- Researchers obtained legal permission from the
ic world has always given only secondary impor- Istanbul Department of the Ministry of Education
tance to projective psychometric methods. The and oral consent from schoolteachers and parents
growth of experimental psychology and behaviorist for children to participate in this project. Children
perspectives has greatly influenced psychologists in were assessed individually in their classrooms.
Turkey. Consequently, the academic community Psychology majors from University of Istanbul con-
has more favorably received other assessment ducted the interviews. Doctor Carina Coulacoglou
methodssuch as cognitive scales and attitude and Doctor Tevfika Tunaboylu-Ikiz trained the
measurements. interviewers on how to administer the FTT score
The Fairy Tale Test (FTT) is a projective test for the test from.
children representing a series of advantages and
benefits. The tests applicability in Turkey rests upon
the familiarity of Turkish children with the tales used RESULTS
in the test, the nonculture-specific aspect of these
tales, and the fact that these stories are widely told in Factor Analysis
nursery schools. In addition, the FTT is currently
one of the few tests for children to have been trans- Researchers performed factor analysis in order to
lated and standardized on an entirely Turkish sam- determine the associations among the twenty-nine
ple. Moreover, the use of this test can help to personality variables measured by the FTT. Of the
advance the personality assessment of children in twenty-nine variables , five were discarded from the
Turkey. Its publication will facilitate research on analysis due to either low frequency of occurrence
both a theoretical and a clinical level. Indeed, the or low relevance of responses: aggression as defense
projective character of FTT can assist the investiga- (AGRDEF), instrumental aggression (AGRIN-
tion of childs personality within a psychoanalytic STR), sense of privacy (SPRIV), bizarre responses,
framework, as well as the broader study of the use of and adaptation to the fairy tale content (AFTC).
projective tests for personality assessment. Consequently, only twenty-four variables were
included in the factor analysis.
METHOD First-Order Factor Analysis
Participants Researchers conducted principle component

analysis, followed by varimax rotation. They
The Turkish sample consisted of 500 children extracted ten factors, which accounted for 55.21
who were randomly selected (out of the normative percent of explained variance. Table 13.1 contains
sample consisting of 1000 children) from twenty the results.
TABLE 13.1.
Factors Loading
Depression and Self-Concept
Depression -0.681
Self-esteem -0.635
Anxiety -0.371
Assertiveness
Aggression as dominance -0.753
Socioemotional Needs
Oral aggression -0.696
Need for affiliation -0.522
Need for affection -0.517
Envy
Repetition -0.727
Aggression as envy -0.559
Oral Needs as an Outcome of Fear
Oral needs -0.689
Fear of aggression -0.588
Father Dependency
Relationship with the father -0.539
Possessiveness
Aggression as retaliation -0.751
Sense of property -0.568
Reactive Helpfulness
Desire to help -0.798
Continued
Factors Loading
Moral Control
Morality -0.693
Ambivalence -0.564
Pleasure Seeking an Expression of Affective Needs
Sexual preoccupation -0.738
The results were shown to affect following factors curity.

in precise ways: Father dependency. This factor reflects the sig-
Depression. This factor affects self-concept and nificance of the fathers role in the childs psychic
stimulates anxiety. world in terms of protection and approval.
Assertiveness. This factor reveals that desire for Possessiveness. Aggression is employed when an
superiority and aggression as dominance are equal- act or event threatens a childs sense of ownership.
ly observed in children in the study, regardless of Reactive helpfulness. The desire to help others
age or gender. This appears to be a universal factor is probably a defense against aggressive feelings
and correlates with concepts of achievement and towards them.
ambition/self-fulfillment. Moral control. This factor was composed of the
Socioemotional Needs. It appears that oral variables morality, ambivalence, and relationship
aggression, need for affiliation, and need for affec- with the mother. This might suggest that a positive
tion are expressions of socioemotional needs. In relationship with the mother increases the childs
particular, oral aggression, which is the most archa- morality as well as his or her level of ambivalence,
ic form of aggression, is probably a form of acting which can often serve as moral agent.
out and a call for attention from others. Pleasure seeking as an expression of affec-
Envy. This factor was defined by positive load- tive needs. This includes the variables of sexual
ings on two variables: repetition and aggression as preoccupation and desire for material things.
envy. The motivation underlying feelings of envy
appears to be culturally significant. Children envy a Second-Order Factor Analysis
character that is loved by, cared for, approved of,
and admired by others. All of the aforementioned factors were submitted
Oral needs as an outcome of fear. This factor is to second-order factor analysis, which led to the for-
composed of the variables oral needs and fear of mation of a five-factor solution (see Table 13.2).
aggression, both with positive loadings. Children Affiliation needs. The father plays a significant
directly express oral need because of fear and inse- role in self-concept and depression.
TABLE 13.2.
Factors Loading
Affiliation Needs
Depression and self-concept (Depression, Self-Esteem, Anxiety) -0.548
Socioemotional needs (Oral Aggression, Need for Affiliation, Need for Affection) -0.672
Father dependency (Need for Protection, Relationship with Father, Need for Approval) -0.723
Envy and Aggression
Envy (Repetition, Aggression as Envy) -0.750
Moral control (Morality, Ambivalence, Relationship with Mother) -0.723
Emotional Compensation for Insecurity
Oral needs as an outcome of fearfulness (Oral Needs, Fear of Aggression) -0.674
Pleasure seeking as an expression of affective needs (Sexual Preoccupation, Desire for Material Things) -0.736
Dominance vs. Hostile Aggression
Assertiveness (Desire for Superiority, Aggression as Dominance) -0.737
Reactive helpfulness (Desire to Help, Aggression type A) -0.701
Possessiveness
Possessiveness (Aggression as Retaliation, Sense of Property) -0.785
Envy and aggression. Envy is a strong affect mechanisms appearing within the sample, across all
that does not stimulate feelings of guilt. age groups. Only those defense mechanisms
Emotional compensation for insecurity. expressed by at least 5 percent of the total sample
When feelings of insecurity arise, a child resorts to are included.
emotionally satisfying activities or fantasies.
Dominance versus hostile aggression.
Assertive behavior is different from acting out DISCUSSION
aggressive tendencies.
Possessiveness. Aggression is expressed when Discussion of the First-Order
an act or event threatens the childs inner and exter- FTT Factors
nal limits.
Depression and Self-Concept
Defense Mechanisms
Factor analysis reveals a high level of depression
Table 12.3 reports the frequency of defense among Turkish children, independent of gender,
TABLE 12.3.
FREQUENCY (%) OF DEFENSE MECHANISMS (>5%) OBSERVED ACROSS AGE GROUPS
Age Groups
78 910 1112 Total
Undoing 27.9 21.9 33.6 27.2
Repression 27.9 26.6 25.9 26.8
Splitting 21.8 21.4 27.3 23.2
Negation 24.2 20.8 21.0 22.0
Denial 15.8 15.1 18.2 16.2
Rationalization 6.1 6.3 8.4 6.8
Reversal 6.1 6.3 4.9 5.8
p>0.05
age and socioeconomic status. Its strikingly high finding a prey (?); he is
incidence (94%) suggests that this is a cultural phe- thoughtful (?); something is
nomenon rather than a psychopathology. Depres- making him thoughtful. I
sion is quite a broad term and is manifested in a dont know what (?).
variety of ways. The degree of depression and how Something between happi-
it is manifested determine its clinical significance. In ness and unhappiness; thats
the FTT, depression is evaluated through feelings when humans dont feel any-
such as sadness, distress, loneliness, boredom, dis- thing.
appointment, pessimism; depressive thoughts (he/
she is thinking of someone who is ill or dead); or Example 2:
as direct manifestations, (the giant/witch wants to
kill himself/herself). Giant (Card 2): He is wondering whether he
In this sample, children often presented depres- should be a good or a bad
sion and happiness as opposing tendencies that person. If he becomes good,
often appear simultaneously. In such instances, the he will do good; if he
child seems unable to determine how he/she feels becomes bad, he will do bad
and describes a conflicted mental state between the things to everyone. He is
two. happy and unhappy. He is
happy because he decided to
Example 1: become good. He is unhappy
because if he becomes bad he
Wolf (Card 2): He is thoughtful, he is think- wouldnt know where to go,
ing of something (?); he may as he recently got here. He is
be thinking of going to the neither happy nor unhappy
sea. He may be thinking of something in between. If he
becomes good he will make dren, socioemotional needs include the variable of
friends and they will show oral aggression development. Oral aggression, also
him the way. considered a form of acting out, reflects a childs
need to approach others for affection and attention.
Depression also affects self-esteem and may There is a significant positive correlation between
cause anxiety (i.e., the wolf is sad, he wants to eat this factor and the defense mechanisms of undoing
Little Red Riding Hood, but he will not make it and and splitting (rs=0.167, p(0.001). Undoing is proba-
he will starve; she is sad, she feels ugly/worthless; bly utilized against oral aggression, while splitting of
the dwarf feels lonely, he has no friends, no one is self occurs as a way to cope with the opposite ten-
playing with him). dency of seeking attention.
There have been few studies of depression in Uruk and Demir conducted a study (2003) on the
young children conducted in Turkey, but Toros et role of peers and families in predicting level of the
al. (2004) demonstrated that receiving punishment loneliness in Turkish adolescents; they found that
at home is an important risk factor for the onset of loneliness is a multidimensional phenomenon with
depression, especially in adolescents. In addition, variable correlates depending on the individual. In
Aydin and Oztutuncu (2001) investigated the corre- Turkish society, prevailing norms concerning fami-
lation among negative thoughts, depressive moods, ly bonds may at times prevent adolescents from
and family environment for Turkish adolescents. establishing friendships. The importance of the fam-
Their results indicate that family cohesion relates to ily approval exerts an indirect effect on adolescents
the degree of negative thoughts and depressive ability to form and maintain peer relationships. On
mood, but that the childs perception of control a more general level, the emphasis on external
within the family does not. approval (or disapproval) of personal choices, wish-
es, and needs limits ones independence to freely
Assertiveness form relationships, especially for adolescents, who
often have trouble connecting with their peers and
The combination of desire for superiority and establishing opposite-sex relationships.
aggression as dominance reflects assertiveness.
Assertiveness is a factor found in all five cultures Envy
India, China, Greece Russia and Turkey and
appears to be part of a childs personality develop- Envy is characterized by feelings of inferiority,
ment. Assertiveness enables a child to use his/her hostility, or resentment caused by the awareness
aggressive potential in a constructive benevolent that another person enjoys a desired position or
way, such as in mastering his/her environment or possession (object, attribute, or quality of being;
setting and attaining goals. It is associated with self- e.g., Parrot & Smith, 1993). Feelings of envy are
confidence, autonomy, and ego strength. In Turkey, common among Turkish childrens responses to the
as well as in Greece, assertiveness incorporates the FTT and are typically motivated by Oedipal feel-
need for approval, and this finding implies that ings and sibling rivalry. For Turkish children, it is
external support maintains or reinforces assertive- affection, rather than a physical attribute (such as
ness. youth or appearance) that they envy. For example,
in response to the question What does each witch
Socioemotional Needs think/feel? a child replies, She wants to kill Snow
White because she is loved, accepted, and gets all
The need to make friends and receive affection the affection of everyone, in contrast to the witch.
are basic aspects a childs personality development. Because of its emotional load, aggression envy often
It may be culturally relevant that, for Turkish chil- appears in a protocol in a repetitive way.
Oral Needs as an Outcome of Fear the rules governing family structure, and has a lim-
ited relationship with his children. It is possible that
Fear of aggression is a primary emotion arising in Turkish fathers believe that closer contact with their
the face of immediate danger. Acts of physical and children would diminish their dominant role within
verbal aggression are often justified as an acceptable the family. Turkish mothers are generally much
method of child rearing (Hortacsu, Kalaycioglu, & closer to their children: they are more openly affec-
Rittersberger-Tilic, 2003). Physical aggression tionate, sympathetic, and tolerant (Gamsz Bilgin et
towards children in Turkey occurs more frequently al., 2005).
than spousal aggression. Ari et al. (1994) shows that
62 percent of women report using corporal punish- Possessiveness
ment with their children. The incidence is higher
among 7-year-olds (67%) than among 12-year-olds When they perceive a threat to their belongings,
(49%) Bilir, Ari, Baykoc-Donmez, and Guneysu children show aggression and try to protect their
(1986) found that the incidence of aggression possessions. Fear of being deprived or robbed of
toward girls is slightly higher than toward boys; the favorite toys or objects is a common cause of anxi-
incidence of aggression is also higher within extend- ety. Ownership implies control over ones environ-
ed families than within nuclear families and higher ment. The magnitude of the control exercised over
among parents who are younger and less educated. possessions is often on the same order as the control
In the present study, oral needs reflect a need to sat- exercised over ones body. Possessions may thus be
isfy the urge for food or drink, literally or metaphor- included in self-concept (Furby, 1978).
ically, and, like emotional needs, seem to be the
result of fearfulness. Reactive Helpfulness
Father Dependency In Turkey, helping others is considered an

important civic responsibility. It is also likely that
Considering the childs relationships with each conceptualization of altruism varies according to
parent separately, moral conflict appears to be asso- the culture and to the levels of interconnectedness
ciated with the mother, whereas the need for pro- among the individuals in that culture (Kagtbas,
tection and approval is associated with the father. 1996).
Research has shown a positive correlation between In the present study, the factor of reactive help-
a childs self-esteem and perceived fatherly love, fulness reveals the motives behind helping behav-
and inversely, a negative correlation between a ior. In many instances helping behavior serves as a
childs self-esteem and paternal rejection (Albukrek, defense mechanism against hostile aggression.
2002). According to the same study, girls seem to Generally, this behavior is neither spontaneous nor
form better relationships with their father than genuine but occurs as a reaction formation to the
boys, but exhibit stronger conflict with their moth- feelings of guilt prompted by aggression. Similar
ers. Finally, a comparison between the quality of findings have been reported in other countries,
the relationships with each parent indicates that the including Greece and China. The mechanism of
child (either boy or girl) perceives the mother much splitting significantly correlates with this factor
more positively than the father. (p<.001).
A traditional Turkish father believes that the
mother is responsible for child rearing. The mother Moral Control
is therefore also more involved in the fulfillment of
her children needs (Pehlivanoglu, 1998). The father Morality in the FTT appears in responses that
plays a dominant role within the family, determines reflect feelings of guilt, doing what is right, self-
blame, concepts of forgiveness and punishment. Pleasure Seeking as an

What appears to be culturally relevant in this factor Expression of Affective Needs
is the high percentage of ambivalence among
Turkish children, and, in particular, the high per- In the FTT, sexual preoccupation can be
centage of conflict that is related to ambivalence. observed in responses that reflect sociocultural val-
Conflict mostly relates to happiness or sadness: ues such as falling in love and getting married.
Other responses demonstrate a desire to earn
Example 1: money, become rich, and buy material possessions
such as toys and clothes. This may reflect either a
Witch (Card 2): She doesnt look like a witch real desire due to deprived living conditions, or a
(?); she is not holding a stick symbolic desire whereby material objects represent
(?). As is, she was both happy [are meant to compensate for/replace?] affection.
and unhappy. Sometimes the Classical psychoanalytic tenets relate money to
bad comes alive in her, and early psychosexual conflicts (e.g., Fenchel, 1981;
she falls into the traps that she Reider, 1986). According to Abraham (1917),
has set up for others, and so money may be used in an attempt to deal with anx-
she is very sad. She thinks iety related to separation, and a lack of money
that everyone is throwing might be perceived as a threat to safety, provoking
[casting?] magic spells on her. depression and emptiness. He further argues that a
She is happy that she is alone strong concern with money may function as a sub-
and that some of her work is stitute for genital eroticism. Holmes (1998) refers to
going fine. This witch wants three broad areas of the psychological significance
to be good but she cant. of money: security, retention, and power-prestige.
Some other witches are cast-
ing spells on her. Discussion of the Second-Order
FTT Factors
Example 2:
Affiliation Needs
Witch (Card 2): She is thinking of bad things
as every other witch, because Results from the second-order factor analysis
she is a witch. Someone is in indicate that the variables of depression, socioemo-
front of her: Go and hurt tional needs, father dependency, and affiliation are
him! She is thinking that she interconnected. It appears that the father plays a
is bad and that she has to do major role in a childs mental health. Indeed, a
bad things. She is also very childs ego and identity formation depend largely
angry. Maybe the person in on paternal approval. This dependency may ignite
front of her told her some- depression, which may inspire the child to seek out
thing like: do something the support of friends. It appears that a childs de-
good; stop being bad. pression and self-concept are also closely associated
with social relations, as well as with the fathers atti-
From a psychoanalytic perspective, this factor tude. Social environment can affect the way a child
could also be considered superego control. It thinks about him- or herself and influence his or her
appears that children with strong superego control emotional state. The following two examples demon-
have better relationships with their mothers than do strate how loneliness can lead to violence:
children with weak superego control.
Example 1: with the fact that the motive of envy is commonly

affective, suggests that children probably experi-
Giant (Card 1): He thinks of good things and ence envy as an acceptable and justifiable emotion
he waves. He wants to have a that does not cause guilt.
good friend (?); he is all alone A characteristic example of the repercussions of
because no one loves him. strong feelings of envywhich also supports these
findings on the subjectcan also be found in a pas-
Example 2: sage from the holy Koran, Surah 12, Yusuf # 8217:
Yusufs brothers envy him because their father
Giant (Card 3): He is thinking of killing peo- likes Yusuf the most; Yusuf is their fathers favorite.
ple, the animals, everything So they decide to kill him, then they decide to
(?), because he is bad, he throw him down to the bottom of the well.
doesnt like living creatures.
He wants to make friends, he Emotional Compensation for Insecurity
abhors the living creatures
because he is alone, and hes The results of this study suggest that seeking
killing them. He is sad material pleasures compensates for feelings of inse-
because he has no friends. curity and fear. It is common for children under
stress to find consolation in sexual fantasies or on
Envy and Aggression material attainments such as wealth. In addition, the
mechanism of repression associated with this factor
In many cultures, envy is not valued; it creates may result from feelings of guilt derived from envy
jealousy and aggression towards others, and even- or moral conflict.
tually causes feelings of guilt. In the present study
however, childrens expressions of feelings of envy Dominance versus Hostile Aggression
and moral conflict were negatively related. The
FTT responses express envy in various ways: the Aggression has been dichotomized as either the
witch cards are a common cause of envy, whereby benign activity of assertiveness or the darker
the child identifies with the witch. Snow White destructive force of hostility (Raphling, 1998).
(SW) usually represents a sibling, the mother, or Fosshage (1998) differentiates both assertiveness
another person. The witch envies and wishes to and aggression. The pleasure derived from assertive
harm or exterminate SW, because of her physical behavior (i.e., competence pleasure, efficacy) sub-
charms (SW is taller, prettier, or younger), her char- stantially contributes to ego strength. In hostile
acter traits (SW is cleverer or nicer), or her capacity aggression, the aggressor inflicts injury upon his or
to stimulate feelings of love and acceptance by oth- her victim, often deriving sadistic pleasure that is
ers. Finally, the witch wants to kill SW in order to internally motivated. Following is an example of
take away the prince (Oedipus). In Turkish chil- hostile (or type A) aggression accompanied by
drens responses, the fact that SW is loved, sadistic elements:
approved, or admired by others is the most com-
mon motive of envy. Although, in most cultures, Giant (Card 3): He wants to throw needles on
envy is considered a sin and thus shameful (e.g., peoples heads. Then he
Foster, 1972), in Turkish children, envy does not wants to roast them, to throw
seem to produce feelings of guilt. Due to the pro- them in the water, to force
jective quality of the FTT, the majority of responses weeds or needles in their
occurs at an unconscious level. This, in conjunction brain[s]. The others unhappi-
ness makes him feel happy. her (?); she will operate [on]
her, she will take out the
Hatred and pleasure are the two major motives goodness that she has inside
expressed that justify aggressive actions. Hostile her and replace it with bad-
aggression is energy discharged and is often associ- ness.
ated with impulsivity and Attention Deficit and
Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). Example 2:
Dominant children compete with each other
using both aggressive and affiliative strategies to Wolf (Card 1): He saw Little Red Riding
gain status. In overt behavior, bullying may be the Hood (LRRH), and hes
corresponding behavioral manifestation of domi- drooling; his tongue is hang-
nance. ing out (?), because children
my age are sweet and the wolf
Possessiveness is very hungry and wants to
eat something. He is happy
In the FTT, possessions include territorial because he found a prey.
domain and objects of personal value. Furby (1980)
identified two basic themes related to possessive- Wolf (Card 2): Inside him, his nice part tells
ness: a sense of personal competence or control and him not to eat LRRH (?),
an association between possessions and sense of because she is an innocent
self. child. He is confused about
whether he should eat LRRH
or not. He is baffled (?),
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS because his nice part told him
this.
Overall, the present analysis reveals that Turkish
children appear to have strong ambivalent feelings Wolf (Card 3): His nice part told him why
as to whether they are good or bad, happy or bother? He thinks that he
unhappy. Childrens responses often demonstrate a could not hold back anymore
struggle between being a nice or a mean person and that he wants to eat
or between thinking good or bad thoughts. This LRRH. He is upset with his
conflict between good and bad is evident through- nice part because it pressures
out the protocols and has been evaluated as reflect- him to do something nice.
ing the childs splitting of self. However, the high
incidence of splitting among Turkish children sug- In relation to this finding, another significant
gests that it is not an expression of psychopatholo- result is that depression is evident in almost all pro-
gy, but rather a feature of moral development. tocols, most commonly expressed through feelings
Following are two characteristic examples: of sadness or unhappiness. Children in the sample
expressed only two major effects: happy or sad. It
Example 1: appears that no other emotion bears any signifi-
cance. Dissociation is often present when children
Witch (Card 2): She wants to do magic spells project these feelings onto separate characters, and
(?). She wants to take SW to ambivalence conflict is evident when the character
her castle. When she takes feels both happy and sad.
her there she will hypnotize It is worth noting that when a child expresses nei-
ther of these two emotions, he or she says, This pressing the aforementioned feelings creates feel-
giant [or witch] feels fine. He [or she] is neither ings of loneliness and depression.
happy nor sad. A peculiar emotional state appears Seeking the fathers approval seems to be a con-
to exist between happiness and unhappiness. stant preoccupation among Turkish children. This
Following are examples of attempts children made might explain the feelings of jealousy and sibling
to define this emotional state: rivalry that are reflected in responses to the FTT.
Another interesting observation concerns the
Example 1: need to make friends. Turkish childrens responses
reflect an intense preoccupation with thisas
Giant (Card 2): He is not intelligent. It seems though their lives depended on having friendships.
that he is standing. If some- To Turkish children, friends seem to play a signifi-
one gets angry at him, he may cant role in their life that is similar to that of pater-
immediately burst into tears. nal approval. Happiness and sadness seem to
He is laughing with no appar- revolve around friendship, which is considered a
ent reason; he may cry. He reward and a confirmation of personal success. As
wishes someone would play with paternal approval, rejection and disapproval is
with him (?); he likes to play a major cause for anxiety and depression. Making
(?); he feels something be- friends is the antidote for unhappiness, low self-
tween happy and unhappy, image, or anxiety.
depending on who is in front
of him. Example 1:
Example 2: Dwarf (Card 3): I am sure that he is good

hearted. I know that the
LRRH (Card 3): This one is something be- dwarfs from the tale are good,
tween bad and good. She besides this is obvious from
walks like a normal person. their faces. He is thinking that
She is wondering if she is a he should help more (?),
normal person (?); she is because he wants to do good
something between happy things, to make people happy
and sad (?) she is neither (?), because when he sees
laughing nor she is cross. them unhappy, he is not
happy either. He is happy (?),
Parents, and the father in particular, appear to because everyone knows him
have an impact on a Turkish childs identity forma- as good hearted (?), because if
tion. More specifically, the mother tends to rein- something happens he could
force positive aspects of the self, while the father offer more help.
seems to reinforcing the negative ones. By being
authoritarian, strict, or punitive, the father restricts Example 2:
the childs aggressive or sexual impulses, thus both
impulses appear to be more functional on a pre- Dwarf (Card 2): He thinks that nothing exciting
conscious or unconscious level. Feeling aggressive is happening in his life; that he
or challenging the fathers expectation of being a is having a good time with his
good child, creates feelings of guilt and self-depre- friends; he doesnt want any-
ciation and, eventually, a negative self-concept. Re- thing different in his life.
The defense mechanisms of repression and split- Turkish urban family life, Psychology and Developing
ting are among the first three mechanisms most fre- Societies, 11, 7790.
quently employed. Ataca, B. (2006). Turkey. In J. Georgas, J. W. Berry, F. J.
It is interesting to note that two of the variables R. van de Vijver, C. Kagitcibaci, & Y. Poortinga (Eds.),
Families across cultures: A 30-nation psychological study,
excluded from factor analysis, due to low variabili-
pp. 467474. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University
ty, were adaptation of fairy tale content (AFTC) and
Press.
bizarre responses. Both variables are closely associ- Aydin, B., & Oztutuncu, F. (2001). Examination of ado-
ated to stereotyped thought process, as Turkish chil- lescents negative thoughts, depressive mood, and
dren produce responses that are close to the plot of family environment. Adolescence, 36(141), 7783.
the tale, lacking in imagination and indicating emo- Bayar, P. (1983). Atleterin kisilik zellikleri [Personality
tional overcontrol. characteristics of athletes]. Unpublished masters the-
Childrens responses to the question What does sis, Ankara University, Turkey.
each character think/feel? are, on the whole, close- Bilir, S., Ari, M., Baykoc-Donmez, N., & Guneysu, S.
ly associated with the fairy tale plot, or appear (1986). 412 yaslari arasinda 16,000 cocukta orselen-
abstract and general. In addition, when children me durumlari ile ilgili bir inceleme [An investigation
of 16,000 children between the ages of 412 with
express stronger affects such as sadness, they often
respect to situations of abuse]. Cocuk Gelisim ve Egitim,
refuse to justify them, replying: I dont know why
1, 714.
she feels sad. This type of response corresponds to Duben, A. (1982). The significance of family and kinship
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PART VI
PSYCHOANALYTIC INTERPRETATIONS
OF FAIRY TALES
Chapter 14
THE CONTRIBUTION OF THE FAIRY TALE TEST IN THE

PSYCHOANALYTIC INTERPRETATION OF FAIRY TALES
CARINA COULACOGLOU AND MARILENA SOUYOULDZOGLOU
INTRODUCTION close to the dream in its content, processes, and sub-

jective usage. These authors propose that the fairy
he symbolic interpretation of fairy tales as well tale serves three functions: as a link, a transforma-
T as their relation to the unconscious has become
a challenging field of speculations for a number of
tion, and an intermediary. More explicitly, it links
primary with secondary processes; it transforms
psychoanalysts (e.g., Bettelheim, 1976; Dundes, unconscious fantasies to structured narrations,
1989; Kaes et al., 1984). Freud was the first to dis- whereby forms and symbolism give voice to de-
cover the symbolic nature of fairy tales. Similarly to sires; and finally, it acts as an intermediary between
myths and legends, fairy tales relate to the most the body and the social milieu.
primitive parts of the psyche. In The Interpretation of Ferenczi (1970) proposes that fairy tales represent
Dreams (1900), Freud turns to fairy tales to advance a return to the stage of the omnipotence of the self.
dream analysis. In The Wolf Man (1918), he argues In fairy tales, the fantasies of omnipotence contin-
that the fairy tale offers the child a way of thinking ue to reign (p. 65). Whereas in reality we feel weak,
that corresponds to a representation of him/herself. in fairy tales the heroes are strong and invincible;
Children often identify with the wild animal, which while here time and space limit our actions and
could explain the familiarity with anthropomorphic thoughts, in that world life is eternal, the reader can
animals found in many tales. be at a million places at once, he/she can foresee
Rheim (1953) maintains that fairy tales resem- the future, and have full knowledge of the past.
ble dream experiences. He argues that a large part Bettelheims book The Uses of Enchantment (1976)
of mythology is derived from dreams. Thus, fairy became a landmark in the psychoanalytic theory of
tales are probably the outcomes of dream experi- fairy tales. The book offers an elaborate account of
ences spread by oral tradition. Furthermore, the relation between children and fairy tales, plac-
according to Schwartz (1956), the fairy tale shares ing special emphasis on the therapeutic value of the
many qualities of a dream: it deals in opposites or latter for the child. Bettelheim produces extensive
contrasts, is irrational, has both manifest and latent analyses of popular tales and attempts to demon-
meanings, uses symbolism, expounds and expands strate how each of these reflects conflicts or anxi-
the concept of reality, is a dramatized form of eties at specific stages of development.
expression, contains sexual as well as cultural ele- According to Shapiro & Katz (1978), Bettelheim
ments, expresses wishes, has humor, and employs interprets the symbolic meaning of the fairy tale on
the mechanisms of condensation, substitution, dis- three levels. A character is discussed, first, as repre-
placement, devaluation, and over evaluation. senting crucial others in the childs life; second, as
Kaes et al. (1984) suggest that the fairy tale is representing an experienced part of the personality
323
(good or bad self); and third, as representing inter- dead grandmother, or the girl taking off her clothes,
nal processes (id, ego, and superego). Apart from or even the ruse of going outside to defecate.
strict psychoanalysts, Jung and his followers also Perrault also changed the ending by having the wolf
contributed significantly to the interpretation of devour the protagonist. The Grimms, who later
fairy tales. added the presence of the hunter and the saving of
The present study seeks to empirically evaluate the two females, restored the storys happy ending.
psychoanalytic interpretations of traditional fairy
tales. It compares childrens responses to the Fairy Interpretations
Tale projective Test in the stories of Little Red
Riding Hood (LRRH) and Snow White (SW) and Among the most popular psychoanalytic inter-
the Seven Dwarfs, building on Bettelheims psycho- pretations of this tale are those proposed by Fromm
analytic postulations. (1951), Roheim (1953) and Bettelheim (1976).
However, this study focuses on Bettelheims inter-
Little Red Riding Hood pretations, as he analyzes in detail the significance
of the story as well as the separate characters.
Origins Fromms (1951) interpretation emphasized the
significance of the red hood, which is said to sym-
Although many versions of this story have been bolize menstruation and serves as a signal of her
traced to some regions of France (Zipes, 1993), forthcoming femininity. He also interprets this tale
there are reports of Asian origins of the same story as a battle between the two sexes, in which the
(Dundes, 1989). Asian variations (in China, Japan, female attempts to humiliate the male by placing
and Korea) of LRRH differ from European versions stones (considered a symbol of sterility) in his stom-
in a number of features: the aggressor might be a ach: It is a story of triumph by man-hating women,
tiger, while the heroines might be two or three girls. ending with their victory (p. 242).
Another difference also concerns the type of decep- Roheims (1953) interpretation of the same tale
tion occurring in the tale: the animal pretends to be does not rely solely on detailssuch as the red hood
the mother, the grandmother, or the aunt of the or placing the stones in the wolfs stomachthat are
young girls, who usually visits the girls in their own absent in the oral versions. Instead, he emphasizes
home. the significance of the aggressive actions, which he
Charles Perrault and the brothers Grimm have claims symbolize infantile oral aggression. He refers
created the most popular versions of LRRH, also to the mechanisms of regression and projection,
called Little Red Cap. However, both parties have whereby the infants wishing of devouring his/her
been criticized for making alterations to what was mother is projected onto the mother-grandmother-
considered to be the original oral story (Dundes, wolf. Aggression is combined with regression and
1989). it follows that the idea of being swallowed up, being
The original text of this classic tale is reported eaten, is the talio aspect of this aggression. The can-
(Zipes, 1993) to have been traced to France towards nibal child created a cannibal mother (p. 152).
the end of the nineteenth century by Paul Delarue. Bettelheim (1976) writes that this fairy tale
According to Dundes (1989), Perrault was aware of expresses the ambivalence between the pleasure
the existence of relevant folktales that served as his and the reality principle. It also deals with the
source of inspiration for his own writings (the origi- Oedipal conflict reactivated in puberty. LRRHs
nal title was The Story of Grandmother). Perraults budding sexuality is directed towards her father-
version omits gruesome elements that are present in wolf, who is an externalization of the dangers of
some original versions, such as the wolfs proposal overwhelming Oedipal longings. The father is also
that the heroine taste the flesh and blood of her portrayed as the hunter in his protective and rescu-
The Contribution of the Fairy Tale Test 325
ing role. Thus, we may observe the splitting of the think/feel? Why? which express ambivalence in
father figure into a ferocious and threatening animal the form of indecision (as to which path to follow,
as well as a benign and helpful hunter. whether to speak to the wolf, whether to cut flowers,
etc.).
Childrens Responses to LRRH in the FTT
Example 1
a. The Role of Little Red Riding Hood
As discussed above, most of the psychoanalytic Card 1: She is seeing something in the jungle.
interpretations of the story of LRRH center around (?) Squirrels. (?) She feels happy, like
the sexual connotationsLRRHs Oedipal feelings talking to them, but she remembered
while most interpretations place the heroine in the what her mother had said, and she
period of puberty. Rheim (1953) presents a differ- thinks she shouldnt talk to them. (?)
ent interpretation of the same story, indicating that She doesnt know what to do. They
the action of being devoured by the wolf is a pro- were playing, and she wanted to play
jection of the infants aggressive fantasies. with them.
The examiner posed the following questions to
each child when presenting the LRRH figures (see Example 2
Figure 14.1): What does each one think/feel?
Why? Which of the three is the real LRRH? Q: What does each LRRH think/feel?
Why? and Which one would you eat, had you Card 3: She is hungry. (?) Should she eat whats
been the wolf? Why? Examples followed by a in the basket or not? (?) Shes feeling
question mark in parentheses(?)indicate that guilty because she shouldnt eat the
the examiner was probing for clarifications (i.e., food. The food was for her grandmoth-
Why?, How?, etc.) from the child. er.
b. Ambivalence Indecision c. Sexual Connotations
Bettelheims position that the LRRH tale is a As mentioned above, most of the psychoanalytic
story about the ambivalence between the principles interpretations of LRRHs tale center on pubertal
of pleasure and reality may be supported by sexuality, reflected by LRRHs Oedipal feelings
responses to the questions What does each LRRH directed towards her fatherrepresented by the
1 2 3
Figure 14.1. Cards of Little Red Riding Hood.
wolfand by placing the heroine in puberty. In the Example 6

FTT, responses to Card 2 often reveal narcissistic
concerns, interest in the opposite sex, and a desire Q: What does LRRH think/feel?
to meet or speak to the wolf. Card 2: She thinks that her skirt is too short.
Example 1 Sexual connotations also appear in response to

the questions, Which of the three would you eat,
Q: What does LRRH think/feel? had you been the wolf? Why? A large number of
Card 2: She feels shy because the wolf looked at children respond by saying that the wolf would eat
her and fell in love with her, and she Card 2 because LRRH is pretty, sweet, shy, and
wants to meet him. cute. Such responses were observed mostly in girls.
Example 2 d. The Wolf as LRRHS Superego
Q: What does LRRH think/feel? Apart from supporting the theoretical assump-
Card 2: She has seen something, and she hesi- tions of the symbolism behind LRRHs tale, chil-
tates in continuing her way. (?) She has drens responses provide evidence for additional
seen an animal that she has been interpretations about the story and its protagonists.
warned not to approach, but she wants While the wolf may often symbolize a male figure
to touch it. (?) She likes him; he is hand- to which LRRH feels attracted, childrens responses
some. to the questions, Which one would you eat had
you been the wolf? Why? revealed that the wolf
Example 3 occasionally adopts a different role, such as of a
strict superego. Accordingly, children assert that the
Q: What does LRRH think/feel? wolf decides to eat LRRH because she was disobe-
Card 2: Its as if someone is talking to her and dient, selfish, provocative, proud, wicked, and the
she is blushing and feels shy. (?) If the like.
gentleman she met is telling her the
truth, (?) you are very beautiful, you Example 1
wear nice clothes.
Example 4 Card 2: She does not want to go to her grand-
mother. (?) Since her grandmother will
Q: What does LRRH think/feel? die soon, why should she take care of
Card 2: She is shy, she wants to go to a night her? She will not be of any use to her.
club, and she is well dressed. (?) She I would eat Card 2 because she is sly.
wants to go out with the wolf.
Example 2
Example 5
Q: What does LRRH think/feel? Card 2: She does not want to go to visit her
Card 2: She thinks she is beautiful and wonders grandmother; she feels bored. (?) She
if boys will fall in love with her. wants to play with her friends.
I would eat Card 2 because she does
not love her grandmother.
Example 3 might fall into a trap, she might get lost, or her
grandmother may die.
Card 2: She is sly; she wants to meet the wolf, Example 1
(?) because she wanted to confirm that
he is dangerous. Q: What does LRRH think/feel?
I would eat Card 2 because she is dar- Card 3: She worries before taking the next step,
ing. if she is taking any risks, if she is being
threatened by someone, she doesnt
Example 4 know where shes going. (?) She might
fall into a trap; someone may kidnap
Q: What does each LRRH think/feel? her and ask her parents for ransom.
Card 2: She thinks of herself highly; she thinks
that she is someone special, (?) because Example 2
she thinks that she is in every story and
that everybody reads her. Q: What does LRRH think/feel?
I would eat Card 2 because she is fool- Card 3: She wants to return to her mother. She
ish. thinks that her mother is ill. (?) She
hopes that her mother will be saved, (?)
Example 5 but her mother will die. She is very sick.
(?) Then shell feel sad and lonely and
Q: What does LRRH think/feel? roam about.
Card 2: She is shy and envious and thinks that
no one loves her and that she must Example 3
improve her character. She is not nice.
I would eat Card 2 because she does Q: What does LRRH think/feel?
not have a nice personality, she is envi- Card 3: She is thinking that her grandmother
ous and cowardly. may be already dead and that it is
pointless bringing her food and medi-
As soon as LRRH enters the wood and realizes cine. (?) She feels afraid because her
that she has strayed from the correct path, or that grandmother may be dead and if she
she does not want to visit her grandmother because goes to her house she might see a ghost
she may feel afraid or bored, or that she prefers to who will want to eat her.
play, her superego takes charge in the form of a
wolf. Example 4
e. Separation Anxiety Q: What does LRRH think/feel?

Card 3: Maybe she sees that her grandmothers
Childrens responses to the cards of LRRH also house is on fire or that the wolf is
suggested that LRRH develops separation anxiety, devouring her grandmother or that the
as her thoughts are often monopolized by irrational forest is on fire.
fears and anxiety. As the young girl walks through
the woods, she is anxious about getting dark, she is The Wolf
afraid about the eventual threat of wild animals,
and/or she thinks that she is being watched, she The examiner posed the following questions to
1 2 3
Figure 14.2. Cards of the Wolf.
each child when presenting the wolf cards (see something. (?) He lost his child.
Figure 14.2): What does each one think/feel?
Why? Which of the three is the one in the story Example 2: Anxiety deprivation
LRRH? Why? and Which of the three scares you
the most? Why? Q: What does each wolf think/feel?
Although children respond to the LRRH cards by Card 3: He is very hungry and sad. (?) He is
giving the wolf symbolic connotations (sexual object, waiting for a pray. Its getting dark and
superego), when they are presented with the wolf fig- he is praying: Oh God! Let me get a
ures, they tend to identify with him far more often prey soon. (?) He is sad, and he is wait-
than with LRRH (the victim). The wolf in these cases ing for days with an empty stomach.
stands for the figure on which the children project
fears, anxieties, and aggressive impulses. Example 3: Aggressive impulses
Therefore, in response to the question What
does each wolf think/feel? children replied more Q: What does each wolf think/feel?
often that the wolf wants to eat LRRH or her grand- Card 3: He wants to devour LRRH, not just eat
mother because he is hungry and less often because her but tear her to pieces. (?) If he does
he is wicked. Some responses reveal aggression, in not eat her, he will explode out of
the form of retaliation, whereby the wolf wants to anger.
eat the young girl and her grandmother because
they have hurt him in some way. Anxiety is usually Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs
related to punishment for wrongdoing (the hunter
will shoot/kill him because he ate a human being) Origins
or deprivation (he will starve to death).
On rare occasions, responses to the question According to Dundes (1964), folklorists have
What does each wolf think? reflect the theme of attempted to clarify the vibrant relations between
sibling rivalry, whereby LRRH assumes the role of text, texture, and context, thus providing a useful
a sibling. framework in which to survey variations of Snow
White. The plot corresponds to the actual tale,
Example 1: Anxiety loss/depression story of Snow White. Its texture is the specific lan-
guage (or visualization in film) of a particular story.
Q: What does each wolf think/feel? The context corresponds to any relevant personal,
Card 1: He is sad. (?) He seems as if hes crying social, historical, and/or other influences. The tale
and swallowing his tears. (?) He has lost of Snow White in oral tradition is multicultural and
multicontextual. There is no single original or are not fundamental to the central theme but rather
authentic oral text. are specific to the culture from which each variant
As in the Grimm collection, only a single text story stems.
was entitled Snow White, while it was also origi- According to Bettelheim (1976), the story of SW
nal (both in primacy and uniqueness) in the use of deals with the Oedipal conflicts between mother
the word Snow White; in designing the study we and daughter and warns of the disastrous effects of
settled for the Grimm version as the authentic vari- narcissism. The queen is said to be fixated on a
ant of SW (excluding oral sources). primitive narcissism and arrested at the oral incor-
porative stage. She is envious of SWs beauty and
Interpretations youth and wants to incorporate her, as symbolized
by her intention to eat SWs internal organs.
Jones (1986) identifies a series of distinctive, for- Bettelheim interprets SWs temporary death as a
malistic elements that provide the unique pattern of period of preparation before entering a more
SW: the heroines initial expulsion from home, the mature stage, of adolescence.
various threats on her life culminating with appar- He also refers to the dwarfs as being eminently
ent death, the rescue, and the reawakening. male, stunted in their development, although their
Although the texture varies from story to story, way of living suggests a pre-Oedipal existence: they
Jones finds this elemental narrative pattern in all are satisfied with a monotonous round of activities,
variants of the SW texts and relevant surveys. and because of this lack of change or of any desire
For example, despite cultural variations, the their existence parallels that of prepubescent chil-
Greek version of Snow White and the Dwarfs, titled dren. Moreover, he argues that the dwarfs stand as
Myrsina (Megas, 1962), and the Russian version, symbols of moral values, such as hard work and
titled The Magic Mirror (Afanasiev, 1998), denote cleverness in their trades. They appear to know
a central theme of narcissistic antagonism among nothing of leisure or recreation.
family members. The antagonistic mother-child
relationship in the Grimm version appears in Childrens Responses to SW in the FTT
Myrsina as an antagonistic relationship between the
heroine and her sisters. Similarly, the dwarfs are a. The Dwarfs and Snow White
instead the twelve months in the Greek version and
the two knights in the Russian version. Therefore, it The examiner posed the following questions to
appears that individual elements such as the queen each child when presenting the dwarf cards (see
stepmother, the magic mirror, the hunter, the seven Figure 14.3): What does each one think/feel?
dwarfs, and the various gifts offered to the heroine Why? Which of the three is the one in the story?
1 2 3
Figure 14.3. Cards of the Dwarf.
Why? and Which one would Snow White choose Card 2: He likes SW and he wants to buy
to marry? Why? chocolate and ice cream for her. (?)
The responses of FTT protocols to the cards Shes like a small child; he wants to take
showing dwarfs seem to complement Bettelheims care of her.
interpretation of these figures; the children, apart
from referring to the dwarfs alone, often refer to the Example 4: Dwarfs as protective parental fig-
relationship the dwarfs built between with SW. ures
b. Sibling Rivalry and Protective Parental Figures Q: What does each dwarf think/feel?
Card 2: He is thinking of killing someone. (?)
Responses to the dwarf pictures reveal mainly The stepmother. (?) To save SW be-
sibling rivalry, which usually appears in the form of cause her stepmother wanted to kill her.
competition to gain SWs attention. In these cases,
SW serves as a protective and caring mother figure. c. Fear and Anxiety
In some instances, SW is perceived as the sibling,
who has arrived unexpectedly with the family and Apart from the projections of mother-child rela-
may win the others attention. In cases of the childs tionships, the identification with the dwarf figure
identification with SW, the dwarfs serve a protec- revealed fears and anxieties, such as the fear of
tive parental role. SWs giant size in comparison to the dwarfs, of
the misfortune that she carries, and, consequently,
Example 1: SW as the mother (boy, 11 years, of the vengeful witch.
with two male siblings: a 1-year-old and a 13-year-
old) Example 1: Fear in connection to SWs size
Q: What does each dwarf think/feel? Q: What does each dwarf think/feel?
Card 2: Hes feeling sad because he thinks that Card 2: He is thinking, What will happen now
SW loves all the other dwarfs and not that a giant girl is sleeping in our house?
him, (?) because he is grumpy and (?) Hes afraid that SW will gobble them
nobody wants him. (?) SW will play up when she wakes up.
with the other dwarfs.
Example 2: Fear of the Witch
Example 2: SW as the sibling (girl, 10 years,
with an 8-year-old brother) Q: What does each dwarf think/feel?
Card 3: Getting scared. (?) Hes thinking, What
Q: What does each dwarf think/feel? if the witch comes and kills us? (?) We
Card 1: He is not thinking of something nice. have SW with us. (?) Hes trying to fig-
He is mean. (?) He wants to help the ure out how to escape from the witch
witch to harm SW. (?) He doesnt want when she comes.
her with them. (?) The dwarfs pay more
attention to her instead of him. d. Self-Concepts
Example 3: Dwarfs as protective parental fig- These cards also reveal self-concepts, more fre-
ures quently in relation to low self-esteem and resulting
anxiety.
Q: What does each dwarf think/feel?
Example 1: Self-concept/anxiety annihilation a. Oedipal Feelings
Q: What does each dwarf think/feel? Consistent with Bettelheims assertions are the
Card 2: Maybe hes thinking, Why are all men findings that the witch cards often reveal an antago-
big and dwarfs are so small? (?) When nistic relation between mother and daughter, main-
he sees SW, he realizes that people are ly because of Oedipal feelings. In the FTT respons-
big. (?) Hes feeling strange and wor- es, the child tends to identify with the witch, while
ried. (?) He thought he was as big as assigning SW the role of mother and the king or
others and after seeing SW he started prince the role of father. The response in the fol-
becoming smaller and smaller, and lowing example reveals the antagonism between
when he becomes invisibly small peo- the witch and SW over winning the princes love.
ple will kick him.
Example 1
Example 2: Low self-esteem
Q: What does each dwarf think/feel? Card 3: She will transform SW into a frog so
Card 1: He is sad because he is too short. (?) He that she will not marry the prince. (?)
is called dwarf by everybody. (?) If I The witch likes the prince and wants to
could become taller it would be much marry him.
better because my friends wouldnt
tease me. b. Narcissistic Feelings
The Witch, Snow White, The witch figure reveals childrens narcissistic
and the Dwarfs feelings, reflected in the witchs desire for apprecia-
tion, the approval of others, and the acquisition of
The examiner posed the following questions to superior status.
each child when presenting the witch figures (see
Figure 14.4): What does each one think/feel? Example 2
Why? Which of the three is the one in fairy tales?
Why? Which of the three scares you the most? Q: What does each witch think/feel?
Why? Which is the most wicked witch? Why? Card 1: She wants to achieve everything in life.
What can a wicked witch do? The examiner also (?) She feels that she is the best. She has
asked the child to name the witches. a devils look that tells that she cannot
1 2 3
Figure 14.4. Cards of the Witch.
let anyone else succeed beyond her. d. Anxiety Projection

She is a show-off.
Card 2: She tries beyond her limits to achieve Whereas Greek children commonly project onto
her goals, (?) [of] destroying SW and the witch different types of aggression, non-Western
trying to win the hearts of people. children (e.g., those from India) perceive the witch
as a weak and helpless figure, thus expressing dif-
c. Sibling Rivalry ferent types of anxiety (rejection, deprivation, pun-
ishment, illness, inability).
Supplementary to Bettelheims assumption are
the observations that SW may also adopt the role of Example 1: Anxiety deprivation
the sibling and, occasionally, that the dwarfs may
represent the parents. These responses reveal sib- Q: What does each witch think/feel?
ling rivalry and express aggression as envy. Card 3: She is a beggar who has no one in the
world; she is begging in the streets.
Example 1
Example 2: Anxiety inability/death
Card 2: She wants to transform as a nurse and Q: What does each witch think/feel?
visit the dwarfs cottage in order to take Card 3: She is thinking, Ive grown old so Ill
care of SW and then kill her. (?) She not be able to use any magical powers
thinks that SW will take away her place any more. (?) So she is very pale and
in the kingdom. sad. (?) Shell remain in her room all
Q: What can a wicked witch do? alone.
She wants to transform someone into a
frog so that her relatives will not recog- The Psychoanalytic Significance
nize him and they will kill him.
of the Witch and the Giant
Example 2: dwarfs perceived as parents According to Bettelheim (1976), the mother
object is most often seen as the all-giving protector
Q: What does each witch think/feel? who can be transformed into a cruel stepmother or
Card 2: She wants to kill SW, because shes an evil witch when she denies the child something
younger than her. She wants to torture he/she wants. Young children sometimes need to
her, to take her away from the dwarfs. split the image of the parent into benevolent and
And because SW loves the dwarfs, they threatening aspects, to help keep the good image of
will be sad, and it will be worst for both the parent intact and thus cope with a difficult rela-
SW and the dwarfs. (?) She will kidnap tionship. Bettelheim observes that The typical fairy
her. (?) Deep inside her she feels bad for tale splitting of the mother into a good (usually
what shes going to do but she cant dead) and an evil stepmother serves the child well.
stand her feelings of jealousy. (?) SW It is not only a means of preserving an internal all-
has some qualities that she cant have. good mother when the real mother is not all-good,
but it also permits anger at this bad stepmother
It is worth noting that the majority of children without endangering the goodwill of the true moth-
project onto the witch aspects of themselves, rather er, who is viewed as a different person (1976, p.
than parental qualities. 69).
Childrens responses to questions concerning Example 4

images of the witch and the giant, as well as scenes
of LRRH, revealed the splitting of the mother Q: What can a wicked witch do?
and/or the father into a kind, protective figure as She can be transformed into a mother
well as a rejecting, threatening object. to harm a little girl and hide away the
girls real mother.
a. Splitting of the Mother or Father
Example 5
Example 1
Q: What does each witch think? Card 1: He thinks of how to kill SW because the
Card 1: She is nice. She wants to advise SW not queen told him to.
to eat the poisoned apple. Card 2: He thinks how to save SW from the evil
Card 2: She wants to go to the dwarfs and tell queen.
them to go away and leave SW alone in Card 3: He wants to kill Giant number 2
the house; she wants to change their because he loves and wants to save SW.
good opinion of Snow White, to stop
loving and taking care of her. Example 6
Example 2 Q: Which of the three giants scares you

most? Why?
Q: What does each witch think? Card 3, because I think that I am stand-
Card 3: She wants to bring Cinderella to her ing in front of him, and he wants to kill
castle, put her inside the boiler, and me with his club or take me to his wife
turn her into a cat. and make me their child.
Card 2: She wants to tell Cinderella to do all the
housework, and she also wants to lock Example 7
her in the cellar on her birthday.
Card 1: She wants to take Cinderella away from Q: Describe what is going on in each
the castle and give her back her human scene. (Scenes from LRRH)
appearance. Card 1: Its the evil stepmother of LRRH who
scolds her continuously, and she does
Example 3 not allow her to visit her grandmother
because her real mother is dead, but
Q: What does each witch think? this is a lie.
Card 1: She is a nice witch. She will transform Card 2: LRRH went to a stream in the wood,
Cinderella into a beautiful girl, so that and she is crying so that she will not be
she can go to the princes ball. scolded anymore by her mother, her
Card 2: She is a wicked stepmother. She tells aunt, or whoever this woman is.
her child to not go near her father Card 3: Later she saw her mother outside, and
because the father loved the little girl she thought that it was an illusion and
more than the stepmother. called out mummy, and she told her
about her adventure with this woman
who scolded her continuously.
Example 8 Bettelheim adds that the child can create this

division (into separate beings representing all-good
Q: Describe what is going on in each pic- and all-bad) within him or herself. Thus, the child
ture. (scenes from LRRH) exteriorizes and projects on to another all the bad
Card 1: LRRH must have done something things that are scaring for him so that he can see in
wrong. Her stepmother ordered her to them a part of himself (1976, p. 110). The witch
work and did not allow her to make a cards of the FTT reveal the mechanism of splitting
mistake. If she made a mistake, the by which the individual tries to control the anxiety
stepmother would criticize her. generated by two simultaneous and opposite reac-
Card 2: She went outside to cry after her step- tions.
mother criticized her.
Card 3: One day her stepmother was not at Example 1
home. Her godmother took the oppor-
tunity to come and see her. She prom- Q: What does the witch think/feel?
ised to bring her a gift, and LRRH was Card 1: I have to kill SW. She only wants to be
very happy. the most beautiful. She wants to go to a
Q: With which card does the story end? country where people are beautiful and
Why? wants to kill them because she hates
Card 3, because her godmother told her them.
that this gift would be very useful to Card 2: She thinks that she has to wear nice
LRRH. The box will bring her happi- clothes. She wants to please other peo-
ness when she opens it. She can open it ple. She wants to be kind so that other
anytime she feels unhappy. people like her. She doesnt want to
Q: With which card would you like the hate others.
story to end? Why?
Card 2: Card 3, because her godmother came Example 2
and sent her stepmother away angrily.
Then they lived together with her aunt. Q: What does the witch think/feel?
Card 1: She wants to transform all the bad guys
Example 9 in kind humans. (?) She is feeling very
nice. (?) Its nice to do good things for
Prompt: Describe each scene from LRRH. people.
Card 1: She wants to tell the evil stepmother Card 3: She has a big weapon in every pocket of
that she wants to go to her grandmoth- hers. She helps the bad people win the
er, but the stepmother does not allow others so that the whole world is being
her, and so she begs her. controlled by the bad ones. (?) She is
Card 2: She wishes to have a mother who very irritating.
would take care of her and who would
be rich. The qualitative analysis of responses to the FTT
Card 3: Her prayers are heard, and she finds a cards supplements psychoanalytic notions of the
nice mother who will take care of her. significance of the witch and the giant figures. It is
an important finding that the majority of children
b. Splitting of Self project onto the witches/giants aspects of them-
selves rather than parental qualities.
In particular, the witch figures stimulate feelings Example 4

of omnipotence and narcissism, while the giant pic-
tures motivate responses of self-esteem, oral needs, Q: What does each wolf think/feel?
and feelings of omnipotence and aggression. Card 1: He wants to eat LRRH because he likes
Occasionally the dwarf cards inspire feelings of to eat human flesh. (?) He likes to eat
omnipotence and self-esteem. humans because they have killed many
wolves, friends of his.
c. Omnipotence and Superego Restrictions Card 2: He does not want to eat LRRH; this
thought has not even crossed his mind.
As desire for omnipotence or strong aggressive He is afraid of humans, (?) because if he
impulses can create feelings of guilt, we observe eats them they might kill his family, or
superego restrictions, either through punishment or his children.
the employment of mechanisms such as undoing or
reaction formation. This is especially true in The above is an example of superego restrictions
responses to the second card of any set presented to in the form of undoing of her first response, which
a child. reflects aggression.
Example 1 Example 5
Q: What does each witch think/feel? Q: What does each LRRH think?
Card 1: She thinks that she is the queen of the Card 1: She wants to visit her grandmother
witches and that she will conquer all the because she is ill. (?) She feels sorry for
witches. her grandmother.
Card 2: She thinks that she will be the richest of Card 2: She wants to kill her grandmother
the witches and that she will be able to because she does not love her.
destroy all the other witches and be the Card 3: She wants to help her grandmother get
only witch in the world. well, she wants to take her home and
help her to get well.
Example 2
The above example illustrates the mechanism of
Q: What does each giant think/feel? reaction formation as a result of guilt that emerged
Card 1: He thinks that I am the only one in the following her aggressive response to Card 2.
world; I am the king of the giants, and
there is nobody like me.
Card 3: He thinks that he will destroy the world CONCLUSIONS
and be the strongest and become their
king. The scope of this study seeks to provide experi-
mental validation of psychoanalytic theories of fairy
Example 3 tales. As a projective personality test with material
derived from classic fairy tales, The Fairy Tale Test
Q: What does each dwarf think/feel? (FTT) is an extremely suitable instrument for this
Card 1: He wants to become famous. endeavor.
Card 2: He wants to become a king. This discussion builds on Bettelheims psychoan-
Card 3: He wants to become God. alytic interpretation of fairy tales because it is the
most common within this field. Beginning with feelings of omnipotence or aggression. For children
Little Red Riding Hood, a story considered to from non-Western cultures, the witch often repre-
reflect Oedipal conflicts as well as the heroines sex- sents a helpless, ill, or deprived figure.
ual provocations, this chapter examined respons- The splitting of the parents into a stepmother/
es to questions relating to cards representing LRRH witch or a giant supports Bettelheims assumptions
and the Wolf. Responses to the questions Which of about the symbolic significance of these supernatu-
the three LRRHs would you eat had you been the ral characters. Overall, childrens responses to the
wolf? Why? often reflected the personality variable FTT support basic psychoanalytic assumptions and
sexual preoccupation (SP). That is, many children address a series of relevant issues. However, results
justified their choice of Card 2 with the reasoning indicate that some of these issues have been under-
that she is pretty/shy. evaluated or misperceived. One such issue concerns
An innovation with regards to Bettelheims theo- the wolfs role as a very strict superego in LRRHs
ry of LRRH is the role of the wolf as superego. tale. Indeed, childrens responses often revealed
Responses to the questions Which of the three LRRHs excessive and irrational fears when enter-
LRRHs would you eat had you been the wolf? ing the wood as the outcome of separation anxiety,
Why? often reveal that the wolf eats the picture having left the security of the parental nest.
that the child has described as disobedient, Finally, sibling rivalry was the most common
provocative, or sly. issue observed through childrens responses to the
With regards to the story of Snow White and the dwarfs and the witches. Bettelheim and other theo-
Seven Dwarfs, responses related to the witch cards rists appear to have underestimated the impact of
reveal Oedipal feelings and conflicts. Such feelings SWs arrival and presence in the lives of the seven
are presented as an antagonism between the witch brothers or bachelors. In conclusion, the rich
and SW, one of whom the prince will choose to and elaborate material expressed by children in
marry. response to the FTT supplements and verifies psy-
An advance of Bettelheims interpretation of choanalytic interpretations of fairy tales.
Snow White is the issue of sibling rivalry, which
appears frequently in responses to questions related
to the witches and the dwarfs. The personality vari- REFERENCES
able reflected in such responses is aggression moti-
vated by envy (AGR ENVY). That is, the witch rep- Afanasiev, A. (1998). Russian folk tales. Moscow: Raduga.
resents the child being interviewed, while SW sym- Bettelheim, B. (1976). The uses of enchantment: The meaning
bolizes the sibling. Feelings of envy among family and importance of fairy tales. New York: Vintage.
members does not exist exclusively between the Dundes, A. (1989). Little Red Riding Hood: A case book.
(step)mother and daughter, but can also exist Madison: The University of Wisconsin Press.
between siblings. Accordingly, in the Greek version Dundes, A. (1964). Texture, text, and context. Southern
of SWMyrsinainstead of being mother and Folklore Quarterly, 28, pp. 251265
daughter, the protagonists are sisters. Sibling rivalry Ferenczi, S. (1970). La psychologie du conte [The psy-
is observed in responses to the dwarf pictures chology of fairy tales]. In Psychanalyse II: Oeuvres
Completes, 19131919. Paris: Payot.
whereby sibling rivalry occurs with SWs unexpect-
Freud, S. (1900/1953). The interpretation of dreams. In J.
ed arrival or as a competition or antagonism among
Strachey (ed.), The standard edition of the complete psycho-
the dwarfs. logical works of Sigmund Freud, Vols 45. London:
Interestingly, the children more frequently see Hogarth Press.
the witches as representing aspects of themselves Freud, S. (1918/1953). From the history of an infantile
than of a parental role. Children project onto witch- neurosis. In J. Strachey (ed.), The standard edition of the
es or giants narcissistic desires or vulnerabilities and complete psychological works of Sigmund Freud, Vol 17, (pp.
3122). London: Hogarth Press. Megas, G. (1970). Folktales of Greece. Chicago and London:
Fromm, E. (1951). The forgotten language: An introduction to University of Chicago Press.
the understanding of dreams, fairy tales and myths. New Roheim, G. (1953). The gates of the dream. New York:
York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston. International Universities Press.
Jones, S. S. (1986). The structure of Snow White. In R. B. Schwartz, K. E. (1956). A psychoanalytic study of the fairy
Bottigheimer (Ed.), Fairy tales and society: Illusion, allu- tale. American Journal of Psychotherapy, 10, 740762.
sion, and paradigm (pp. 165186). Philadelphia: Shapiro, R., & Katz, C. L. (1978). Fairy tales, splitting, and
Univerity of Pennsylvania Press. development. Contemporary Psychoanalysis, 14(4), 591
Kaes, R., Perrot, J., Hochmann, J., Guerin, C., Mery, J., & 602.
Reumaux, F. (1984). Contes et divans [Fairy tales and Zipes, J. (1993). The trials and tribulations of Little Red
couches]. Paris: Dunod. Riding Hood. London: Routledge.
EPILOGUE
he Fairy Tale Test (FTT) has been in existence es of such a large number of children is their way of
T for a little over a decade. It was first published
in Spanish, in December 1995. Since then, it was
twisting the story plot or the reality of the tale to suit
their personal needs. Occasional overinvolvement
published in eight languages and has been stan- confirms that children are captivated by the tales
dardized in various cultures such as Russia, China, and become part of what Tolkien refers to as the
India, and Turkey; while data collection in Secondary World (Tolkien, 1937).
Indonesia, Germany, Japan, Brazil, Mexico, and Quantitative interpretation should always be
Ukraine is still under way. The present book supplemented by the qualitative evaluation of vari-
attempts to present to the reader the way develop- ables. The study of childrens idiosyncratic respons-
mental and clinical aspects of personality can be es (Bizarres), constitutes such a striking example.
observed and carefully studied through the FTT, as This category of responses allows the evaluation of
well as some initial efforts to show the way the FTT imagination and creativity as well as the degree of
has been applied on clinical groups. psychopathology. Indeed, a combination of a high
The most significant and striking observation of percentage of Bizarres, high levels of anxiety,
the FTTs cross-cultural application is the variety of depression or aggression may signify some form of
childrens responses to the FTT interview, revealing disturbance.
their anxieties, conflicts, emotions, desires, and The FTT is above all a personality test, assessing
aspirations. Some of these are very realistic, stem- the personality as a whole, and not only some of its
ming from the childs negative and/or traumatic dimensions. This way, the FTT can be used for
real-life experiences and everyday disappoint- evaluating the personality of a mentally intact
ments. Others are expressed more implicitly, in a child, as well as that of a more or less-adjusted child.
symbolic way, but they never cease to astonish or Another advantage of the FTT is that it also
enchant the examiners who evaluate them. It is in assesses different types of motivational aggression
fact rare to find dull protocols. Every protocol as well as personality dimensions which have not
reveals intricacies of the childs inner world and been rated or assessed in other personality meas-
personality which unfolds gradually through ures, such as sense of privacy, sense of property,
his/her responses. The administration of the FTT is ambivalence, desire for superiority and desire to
fairly straightforward and despite the fact that it is help. Although, the theoretical background is most-
somewhat long, children feel at ease while taking ly psychodynamic, referring to ego psychology, the
the test. This is basically due to the variability of the examiner should also be familiar with theories of
illustrations (some are in color, others in black and child development. However, attempts to interpret
white, some are drawn in ink, others in watercolors FTT responses from other theoretical perspectives
or pencils, etc.), to the fact that the characters are such as Rogerian, systemic, Jungian, or cognitive
familiar to most children, but also to the interview- approaches would be most welcome.
ing processa combination of open-ended and A significant part of qualitative analysis concerns
choice questionsturning the administration proce- the study of defense mechanisms. The structure of
dure less threatening and thus more entertaining. the test material facilitates the emergence of defense
Another salient finding in analyzing the respons- mechanisms. In that sense, the FTT offers the possi-
339
bility to study thirteen (13) defense mechanisms in a than one line of evidence in support of the validity
systematic way, but also across a 6-year-long devel- of an instrument. For instance, the external validity
opmental span. of the FTT can be examined through the use of
The cross-cultural application of the FTT has other psychological measures, such as question-
revealed the importance of a two-level factor analy- naires and behavioral scales that evaluate similar
sis. Personality factors derived from first-order fac- concepts or dimensions as the FTT. However, one
tor analysis correspond to a more universal matrix should bear in mind that such measures and in par-
characterized by a common group of factors such as ticular self-report inventories and response sets
self-concept, instrumental aggression, assertiveness, often reveal faking.
moral consciousness and so on. By contrast, second- On the other hand, the FTTs internal validity
order factor analysis unveiled factors that appear to can be assessed through the use of factor analyses.
be more culture specific, and constitute the core In addition, construct validity may also be studied
personality structure of the child. Considering these through the application of the FTT onto clinical
data, it is worth reflecting upon the way culture populations that would potentially reveal which
influences the shaping of personality, the extent to personality factors are involved in a variety of
which basic personality features are present across pathologies.
different cultures, and how these features blend In order to maximize the effectiveness of testing,
together differently for each culture. Personality most psychologists use a battery of tests, of which
cannot exist outside a broader sociocultural context. the FTT could become a useful component.
This constitutes FTTs strength: the universal nature
of fairy tales, as well as childrens continuous fasci-
nation by those, makes this instrument potentially REFERENCES
applicable to many different cultures, allowing for a
broader investigation of personality development. Tolkien, J. R. R. (1937). Beowulf: The Monsters and the
Thorough test validation typically involves more Critics. London, UK: Humphrey Milford.
INDEX
A 300, 302, 304, 329, 330

Ambivalence, 13, 19, 64, 77, 88, 106, 108, 128, 141, 146,
Acting out, 41, 65, 89, 114, 115, 116, 141, 273, 279, 295, 147, 160, 163, 164, 165, 166, 169, 170, 171, 172,
329, 330, 332 182, 185, 186, 227, 228, 229, 230, 232, 233, 234,
Adaptation to fairy tale content, 20, 64, 78, 88, 91, 148, 235, 236, 246, 248, 251, 269, 271, 275, 301, 302,
224, 227, 228, 230, 234, 246, 247, 248, 269, 270, 310, 329, 330, 334, 336, 344, 345, 359
271, 302 Anxiety, 20, 32, 35, 36, 43, 44, 46, 52, 53, 56, 57, 63,
Aggression, 12, 17, 19, 20, 36, 37, 41, 46, 49, 55, 56, 60, 64, 65, 77, 88, 91, 92, 95, 97, 98, 99, 104, 106, 107,
63, 64, 65, 76, 77, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90, 108, 109, 113, 115, 118, 120, 123, 126, 127, 128,
91, 92, 93, 94, 99, 100, 102, 104, 105, 106, 107, 129, 131, 132, 133, 134, 141, 142, 143, 145, 146,
108, 114, 115, 118, 119, 128, 129, 130, 131, 132, 147, 148, 151, 152, 153, 154, 155, 157, 158, 160,
133, 134, 140, 143, 144, 146, 147, 148, 149, 151, 161, 163, 164, 165, 169, 170, 171, 172, 173, 175, 178,
153, 156, 161, 163, 164, 165, 168, 169, 170, 179, 179, 181, 182, 186, 219, 222, 223, 225, 228, 229,
182, 184, 185, 186, 225, 226, 228, 229, 230, 232, 230, 232, 233, 234, 235, 236, 237, 246, 248, 249,
233, 234, 235, 236, 237, 246, 247, 248, 249, 250, 255, 256, 258, 259, 269, 271, 272, 274, 275, 279,
251, 252, 255, 256, 257, 258, 260, 269, 270, 271, 283, 296, 299, 302, 303, 306, 308, 309, 312, 313,
273, 274, 275, 276, 277, 278, 279, 280, 281, 282, 314, 317, 318, 321, 328, 329, 330, 332, 333, 334,
283, 287, 290, 294, 295, 296, 297, 300, 301, 302, 337, 338, 347, 348, 350, 351, 352, 354, 356, 359
303, 304, 305, 306, 308, 309, 311, 312, 313, 314,
315, 317, 320, 321, 327, 328, 329, 330, 332, 333, B
335, 336, 338, 339, 344, 348, 352, 355, 356, 359,
360 Bizarres, 20, 64, 76, 88, 91, 100, 101, 102, 104, 106, 107,
as defense, 19, 64, 76, 77, 84, 86, 88, 89, 146, 147, 108, 143, 146, 147, 148, 149, 151, 154, 163, 164,
163, 164, 165, 226, 228, 232, 246, 248, 250, 165, 170, 171, 227, 228, 246, 248, 270, 299, 300,
276, 300, 302, 306, 327 301, 302, 305, 308, 309, 359
as dominance, 19, 63, 64, 76, 84, 86, 88, 89, 91, 92,
93, 146, 147, 148, 151, 153, 164, 165, 226, 228, C
230, 235, 250, 278, 300, 302, 303, 328, 329,
330, 332 China, 8, 11, 13, 18, 126, 127, 129, 132, 134, 217, 239,
as envy, 19, 63, 64, 76, 77, 84, 86, 87, 88, 89, 93, 146, 240, 241, 242, 243, 244, 245, 247, 249, 250, 251,
147, 163, 164, 165, 168, 182, 226, 228, 229, 252, 253, 255, 256, 257, 258, 259, 260, 261, 262,
230, 234, 246, 248, 251, 301, 302, 308, 309, 278, 279, 280, 281, 315, 332, 333, 344, 359
313, 328, 329, 330, 352 Compensation, 65, 115, 116, 117, 119, 181, 203, 235,
as retaliation, 19, 64, 76, 77, 84, 86, 87, 88, 89, 93, 330, 335
146, 147, 148, 149, 164, 165, 226, 228, 229,
230, 232, 234, 236, 247, 248, 255, 300, 302, D
306, 328, 330
turned inwards, 119 Defense mechanism, 12, 13, 17, 19, 27, 35, 43, 46, 57,
type A, 19, 63, 64, 76, 84, 86, 88, 89, 93, 104, 146, 58, 65, 79, 88, 104, 108, 111, 113, 114, 115, 116,
147, 148, 151, 153, 163, 164, 165, 225, 226, 117, 118, 119, 121, 123, 125, 126, 127, 128, 129,
228, 229, 232, 234, 246, 247, 248, 270, 271, 131, 133, 134, 135, 140, 145, 150, 154, 156, 157,
341
161, 163, 166, 167, 172, 178, 184, 185, 188, 201, 311, 313, 315, 316, 317, 319, 321, 323, 325, 327,
248, 250, 251, 252, 256, 258, 273, 275, 279, 281, 329, 331, 333, 335, 337, 339, 343, 345, 347, 349,
303, 311, 312, 314, 330, 331, 332, 333, 338, 359, 351, 353, 355, 357, 359
360
Denial, 30, 35, 57, 65, 104, 105, 106, 113, 114, 115, 116, G
117, 118, 119, 120, 121, 122, 126, 127, 129, 130,
131, 133, 134, 150, 151, 153, 154, 166, 167, 170, Greece, 2, 7, 8, 9, 12, 13, 18, 61, 79, 86, 126, 127, 132,
179, 184, 188, 189, 190, 193, 203, 204, 258, 314, 133, 156, 159, 172, 173, 177, 217, 250, 251, 258,
331 259, 263, 264, 265, 266, 267, 268, 269, 271, 273,
Depression, 20, 28, 29, 36, 43, 46, 63, 64, 77, 88, 91, 94, 274, 275, 277, 279, 281, 282, 283, 332, 333, 357
104, 105, 106, 107, 115, 128, 131, 133, 134, 140,
141, 142, 143, 145, 146, 147, 151, 155, 158, 160, I
161, 163, 164, 165, 169, 172, 175, 182, 184, 186,
213, 219, 225, 229, 230, 233, 235, 236, 237, 246, Idiosyncratic responses, 12, 17, 76, 95, 97, 99, 100, 101,
248, 249, 250, 256, 258, 269, 271, 272, 274, 277, 103, 105, 107, 109, 143, 281, 308, 359
287, 295, 296, 297, 298, 299, 302, 303, 312, 313, Incorporation, 55, 65, 107, 113, 181, 304, 309, 314
314, 320, 328, 329, 330, 331, 332, 334, 336, 337, India, 7, 8, 11, 13, 18, 50, 58, 59, 79, 126, 127, 131, 132,
339, 348, 359 134, 157, 217, 238, 250, 255, 258, 259, 278, 279,
Desire 280, 281, 284, 285, 286, 287, 288, 289, 291, 292,
for material things, 19, 64, 76, 88, 146, 147, 164, 293, 294, 295, 297, 298, 299, 301, 303, 304, 305,
165, 227, 229, 230, 235, 236, 246, 248, 252, 306, 307, 308, 309, 310, 311, 312, 313, 314, 315,
269, 271, 300, 302, 304, 329, 330 316, 317, 318, 319, 320, 321, 332, 338, 339, 352,
for superiority, 19, 64, 76, 88, 91, 92, 93, 102, 146, 359
147, 148, 151, 153, 164, 165, 227, 228, 229, Instrumental aggression, 20, 64, 76, 246, 247, 248, 252,
230, 235, 236, 246, 248, 250, 269, 271, 300, 255, 256, 269, 271, 273, 279, 300, 302, 304, 305,
302, 303, 328, 329, 330, 332, 359 311, 312, 313, 327, 360
to help, 19, 64, 76, 88, 91, 108, 120, 146, 147, 164, Introjection, 113, 116, 117, 118, 311
165, 227, 228, 230, 231, 234, 236, 247, 248,
252, 270, 271, 275, 279, 281, 301, 302, 307, 328, L
329, 330, 359
Displacement, 57, 65, 96, 114, 115, 116, 117, 118, 119, Learning disabilities, 13, 19, 39, 147, 148, 155, 156, 157,
150, 204, 343 158, 159, 172
Little red riding hood, 11, 19, 41, 42, 50, 58, 59, 60, 61,
F 62, 63, 79, 87, 88, 89, 92, 101, 119, 122, 125, 178,
188, 192, 201, 202, 205, 217, 225, 226, 227, 232,
Fear of aggression, 19, 64, 77, 88, 91, 92, 104, 105, 106, 235, 245, 253, 299, 305, 314, 332, 336, 344, 345,
119, 130, 146, 147, 148, 151, 153, 163, 164, 225, 356, 357
228, 229, 233, 235, 236, 246, 248, 252, 270, 271,
300, 302, 304, 305, 306, 314, 328, 329, 330, 333 M
Fairy Tale Test, 2, 7, 8, 11, 12, 13, 17, 18, 19, 41, 42, 43,
49, 61, 62, 63, 83, 85, 86, 87, 89, 91, 93, 94, 95, Mean, 19, 26, 28, 31, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 46, 57, 59, 64,
109 ,137, 139, 140, 141, 143, 144, 145, 147, 149, 76, 78, 79, 86, 88, 89, 90, 93, 96, 97, 100, 101, 103,
151, 153, 155, 156, 157, 159, 161, 163, 165, 167, 105, 106, 120, 123, 126, 129, 139, 143, 147, 148,
169, 171, 172, 173, 177, 188, 201, 215, 217, 219, 221, 150, 160, 161, 163, 165, 166, 167, 179, 184, 185,
223, 225, 227, 229, 230, 231, 233, 235, 236, 237, 186, 195, 220, 221, 224, 232, 235, 263, 265, 266,
239, 241, 242, 243, 245, 247, 249, 251, 253, 255, 278, 279, 281, 283, 285, 286, 288, 289, 307, 308,
257, 259, 261, 263, 265, 267, 268, 269, 271, 273, 312, 334, 336, 338, 343, 350, 352, 356
275, 277, 279, 281, 282, 283, 284, 285, 287, 289, Mild mental retardation, 13, 17, 19, 157, 159, 162, 165,
291, 293, 295, 297, 299, 301, 303, 305, 307, 309, 166, 172
Index 343
Morality, 4, 20, 38, 53, 64, 78, 88, 91, 93, 106, 107, 108, 192, 218, 248, 249, 251, 256, 258, 273, 274, 279,
146, 147, 164, 165, 170, 218, 225, 226, 228, 230, 286, 303, 313, 314, 344, 345, 350, 352
232, 233, 234, 243, 247, 248, 253, 259, 270, 271, Projective identification, 30, 65, 114, 115, 117, 119, 279
278, 301, 302, 307, 308, 310, 313, 314, 318, 329, Psychosis, 43, 174, 175, 176, 213
330, 333
Q
N
Question, 11, 19, 25, 26, 34, 42, 53, 54, 55, 56, 62, 63,
Need for affection, 19, 64, 76, 88, 91, 143, 146, 147, 148, 65, 77, 84, 85, 88, 89, 90, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 98,
149, 151, 152, 161, 163, 164, 165, 171, 182, 226, 100, 101, 102, 109, 116, 118, 119, 120, 121, 123,
228, 230, 233, 234, 236, 246, 248, 249, 300, 301, 128, 129, 131, 133, 134, 168, 182, 189, 217, 222,
302, 304, 305, 307, 328, 329, 330 223, 235, 241, 242, 244, 260, 261, 267, 273, 276,
Need for affiliation, 19, 64, 76, 88, 91, 143, 146, 147, 148, 280, 281, 285, 286, 308, 310, 312, 314, 318, 324,
151, 161, 163, 164, 165, 168, 184, 186, 220, 226, 325, 326, 327, 332, 338, 345, 346, 347, 348, 349,
227, 229, 230, 232, 233, 235, 247, 248, 252, 270, 351, 353, 356, 359, 360
274, 275, 299, 301, 302, 307, 309, 328, 329, 330
Need for approval, 20, 64, 76, 140, 246, 248, 251, 269, R
270, 271, 300, 302, 303, 313, 328, 330, 332
Need for protection, 19, 64, 76, 88, 91, 143, 146, 147, Rationalization, 65, 115, 116, 119, 123, 150, 151, 154,
151, 153, 161, 163, 164, 165, 167, 169, 227, 229, 166, 167, 171, 202, 206, 256, 258, 307, 313, 320,
230, 246, 248, 250, 269, 271, 300, 302, 305, 328, 331
330, 333 Reaction Formation, 65, 113, 114, 115, 116, 117, 118, 119,
Negation, 34, 115, 119, 121, 126, 127, 129, 130, 131, 133, 120, 126, 133, 150, 151, 166, 248, 249, 256, 258,
134, 150, 151, 154, 166, 179, 189, 192, 275, 314, 275, 279, 281, 307, 312, 333, 355
331 Regression, 31, 34, 56, 58, 65, 96, 101, 113, 115, 116, 117,
Number of participants, 19, 162 118, 119, 150, 285, 320, 344
Relationship
O with father, 20, 145, 163
with mother, 64, 88, 91, 92, 146, 147, 149, 152, 161,
Oral aggression, 19, 55, 56, 60, 64, 76, 84, 88, 104, 105, 163, 164, 165, 234, 330
132, 146, 147, 163, 164, 165, 168, 169, 226, 228, Repetitions, 20, 64, 78, 88, 104, 146, 147, 151, 154, 163,
246, 148, 252, 270, 271, 275, 279, 300, 302, 304, 164, 165, 170, 171, 227, 228, 247, 255, 269, 271,
312, 313, 328, 329, 330, 332, 344 301, 302, 307, 308
Oral needs, 19, 60, 63, 64, 76, 88, 91, 104, 106, 146, 147, Repression, 65, 66, 113, 114, 115, 116, 117, 118, 119, 120,
151, 152, 164, 168, 169, 227, 228, 229, 230, 234, 121, 126, 127, 128, 134, 150, 166, 189, 331, 335,
247, 248, 253, 255, 269, 271, 300, 301, 302, 304, 338
309, 328, 329, 330, 333, 355 Reversal, 65, 115, 116, 121, 131, 189, 206, 331
Overinvolvement, 179, 189, 314, 359 Rorschach, 12, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 37, 41,
42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 59, 93, 96, 97, 99, 109, 110,
P 117, 118, 134, 135, 143, 155, 156, 157, 158, 172,
177, 181, 184, 185, 186, 187, 195, 208, 213, 222,
Personality Assessment, 2, 12, 17, 26, 38, 42, 43, 44, 45, 241, 261, 262, 286, 315, 321, 326, 327
46, 47, 48, 49, 93, 94, 135, 139, 141, 143, 145, 147, Russia, 8, 11, 13, 18, 51, 190, 217, 219, 220, 221, 222,
149, 151, 153, 155, 156, 157, 159, 161, 163, 165, 223, 224, 225, 226, 227, 229, 230, 231, 233, 235,
167, 169, 171, 172, 173, 213, 217, 224, 241, 242, 236, 237, 238, 332, 349, 356, 359
260, 267, 282, 285, 321, 327, 338
Projection, 26, 35, 39, 41, 42, 45, 52, 56, 57, 58, 65, 113, S
114, 115, 116, 117, 118, 119, 122, 126, 127, 131,
132, 133, 134, 150, 151, 154, 166, 170, 179, 184, Self esteem, 19, 37, 64, 77, 88, 91, 94, 104, 105, 107, 114,
119, 140, 141, 142, 143, 144, 145, 146, 147, 149, 189, 192, 250, 251, 252, 253, 254, 256, 258, 274,
151, 152, 153, 154, 155, 156, 157, 160, 161, 163, 275, 279, 306, 307, 311, 314, 331, 332, 333, 336,
164, 165, 168, 171, 179, 182, 184, 185, 186, 224, 338, 345, 352, 353, 354, 356, 357
226, 229, 230, 235, 247, 248, 249, 253, 269, 271, Standard deviation, 19, 64, 90, 139, 147, 148, 150, 159,
274, 282, 293, 294, 295, 298, 299, 301, 302, 306, 163, 165, 167
307, 308, 309, 311, 319, 321, 328, 330, 332, 333, Socioeconomic status, 19, 32, 249, 268, 293, 297, 298,
350, 351, 355 305, 314, 317, 320, 322, 324, 325, 326, 327, 331,
Sense of privacy, 13, 19, 64, 78, 247, 248, 253, 270, 271, 339
301, 302, 309, 327, 359
Sense of property, 13, 19, 64, 78, 88, 90, 146, 147, 148, T
149, 153, 164, 165, 227, 228, 246, 248, 250, 270,
271, 275, 300, 302, 306, 328, 330, 359 Thematic Apperception Test, 12, 34, 35, 42, 45, 46, 47,
Sexual preoccupation, 20, 64, 76, 88, 104, 105, 106, 107, 99, 117, 156, 161, 222, 250, 285, 316, 319, 326
146, 147, 151, 152, 163, 164, 165, 167, 182, 185, Turkey, 7, 9, 11, 13, 18, 126, 127, 128, 129, 134, 250, 251,
186, 227, 229, 230, 232, 247, 248, 253, 270, 271, 259, 278, 323, 324, 325, 326, 327, 329, 331, 332,
301, 302, 307, 309, 310, 329, 330, 334, 356 333, 335, 337, 338, 339, 340, 359
Snow White, 11, 19, 41, 42, 52, 54, 55, 56, 58, 62, 63,
87, 88, 89, 92, 101, 103, 104, 108, 120, 124, 125, U
178, 190, 193, 202, 203, 206, 217, 225, 226, 227,
234, 235, 245, 299, 308, 314, 332, 335, 344, 348, Undoing, 65, 104, 105, 113, 114, 115, 116, 117, 119, 123,
349, 350, 351, 353, 356, 357 126, 127, 128, 129, 131, 133, 134, 150, 151, 154,
Splitting, 30, 65, 104, 105, 113, 114, 115, 117, 119, 123, 166, 170, 189, 258, 175, 303, 314, 331, 332, 355
124, 125, 126, 127, 128, 130, 132, 134, 179, 186,

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Who is the editor of the book?

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What is the Fairy Tale Test?

What is the Fairy Tale Test?

EXPLORING THE

Doctor Carina Coulacoglou (born in 1956 in Athens, Greece) is a

CARINA COULACOGLOU, Ph.D.

CHARLES C THOMAS PUBLISHER, LTD.

This book is protected by copyright. No part of

2008 by CHARLES C THOMAS PUBLISHER, LTD.

ISBN 978-0-398-07804-1 (hard)

Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 2008002315

With THOMAS BOOKS careful attention is given to all details of manufacturing

Printed in the United States of America

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Kendler, Howard H., 1919

BF698.8 F35E97 2008

Anastasia Atsarou, Ph.D.

Pirim Dugsor Bengi

Carina Coulacoglou, Ph.D.

Manisha Das Gupta, Ph.D.

Hayriye Ertem-Vehid, Ph.D.

Alison Ferst, M.A.

Ioanna Giannopoulou, Ph.D.

Nora Goudsmit, M.A.

Zianxin Jhang, Ph.D.

Eleni Kotsoni, M.Sc., Ph.D.

Yuhui Li, Ph.D.

Niovi Michalopoulou, Psy.D.

Nilanjana Sanyal, Ph.D.

Elena Savina, Ph.D.

Simon Shagrin, M.A.

Marilena Souyouldzoglou, Ph.D.

Daphne Stamatoyanni, Ph.D.

Steven Tuber, Ph.D.

Tevfika Tunaboylu-Ikiz, Ph.D.

Rachel Wolitzky, M.A.

Ayse Elif Yavuz

In memory of Paul Kline.

decided to embark on the mission of editing the present book, when I

The following section, Cross-Cultural Applications of the FTT, includes

would like to thank my friends and colleagues: Doctor Anastasia Atsarou,

1. A Review of Projective Tests for Children:

PART II: EMPIRICAL RESEARCH

3. A Study on Aggression in Children through the Fairy Tale Test . . . . 63

PART III: THE STUDY OF DEFENSE MECHANISMS

5. The Development and Cross-Cultural Significance of

PART IV: CLINICAL APPLICATION OF THE FAIRY TALE TEST

6. The Fairy Tale Test in the Personality Assessment of

PART V: CROSS-CULTURAL APPLICATION OF THE FAIRY

PART VI: PSYCHOANALYTIC INTERPRETATIONS OF FAIRY

14. The Contribution of the Fairy Tale Test in the Psychoanalytic

(?) An in-parenthesis question mark indicates probing made by

NEW DEVELOPMENTS IN PROJECTIVE

A REVIEW OF PROJECTIVE TESTS FOR CHILDREN:

INTRODUCTION on childrens play has shown that fantasy play is a

The Rorschach Test as a (Holaday, 2000, abstract).

Rotter (1951) is credited with the development of Miale-Holsopple Sentence

Drawings Human Figure Drawings