Mastering Mathematics For Electronic Engineering

Mastering
Mathematics for Electrical and

Electronic Engineering
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Mastering
Mathematics for
Electrical and
Electronic
Engineering
Noel M. Morris
M
MACMILLAN
Noel Morris 1994
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First published 1994 by

THE MACMILLAN PRESS LTD
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and London
Companies and representatives
throughout the world
ISBN 978-0-333-59359-2 ISBN 978-1-349-13193-8 (eBook)

DOI 10.1007/978-1-349-13193-8
A catalogue record for this book is available
from the British Library.
Copy-edited and typeset by Povey-Edmondson

Okehampton and Rochdale, England
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 I
03 02 01 00 99 98 97 96 95 94
To Laura and Alex
Q Contents
List of figures and tables xiii
Preface xix
How to use this book XX
1 Fractions, roots and powers 1

1.1 Introduction
1.2 Integers, prime numbers, factors and multiples 1
1.3 Fractions 3
1.4 Ratios, per cent and per unit values 5
1.5 Direct proportion, inverse proportion and reciprocal 7
1.6 Addition and subtraction of fractions 8
1.7 Multiplication of fractions 10
1.8 Division of fractions 10
1.9 Bases and powers 11
1.10 Raising a fraction to a power 13
1.11 Fractional powers 15
1.12 Scientific notation 17
Self-test questions 19
Summary of important facts 20
2 Numbers and numbering systems 22

2.1 Introduction 22
2.2 Terminology 22
2.3 The basis of numbering systems 23
2.4 Converting an integer of any radix into decimal 25
2.5 Converting a decimal integer into another radix 26
2.6 Converting a binary integer into an octal integer 27
2.7 Converting a binary integer into a hexadecimal integer 27
2.8 Dealing with a number having a fractional part 27
2.9 Binary-coded decimal codes 28
2.10 Addition of numbers 29
2.11 Unsigned and signed binary numbers 32
2.12 Negative binary values 32
2.13 Binary subtraction 33
2.14 Binary multiplication 35
2.15 Binary division 36
Vll
Vlll Contents
3 Logarithms, the decibel and the Neper 39

3.1 . Introduction 39
3.2 The principle of logarithms 39
3.3 Common logarithms or logarithms to base 10 42
3.4 Antilogarithms - the reverse of logarithms 44
3.5 Multiplication using common logarithms 44
3.6 Division using common logarithms 45
3.7 Calculation of roots and powers using logarithms 47
3.8 The decibel 48
3.9 Voltage and current ratios in decibels 50
3.10 Natural logarithms (Naperian or hyperbolic
logarithms) 52
3.11 The Neper 54
3.12 Converting a logarithm of one base to another base 54
4 Algebra 58
4.1 Introduction 58
4.2 Basic considerations 58
4.3 Introduction to algebraic manipulation 59
4.4 Basic laws of algebra 64
4.5 Algebraic laws of indices (powers) 64
4.6 Transposition and manipulation of formulae 65
4.7 Factorising 70
4.8 Methods of solving a quadratic equation 72
5 Simultaneous equations 80
5.1 Introduction 80
5.2 General principles 80
5.3 Deducing simultaneous equations for a circuit 80
5.4 Solving simultaneous linear equations by substitution 83
5.5 Solving simultaneous equations by elimination 84
5.6 Checking the calculated values 85
5. 7 Further examples of simultaneous equations 86
5.8 Solution of simultaneous equations using determinants 94
5.9 Programs for solving simultaneous equations using the
BASIC language 98
Contents IX
6 Trigonometry 103
6.1 Introduction 103
6.2 Angles and angular measure 103
6.3 Trigonometric ratios of acute angles 105
6.4 Inverse trigonometric functions 106
6.5 The four quadrants 106
6.6 Angles greater than 360 and negative angles 107
6.7 The sine ratio 108
6.8 The graph of a sine wave 114
6.9 Period, frequency, angular frequency, amplitude and
phase angle 116
6.10 The cosine ratio 120
6.11 Graph of cosine e 121
6.12 The tangent ratio 124
6.13 The graph of tan e 126
7 Further trigonometric skills 131

7.2 The sine rule 131
7.3 The cosine rule 133
7.4 Trigonometric identities 135
7.5 Compound angle formulae 136
7.6 Product of sines and cosines 138
7.7 Double-angle formulae 139
8 Mensuration 142
8.2 Introduction to polygons 142
8.3 Areas of plane figures 143
8.4 Volume and surface area of solids 145
8.5 Area of irregular shapes 147
8.6 The mid-ordinate rule 147
8.7 Simpson's rule 148
8.8 The average value or mean value of a waveform 149
9 Graphs 154
9.2 Basic facts about graphs 154
9.3 The straight-line graph 156
X Contents
9.4 Predicting the 'best fit' straight-line graph 161

9.5 Graphical solution of linear simultaneous equations 163
9.6 Direct proportionality 165
9.7 Inverse proportionality 165
9.8 Graphs of quadratic equations 167
9.9 Graphical solution of a quadratic equation 170
9.10 Graphical solution of simultaneous equations 171
9.11 The graph of a cubic equation 174
9.12 Graph of the law of the form y = Axn 175
9.13 Law of the form y = Axn + B 180
9.14 Plotting and sketching an exponential curve of the
form y = Ae-tfr 182
9.15 Settling-time of y = Ae-tfr 184
9.16 Fall-time of y = Ae-tfr 185
9.17 Plotting and sketching a curve of the form
y = A(1- e- 11') 187
10 Vectors and phasors 195

10.2 Vector addition and subtraction 195
10.3 Phasor representation 201
10.4 Phase relationship between sinewaves 202
10.5 Phasor diagrams 205
10.6 Addition and subtraction of phasors 206
10.7 Problems involving more than two vectors or phasors 210
11 Complex numbers 213

11.2 More about imaginary numbers 215
11.3 The Argand diagram 215
11.4 The polar form of a complex number 216
11.5 Relationship between rectangular and polar complex
numbers 217
11.6 Representation of electrical impedance in complex
form 219
11.7 Addition and subtraction of complex numbers 220
11.8 Multiplication of complex numbers 222
11.9 The conjugate of a complex number 224
11.10 Division of complex numbers 225
11.11 A.C. electric circuit calculations 226
Contents Xl
12 Differentiation 233
12.2 The concept of a 'function' 233
12.3 Notation for a small change in a variable 234
12.4 Gradient and slope of a graph 235
12.5 Differentiation from first principles 237
12.6 Differentiating higher-order functions 238
12.7 Differentiating the general case of y = aX' 240
12.8 Differentiating a constant 241
12.9 Differentiating a sum of functions 241
12.10 The second derivative of a function 243
12.11 Stationary points on a graph 244
12.12 Introduction to turning points 245
12.13 Determination of maxima and minima 245
12.14 Differentiating a function of a function 249
12.15 Differential of a product 251
12.16 Differential coefficient of a quotient 252
12.17 Standard derivatives 256
13 Integration 262
13.2 Indefinite integrals and the arbitrary constant of
integration 262
13.3 Integrating X' when n = -1 265
13.4 Integrating a sum of differentials 267
13.5 Integration of trigonometrical functions 267
13.6 The definite integral - area under a curve 268
13.7 Volume of revolution 273
13.8 Mean value or average value of an alternating
waveform 275
13.9 Effective value or root-mean-square (r.m.s.) value of a
wave 277
14 Transients in electrical circuits 283

14.2 An introduction to differential equations 284
14.3 Solution of a differential equation whose variables
can be separated 284
14.4 Capacitor charge 286
14.5 Charging a capacitor when it initially stores some
charge 291
14.6 Capacitor discharge 292
xn Contents
14.7 The rise of current in an inductive circuit 297

14.8 The decay of current in an inductive circuit 301
14.9 Breaking the current in an inductive circuit 306
15 Boolean algebra and logic circuits 311

15.2 Logic signal levels 311
15.3 The AND gate 312
15.4 The OR gate 313
15.6 Truth table for a gate with more than two input
signals 315
15.6 The NOT gate 315
15.7 Boolean algebra or the algebra of logic 320
15.8 De Morgan's theorem 323
15.9 Karnaugh maps 324
15.10 Simplification of Karnaugh maps 326
15.11 Design of an electronic adding circuit 331
15.12 An introduction to fuzzy logic 333
16 Computer solution of electric circuits 336

16.2 A simple series circuit 336
16.3 Analysis of a series-parallel circuit 343
16.4 An electrical network 344
16.5 The use of '.TNOM' and '.TEMP' 346
16.6 The use of '.DC' and '.PRINT' 348
16.7 A '.AC' analysis 351
16.8 Small-signal analysis of a common-emitter amplifier 354
16.9 Transients and '.PLOT' 358
16.10 The use of subcircuits 362
16.11 Sources of SPICE-based software 365
Solutions to self-test questions 367

Index 373
0 List of figures and tables
Figures
3.1 Graph showing the value of the common logarithm of a

range of numbers 43
3.2 Cascaded electronic units 48
5.1 Analysis of an electrical circuit 81
5.2 Worked Example 5.1 87
5.3 Solution of Worked Example 5.1 87
5.6 Solution of two simultaneous equations 99
5.7 Solution of three simultaneous equations 100
5.8 Self-test question 5.6 101
6.1 (a) An acute angle, (b) a right angle, (c) an obtuse angle,
(d) a reflex angle, (e) the radian 103
6.2 The names of the sides of a right-angled triangle 105
6.3 The four quadrants of a circle 106
6.4 Trigonometric ratios which are always positive 107
6.5 Negative angles 107
6.6 Angles in the four quadrants 108
6.7 Solution to Worked Example 6.2(b) 111
6.8 Solution to Worked Example 6.2(c) 111
6.9 Solution to Worked Example 6.2(d) 112
6.11 Graph of y = csin8 114
6.12 Primary and secondary solutions of a sine equation 115
6.13 Amplitude values of a sine wave 117
6.14 Phase angle 118
6.15 Graph of cos 8 for the range 8 = -90 to 8 = 360 122
6.17 Graph of tan 8 for the range 8 = -90 to 8 = 360 126
6.18 Solution to Worked Example 6.8 127
7.1 The sine rule 131
7.2 Trigonometrical identities 135
8.1 (a) A rectangle, (b) a square, (c) a parallelogram,
(d) a trapezium 143
8.2 A number of shapes occurring in engineering practice 143
xiii
XlV List of figures and tables
8.4 Surface area and volume of some solids 145

8.6 The mid-ordinate rule 147
8.7 Simpson's rule 148
8.8 (a) A rectangular or square wave, (b) a sine wave 150
9.1 Defining points on a graph using cartesian or rectangular
co-ordinates 155
9.2 .Straight-line graphs 156
9.3 Solution of Worked Example 9.l(c) 158
9.6 The effect of an 'error' in a measured value 161
9.7 (a) An electrical circuit, (b) its graphical solution 164
9.8 Graph of xy = k or y = k/x 166
9.9 Safe working area for a semiconductor device 167
9.10 Parabolas for which parameters b and c are both zero 168
9.11 Parabolas for which parameter b is zero 169
9.12 The effect of parameter b on the position of the parabola 169
9.15 Graphs of cubic equations 174
9.16 Solution to Worked Example 9. 7 176
9.17 Graph for the v-i values in Worked Example 9.8 176
9.18 Using linear graph paper with logarithmic scales marked
on it 177
9.19 Logarithmic scale divisions 178
9.20 Log-log plot, Worked Example 9.8 179
9.22 Graph of y = e-o.sr 183
9.23 A simple method of sketching a decaying exponential
curve 184
9.24 The settling-time and fall-time of y = e 11' 185
9.25 The graph of y = 10(1 - e 11') 188
10.1 Resolving force F into its horizontal and vertical
components 195
10.4 Phasor diagram representing a sine wave at (a) 8 = 0,
(b) 8 = 30, (c) 8 = 60, (d) 8 = 90 202
10.5 (a) v and i are in phase with one another, (b) i leads v by
<(>, (c) v leads i by <1> 203
10.6 (a), (b), (c) possible phasor diagrams representing Figure
10.5(a); (d), (e) possible phasor diagrams representing
Figure 10.5(b); (f), (g) possible phasor diagrams
representing Figure 10.5(c) 205
List of figures and tables XV

11.1 Representation of a complex number 213
11.2 The Argand diagram 216
11.3 Relationship between rectangular and polar forms of a
complex number 217
11.4 Impedance triangle of a series inductive circuit 219
11.5 Conjugate of a complex number 224
11.6 A series a.c. circuit 227
11.7 Phasor diagram for the series circuit calculation 228
11.8 A parallel a.c. circuit 229
11.9 Phasor diagram for the parallel circuit calculation 230
12.1 The gradient and slope of a line 235
12.2 The gradient of a curve 235
12.3 Stationary points on a curve; '+' means a positive
gradient, '-' means a negative gradient 244
12.4 The graph of y = x 2 245
12.5 The graph of y = -x2 247
12.7 Graph showing the curve for power consumption in a
resistive circuit as the resistance changes in value 255
13.1 The area under a graph 269
13.2 Simple application of integration to determine the area
under a graph between two limits 270
13.5 Volume of revolution 273
13.6 Volume of a cylinder 274
13.7 Volume of a hemisphere 274
13.8 Examples of alternating waveforms 275
14.1 Capacitor charge 286
14.2 Transients in an R-C circuit during capacitor charge 289
14.3 Capacitor charge with an initial charge on the capacitor 292
14.4 Capacitor discharge 293
14.5 Capacitor discharge curves 294
14.6 Rise of current in an inductive circuit 297
14.7 Curves during the rise of current in an L-R circuit 299
14.8 Decay of current in an L-R circuit 301
14.9 Curves during the decay of current in an inductive circuit 303
14.11 Breaking an inductive circuit 306
XVI List of figures and tables

15.1 A simple relay two-input AND gate 312
15.2 A two-input OR gate, (a) a relay logic circuit and (b)
international symbol 314
15.3 The NOT gate, (a) relay logic circuit, (b) its international
symbol and (c) its truth table 316
15.4 Block diagram for a simple vending machine 317
15.6 Input and output waveforms for the logic circuit in
Figure 15.5(b) 320
15.7 Karnaugh map for two variables 325
15.8 Karnaugh map for f = A.B + A.B + A.B 325
15.9 Karnaugh map for three variables 326
15.10 Adjacent cells on the Karnaugh map 327
15.11 Karnaugh map, Worked Example 15.2 328
15.12 End-to-end adjacency on a three-variable Karnaugh map 329
15.13 Cells on the Karnaugh map in Figure 15.9(b) redrawn
and grouped together 329
15.14 Karnaugh map, Solution to Worked Example 15.5 331
15.15 Logic block diagram, Solution to Worked Example 15.5 331
15.16 Half-adder circuit 332
16.1 Analysis of a simple series circuit: Worked Example 16.1 338
16.2 A simple series-parallel circuit: Worked Example 16.2 343
16.3 Analysis of an electrical network: Worked Example 16.3 344
16.4 The effect of temperature on resistance: Worked
Example 16.4 346
16.5 The use of '.DC' and '.PRINT': Worked Example 16.5 349
16.6 Analysis of an a.c. circuit: Worked Example 16.6 351
16.7 (a) Simple common-emitter amplifier, (b) its simplified
equivalent circuit: Worked Example 16.7 354
16.8 (a) An R-L series circuit, (b) the pulse applied to the
circuit: Worked Example 16.8 358
16.9 'PROBE' graph of the results in Table 16.19: Worked
Example 16.8 363
16.10 The use of subcircuits: Worked Example 16.9 363
Tables
1.1 SI multiplier values 18

2.1 The first 24 numbers in the binary, octal, decimal and
hexadecimal systems 24
2.2 4-bit binary-decimal codes 29
2.3 Binary-decimal codes for higher values 29
2.4 Truth table of a binary full-adder 31
2.5 Binary numbers and their complements 32
List of figures and tables xvii
4.1 Simple tabular method of determining the roots of the

equation 2x2 - 11x- 6 = 0 for one set of factors 73
4.2 Complete table for the roots of 2x2 - 11x - 6 = 0 74
8.1 Data for Worked Example 8.3 149
9.1 Data for some straight-line graphs 156
9.2 Method of least squares: solution to Worked
Example 9.4 163
9.3 Graphical solution of linear equations 164
9.4 Graphical solution of simultaneous equations: solution
to Worked Example 9.5 171
9.5 Table for solution to Worked Example 9.6 173
9.8 Data for the graph of y = 10e-0 51 183
9.9 Table of results for the graph in Figure 9.25 188
12.1 Estimation of the gradient of y = x 2 when x = 4 236
12.3 A list of standard derivatives 256
13.1 A list of standard integrals 264
15.1 Truth table for a two-input AND gate 312
15.2 Truth table for a two-input OR gate 314
15.3 Truth table for three-input AND and OR gates 315
15.4 Input conditions: Solution to Worked Example 15.2 318
15.5 Logical combinations for Figure 15.5(b ): solution to
Worked Example 15.2 319
15.6 Double inversion rule 322
15.7. Truth table for f = A.B 324
15.8 Truth table for Worked Example 15.5 330
15.9 Truth table for a half-adder circuit 331
16.1 SPICE input file for Worked Example 16.1 338
16.2 SPICE scale suffixes 340
16.3 Some important circuit elements 340
16.4 Small signal bias solution: output file for Worked
Example 16.1 342
16.5 Input file for the analysis of a series-parallel circuit 343
16.6 Small signal bias solution for Worked Example 16.2 344
16.7 Electrical network for Worked Example 16.3: input file 345
16.8 Electrical network for Worked Example 16.3: output file 345
16.9 Worked Example 16.4: input file 347
16.10 Worked Example 16.4: output file 348
xvm List of figures and tables

16.19 Worked Example 16.8: results of the '.PLOT' line 362
0 Preface
Mathematics is an essential tool in the armoury of electrical and

electrical technicians and engineers and, in particular, there are certain
branches of mathematics which have special relevance to them. This
book covers the general background of mathematics, and places special
emphasis on the needs of electrical and electronic engineering.
The book attends to the requirements not only of students studying
on their own, but also those following BTEC ONC, OND, HNC and
HND courses, and will be specially appropriate to A-level students
intending to transfer to degree and other courses.
As well as dealing with the essential mathematics of electrical and
electronic courses, the book contains a large number of worked
examples, which help the reader to explore the subject to greater
depth. At the end of each chapter you will find not only many self-
test questions (with answers at a later stage), which will help you test
your grasp of the subject matter, but also a summary of important facts
included in the chapter.
A 'plus' feature of the book is the chapter on SPICE software
(Simulation Program with Integrated Circuit Emphasis), which is of
special relevance to the solution of all types of circuits. This software is
readily available, and a wide range of circuit solutions are described in
chapter 16. I am especially indebted to Mr P. Goss, Technical Manager
of ARS Microsystems, for his advice and assistance in the matter.
I would like to thank my wife for her support, without which the
writing of this book would not have been possible.
NOEL M. MORRIS
XIX
0 How to use this book
Mathematics forms the backbone of Electrical and Electronic Engineer-

ing courses, and this book will take the reader through a significant part
of his or her education.
The chapters of the book are listed below, together with the type of
course for which they are best suited. The symbol A designates those
suitable for science-based A-level courses, N designates those of
particular value to BTEC ONC/D courses, and H signifies those of
interest to BTEC HNC/D courses.
Chapter
1 Fractions, roots and powers - A, N
2 Numbers and numbering systems- A, N, H
3 Logarithms, the decibel and the Neper- A, N, H
4 Algebra- A, N, H
5 Simultaneous equations- A, N, H
6 Trigonometry - A, N, H
7 Further trigonometric skills - A, N, H
8 Mensuration - A, N
9 Graphs- A, N, H
10 Vectors and phasors- A, N, H
11 Complex numbers- A, N, H
12 Differentiation- A, N, H
13 Integration- A, N, H
14 Transients in electrical circuits - A, H
15 Boolean algebra and logic circuits- A, N, H
16 Computer solution of electric circuits- A, N, H
Chapter 16 includes details of one of the most important computer
packages for use with electronic and electrical circuit analysis, namely
SPICE (Simulation Program with Integrated Circuit Emphasis). There
is, however, a wide range of computer packages available for the
solution of what otherwise can be very complex problems. For
example, DERIVE and MATHCAD are very suitable for the solution
of mathematical problems. This type of software is likely to revolutio-
nise the teaching of mathematics.
Most software is available through software houses which advertise in
computer magazines. A wide range of very low cost mathematical and
scientific software is also available through SHAREWARE suppliers,
which are also advertised in computer magazines.
XX
0 Fractions, roots and powers
1.1 Introduction
The word fraction means a part of the whole, where 'the whole' is the
particular size we are dealing with at the time, i.e., it could be the resistance
of a resistor, or the current in a conductor, etc.
To fully appreciate the concept of fractions, we also need to appreciate
other mathematical features such as prime numbers, factors, lowest
common multiple, highest common factor, etc. A knowledge of fractions
leads us to the concept of ratios, proportions, percentages, and so on.
By the end of this chapter the reader will be able to
understand integers, prime numbers and factors,
manipulate, add, subtract, multiply and divide fractions,
understand ratios, per cent and per unit values,
fully appreciate proportions and reciprocals,
understand the meaning of bases and powers, and work in index
notation,
raise frac~ . o powers, and deal with fractional powers (roots),
work in scientific notation.
1.2 Integers, prime numbers, factors and multiples
An integer is a whole number, i.e., 1, 2, 3, ... , and many' integers are the
product of two or more other integers. For example 6 = 2 x 3,
12 = 6 x 2 = 3 x 2 x 2, 15 = 3 x 5, etc. The integers which are multiplied
together to give a higher value are described as factors of the higher number.
Thus 2 and 3 are factors of 6, 15 has factors of 3 and 5, etc. Reducing a
number into its factors is called factorisation (see Worked Example 1.1).
Any number which has only the number itself and unity as its factors is
known as a prime number, e.g. 3 = 1 x 3, 5 = 1 x 5, etc. The reader should
note that unity is not regarded as a prime number. Examples of prime
n11mbers include 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, etc.
If we multiply two integers, say 3 x 7 = 21, we say that 21 is a multiple of
3 and 7, i.e., 3 and 7 are factors of the multiple.
The smallest number that two or more numbers divide into exactly is the
lowest common multiple (LCM) of the numbers (see Worked Example 1.2).
2 Mastering Mathematics for Electrical and Electronic Engineering
The largest number which divides exactly into two or more given numbers is
the highest common factor (HCF) of those numbers (see Worked
Example 1.3).
Worked Example 1.1 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,

Determine the prime factors of (a) 44, (b) 178, (c) 495.
Solution
To determine the prime factors of an integer, we divide the number by

a prime number (starting with the lowest prime value which will divide
into it) as follows
(a) 44 = 2 X 22 = 2 X 2 X 11
That is, the prime factors of 44 are 2, 2 and 11.
(b) 176 = 2 X 88 = 2 X 2 X 44 = 2 X 2 X 2 X 2 X 11
(c) 495 = 3 X 165 = 3 X 3 X 55= 3 X 3 X 5 X 11
Worked Example 1.2 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - .

What is the LCM of the numbers 50, 66 and 147?
Solution
One of the simplest methods of determining the LCM of the numbers is

to reduce each number to its prime numbers as follows
50 = 2 X 5 X 5 = 2 X 52
66 = 2 X 3 X 11 = 2 X 3 X 11
147 = 3 X 7 X 7 X 72
The LCM is obtained by multiplying together all the highest power
values that occur in the prime number range (powers are fully discussed
in sections 1.9-1.11). We see that the highest power of2 in each number
is 2 = 2 1, the highest power of 3 is 3 = 3 1, the highest power of 5 is
(5 x 5) = 52 , the highest power of 7 is (7 x 7) = 72 , and the highest
power of 11 is 11 = 11 1 That is
LCM = 2 X 3 X (5 X 5) X (7 X 7) X 11
= 2X 3 X 52 X 72 X 11 = 80 850
That is, the lowest number that 50, 66 and 147 will divide into exactly is
80850.
Fractions, roots and powers 3
Worked Example 1.3 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,

Determine the HCF of the numbers 36, 168 and 330.
Solution
Once again, we reduce each number to its basic prime factors as follows
36 = 2 X 2 X 3 X 3
168 = 2 X 2 X 2 X 3 X 7
330 = 2 X 3 X 5 X II
We select the lowest power of each prime number which is common to
all three numbers. These are the values 2 and 3, so that
HCF = 2 x 3 = 6
That is, 6 is the highest integer value which divides exactly into 36, 168
and 330.
1.3 Fractions
A fraction is a part of a unit or of a whole number. If, for example, the
number 3 is divided into four equal parts, then the size of each part is ~ or
3/4 of the whole number. The value above the line is the numerator, and the
value below the line is the denominator.
When the value of the numerator is less than the value of the denominator
(as it is in the above case), the fraction is known as a proper fraction. If the
value of the numerator is greater than that of the denominator, the fraction
is known as an improper fraction; ~ is an improper fraction.
An improper fraction can be expressed as a mixed number, where
mixed number= integer+ proper fraction
For example
~=3+1=1+~=1~
3 3 3 3
Fractions which have the same numerical value are known as equivalent
fractions. For example, ~ =~ (where = means 'is equivalent to'). One
method of determining the simplest equivalent fraction is to reduce the
numerator and the denominator to their prime {actors, and the factors
which are common to both can be cancelled as follows
42 t X pX 7 7 7
180 t X 2X pX 3 X 5 2 X 3X 5 30
That is, 42/180 is equivalent to 7/30. The process of cancelling numbers
which are common to both the numerator and denominator is known as
simplification of fractions.
A number such as 5.375 is known as a decimal fraction (see Chapter 2 for
details of decimal numbering systems); 5 is the integer part of the number,
and 0.375 is the fractional part, the two parts being separated by the decimal
point, which is signified by the '.'.
To convert either a proper fraction or an improper fraction into a decimal
fraction, we simply divide the numerator by the denominator as follows
5 5
6 8 = 6 + 8 = 6 + 0.625 = 6.625
Worked Example 1.4 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,
132 225 130

Simplify the following equations: (a) 252 , (b) 450 , (c) 520 .
Solution
Where possible, we should cancel terms in the numerator and

denominator which have the same value, as shown below
(a) In this case, we reduce the numerator and denominator to their
prime values
132 t X t X p X II II
252 'j. X t X pX 3 X 7 21
(b) Since 5 is clearly a common factor to the numerator and
denominator, we initially separate 5 out and cancel it as follows
225 $X 45 45
450 $X 90 90
Next we reduce the remaining numerator and denominator to
their prime values, and cancel wherever possible.
-
2
(c) In this case, 10 is a common factor in both the numerator and
denominator, hence
130 ){) X 13 13 }1
520 ){) X 52 52 4 X }1 4
1.4 Ratios, per cent and per unit values
The ratio of one value to another is the number of times one quantity is
contained within the other. In the case of a ratio, both the numerator and
the denominator have the same dimensions, i.e., they could both be voltage
or power values, so that a ratio is dimensionless. For example, if a current,
It, in one branch of a parallel circuit is 8 A, and the total current, I, supplied
to the parallel circuit is 24 A, then the ratio of It to I is
It 6
-
I 24 4
or the ratio of I to It is
The current gain of a transistor amplifier is simply the ratio of the current in
the output circuit (the load) to the current in the input circuit (the base
circuit). If the current gain is 100, the amplifier causes the current in the load
to be 100 times greater than that in the base circuit.
Sometimes a ratio is expressed using a colon (:) to separate the two
quantities. For example, we may say that
It :I= 1 : 4
or
I: It = 4: 1
where the colon is thought of as saying 'to'. That is
the ratio of It 'to' I is 1 'to' 4
A per cent(%) is a fraction which has the number 100 in its denominator;
that is, 12 per cent (12%) means 12 out of 100 or /~0 of the total value. For
example, a motor which has an efficiency of 90 per cent means that ~00 of
total electrical input power is converted into mechanical power, the
remaining 10 per cent is 'lost' (usually in heating up the surrounding
atmosphere). If we express 20 A as a percentage of 32 A we get
20
32 X 100% = 62.5%
A per unit (p.u.) value is simply a fraction of the whole, that is

per unit value =per cent value/100
A transformer with an efficiency of 92% also has a 0.92 p.u. efficiency.

Worked Example 1.5 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,
There are twelve direct current motors and 130 alternating current
motors in a factory. Express the ratio of the number of d.c. motors (a)
to the number of a.c. motors and (b) to the total number of motors in
the factory. Also (c) express the proportion of a.c. motors to the total
number of motors in the factory as a percentage.
Solution
number of d.c. motors 12 6

(a)
number of a.c. motors 130 115
(b) The total number of motors is 12 + 130 = 142, hence
number of d.c. motors 12 6
total number of motors 142 71
(c) The proportion of a.c. motors to the total number of motors
expressed as a percentage is
130
142 X 100 = 91.55%
That is, the percentage of d.c. motors is

100- 91.55 = 8.45%
Worked Example 1.6 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,
If a generator requires 110 kW of mechanical power to drive it, and the

electrical output power is 95.7 kW, calculate the overall efficiency of
the generating plant.
Solution
. _ electrical output power

p. u. effi1c1ency - . .
mechamcal mput power
95.7kW
llOkW = 0 87 p.u.
or
% efficiency= p.u. efficiency x 100 = 87%
Worked Example 1.7 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - . ,
If the electrical inp.ut power to a motor is 32 kW, and the total power
loss in the motor is 3.2 kW, determine (a) the mechanical output power
from the motor and (b) the overall efficiency of the motor.
Solution
(a) The output power from the motor is

output power = input power- loss = 32 - 3.2
= 28.8kW
(b) The overall efficiency of the motor is
. output power 28.8 0 9
effitctency = . = - - = . p.u.
mput power 32
or 90%
1.5 Direct proportion, inverse proportion and reciprocal
When one quantity changes in exact relationship with another, the two
quantities are directly proportional to one another. For example, if the
voltage applied to a resistor is doubled, then the current in the resistor
doubles. If the voltage is reduced by 25%, the current in the resistor reduces
by 25%.
We use the symbol ex to represent 'proportional to'. Since the voltage, V,
across a resistor is proportional to the current, I, flowing through it, we may
say that
Vex!
If k is the constant of proportionality between the two, we may say that
V=kl
Since the constant of proportionality in Ohm's law is the resistance, R, we
may modify the proportional relationship into an equation by saying
V=IR
Mathematically, a reciprocal relationship is an inverse relationship, so
that ~ is the reciprocal of 4, ~ is the reciprocal of 5, and so on.
If one quantity doubles when another quantity halves, the two are
inversely proportional to one another. In a resistive circuit, the current in the
circuit and the resistance of the circuit are inversely related to one another.
If, in a circuit which has a constant voltage applied to it, the resistance of the
circuit is increased by a factor of three, then the current in the circuit reduces
to one-third of its original value.
Experiment has shown that the resistance, R, of a conductor is inversely
proportional to the area, a, of the conductor. This is expressed in the form
1
Rex-
a
That is, doubling the area of the conductor has the effect of halving the
resistance of the conductor; reducing the area of the conductor by a factor of
four has the effect of increasing the resistance by a factor of four.
1.6 Addition and subtraction of fractions
Fractions can be added together or subtracted from one another if they have
the same denominator. For example
5 6 5+6 11
16+ 16 =16=16
9 4 9-4 5
8 8 8 8
If the denominators are not equal, then they should be modified so that they
have a common denominator (preferably the lowest common denominator
(LCD), which is the smallest possible value). The simplest method of
obtaining a common denominator is by multiplying the denominator values
together as follows
4 6 4 X 20 6 X 30 80 180 260
30 + 20 = 30 X 20 + 20 X 30 = 600 + 600 = 600
We can determine the LCD by determining the LCM of all the
denominators (see section 1.2) as follows
30 = 2 X 15 = 1 X 3 X 5
20 = 2 X 10 = 2 X 2 X 5
That is, the LCM of 20 and 30 (the LCD) is
2 X 3 X 5 = 30
hence
4 6 4 6xl.5 4 9
30 + 20 = 30 + 20 X 1.5 = 30 + 30
13
30
Worked Example 1.8 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,
Add the following fractions.

I 1 7 15 4 7 13
(a) 10 +15, (b) 18+ 27' (c) 5+ 12 + 14
Solution
(a) To determine the LCM of the denominators (the LCD), we break

the values 10 and 15 into their prime factors which are 10 = 5 x 2
and 15 = 5 x 3. The LCM is therefore 2 x 3 x 5 = 30, hence
I I 3 2 55 I
I 0 + 15 = 30 + 30 = 30 = 5 X 6 = 6
(b) Once again, we determine the LCM of the denominators, which
are 18 = 2 x 9 and 27 = 3 x 9, hence the LCD is 2 x 3 x 9 =54,
therefore
7 15 21 30 51
18 + 27 = 54 + 54 = 54
(c) In this case we have three denominators, and it is left as an
exercise for the reader to show that the LCD is 420, hence
4 7 13 336 245 390 971 131
5 + 12 + 14 = 420 + 420 + 420 = 420 = 2 420
Worked Example 1.9 -----------------~

3 I 8 2
Subtract the following fractions. (a) 5 3 (b) 13 9
Solution
(a) Since both denominators are prime numbers, the LCD is

5 x 3 = 15, therefore
3 I 9 5 4
5 3 15 15 15
(b) In this case the LCD is 13 x 9 = 117, and
8 2 72 26 46
13 9 117 117 117
1. 7 Multiplication of fractions
To multiply fractions we multiply the numerators together to give a resultant

numerator, and multiply the denominators together to give a resultant
denominator. If possible, the resulting fraction is simplified. For example,
let us determine~ of~ as follows (note: 'of means 'multiply by')
2 5 10 5Xt 5
-X-=-=--=-
3 8 24 12 X t 12
Worked Example 1.10 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,

5 2 1
Whatis (a) 8 of1 3, (b) 15%of4f
Solution
5 2 5 5 25
(a) - X 1- = - X - =-
8 3 8 3 24
(b) _!2_ X 4 ~ = _!..?._ X ~= ~= 2?

100 2 100 2 200 40
1.8 Division of fractions
The basic rule for division of fractions is to change the division sign to a
multiplication sign and, simultaneously, invert the dividing fraction. For
example
2 4 2 9 18 3 1
--'--=-X-=-=-=}-
3 . 9 3 4 12 2 2
Worked Example 1.11 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,
Simplify the following: (a) ~...,... 134, (b) 12% of [~-;- ~],
(c) ~8 x [~-'- ~]
25 . 5
Solution
6 3 6 14
(a) --'-- = - x - = 4
7 . 14 7 3
(b) [89"34]
12 0Yo of - -0 - = 12% of - x- = 12% of - [89 43] 23
12 2 24 2
=-X-=-=-
100 3 300 25
5 5 4 20
(c) -X [~~~]=~x [16x~]
25 4
=-X-=-
8 25 5 8 8 5 40
1
2
1.9 Bases and powers
If we multiply 4 by itself three times, it is written in the form

4 X 4 X 4 = 43
where 4 is the base, and 3 is the power, or the index or the exponent to which
the base is raised (note: the plural of index is indices).
We describe this number as 4 raised to the power of 3. Special names are
used when the power is either 2 or 3, namely squared and cubed, respectively;
for example 12 2 is twelve squared, and 43 is four cubed. Writing the number
in this way is described as index notation.
Consider the product
4 X 4 X 4 X 4 X 4 = 45
This can, alternatively, be written as follows
(4 X 4) X (4 X 4 X 4) = 42 X 43
That is
42 X 43 = 4(2+3) = 45
Hence, when we multiply numbers with the same base, we merely add the
powers together; that is
bn X bm = bn+m
where b is the base, and n and m are any power, as shown in the following
examples
53 X 54 = 57
62 X 6- 6 X 63 = 6( 2-6+ 3) = 6-l = 1/6
(32 X 32) + (34 X 33) = 34 + 37
An interesting extension to the use of powers is shown below.
27 2 = (3 X 9) 2 = 32 X 92 = 9 X 81 = 729
Consider the calculation

(2 2)3 = (2 X 2) 3 = (2 X 2) X (2 X 2) X (2 X 2)
= 26
From this we conclude that when a base raised to a power is raised to a

further power, the two powers are multiplied. For example
(53)4 = 5(3x4) = 512
and
(104)2 = 10(4x2) = 108
Let us look at the division of numbers using the index notation using the
following example.
25 /2 2 = (2 X 2 X 2 X 2 X 2)/(2 X 2) = 32/4 = 16
= 23 = 8
Also
That is when we divide numbers with the same base, we subtract the power of
the denominator from the power of the numerator, or
bn / bm = b(n-m)
For example
5s15 3 = 5s-3 = 52
and
67/610 = 67-10 = 6-3
The following calculation produces an interesting result.
32/32 = 3(2-2) = 30
Using numerical values
32 /3 2= 9/9 = 1
That is 3 = 1!
In fact, any number raised to the power zero has the value of unity. That is
2 = 1, 50 = I, 121 = 1, etc.
It also follows that
1/32 = 30/32 = 3(0-2) = 3-2
that is the power of a reciprocal is the negative of the power of the
denominator. For example
Worked Example 1.12 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,
Determine the value of (a) 52 x 53 , (b) 43 x 4, (c) 64 x 6- 5 ,

(d)2 2 +3 4 , (e) 42 +2- 1, (f) 3(2 2 )-5(3 2 ).
Solution
We write out the solution in full here but, in practice, this is not always
necessary.
(a) 52 X 53 = (5 X 5) X (5 X 5 X 5) = 25 X 125 = 3125
(b) 43 X 4 = (4 X 4 X 4) X 1 = 64
(c) 64 x 6- 5 = 6( 4 - 5) = 6- 1 = 1/6 = 0.16667
(d) 22 + 34 = (2 X 2) + (3 X 3 X 3 X 3) = 4 + 81 = 85
(e) 42 + 2- 1 = (4 x 4) + 1/2 = 16.5
(f) 3(2 2 ) - 5(3 2 ) = 3(2 X 2)- 5(3 X 3) = 12-45 = -33
1.10 Raising a fraction to a power
The rules described for integers also apply to fractions. For example
It also follows that
[3] - 2 1
4 = [~r
but
That is to say
Worked Example 1.13 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,

2
What is the value of (a) [87] X [-78] ' (b)
(c) [43] x [3]4 - ,

2 1
(d)
m 27 [~r
Solution
(a) [7]8 [7]8

- X -
2
~~ [7] (+
-
1 2
~
)~ [7] 3~ 73 ~ 0.67
- ~ - ~
8 8 83
Note: ~means 'approximately equal to'.
Remember, any number raised to the power zero has unity value.
1 ~ [3](3- 1 )~ [3] 2 ~ 9 ~
(c) [43]
-
3
X [3]-
-
4
~ - ~ -
4
- - - 0.5625
4 16
(d) [~r 7[~r = [~r2-3) = [~r1 = ~ = 1.6

Worked Example 1.14 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,
Solution
(a)
(b)
1.11 Fractional powers
We say that 5 x 5 =5 2, which is described as five squared. It follows that the

square root of 25 (or 52 ) is 5. That is
vf25 = 5
where v is the symbol for the square root. Similarly, we may say
vf64 = 8
Strictly speaking, we should say
vf64 = 8
because ( +8) 2 = 64 and ( -8) 2 = 64. That is, the square root of a number
may either have a positive sign or a negative sign. In many cases the answer
has a positive sign, but there are some cases where we must consider the
possibility of the answer having either mathematical sign.
We can also show that we are evaluating the root of a number by giving it
a fractional power. In the case of a square root, we can say that
vf25 = 25 1/ 2 = 5
vf16 = 16 1/ 2 = 4
Also, since
33 = 3 X 3 X 3 = 27
we may say that
27 113 = \/27 = 3
That is, the cube root of 27 is 3. The fourth root of a number is one, when
multiplied by itself four times gives the original number. The fifth root of a
number is one, when multiplied by itself five times gives the original
number, etc.
The rules for multiplication and division offractional roots follow the same
pattern as those for powers. For example
151/3 X 151/3 = 15(1/3+1/3) = 152/3

161/4 X 161/2 = 16(1/4+1/2) = 163/4
12 1;2 7 123/4 = 12(1/2-3/4) = 15 -1;4
gl/2-;- gl/3 = g(l/2-1/3) = gl/6
The answers to the first two of the above examples are fairly complex
because the numerator of the resulting fractional power is not unity. This
can best be understood from the following. Consider the number 16 314 ,
whose value can be determined as follows
Let us look at the following more complex calculation
25 2 / 3 X 14 1/ 3 X 18 2 / 5
14 1/2 X 185/6 X 251/3
This can be written in the form
25(2/3-1/3) X 14(1/3-1/2) X 18(2/5-5/6)

= 251/3 X 14-1/6 X 18-13/30
= 251/3 /(141/6 X 1813/30)
We will not evaluate this at this stage. Where a calculation involves several
numbers with a different base as occurs, for example, in the above
calculation, the value of each term must be worked out separately using
either a calculator or logarithms.
It is worth pointing out here that the value of many roots are irrational
numbers, i.e., they are not whole numbers and are non-recurring. For
example
J2 = 1.41421 .. .
J6 = 2.44948 .. .
Worked Example 1.15 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,
Simplify the following and determine their value.
(a) [ 1~;] 113 , (b) 625 114 x 52 ,
(c) 1252/ 3 X 27 2/ 3 X }6-l/2/(16 2 X 27-I/J X 125 1/ 3).
Solution
[ 125] I/J = 125 / = ~ = ~

13
(a) 13
27 27 1/ 3 3
(b) 625 1/ 4 X 52 = 5 X 52 = 53 = 125
125 2/ 3 X 27 2/ 3 X 16-l/2
(c)
16 2 X 27-l/3 X 125 1/3
= 125(2/3-1/3) X 27(2/3-(-1/3)) X 16(-1/2-2))
= 1251/3 271 16-5/2 = 1251/3 X 27

X X }65/2
= 5 X 27 = ~ ~ O: 132
1024 1024
1.12 Scientific notation
Engineers frequently need to use both very large and very small values,
which are both difficult to write down and manipulate. Fortunately,
scientific notation or standard form (also known as standard index form)
make the values more manageable.
For example, the number 692 500 is written in scientific notation as
6.925 x 105. That is, we write the number with one digit to the left of the
decimal point; this number is known as the mantissa. The mantissa is
multiplied by 10 raised to some power; the power is known as the exponent.
In the above case, the mantissa is 6.925, and the exponent is 5. A list of
powers of I 0 in common use and their international abbreviation is given in
Table 1.1.
For example, a voltage of 2 780 000 V is represented as 2. 78 MV, a
resistance of 1700 n as I. 7 kQ, a current of 0.0256 A as 25.6 rnA, etc.
TABLE 1.1 SI multiplier values
Multiplier Prefix Abbreviation

1012 tera- T
109 giga- G
106 mega- M
10 3 kilo- k
w-2 centi- c
w-3 milli- m
w-6 micro- ll
w-9 nano- n
10 -12 pi co- p
Numbers can easily be multiplied and divided in the scientific notation;

consider the following calculation.
(7.6 X 103 ) X (2.375 X 10-4)
(89.76 X }06) X (72 X 10-9)
7.6 X 2.375 X 10( 3 - 4 ) 18.05 x w- 1
89.76 X 72 X 10(6-9) 6462.72 X 10-3
= 0.00279 X 10(-1+3) = 0.00279 X 10 2 = 0.279
In fact, using scientific notation, we can quickly estimate the result of a
calculation as follows. If we 'round' all the values in the above calculation to
the nearest whole number, we get an 'approximate' solution as follows
8 X 2 X 10( 3- 4) =~X l (-1-(-3))

90 X 72 X 10(6-9) 6480 O
~ 0.0025 X 102 = 0.25
To add or subtract numbers in the scientific notation, we must expand them
into normal form as follows
5.6 X 104+ 2.3 X 105 - 4 X 103
= 56 000 + 230 000 - 4000 = 282 000
= 2.82 x 10 5 or 0.282 x 106
Worked Example 1.16 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - . ,
Express the following in scientific notation.

(a) 5870000, (b) 3100, (c) 0.000392.
Solution
(a) 5 870 000 = 5.87 x 106

(b) 3100 = 3.1 X 103
(c) 0.000392 = 3.92 x 10- 4

The reader should note that 10- 4 is not one of the values listed in
Table 1.1 and, in engineering circles, it is usually better to show
3.92 x 10- 4 as 0.392 x 10-3 or as 392 x 10-6 .
Self-test q u e s t i o n s - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - . ,
1.1 What are the prime factors of(a) 324, (b) 2695, (c) 1170?
1.2 What is the LCM of the numbers 21, 50 and 60?
1.3 Determine the HCF of the numbers 140, 210 and 330.
1.4 Simplify the following fractions (a)!~~, (b) }3~, (c)!~~
5 7 9 8
1.5 Add the following fractions (a) 6+ 8' (b) 10 + 30 ,
7 4
(c) 28+310.
5 7 (b) 9 8
1.6 Subtract the following (a) 6
8' 10- 30'
7 4
(c) 2 8 -3 10
1.7 If 5 per cent of the current in a circuit is 2. 3 A, what current flows
in the circuit?
1.8 If the current gain of a transistor is 122, and the input current
(the base region current) is 20 J.!A, what is the collector current?
Note: current gain= collector current/base current.
- 5 2 5 2
1.9 Evaluate the following (a) 6 x 3, (b) 6+ 3,
2 5
(c) 15% of (1 3 x 6), (d) SI x 32 + 2I .
1.10 Determine the value of the following. (a) [85] 2
' (b) [1]
2
2
x 2
3'
(c) [~r' _,_ [~r 2 , (d) [~f + [~f
1.11 Express the following in scientific notation (a) 101 010,
(b) 0.0010101, (c) 101.01.
1.12 Write down the following values using the abbreviations in
Table 1.1 (a) 2560000, (b) 6.7 x 10 11 , (c) 10.3 x 10-4 ,
(d) 7.9 X 10- 11 .
1.13 Evaluate the following (a) (9.3 x 105 ) x (7.6 x 104 )/5 x 108 ,
(b) (1.7 X 104 - 15 X 103 )/7 X 102
Summary of important facts
An integer is a whole number, and a prime number is one which cannot be

divided exactly by another whole number (except unity); examples of prime
numbers include 2, 3, 5, 7, II, 13, 17. The smallest number that two or more
other numbers divide into exactly is the lowest common multiple (LCM) of
the numbers, and the largest number which divides exactly into two or more
given numbers is the highest common factor (HCF) of those numbers.
A fraction is part of a whole quantity; the value above the line in the
fraction is the numerator, and the value below the line is the denominator. In
a proper fraction, the numerator is less than the denominator, and in an
improper fraction the numerator is greater than the denominator. An
improper fraction can be expressed as a mixed number, i.e., as an integer in
association with a proper fraction. Fractions which have the same numerical
value, i.e., I /2 and 2/4 are equivalent fractions. Some fractions can be
simplified by cancelling out prime factors in the numerator and
denominator. A decimal fraction comprises an integer part and a fractional
part, the two parts being separated by a decimal point.
A ratio is a fraction in which the numerator and the denominator have the
same dimensions, i.e., it is dimensionless.
Per cent(%) means per hundred, and a per cent value means a fraction out
of 100 units. Per unit (p.u.) means a fraction out of the whole, and the per
cent value is 100 times greater than the per unit value.
When one item is directly proportional to another, the two quantities
increase in relation to one another, i.e., when one doubles, both double in
value. Two items are inversely proportional to one another if, for example,
doubling the value of one results in the other halving in value. A reciprocal
relationship is an inverse relationship.
When adding or subtracting fractions, they must have a common
denominator. The lowest common denominator (LCD) is the LCM of the
denominators. To multiply fractions, the numerators are multiplied to give a
resultant numerator, and the denominators are multiplied to give a resultant
denominator. If possible, the fraction should be simplified. To divide
fractions, the division sign is changed to a multiplication sign, and the
dividing fraction is inverted.
When a value is written as 35, the number 3 is the base and 5 is the index
or power. When multiplying numbers having the same base, the indices are
added. When dividing numbers having the same base, the index of the
denominator is subtracted from the numerator index. When a base which is
raised to a power is raised to a further power, the indices are multiplied.
When a number is raised to the power zero (0), its value is 1. A base raised to
a negative power is the reciprocal of the base raised to the corresponding
positive power. When a number is raised to a fractional power, the
denominator of the fraction is the root of the number, and the numerator is the
power.
A number written in scientific notation or standard form has one digit to

the left of the decimal point, and the remainder to the right of it; this part is
known as the mantissa. The mantissa is multiplied by 10 raised to a power;
the power of 10 is known as the exponent. The most important engineering
exponents are listed in Table 1.1.
Numbers and numbering systems
2.1 Introduction
Numbers are at the heart of all arithmetic processes, and there are many
numbering systems in use, each having its own particular advantage. The
most popular is the decimal or denary system, which is widely used by man.
Perhaps the next most important in engineering terms is the binary system,
which is used in all computer systems; many versions of the binary system
are in use including the octal system, the hexadecimal system, and a range of
binary-coded decimal (BCD) systems. Many versions of binary numbering
system are used in data transmission systems, several of which have built-in
redundancy in the code which allow them to be used for error-detection and
correction of the transmitted data.
Many binary numbering systems are designed for special purposes such as
the reliable measurement of the position of an object such as the arm of a
robot, etc. Since these systems are designed with a special purpose in mind,
many of the normal mathematical processes such as addition, subtraction,
multiplication and division may not be very easy with them.
At the end of this chapter the reader will be able to
understand the terminology of number and numbering systems,
work with decimal, hexadecimal, octal and binary numbers,
convert one numbering system to another,
fully appreciate binary-coded decimal systems (BCD),
add, subtract, multiply and divide binary numbers.
2.2 Terminology
The number' of digits used in a numbering system is known as the base or
radix of the system. For example
the binary system has a radix of 2
the octal system has a radix of 8
the decimal or denary system has a radix of 10
the hexadecimal system has a radix of 16
The value of each term in a number is equal to one of the radix values
multiplied by a power (which depends on the 'position' within the number).
22
Numbers and numbering systems 23
For example
decimal 985 = (9 x 102) + (8 x 10 1) + (5 x 10)
We have already looked at powers in chapter 1, where we saw that any
number raised to the power zero is equal to 1. That is, 10 = 1, 8 = 1,
2 = 1, etc. Also, the spaces both to the right and left of any number are
assumed to be filled with non-significant zeros. That is
986 = 000986.000
The maximum value for any digit in a numbering system is
maximum value = radix - 1
For example, the largest value that may be written down in any position in
the decimal number is (10- 1) = 9, in the octal system it is (8- 1) = 7, in
the binary system it is (2- 1) = 1, etc. It follows that the largest number a
3-digit decimal system can store is 999, in a 3-digit octal system it is 777, and
in a 3-digit binary system it is 111.
To differentiate between numbering systems, the radix is written down as
a suffix as follows
binary 1011 is written down as 1011 2
octal 1011 is written down as 1011 8
decimal lOll is written down as 1011 10
hexadecimal 1011 is written down as 1011 16
The most significant character in a decimal number is known as the most
significant digit (msd), and the least significant digit character is the least
significant digit (lsd). A Binary digiT is known as a bit, and the most
significant character in a binary number is known as the most significant bit
(msb), and the least significant character is the least significant bit (lsb).
2.3 The basis of numbering systems

The integer part and fractional part of a number are separated by the radix
point. That is, the radix point is in the position where the power to which the
radix is raised becomes negative. For example, the decimal number 26.58
can be written
26.58 = (2 x IO') + (6 x 10) + (5 x w-') + (8 x w- 2)
In the case of a decimal number, the radix point is known as the decimal
point, and in the case of a binary system it is known as the binary point.
A polynomial is an expression involving powers of the radix which are
written in descending order from the left. If the radix of a numbering system
is r, then an expression for a number can be written as follows
(v3 x r 3) + (v2 x r2 ) + (v, x r 1) +(vox r0 ) + (v_, x r- 1) + (v-2 x r- 2 ), etc
where v represents the value of the digit within the range zero to (radix- 1).
Thus the decimal number 3406.78 is written in the above format, where
V3 = 3, Vz = 4, Vt = 0, VO = 6, V_t = 7, V_z = 8
The first twenty-four numbers in the binary, octal, decimal and hexadecimal
systems are listed in Table 2.1. We will look in detail at some of them below.
TABLE 2.1 The first 24 numbers in the binary, octal, decimal and hexadecimal
systems
System binary octal decimal hexadecimal

Radix 2 8 10 16
00000 00 00 00
00001 01 01 01
00010 02 02 02
00011 03 03 03
00100 04 04 04
00101 05 05 05
00110 06 06 06
00111 07 07 07
01000 10 08 08
01001 II 09 09
01010 12 10 Oa
01011 13 II Ob
01100 14 12 Oc
01101 15 13 Od
01110 16 14 Oe
01111 17 15 Of
10000 20 16 10
10001 21 17 II
10010 22 18 12
10011 23 19 13
10100 24 20 14
10101 25 21 15
10110 26 22 16
lOIII 27 23 17
11000 30 24 18
As mentioned earlier, in the binary system the largest number that may be
written down in any position is I, so the decimal number 2 is written
and the decimal number 3 is written
Looking at one of the larger binary numbers in Table 2.1, we see that
OJJOJ2 = (0 X 24) + (J X 23) + (J X 22) + (0 Xi)+ (1 X 2)
That is, binary 01101 is equivalent to decimal 13.
The 'length' of the largest number a computer can handle is known as the
word length of the computer. In the early days of computing this was
typically eight bits or one byte (half a byte was formerly known as a nibble!);
today a word length of four bytes (32 bits) or greater is used in many
systems.
When the value of the number reaches the radix of the system (or an
integer multiple of the radix), the next higher-order digit is introduced. Thus
in the octal system the 8th value is
7s +Is = lOs = (I X 8 1) + (0 X 8)
The above number should be stated as 'one, zero in octal' and NOT as 'ten
octal', simply because the use of 'ten' is restricted to the decimal system. The
next higher octal value is lis, and the sixteenth number is
20s = (2 X 8 1) + (0 X 8).
In every numbering system, we must assign a character to each value.
Thus, in the hexadecimal system, we assign the character 'a' to the lOth
value, 'b' to the II th value, and so on up to the 15th which is 'f. The 16th
value in the code then becomes
1016 = (1 X 16 1) + (0 X 16)
the 17th value is
1116 = ( 1 X 16 1) + ( 1 X 16)
and so on. Clearly
ac316 =(lOw x 16 2 ) + (12w x 16 1) + (3 10 x 16)
which is equivalent to 2755 10 . The hexadecimal system may seem a little
complex at this stage but, with experience, it becomes as easy to use as the
pure binary system.
Each of the codes in Table 2.1 is described as a weighted code because each
character in the code can be given a numerical value or 'weight'. In the case
of the decimal code the 'weight' of each column is ten times that of the
column to its right; in the binary code the weight of each column increases
by a factor of 2, and in the hexadecimal code it increases by a factor of 16,
and so on.
2.4 Converting an integer of any radix into decimal
To convert a number of any radix into decimal, we merely have to expand

the number as a polynomial in powers of the radix, and add the terms, as
shown below
1011 2 =(1 x2 3 )+(0x2 2 )+(1 x2 1)+(1 x2)
= (8 + 0 + 2 + I) 10 = llw
2abc 16 = (2 x 16 3 ) +(ax 16 2 ) + (b x 16 1) + (c x 16)

= (210 X 16 3 ) + (1010 X 16 2 ) + (ll10 X 16 1) + (1210 X 16)
= (8192 + 2560 + 176 + 12)10 = 1094010
2.5 Converting a decimal integer into another radix
To convert a decimal integer to another radix, we divide the integer

repeatedly by the radix: successive remainders give the required number.
When converting a non-decimal number to another non-decimal number,
it is often convenient to convert the first non-decimal into decimal, and then
convert the decimal value into the second non-decimal number using the
methods outlined in sections 2.4 and 2.5.
Worked Example 2.1 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - .
Convert 386 10 into octal.
Solution
The procedure is as follows

8)386
8Hli remainder 2 (this is the lsd)
81._ remainder 0
0 remainder 6 (this is the msd)
That is 386 10 = 602s
Worked Example 2.2 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - .
Convert 492 10 into hexadecimal.
Solution
In this case we have to divide the number repeatedly by 16, as follows

16)492
16llQ remainder 12 10 or c 16 (lsd)
16}l remainder 14 10 or e 16
0 remainder 1 (msd)
or 49210 = lec16
2.6 Converting a binary integer into an octal integer

The procedure is fairly straightforward, because we simply divide the binary
value into groups of three bits (adding, where necessary, non-significant
zeros). Each group is then written down as its octal equivalent value.
For example, we convert the binary value 1101011 into octal as follows
1 101 011 2 = 001 101 0112 = 153s
2. 7 Converting a binary integer into a hexadecimal integer

In this case, we simply divide the binary number into groups of four bits
(adding any necessary non-significant zeros). Each group is then written
down as its hexadecimal equivalent. For example
111001101 2 = 0001 1100 11012 = lcd, 6
2.8 Dealing with a number having a fractional part

In many cases a number has both an integer and a fractional part, e.g.,
25.86 10 , 1011.001 2 , 3abe.f4 16 , etc.
When converting a non-decimal value into a decimal number, we deal with
it in the manner outlined in section 2.4, an example being given in Worked
Example 2.3.
When converting a decimal number into any other radix, the integer part
and the fractional part are dealt with separately. The integer part is dealt
with as described in section 2.5. The fractional part is dealt with by
multiplying it repeatedly by the radix, the resulting integral part giving the
required value; the fractional part after each multiplication is passed on to
the next multiplication stage, as shown in Worked Example 2.4.
The reader is asked to note that certain exact decimal fractions, such as
0.1 10 , are represented by recurring binary fractions. The reader should verify
that 10.1 10 converts to give a recurring binary fractional part.
Worked Example 2.3 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,
Convert the octal number 756.34 8 into decimal.
Solution
756.34 8 = (7 X 82) + (5 X 8 1) + (6 X 8) + (3 X 8- 1) + (4 X 8- 2 )
= [(7 X 64) + (5 X 8) + (6 X 1) + (3/8) + (4/64)]10
= [448 + 40 + 6 + 0.375 + 0.0625]10
= 494.437510
_Worked Example 2.4 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,
Convert the decimal number 38.375 into binary.
Solution
In this case we deal with the integer and fractional parts separately in
the manner described above
Integer part Decimal part

21J.li
2ll2 remainder 0 0.375 X 2 = 0 .75
2}2 remainder 1 0.75 X 2 = I .5
2M remainder 1 0.5 x 2 = 1 (lsb)
2)1 remainder 0
211 remainder 0
0 remainder I (msb)
The integer part (38) is repeatedly divided by 2 to give the integer part
of the solution, and the fractional part of the number (0.375) is
multiplied by 2, the integer part of this calculation giving the required
value. The number is read from the msb to the lsb as follows
38.375to = 100110.011 2
2.9 Binary coded decimal codes
Whilst electronic systems deal most easily with binary numbers, mankind
prefers decimal codes. By coding decimal numbers in binary form, suitable
numbering systems can be devised which are acceptable to both man and
machine alike. Such coding systems are known as binary-coded decimal
codes (BCD codes).
The reader will note that the pure binary code in Table 2.1 uses four bits to
convey the ten decimal digits 0-9. There are, in fact, more than
29 000 million possible 4-bit codes we can use. Of these, 70 have weighted
codes, 17 of them have positive weights, and others have negative weights.
Three examples of BCD code are given in Table 2.2, the first two having
positive weights, the third having a negative weight for one of the columns.
The value of a 'I' in any column is multiplied by the 'weight' associated with
that column (note: the 'weight' is a decimal value). Consider for example
decimal 5; in the 8421 code its value is
0!0ls42l = (0 X 8) 10 +(!X 4) 10 + (0 X 2) 10 +(!X 1) 10 = 5w

TABLE 2.2 4-bit binary-decimal codes
Decimal Weighting of BCD code

number 8 4 2 1 2 4 2 1 6 4 2 (-3)
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1
2 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0
3 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 1
4 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0
5 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 I 1 0 1 1
6 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 0
7 0 1 1 1 1 I 0 I I 1 0 1
8 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 0
9 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
In the 2421 code its value is

10112421 = ( 1 X 2) 10 + (0 X 4) 10 + (1 X 2) 10 + (1 X J) 10 = 510
and in the 642( -3) code its value is
1011642(-3) = (1 X 6) 10 + (0 X 4) 10 + (1 X 2) 10 + (1 X ( -3)) 10 = 5w
When the value of the number exceeds decimal 9, the weight associated with
each column is increased by a factor of 10, as shown in Table 2.3.
TABLE 2.3 Binary-decimal codes for higher values
Decimal 8421 BCD value 2421 BCD value

number 80 40 20 10 8 4 2 1 20 40 20 10 2 4 2 1
9 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 I 1
10 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0
79 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 I 1
80 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0
2.10 Addition of numbers
For the sum

x+y=z
x is called the augend, y the addend and z the sum. If the sum exceeds the
value of the radix, a carry is produced. For example
310 + 610 = sum of 910 and no carry
310 + 9w = sum of 2 and a carry of 1
When two digits are added, the carry never exceeds 1. The carry mentioned
above is the carry-out from the sum, and this becomes the carry-in of the
next higher addition. Let us look at this in the following examples
decimal octal hexadecimal

augend 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7
addend 6 5 0 6 5 0 6 5 0
carry-in 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 0
'\ '\ '\ '\ '\ '\ '\ '\
carry-out 0 0 0 0
sum 4 2 7 6 4 7 d c 7
Generally speaking, addition in some codes (such as a BCD code) usually

requires special rules to account for the fact that it is not a natural binary
code.
(a) Addition in pure binary

The addition of binary numbers has a special place in electrical and
electronic engineering, and we will take a detailed look at it here. When we
add two binary digits, there are four possible combinations for the sum and
carry, which are as follows
0+0 = sum of 0 and a carry of 0

0+1= sum of 1 and a carry of 0
1+ 0 = sum of 1 and a carry of 0
1+ 1 = sum of 0 and a carry of 1
An electronic circuit which performs this type of addition is known as a half-

adder (see also Chapter 15) because it does not deal with the carry-in from a
previous addition stage.
A full-adder is a circuit which handles not only the addend and the augend
of the present addition, but also any carry-in from the previous stage of
addition. The operation of a full-adder is summarised as follows (see also
Table 2.4).
If all inputs are '0', the SUM= '0' and CARRY-OUT= '0'
If one input is '1', the SUM='1' and CARRY-OUT='O'
If two inputs are '1', the SUM='O' and CARRY-OUT='1'
If all inputs are '1', the SUM='1' and CARRY-OUT='1'
We will illustrate the above by means of the following example.

TABLE 2.4 Truth table of a binary full-adder
Inputs Outputs
AUGEND ADDEND CARRY-IN SUM CARRY-OUT
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 I I 0
0 I 0 I 0
0 I I 0 I
I 0 0 I 0
I 0 I 0 I
I I 0 0 I
I I I I I
Worked Example 2.5 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,
Add the following 4-bit binary values: (a) 1101 and 1010, (b) 1011 and
Ill 0.
Solution
(a) This example corresponds to 13 10 + 10 10 =23 10 , and the final sum

is the sum of the augend, the addend and the carry-in
augend 0
addend 0 0
carry-in 0 0 0
carry-out
""" """ 0 """ 0 """ 0
sum 0
As with the following example, we see that the addition of two 4-
bit numbers results in a number whose length is 5 bits. In fact, it is
generally the case that when we add two n-bit values together, the
sum may be ( n + 1) bits long. All calculators and computers are
designed to deal with this fact.
(b) In this case the sum is equivalent to 11 10 + 14 10 = 25 10
augend 0 1
addend 1 0
carry-in 0
carry-out
""" """ """ """ 0
sum 0 0
2.11 Unsigned and signed binary numbers

Up to this point, we have assumed that all binary values are positive, that is
they are unsigned numbers. The negative sign is a man-made concept which
cannot be understood by computers and electronic circuits. In the following
discussion, we will restrict our attention to 8-bit (one byte) numbers; when
dealing with the 8-bit unsigned number 1000 00002. it has the decimal value
+ 128 10 , and the number 1111 1111 2 has the decimal value + 255 10 .
A method universally adopted in electronic systems is to assign the most
significant bit (msb) of a signed binary number as a sign bit. If the value of the
sign bit is '0', then we are dealing with a positive value; that is, the largest
positive value that an 8-bit signed binary word can store is 0111 1111 2 or
+ 127 10 . If the sign bit is '1', then we are dealing with a negative number;
negative numbers are stored in what is known as binary complement form.
There are two forms of complement representation, which are explained in
section 2.12.
From the above we therefore see that, when dealing with signed numbers,
0101 0101 is a positive value, and 1010 1010 is a negative value which is
stored in binary complement form.
2.12 Negative binary values

As mentioned above, there are two forms of binary complement notation,
and they are the 1's complement and 2's complement (or true complement),
respectively.
The 1 's complement representation of a binary number is obtained as
follows
Change the O's into l's, and the 1's into O's throughout the number.
The 2's complement representation of a binary number is obtained by
either of the following methods
1. Form the l's complement of the number, and add '1' to the least
significant bit of the number so formed.
2. Copy the number (commencing at the lsb) up to and including the least
significant '1'; thereafter, change all the 1's into O's and O's into 1's.
Examples of 8-bit binary numbers and their complement form are given in
Table 2.5.
TABLE 2.5 Binary numbers and their complements
Example Binary number 1 's complement 2's complement
(i) 0000 0000 1111 1I I I 0000 0000

(ii) 0000 000 I 1111 1110 1111 1111
(iii) 0101 0101 1010 1010 1010 1011
(iv) 1000 0001 0111 1110 0111 !Ill
(v) 11111111 0000 0000 0000 000 I
Example (i) is interesting in that we see that the 2's complement of binary
zero has the same binary form as the number itself, i.e. 0 = 0! The reader
will note that the 1's complement of zero is quite different, the '1' in the msb
position indicating that -0 has a negative value.
The binary number in Examples (ii) and (iii) both have a '0' in the msb
position, indicating that the original number has a positive value. Both of
the complement forms have a 'I' in the msb position, indicating that they
are negative values, and are stored in complement notation.
The binary numbers in Examples (iv) and (v) are negative values
(indicated by the 'I' in the msb position), and the complement forms have a
'0' in the same position, indicating that they are positive values. It is
interesting to observe that the binary number in Example (v) corresponds to
-1, and the 'negative' of this (or - ( -1)) is shown as 0000 0000 in the I 's
complement notation; caution is therefore necessary when dealing with
signed binary numbers.
The use of binary complement notation is illustrated in section 2.13.
2.13 Binary subtraction

If b- c = d, b is the minuend, c the subtrahend and d the difference. To
subtract c from b, we must form the 'negative' of the subtrahend (i.e. form
the complement of the number), and add it to b; that is
b- c = b + (-c)= d
The rule for the subtraction process depends on whether we are using the 2's
complement or the I 's complement; both rules are described below.
(a) Subtraction using the signed 2's complement

The 2's complement of the subtrahend is added to the minuend. If the sign
bit of the result is '0', then the result is the true difference; if the sign bit is
'1', the result is the 2's complement ofthe difference. Any overflow (NOT
the sign bit) produced by the calculation is 'lost'.
(b) Subtraction using the signed 1 's complement

The 1's complement of the subtrahend is added to the minuend, the sum
being known as the uncorrected sum. Any overflow (NOT the sign bit)
from the calculation is added to the least significant bit of the uncorrected
sum (known as the end-around carry) to give the corrected sum. If the sign
bit of the corrected sum is '0', the result is the true difference; if the sign
bit of the corrected sum is '1', the result is the 1's complement of the
difference.
The use of these rules is illustrated in Worked Example 2.6.

Worked Example 2.6 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,
Convert the following numbers into pure binary, and calculate the
result using both 2's complement and I 's complement notation; (a)
7.75w- 5.25w, (b) 5.25w- 7.75w.
Solution
Initially we will convert the values 7.75 10 and 5.25 10 into their 8-bit
binary equivalents using the method outlined in section 2.8
+ 7.75 10 = 0111.11002
+ 5.25 10 = 0101.01002
2's complement solution
Using the method described in section 2.12 we get

-7.75w 1000.01002 (2's complement form)
-5.25w 1010.11002 (2's complement form)
(a) +7.75w 0111.11002
-5.25w 1010.11002
sum (I)OOIO.I0002 = +2.5w
~overflow (lost)
(b) +5.25w = 0101.01002
-7.75 10 1000.01002
sum 1101.10002 negative solution
Since the answer is negative, the 'true' difference is obtained by
taking the 2's complement of the answer, and giving it a negative
sign. That is
difference= -(0010.10002) =-2.5w
I 's complement solution
In this case
-7.75w = 1000.00112 (1 's complement form)
-5.25w = 1010.10112 (l's complement form)
(a) +7.75w = 0111.11002
-5.25w = 1010.10112
uncorrected sum (1)0010.01112
'end around carry'
corrected sum 0010.10002 = +2.5w
(b) +5.2510 = 0101.01002

-7.7510 = 1000.00112
(0) 1101.01112
L...__ _ o
'end around carry'
corrected sum 1101.01112 negative solution
Since the answer is negative, the 'true' difference is obtained by
taking the 1's complement of the answer and giving it a negative
sign as follows
difference= -(0010.10002) = -2.510
2.14 Binary multiplication

Given that A x B = C, A is the multiplicand, B the multiplier and C the
product. The operations in hand multiplication of binary numbers is
generally similar to hand multiplication of decimal numbers, with the
exception that we only need multiply by '1' or by '0', as illustrated in
Worked Example 2.7.
The process of multiplication in calculators and computers is much the
same, other than that the various computer 'words' are stored in registers
inside the machine, and the product is stored in a special 'double length'
register (because the product is 'longer' than the multiplicand or the
multiplier).
Worked Example 2.7 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,
Multiply 1001.12 (9.5 10) by 101.1 2 (5.5 10).
Solution
Initially we 'remove' the binary points, and proceed as follows

multiplicand 1 0 0 11
multiplier 1 0 11
10011 multiplier bit= 1
partial products
{ 1 00 11
00000
l 00 l 1
multiplier
multiplier
multiplier
bit= 1
bit= 0
bit= 1
sum of partial products 11010001
Since the multiplier has a length of 4 bits, there are four partial
products (as shown above, the position of the binary point is ignored at
this stage). These are added to give the overall product. The position of
the binary point is fixed by counting the total number of fractional
points in the multiplicand and in the multiplier, which is (1 + 1) = 2.
That is
1001.1 2 x 101.1 2 = 110100.012 = 52.25w
2.15 Binary division
If A/ B = C, A is the dividend, B the divisor and C the quotient. The process

of division by hand is generally similar to that for decimal numbers but, in
this case, we perform the subtraction process by adding the 2's complement
of the divisor, as illustrated in Worked Example 2.8.
In a calculator or in a computer, the dividend and the quotient is stored in
a register and, generally, the maximum length of the quotient depends on
the length of the register (or number of registers) in which it is stored.
Worked Example 2.8 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - . ,

Divide 1011.012 (11.2510) by 100.1 2 (4.5 10).
Solution
To overcome any problems which may occur due to the decimal point,
we convert the ratio into an 'integer' ratio as follows
1011.01 1011.01 X 22 101101
100.1 100.1 X 22 10010
That is, we 'move' both binary points two places to the right, and the
overall value of the ratio is unchanged
10.1 quotient
divisor 10010)101101 dividend
01110 2's complement of divisor
(1) is lost .-- (1)00100 ADD, record '1' in quotient
1001 'Bring down' next bit
Division not possible
10010 'Bring down' a 0 and record '0'
in quotient.
01110 2's complement of divisor
(1) is lost .-- (1)00000 ADD, record '1' in quotient
That is
1011.012 = 10.1
2
= 2.5 10
100.12
Each time we can divide by the divisor we record a '1' in the quotient
line, and add the 2's complement of the divisor.
If, after 'bringing down' the next bit after the divisor has been
subtracted, the difference is too small for division, a '0' is recorded in
the quotient, and we bring down the next bit (or a '0' if we have moved
beyond the length of the dividend), and proceed as normal.
Self-test q u e s t i o n s - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,
2.1 Convert the following into their decimal equivalents (a) 78529 ,
(b) 2734 8 , (c) 253 6, (d) 421 5 , (e) 95c 16 , (f) 93.1 14 , (g) 1011.01 2 ,
(h) 73.fl6
2.2 Translate the following decimal numbers into their pure binary
equivalents (a) 5268, (b) 23.75, (c) 0.0125.
2.3 Translate the decimal numbers in question 2.2 into hexadecimal.
2.4 Convert the following fractions into pure binary numbers (a) ft-,
(b) ~,(c) ~'(d) H
2.5 Convert the following decimal numbers into values with the
radix indicated (a) 989 into radix 8, (b) 732 into radix 6, (c) 876
into radix 5, (d) 932 into radix 3.
2.6 Convert the following numbers into the system with the radix
indicated (a) 857 9 into radix 6, (b) 576 8 into radix 9, (c) 222 5
into radix 3.
2.7 Write down the 2421 BCD value for decimal 896.
2.8 Convert the following decimal numbers into pure binary and add
them together using binary arithmetic (a) 4 + 7, (b) 16 + 20,
(c) 17.5 + 12.75, (d) 5f<,+ 2~, (e) 7.5 + 5.3 + 5~.
2.9 Convert the following decimal numbers into pure binary and
subtract them using binary arithmetic: (a) 5-2, (b) 20- 10,
(c) 4- 5, (d) 6.25- 4.25, (e) 7-2.5- 3~.
2.10 Convert the following decimal numbers into pure binary and
multiply them using binary arithmetic (a) 6 x 3, (b) 7.5 x 3.75,
(c) 0.25 X 4.25, (d) 0.5 X 4 X 0.3, (e) -2 X 6.
2.11 Divide the following using binary arithmetic (a) 6/3,
(b) 7.5/2.5, (c) 1.125/6, (d) 24.375/3.75.

The decimal or denary numbering system, having a base or radix of 10, is
most convenient to man, but computers and electronic systems use binary
systems. The pure binary system has a radix of two (i.e., the numbers '0' and
'I' are used), the octal system has a radix of 8 (0 to 7), the hexadecimal
system has a radix of 16 (0 to 15), etc. Hexadecimal numbers are 'numbered'
0, I, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, a, b, c, d, e, and f.
There are a range of binary-coded decimal (BCD) systems which are used
as an intermediate code between the binary and decimal codes. Some BCD
codes are weighted codes in which each character has its own value or
'weight' (some of them being negatively weighted), and other codes (the
majority of BCD codes) are unweighted. Some of the latter have special use
in engineering.
The radix point serves to separate the integer part of a number from the
fractional part (in the decimal system we call it the decimal point, and in a
binary system it is the binary point).
A binary digit is described as a bit, and a group of eight consecutive bits as
a byte. The word length of a computer or a calculator is usually an integral
number of bytes, i.e., 8 bits, 16 bits, 32 bits, etc.
The process of converting a number of one radix to a number of another
radix is fairly straightforward, and is explained in sections 2.4--2.7.
z
In addition, x + y = z, where xis the augend, y the addend and the sum.
If the sum of two digits exceeds the radix of the system, a carry-out is
produced; this becomes the carry-in for the addition of the next higher pair
of digits. An electronic half-adder adds two bits together, but does not deal
with the carry-in from a lower-order addition. A full-adder adds two bits
together with the carry-in from the previous stage.
The negative sign is a man-made concept and in an unsigned binary
number, the value of the number is always positive. In a signed binary
number, the most significant bit (msb) is the sign bit. If the msb is '0', then the
number is stored as a true binary number. If the msb is 'I', the number is
negative and is stored in a binary complement form. The two types of binary
complement notation are the one's complement and the two's complement (or
true complement) form. Full details are given in section 2.12.
In subtraction, b - c = d, where b is the minuend, c the subtrahend, and d
the difference. To subtract c from b, we add the 2's complement of c to b. If
the resulting sign bit is '0', the result is the true difference. If the sign bit is
'I', the result is negative and is stored in binary complement form. Any
'overflow' from the calculation is 'lost'.
Binary multiplication by hand is carried out in much the same way as
decimal multiplication by hand. Also binary division by hand is carried out in
much the same way as decimal division by hand, but any subtraction is
performed using binary complement addition.
(;')Logarithms, the decibel and
~the Neper
3.1 Introduction
An early aid to calculation was the use of logarithms, which simplified the
process of multiplication and division. Many variables both in life and in
engineering have a logarithmic relationship between them; these include
transients in circuits, and frequency response of electronic amplifiers and
transmission lines. All students of engineering need not only to understand
the basic properties of logarithms, but also how to apply them in practice.
understand the principle of logarithms,
multiply, divide and determine the value of roots and powers using
logarithms,
perform calculations using decibels (dB) and nepers,
perform calculations using natural or naperian logarithms,
convert a logarithm of one base into a logarithm of another base.
3.2 The principle of logarithms
Consider the calculation 100 x 1000. Although we can perform this

mentally, we will use it as a simple illustration of the way in which the
logarithm of a number is formed, and how multiplication is carried out
using logarithms.
Using a base of 10, we can see that
100 = 102 and 1000 = 10 3
and
100 X 1000 = 102 X 103 = 10(2+3) = 105 = 100000
If we describe the power to which the base is raised to give the number as the
logarithm of the number, then
2=logarithm of 100 to base 10
3 =logarithm of 1000_ to base 10
5=logarithm of 100000 to base 10
We can see from the above example that the logarithm of the product is the
sum of the logarithms of the numbers which are multiplied together.
39
Next we will look at the division process 100 000/100 in the following.
100000 = 10(5-2) = 103 = 1000

100
Once again we see that
5 =logarithm of 100 000 to base 10
2 =logarithm of 100 to base 10
3 =logarithm of 1000 to base 10
That is, the logarithm of a quotient is obtained by subtracting the logarithm of
the divisor from the logarithm of the dividend.
From the above examples we see that we can define a logarithm as follows
The logarithm of a number is the power to which the base must be raised
in order to give the number.
If y is a number, b is the base of the logarithm system, and x is the logarithm,

then
Y = bx
Although we cannot prove the following statement, the logarithm x is given
by
x=logby
The right-hand side of this equation is read as 'the logarithm of y to base b'.
It was shown in Chapter 1 that
b0 = 1
where b is any base value, i.e. it could be 2, 10, 15, etc. That is
Iogb 1 = 0
that is, the logarithm of 1 to any base is zero. This clearly implies that the
logarithm of a number greater than 1 has a positive value, and the logarithm of
a number less than 1 has a negative value.
Also from the above we see that
1000 = 10 3 or log 10 1000 = 3
and
1000 2 = (10 3)2 = 10( 2x 3) = 10 6 = 1000000
That is
log 10 1000 2 = log 10 1 000 000 = 6
or
Jog 10 10002 = 2 X log 10 1000 = 2 X 3 = 6
Logarithms, the decibel and the Neper 41
This means that
the logarithm of a number which is raised to a power is equal to the

product of the power and the logarithm of the number.
We can express this as follows.

1ogb Xm = m 1ogb X
for example
log 10 23 = 3log 10 2
Also, since b 1 = b then
1ogb b = 1
that is
log 10 10 = 1
log 2 2 = 1, etc.
That is, the logarithm of a number to its own base is unity.

Additionally, the reader is asked to note that a negative number does not
have a real logarithm. That is, logarithms only exist for positive numbers.
Worked Example 3.1 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,
What is the logarithm of (a) 25 to base 5, (b) 27 to base 3?
Solution
The reader will recall that

number = base raised to the power of the logarithm
(a) Since 25 = 52 , then
logarithm of 25 to base 5 = 2
or
log 5 25 = 2
(b) Here 27 = 33 , so that

logarithm of 27 to base 3 = 3
or
log 3 27 = 3
3.3 Common logarithms or logarithms to base 10

A common logarithm has a base of 10, and the logarithm of a number x to
base 10 is written as lgx, logx or as Iog10x, where xis a decimal number.
We can evaluate the common logarithm of a number by working out the
power to which 10 must be raised to give the number. If 10 is raised to 0.699,
the results is 5, that is
5 = 100.699
hence
log 5 = 0.699
That is, the logarithm of 5 to base 10 is 0.699. It also follows that the
common logarithm of 500 can be determined as follows.
500 = 5 X 100 = 10699 X 10 2 = 10(2+0-699 )
or
log 500 = 2.699
The integer part (2) of the logarithm is known as the characteristic, and the
fractional part (0.699) is the mantissa. The reader should note that the
mantissa always has a positive value (see below).
The logarithm of 0.5 is determined as follows.
o.5 = 5 x 10_' = 10699 x 10-'
= 10 (-1+0.699) = 10 -o.3ot
That is
log0.5 = -0.301
This is, in fact, the value which would be given by a calculator. Since the
whole logarithm is negative, then the characteristic of the logarithm (as
defined above) is not 0, and 0.301 is not the mantissa. When performing
calculations by hand (or by tables of logarithms) we say that
log0.5 = -0.301 = -1 + 0.699 = 1.699
This value is described as 'bar one point six, nine, nine', and the
characteristic has a value of -1 or I, and the mantissa is + 0.699. In tables
of common (and other) logarithms, only the mantissae values are listed.
The logarithm of 0.0005 is determined as follows.
o.ooo5 = s x 10-4 = 100.699 x w-4 = IO( -4+0.699)
hence
log 0.0005 = -4 + 0.699 = -3.301
or, alternatively
log 0.0005 = 4.699 (bar 4 point six, nine, nine)
Also
0 = _!_ = - 1- = Io-oo
00 }000
That is
lgO = -oo
That is, the logarithm of zero is minus infinity (this is also the case for the
logarithm of zero to any base!)
2
E
.s::.
~Cl
..Q
&::
~
E
8 0 5 10 15 20
number
-1
Figure 3.1 Graph showing the value of the common logarithm of a

range of numbers
A graph showing how the common logarithm of a number in the range

from about 0.1 to 20 changes is shown in Figure 3.1.
Worked Example 3.2 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,
Given that 7.01 = 108457 , determine the common logarithm of (a) 701,
(b) 70.1, (c) 7.01, (d) 0.701, (e) 0.00701.
Solution
(a) 701 = 100 X 7.01 = 102 X 100.8457 = 10(2+0.8457)

= 102.8457
That is log 70 I = 2.8457
(b) 70.1 = 10 X 7.01 = 101 X 100.8457 = 10(1+0.8457)
= 101.8457
That is log 70.1 = 1.8457

(c) 7.01 = 100.8457

That is log 7.01 = 0.8457
(d) 0.701 = 0.1 X 7.01 = 10-l X 108457
= 10(-1+0.8457) = 10-0.1543
That is log 70.1 = -0.1553 or 1.8457

(e) 0.00701 = 10- 3 X 7.01 = 10- 3 X 108457
= 10(-3+0.8457) = 10-2.1543
That is log0.0070l = -2.1543 or 3.8457
3.4 Antilogarithms - the reverse of logarithms
In section 3.2 we saw that

number= baselogarithm
That is, the value of a number is equal to the base raised to the logarithm of
the number. If, for example, the logarithm of a number raised to base 10 is
1.699 then, using a calculator, we can show that
number = 101. 699 = 50
The process of determining the value of a number from its logarithm is
known as taking the antilogarithm of the logarithm. If the value of a
logarithm is I .78 (or [-1 + 0.78] = -0.22), then the value of the number is
number= 10-022 = 1/1022 = 1/1.696 = 0.6026
3.5 Multiplication using common logarithms

Multiplication is carried out by adding the logarithms of the numbers, and
taking the antilogarithm of the answer.
For example the product of 28.2 and 54.3 is obtained as follows.
Number Logarithm
28.2 1.4502
54.3 1.7348
ADD 3.1850
We determine the antilogarithm of the product either by using a calculator
or a set of antilogarithm tables as follows. Using a calculator, the answer is
determined as follows
product = l 03.1 85 = 1531
Alternatively, we use the mantissa (0.1850) in association with a set of

antilogarithm tables as follows
antilog0.1850 = 1.531
and the characteristic (3) of the product tells us that this value is multiplied
by 103 That is, the product is
1.531 X 103 = 1.531 X 1000 = 1531
Let us now consider the product 3.6 x 0.0005. There are two ways of doing
this, as shown below
Number Logarithm
3.6 0.5563 0.5563
0.0005 4.6990 -3.3010
3.2553 -2.7447
The left-hand set of logarithms shown above assumes that we are using a
set of common logarithm tables, whilst the right-hand solution assumes that
we are using a calculator.
When dealing with the left-hand set of logarithms, we simply add the
mantissae as normal positive values, and the carry of I from the fractional
part simply cancels 1 from the sum of the 'bar' values, making 4 into 3 in the
solution. In the case of the right-hand set of results, it is simply a matter of
adding ( -3.3010) to +0.5563.
The solution can be obtained from the left-hand calculation using a set of
antilogarithms as follows
solution = 10- 3 X antilog 0.2553 = 10-3 X 1.8
= 0.0018
Using a calculator, the result is
result= 10-27447 = 0.0018
3.6 Division using common logarithms

Division is performed by subtracting the logarithm of the divisor from the
logarithm of the dividend. Consider the calculation 263/5.8, which is
performed below
Number Logarithm
263 2.4200
5.8 0.7634
SUBTRACT 1.6566
Using a calculator the solution is evaluated directly as follows
263/5.8 = 101.6566 = 45.35
Alternatively, using a set of antilogarithm tables, the mantissa (0.6566) and

the characteristic (1) can be used to determine the solution as follows.
solution = 10 1 x antilog 0.6566
= 10 X 4.535 = 45.35
In the above calculation we have used 4-figure logarithms, and it is of
interest to note that there is an error of only about -0.01 per cent in the
calculation due to the restriction of the number length to four figures.
Next we will consider the calculation 2.6/372, as follows.
Number Logarithm
Dividend 2.6 0.4150
Divisor 372 2.5705
SUBTRACT -2.1555 = 3.8445
The answer can be determined either by means of a calculator or a set of
antilogarithm tables as follows. Using a calculator, we get
answer= w- 21555 = 0.00699
From the tables we obtain
answer = 10-3 X antilog 0.8445 = 10-3 X 7 = 0.007
Worked Example 3.3 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,
Evaluate the following using logarithms: (a) 45.8 x 26.35,

(b) 4.58/26.35, (c) 4.58 x 2.635/37.5.
Solution
(a) Number Logarithm

45.8 1.6609
26.35 1.4208
ADD 3.0816
That is 48.5 x 26.35 = antilog3.0816 = 1030816
= 1206.8.
(b) Number Logarithm
4.58 0.6609
26.35 1.4208
SUBTRACT -0.7599 = I .2402
That is 4.85/26.35 =antilog 1.2402 = w-07599
= 0.1738.
(c) Number Logarithm

4.58 0.6609
2.635 0.4208
ADD 1.0817
37.5 1.5740
SUBTRACT -0.4923 = l .5077
Hence 4.58 x 2.635/37.5 =antilog 1.5077 = 10-0 4923
= 0.3219.
3.7 Calculation of roots and powers using logarithms
To determine the value of a number raised to a power, multiply the logarithm

of the number by the power, and evaluate the antilogarithm.
The reader will recall, of course, that a root of a number is the fractional
power, i.e., the cube root of a number implies that the number is raised to
the power 1/3.
Worked Example 3.4 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - . . . ,
Evaluate (a) y'(2.53 x 4.9), (b) (5.6 x 0.15) 1/ 3 , (c) 4- 2 , (d) 0.167-1. 6 .
Solution
(a) Initially we will complete the calculation under the square root
sign, after which we evaluate the square root of the logarithm.
Number Logarithm
2.53 0.4031
4.9 0.6902
ADD 1.0933
y'(2.53 x 4.9) =antilog (1.0933/2)
= antilog 0.5467 = 105467 = 3.5209
(b) Number Logarithm
5.6 0.7482 0.7482
0.15 -0.8239 or I.! 761
ADD -0.0757 or 1.9243
Using the left-hand result in association with a calculator
gives
(5.6 x 0.15) 1/ 3 = antilog(-0.0737/3)
= antilog ( -0.0252) = w- 0 0252 = 0.9436
The above method is to be preferred when evaluating the

solution, because a little more care is needed when we use the
right-hand result. In this case, we must make the
characteristic of the logarithm exactly divisible by 3, as
follows
1.9243 = -1 + 0.9243 = ( -1 - 2) + (2 + 0.9243)
= -3 + 2.9243
and
(5.6 x 0.15)t/ 3 = antilog((-3 +2.9243)/3)
= antilog ( -1 + 0.9748) = antilog (I .9748)
= 0.9436
(c) In this case lg4 = 0.6021
hence
4- 2 = antilog(0.6021 x (-2)) = antilog(-1.2041)
= 10-1.204t = 0.0625
Note: 4- 2 = 1/42 = 1/16 = 0.0625
(d) log 0.167 = -0.7773 or 1.2227
therefore
0.167-1.6 = antilog(-0.7773 x (-1.6))
=antilog 1.2437 = 17.52
Note: 0.167-1. 6 = 1/0.1671.6 = 1/0.0571 = 17.52
3.8 The decibel
t~
srgnal
Figure 3.2 Cascaded electronic units
Many electronic systems contain cascaded units (see Figure 3.2), so that the
signal applied to the input terminals is initially 'multiplied' or increased in
magnitude by the 'gain' At of the first stage; the magnitude of the signal
applied to the second stage is therefore (At x input signal).
The second stage of the amplifier increases the gain by A 2 , and the third
stage increases the gain by A 3 The overall gain between the input terminals
and the output is therefore (At x A2 x A3). If each of these values is a power
gain (do not confuse this with the voltaf(e f(ain or the current f(ain of the
stages, for the reason described later), then the overall power gain, Ap, of the
circuit is
Ap =AI X A2 X A3
Clearly, there is some advantage to be gained by calculating the logarithmic
gain of an amplifier, because we merely need to add the logarithmic gains
together in order to determine the overall logarithmic gain.
If the input power applied to the amplifier is P;n, and the output power
from the amplifier is pout. then
Ap =Pout
P;n
The common logarithmic gain of the amplifier is given by
Pout
1og-
P;n
The unit for this gain is the Bel (B) (named after Alexander Graham Bell,
who patented the telephone). If, for example Pout = 2 W and P;n = 0.1 W,
then the logarithmic power gain is
2
logo.l = log20 = 1.301 B
Unfortunately, the Bel is much too large a unit to be used in practice, and
the usual unit is the decibel (dB), where
1B=10dB
so that we express the power gain in dB in the form
10 log Pout
P;n
Using the above values we get
2
lOlogo.l = 10log20 = 13.01 dB
Some items of equipment, such as potentiometers, reduce or attenuate the

magnitude of the signal. For example, if the power applied to an attenuator
is 0.5 W, and the output power is 0.1 W, then the 'power gain' in is
0.1
log-= log0.2 = -0.699B
0.5
or
lOlog- 0.1 d
0.5 = 10log0.2 = -6.99 B
This is described as 'an attenuation of 6.99 dB'. The reader should note that
when we are dealing with attenuators, we use negative logarithmic values
(not 'bar' logarithmic values, i.e. we do not describe the above attenuation
as 7.01).
Worked Example 3.5 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,

The power 'gain' of each stage of a 3-stage electronic amplifier are,
respectively, 6.5 dB, 3.6 dB and -5 dB. Calculate the overall power gain
(a) in dB, (b) numerically. If the input power is 0.1 mW, what is the
output power?
Solution
(a) The overall power gain in dB is
Ap = 6.5 + 3.6 - 5 = 5.1 dB
(b) Since
.
d B power gam= 10 log-
Pout
P;n
then, using our knowledge of logarithms, it follows that
1 Pout_ dB power gain
og P;n - 10
or
Pout = 10 (dB powergain/10) = 105.1/10 = 100.51 = 3.24
P;n
That is, the amplifier provides a power amplification of 3.24,
hence
output power= 3.24 x 0.1 mW = 0.324mW.
3.9 Voltage and current ratios in decibels

The power consumed in a resistor is I 2 R, so that if power values of P 1 and
P2 are consumed in resistor R when currents I1 and h, respectively, flow in
it, then the numerical power ratio P2/ P1 is
P2 = Ii R= Ii = [h] 2
PI Il 2R Il 2 II
hence the current power ratio in dB is
p2 = 10 log -
10 log-
P1 I1
[h] 2
[h]
= 10 x 2log - = 20 lag -
I1 I1
[h] = 20logA 1
where A 1 is the numerical current amplification or current gain. Similarly, the

power P 2 consumed in R can be expressed in the form V22I R, and the power
P1 consumed in R can be expressed in the form V1 2I R, where V2 and V 1 are
the respective voltages across R when P 2 and P 1 are consumed. The voltage
power ratio in dB is therefore
Pz Vz 2 /R
10log Pt = lOlog v,zjR = lOlog Vt
[V 2] 2
= 20log[~~] = 20logAv
where A v is the numerical voltage amplification or voltage gain of the

amplifier.
In the above equations we have assumed that both P 1 and P 2 are
developed in the same value of resistance. In practice, P 1 may be the input
resistance of an amplifier (which usually has a high value), and P 2 may be
developed in a load such as a loudspeaker (which may have a low
resistance). This difference in resistanct< value is conveniently overlooked by
engineers, and it is assumed that the two values of resistance are equal to
one another! The reader should refer to Worked Example 3.6 for a typical
case.
Worked Example 3.6 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,

A lOOmV alternating signal is applied to the input of an amplifier
whose input impedance is 10 kn. If the amplifier supplies a power of
10 w to a loudspeaker of resistance 8 n, calculate the power gain and
the voltage gain of the amplifier in dB.
Solution
The input power to the amplifier is
_{input voltage) 2 _ (100 X 10-3 ) 2 _ l _ W l W
P1 - - - x 10 6 or 1.1
input resistance 10 000
Since the output power is lOW, the power gain in dB is
. output power 10
dB power gam= IOlog. = 10log 10 _6
mput power
= IOlog 107 = 10 x 7 = 70dB
The output voltage is
Vout = y'(output power x output resistance)
= y'(IO X 8) = 8.94 v
Even though the input power is developed in the I0 kn input resistance,
and the output power is developed in an 8 n loudspeaker, we ignore the
relative values of resistance, and say that
. _ output voltage_ 201 8.94
vo Itage gam - 201 og . - og 0 1
mput vo1tage .
= 20 x 1.951 = 39.02 dB
3.10 Natural logarithms (Naperian or hyperbolic logarithms)

In 1614 a Scottish farmer-mathematician named John Napier published a
paper entitled 'Description of the Marvellous Rule of Logarithms', which
included the first tables of logarithms, called natural logarithms, for aiding
calculations. These logarithms, which use the base e (= 2.71828 ... ), are also
called Naperian logarithms in his honour and, in fact, there was an early
calculator known as Napier's bones. The value of e can be calculated from
1 1 1
e = 1 + - + 1 x 2 + 1 x 2 x 3 + 1 x 2 x 3 x 4 + ad infinitum
Naperian logarithms are also called. hyperbolic logarithms. The reader will
find that naperian logarithms enter very largely into any work associated
with engineering and physical science, and a knowledge and understanding
of them is important.
The Naperian logarithm of a number x is written as loge x or In x; we shall
use the latter. The general rules applying to common logarithms also apply
to natural logarithms. For example
logee = lne = 1
logel=lnl=O
The Naperian logarithm of a number greater than unity has a positive value,
and the Naperian logarithm of a number less than unity has a negative
value. Also
ln(A x B)= InA+ lnB
ln(A/B) =InA -lnB
In An= ninA
Using either a calculator or Naperian logarithm tables, we find that

ln3 = 1.0986
that is
2. 718281.0986 = 3
hence
In 30 = ln(3 x 10) =In 3 +In 10 = 1.0986 + 2.3026
= 3.4012
and
ln0.3 = ln(3 x 0.1) = ln3 + lnO.l
= 1.0986-2.3026 = -1.204 = -2 + 0.796
= 2.796
From the above equations

ln(0.3 x 30) =In 0.3 +In 30 = -1.204 + 3.4012
= 2.1972 = ln9
and
ln(30/0.3) = In 30- In 0.3 = 3.4012- (-1.204) = 4.6052 =In 100
Also
In 100 = In 102 = 2ln 10 = 2 x 2.3026 = 4.6052
Worked Example 3.7 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
A resistor and a capacitor are connected in series to a IOV d.c.supply,

and the voltage across the capacitor t seconds after the supply is
connected is given by
vc = 10(1 - e- 0 21 ) V
Calculate the voltage across the capacitor when t = 3.5 s. Determine
also the time that has elapsed after the circuit is complete when vc
reaches 7.5 V.
Solution
Using a calculator we get, for t = 3.5 s

e-0.21 = e-0.2x3.5 = e-0.7 ~ O.S
The voltage across the capacitor when t = 3.5 s is therefore

Vc = 10(1- 0.5) = 10 X 0.5 = 5V
From the question we know that
vc = 10(1 - e- 0 -21 )
hence
vc = 1 _ e-0.21
10
or
e-0.21 = 1 _ vc
10
Taking Naperian logarithms of both sides of the equation gives:
LHS = -0.2t In e = -0.2t
RHS = In [ 1 - ~~]
That is
- 0.2t = ln[1- ~~]

or
t = - 1-1n[1-
-0.2 10
vc] = -5ln[1- vc]
10
Substituting the value of vc = 7.5V, we get
t = -5ln[1- ~-~] = -5ln0.25 = -5 x (-1.3863)
= 6.9315 s
3.11 The Neper

The Neper (N) is based on a current or voltage ratio (which should be
compared with the Bel, which is based on a power ratio), and uses Naperian
logarithms; it is mostly used in association with telecommunications
systems.
If the current at one point in a circuit is / 1, and the current at another
point is /z, then
. m
current ratio h N
. nepers = ln-
h
If, for example, the current at the transmitting end of a transmission line (/1)
is 0.1 A, and it reduces (due to line leakage) to a value of 0.05A further
along the line, then the loss in nepers is
0.05
lnOT = ln0.5 = -0.6931 N
If we calculate the loss in decibels we get

0.05 = 20log0.5 = 20 x ( -0.301 ) = -6.02dB
20logOT
That is, a ratio of 1 dB is equivalent to

( -6.02/- 0.6931) = 8.68 N
3.12 Converting a logarithm of one base to another base

We saw in section 3.2 that if x is the logarithm of a number to base a, then
y = ax and x = log 0 y
If b is the base of another set of logarithms then

Iogb y = Iogb (ax) = x Iogb a
= Ioga y x Iogb a
or
I _Iogby
ogay- Iogb a
Suppose that b = 10 (i.e. common logarithms), then the logarithm of y to

some new base a is
log Y = Iogby = log 10 y =logy

a Iogb a Iog 10 a log a
At this stage we have manipulated the equation without fully explaining
how we have done it; the reader should refer to Chapter 4 (Equations) for a
full explanation of the method of manipulation.
Suppose that we wish to convert the common logarithm of 3 into its
Naperian logarithm equivalent. In this case a= 10, y = 3 and b
(=e)= 2.718, so that
I 3 =I 3 =log 0 3 = 0.4 77 l = 1.0985

oge n loge 0.4343
If we wish to convert the logarithm to base 10 of0.3 into base e, then a= 10,
y = 0.1 and b = 2.718, and
log 0.3 -0.5229
loge 0.3 = In 0.3 = loge = 0.4 343 = -1.204
= -2 + 0.796 = 2.796
Worked Example 3.8 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - . . . . ,
Evaluate the following. (a) log 2 10, (b) log 3 9, (c) log 2 _5 5.6, (d) log 6 0.7.
Solution
log 2 10 = log 10 10 = - 1- = 3.3219

(a) log 10 2 0.3010
We can check this answer using a calculator which can
handle powers as follows
number = baselogarithm = 23.3219 = 10
log 3 9 = log 10 9 = 0.9542 = 2

(b)
log 10 3 0.4771
(c) l 56 = log 10 5.6 = 0.7482 = 1 8802

og 25 log 10 2.5 0.3979
0 7 = logw0 7 = -O.l 549 = -0.1991 = -1

(d) I
og6 log 10 6 0.7782 + 08009 = 1.8009
Self-test q u e s t i o n s - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,
3.1 Determine the common logarithm of (a) 5.72, (b) 73.7, (c) 909.2,
(d) 0.572, (e) 0.00123.
3.2 For the following common logarithms, determine the antiloga-
rithm of (a) 0.789, (b) 1.456, (c) 6.32, (d) 2.76.
3.3 Determine the Naperian logarithm of the numbers in question 3.1.
3.4 Determine the antilogarithm of the following Naperian logarithms
(a) 0.79, (b) 2.36, (c) 2.36, (d) 5.8, (e) -1.2.
3.5 Using logarithms where possible, determine the common
logarithm of (a) 7.6 x 5.4, (b) 7.6/5.4,
(c) 26.3 X 5.7 /(0.1 X 10.9), (d) ((93.2 X 6.2)/(9.7 + 7.2))-l,
(e) ./(59.2/(7.3- 5.4)).
3.6 The voltage appearing across a component t seconds after a d.c.
supply is connected is given by v = 100(1 - e- 1150 ), where tis the
time in seconds. Calculate the voltage when (a) t=35s and (b)
t = 50 s after the supply is connected. How long does it take the
voltage to rise to 80 V?
3.7 The current flowing in a circuit t seconds after a d.c. supply is
connected is given by i = 10(1 - e-tJO.I ). Determine the time when
the current is (a) 5A, (b) 8.5A.
3.8 In an electronic amplifier circuit the input current is 0.1 rnA, and
the output current is 0.008 A. Calculate the current gain (a) in dB,
(b) in nepers.
3.9 Determine the value of (a) log 5 6, (b) log4 0.2, (c) log9 4.

The logarithm of a number is the power to which the base must be raised in
order to give the number. If y is the number, b is the base and x the
logarithm, then
y=bx
or
x = logby
and x is the logarithm of y to base h. A logarithm is only real for a positive
number.
An antilogarithm (or 'antilog') is the reverse of a logarithm. That is if

1ogb y = x then
antilogbx = y = bx
Common logarithms have a base of 10, and the common logarithm of y is
written log 10 y or lgy. That is y =lOX, and x = 1og 10 y =logy.
Naperian logarithms, natural logarithms or hyperbolic logarithms use
base e (= 2.71828 ... ), and the Naperian logarithm of y is written logey or
lny. That is y =eX, and x = logey = lny.
The laws of logarithms (to any base) include the following.
log (A x B) =log A+log B
log (A/ B) = log A /log B
logAn= nlogA
log 1 = 0
The change of base rule for logarithms is
I loghy
ogay = Iogb a
If b = 10, i.e., we are using common logarithms, then

log10y
Iogay=--
loglOa
Also
loge n = 2.30261ogto n
log10 n = 0.43431oge n
The decibel (dB) is equal to ten times the common logarithm of the ratio of
two power levels, or twenty times the common logarithm of the ratio of two
voltage or current levels. Strictly speaking, the latter is only correct if the two
voltages are across the same value of resistance, or the two currents flow in
the same resistance.
. P2 v2 h
dB ratw = lOlog p 2 = 20log V2 = 20logh
where P represents a power, V a voltage, and I a current.

The dB value is positive if the ratio is greater than unity, it is zero if the
ratio is unity, and is negative if the ratio is less than unity.
The neper (N), is the Naperian logarithm of the ratio of two values of
current.
h
neper value = loge- = ln-
h
/1 /1
and 1 neper=8.686dB or 1 dB=O.ll51 N
0Aigebra
4.1 Introduction
Algebra is the branch of mathematics in which we use symbols to represent
variables. For example, if vis a velocity, tis time, and the distance covered
in time tis represented by d, then d = v x t.
In this chapter we will be meeting algebraic expressions, equations and
identities. An algebraic expression is any mathematical form which can be
represented by symbols; for example (8 - 3/) is an example of an expression,
where I may be the current in a circuit. An equation contains an equals sign,
and is only true for certain values of the variables. For example, 2 = 8 - 3I
is an equation, and is only true for I= 2. An identity is a relationship which
is true for all values of the variable and, strictly speaking, the two sides of the
identity should be related by an 'identity' sign (:=). For example,
6I = 16I- lOI is an identity which is satisfied by any value of I. In many
cases the identity sign is dropped, and is replaced by an equals sign.
Additionally, we shall be looking at more complex equations such as
quadratic equations, cubic equations, etc. A quadratic equation is an
expression of the second degree, in which the variable is raised to the power
of 2; for example ax2 + bx + c = 0 is a quadratic equation. In a cubic
equation, the variable is raised to the power of 3; ax 3 + bx2 + ex + d = 0 is a
cubic equation.
We will also learn to solve equations, that is we will determine the value of
the unknown in the equation; this value is a root of the equation (there may
be several of these).
A set of simultaneous equations is a special case where two or more
equations simultaneously apply to a problem. We frequently meet with this
situation in electrical and electronic circuits, and so important are they that
chapter 5 is devoted to their solution.
By the end of this chapter, the reader will be able to
add, subtract, multiply and divide algebraic quantities,
understand the basic laws of algebra,
understand the laws of indices (powers),
understand methods of transposing and manipulating formulae,
understand how to factorise expressions,
understand how to solve quadratic equations.
4.2 Basic considerations

When writing equations, we use the first letters in the alphabet, e.g., a, b, c,
etc., to represent constants, and the last letters in the alphabet, e.g., x, y, z,
58
Algebra 59
to represent 'unknowns' or 'variables'. Thus, in the equation

ax2 + bx + c = 0, the letters a, b, and c are constants, and x is the unknown.
The expression 2y means
2y = 2 X y = y+ y
and 3y2 means
3i = 3 X i = 3 Xy Xy
The value which precedes the variable y is called the coefficient of the
variable. That is 2y has a coefficient of 2, and 3i has a coefficient of 3. The
coefficient can have a negative value or a fractional value as follows.
-3.7i = (-3.7) Xi= (-3.7) X y X y
When a factor is common to two or more terms in an algebraic expression,
the factor can be shown outside a bracket which contains the terms it is
common to. For example
ax+ ay = a(x + y)
this is known as factorisation.
4.3 Introduction to algebraic manipulation
As with normal arithmetic, basic algebraic methods include addition,

subtraction, multiplication and division. Also, as will be seen later, these are
combined to give more complex methods of manipulation.
(a) Addition
When algebraic quantities of the same kind are added together, the
coefficients of that quantity are added. For example
x + 5x + 7x = (1 + 5 + 7)x = 13x
If an expression contains different kinds of algebraic quantity, then only
coefficients of the same kind may be added, as shown below
2x + 4z + 3y +lOx+ 2y + 3z = (2 + lO)x + (3 + 2)y + (4 + 3)z
= 12x+5y+7z
(b) Subtraction
The rule of algebraic subtraction is identical to arithmetic subtraction,
subject to the fact that the quantities being subtracted are of the same kind.
That is we cannot subtract 3x from 2y, or 6y from 9z. Simple examples are
given below.
1x- 4x = (7- 4)x = 3x

lOx- (-2x) = lOx+ 2x = (10 + 2)x = 12x
The reader will note that we use brackets around the ( -2x) to clarify the
equation (which, strictly speaking, is an identity). Also
(8x + 1y- 3z) - (lOx+ 4y- 5z)
= (8x- lOx)+ (7y- 4y) + ( -3z- 5z)
= -2x+ 3y- 8z
(c) Multiplication
Algebraic multiplication follows the normal rules of arithmetic, but due

regard should be made to the sign of the quantities being multiplied, and the
rule is
products with like signs give a positive result
products with unlike signs give a negative result.
For example
4x x 5y = 20xy
( -2x) x ( -3y) = 6xy
(-3x) x 8y = -24xy
1x x ( -6y) = -42xy
Brackets are often used to make an expression more readable. When
brackets are used, the inner brackets are simplified first, and we gradually
work to the outer brackets, as shown below.
2x[8xy- 2x(2x- 3y)] = 2x[8xy- 4x2 + 6xy] = 2x[14xy- 4x2]
= 28x2y- 8x3
This can be simplified further, because we see that 4 is a common factor of
28 and 8, and x 2 is a common factor of x 2y and x 3 That is, we can simplify
the above by taking 4x2 outside a set of brackets as follows
28x2y- 8x3 = 4x2 (1y- 2x)
If we wish to multiply (x- 3) by (y + 2), we can proceed in either of two
ways. The first method follows the general rules of multiplication and is
x-3
y+2
xy- 3y y x (x- 3)
2x- 6 2 x (x- 3)
ADD xy- 3y+ 2x- 6

Algebra 61
The second method is

(x- 3)(y + 2) = x(y + 2) - 3(y + 2)
= xy + 2x- 3y- 6
A more complex example is the product of (3x- 2y - 4) and ( -x + 4y- 3)
as follows
(3x- 2y- 4)( -x + 4y- 3)
= 3x( -x + 4y- 3) - 2y( -x + 4y- 3)- 4( -x + 4y- 3)
= (-3x2 + 12xy- 9x) + (2xy- si
+ 6y) + (4x- 16y + 12)
= -3~ + (12 + 2)xy + (-9 + 4)x + (6- 16)y- si + 12
= -3~ + 14xy- 5x- 10y- Si + 12
A note on the multiplication of negative numbers

A negative sign simply implies 'the reverse of or 'in the opposite direction
to' a positive value. Thus a value of + 4 implies an increase in the positive
direction, and -4 implies 4 'in the opposite direction'. Hence
-4 = (-1) X (+4)
We may therefore say that
(-1) X (-4) = -(-4)
That is -( -4) is a value of 4 'in the opposite direction' to -4, i.e., 4 in a
positive direction, or
(-1) X (-4) = -(-4) = +4
Also
(-1) X (-1) = -(-1) = +1
and
(-3) x (-6) = -(3 x (-6)) = -(-18) = +18, etc.
(d) Division
When dividing one algebraic value by another, the variables are written in
fractional form, i.e., 2xj3y, (2x- 3)/(4x + 5), etc. Where possible,
simplification is carried out by cancelling the coefficients in the numerator
and denominator. For example
2x2 + 4x 2x(x + 2) x+2
4x2 + 12x 4x(x + 3) 2(x + 3)
In the above case, 2x is a common factor both in the numerator and in the
denominator, and can be cancelled.
Also, the rule for mathematical signs must be obeyed, and is
When like signs are divided, the result is positive.
When unlike signs are divided, the result is negative.
For example
9x 3x 3
3x2 x 2 x
-3x2 x 2 x
-9x2 3x 3
-9x2 -3x2
-=--=-3x
3x x
3x x
-9x2 -3x2 3x
To illustrate some of the general principles, we will divide (24x- 6y + 18xy)
by 6xy as follows
24x-
_ 6y + _
____,.:-_ 18xy
. .:. ._ =24x
- -6y 18xy
-+- -
6xy 6xy 6xy 6xy
We simplify each term by cancelling common coefficients and variables as
follows
4x _L+ 3xy =~-.!_+ 3
xy xy xy y x
Worked Example 4.1 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - . ,
Simplify
(a) lOx+ 3y- 7x + 8y- x- 15y,
(b) -2x + 3(y- x) + 6y(l- 2x),
(c) 5(w- z)- 3(z- w) + 2z,
(d) (a+ b)(a +b),
(e) (x + y)(x- y),
(f) (x 2 + y 2 + xy + 2xy + y 2 )/(x + y),
(g) (6mn + 7gh + ghmn + n)jghmn.
Solution
(a) First, we group the variables in x andy as follows

10x+3y-7x+8y-x-15y
= (10- 7- l)x + (3 + 8- 15)y = 2x- 4y
Algebra 63
(b) Initially we will simplify the expression by expanding the

bracketed terms as follows.
-2x + 3(y- x) + 6y(1 - 2x) = -2x + 3y- 3x + 6y- 12xy
and then we group similar variables together
(-2- 3)x + (3 + 6)y- 12xy = -5x + 9y + 12xy
Further simplification is possible by grouping either the x and the
xy terms together, or the y and the xy terms together. Both
alternatives are left as an exercise for the reader to complete.
(c) Once again, we expand the brackets, and group the variables as
shown below.
+ 2z
5 ( w - z) - 3 (z - w)
= 5w - 5z- 3z + 3w + 2z
= (5 + 3)w + (-5-3+ 2)z = Sw- 6z
(d) This is a useful example which shows how the expansion of
(a+ b) 2 is obtained.
(a+ b)(a +b) =a( a+ b)+ b(a +b)
= a2 + ab + ba + b2
= a2 + 2ab + b2
Note: ab =ba (see also section 4.4).
(e) (x + y)(x- y) = x(x + y) + y(x- y)
= x 2 + xy + yx - i
= x2 +2xy- i
(f) x 2 + y 2 + xy + 2xy + y 2
x+y
x + (1 + 2)xy + (1 + 1)y2
2
x+y
x + 3xy + 2y2
2
x+y
(g) 6mn + 7gh + ghmn + n

ghmn
(6-1)mn+(7+1)gh+n
7mn+8gh+n
ghmn ghmn
7mn Sgh n 7 8 1
=--+--+--=-+-+-
ghmn ghmn ghmn gh mn ghm
4.4 Basic laws of algebra
The following basic laws are used to manipulate algebraic expressions
Associative law
a+ (b +c)= (a+ b)+ c

Example: 2 + (3 + 4) = (2 + 3) + 4
a(bc) = (ab)c
Example: 2 X (3 X 4) = (2 X 3) X 4
Commutative law
a+b=b+a
Example: 2 + 3 = 3 + 2
ab = ba
Example: 2 x 3 = 3 x 2
Distributive law
a(b +c) = ab + ac
Example: 2(3 + 4) = (2 x 3) + (2 x 4)
4.5 Algebraic laws of indices (powers)
These follow the general laws for the powers of numbers (see also chapter 1),
and are
(xm)n = Xmn
xifn = \lx
xmfn = \lxm
x-n = 1/xn
x0 = 1
Algebra 65
4.6 Transposition and manipulation of formulae

When we are presented by an equation such as Ohm's law, i.e.,
E=lxR
the term on the left-hand side of the equation is known as the subject of the
equation. If we wish to change the subject of the formulae to, say, the
current I, we must re-arrange or transpose the formulae. The general rule
which must be followed during transposition is
always make the same changes to both sides of the equation.
That is, if we multiply one side of the equation by a number or a variable, we
must also multiply the other side by the same factor or variable. The same
applies to division, addition, subtraction, raising to a power, etc.
Let us look at a method of making I the subject of Ohm's law. Initially, we
divide both sides of the equation by R as follows
~=/xR=l
R R
This eliminates the variable R from the right-hand side of the original
equation, so that
I=~
R
Consider the following equation for the resistance of a conductor
Ra = Ro(1 + cxofl)
where
Ra = resistance of the conductor at temperature 9
Ro = resistance of the conductor at zero degrees celsius
CXo =linear resistance-temperature coefficient referred to ooc
e = temperature in degrees celsius.
To make 9 the subject of the equation we can proceed as follows.
1. Divide both sides by Ro
Ra Ro
- = Ro (1 + exofl) = 1 + cxofl
Ro
2. Subtract unity from both sides
Ra
- - 1 = 1 + cxofl - 1 = cxofl
Ro
3. Divide both sides by cxo
9= _!_ [Ra _ 1] = exoe = 9

cxo Ro CXo
That is
8 = __!__
cto Ro
[Rs - 1]
If necessary, we can proceed a little further by re-arranging the items inside
the brackets on a common denominator of Ro as follows
Re_ 1 =Re_Ro=Re-Ro
R0 R0 R 0 R0
so that the equation may be re-written in the form
S=Re-Ro
ctoRo
Next we will consider the equation for the power consumed in a resistor,
which is
P=l2 R
If we wish to make I the subject of the formulae, we can proceed as follows
1. Divide both sides by R
P
-=-=12
PR
R R
2. Take the square root of both sides
or
1= J(P/R)
Worked Example 4.2 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,
Transpose the following equations so that the variable listed is the

subject of the equation: (a) a inS= 1/lw, (b) S2 in <l> = F/(S 1 + S2),
(c) H in llollr = B/ H, (d) R2 in RT = R1R2/(R1 + R2),
(e) Q in Z = RD/(1 + 2Q8), (f)' in i = E(l- eHIl!R),
(g) C in wo = 1/J(LC).
Solution
All the equations are taken from electrical and electronic theory in the
real world.
(a) To eliminate land 11 from the right-hand side of the equation, we
multiply both sides by 11 and divide by l as follows
ll l ll 1
Sx-=-X-=-
1 11a l a
Algebra 67
That is
SJ.i
l a
Cross-multiplying gives
aSJl =l
or
l
a=-
SJl
(b) Multiplying both sides of the equation by (S, + S2) gives
F
(S, + S2) = (S, + S2) x (S, + S2) = F
Dividing both sides by results in

(S, + S2) F
 
or
s, + s2 = F/
Subtracting S 1 from both sides of the equation yields
F
s, + s2- s, = s2 =- s,
(c) We multiply both sides of the equation by H in order to eliminate
H from the right-hand side and, simultaneously, divide both sides
by the product JloJlr as follows
H B H B
-- X JloJlr = - X -- = --
JloJlr H JloJlr JloJlr
or
B
H=-
JloJlr
(d) Initially, we multiply both sides by (R 1 + R2 ) as follows
R1R2
RT(R, + R2) = (
R, +R2
) X (R, + R2) = R,R2
that is
RTR1 + RTR2 = R1R2
Subtracting RTR2 from both sides of the equation, and
simplifying the right-hand side of the resulting equation gives
RTR1 + RTR2 - RTR2 = R1R2- RTR2 = R2(R, - RT)
That is
RrR1 = R2(R1- Rr)
Finally, dividing both sides of the equation by(R 1 - Rr) yields
R2 = RrRJ/(Rl- Rr)
(e) In this case we multiply both sides of the equation by (1 + 2Q8)
and divide both sides by Z as follows
(1 + 2Q8) Rn (1 + 2Q8) Rn
Zx Z =(1+2Q8)x Z =--z
That is
1 +2Q8 = ~
Next, we subtract unity from both sides of the equation to give
1 + 2Q8 - 1 = 2Q8 = zRn - 1

and finally we divide both sides of the equation by 28 as follows
2Q8 = Q = [ ~- 1]
28 28
(f) This is an equation relating to a transient in an electrical circuit
(see chapter 14 for details), and the equation is
i = ~(1- e- 11')
R
Initially we multiply both sides of the equation by R and divide by
E, as shown below
R E(
zx-=-1-e
0 R
-1/T) x-=1-e -1/T
E R E
Next, we subtract unity from both sides
iR- 1 = 1 - e-1/T - 1 = -e-1/T

E
To eliminate the negative sign from -e- 11', we multiply both sides
by -1 as follows
iR iR
[iR
]
RHS = ( -1) X E - 1 = - E + 1= 1- E
LHS = ( -1) x ( -e-lfr) = e-1/r

Algebra 69
so that
1- iR = e-1/t
E
or
e-1/t = 1- iR
E
The right-hand side of this equation can alternatively be written in
the form
iR E iR E- iR
1--=---=--
E E E E
giving
e-1/t = E- iR
E
Taking Naperian logarithms of both sides of the equation to base
e (see Chapter 3 for details) results in the following
t t t
LHS = - -log e = - - x 1 = - -
't e 't 't
[E-
- =In - EiR]
RHS =loge - EiR] - [E -
That is
_ ~ = In [E ~ iR]
Dividing both sides of the equation by -t gives

t 1 1
LHS= --x - = -
't -t 't
RHS = ln[(E- iR)/ E]

-t
that is
ln[(E- iR)/ E]
't -t
Finally, inverting both sides of the equation gives
-t
't=------
ln[(E- iR)/E]
Since, in practice, 't is a positive value, the equation implies that
the logarithm of the denominator must have a negative value.
That is, the ratio (E- iR) / E has a value which is less than unity!
(g) The equation is

1
wo = y'(LC)
To remove the square root sign from the right-hand side of the
equation, we 'square' both sides as follows
1 ]2 1
wi = [ y'(LC) = LC
Next, we multiply both sides by C and divide by w0 2 as follows
LHS= w0
2 c
x-= C
wo 2
1 c 1
RHS=-X-=--
LC wa 2 Lwa 2
or
4. 7 Factorising
When a factor is common to several terms in an expression, we can extract

the factor (which may either be a number or a variable or a combination of
the two) from the expression, and leave the remainder of the expression
inside a set of brackets. This process is known as factorisation.
For example, the number 3x is a common factor in the expression
(3x + 9x2 ), which is factorised as follows
3x + 9x 2 = 3x(1 + 3x)
The reader is always advised to check the answer by multiplying out the final
expression (which should give the original expression), because it is always
possible to make a simple error.
The expression x 2 + 2x can be factorised as follows
x 2 + 2x = x(x + 2)
and the following expression may be factorised as shown
9xy + 27x2y + 18xi = 9xy(1 + 3x + 2y)

In some cases it may be necessary to split the expression into several groups,
and factorise each group. Consider the expression
wy + xy - wz - xz
Algebra 71
This may be factorised as follows

wy + xy- wz- xz = y(w + x)- z(w + x)
= yA - zA = A(y- z)
where A= (w + x). The final form of the expression is, therefore

(w+x)(y-z)
Worked Example 4.3 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,

If possible, factorise the following
(a) 2z + 8q, (b) 5ax + l0bx 3 ,
(c) 42a- l4ax2, (d) v2 + v4 ,
(e) 3v2 + i 2 , (f) 2vR- 2vjX + 3iR- 3ijX,
(g) xy- xy2 + x2y- x2y2.
Solution
(a) Since the only common factor in this expression is 2, it follows

that
2z+8q=2(z+4q)
(b) In this case the common factor is 5x, so that
5ax + l0bx 3 = 5x(a + 2bx2)
(c) Here 14a is the common term, therefore
42a- l4ax2 = 14a(3- x 2)
(d) v2 is the common factor, hence
v2 + v4 = v2(1 + v2)
(e) There is no common factor in this expression, and it cannot be
factorised.
(f) Here we need to factorise the expression in several steps, as
follows
2vR- 2vjX + 3iR- 3ijX
= 2v(R- jX) + 3i(R- jX) = (R- jX)(2v + 3i)
(g) Once again, we factorise in several steps as follows
xy - xi + x 2y - x 2l
= x(y -i) + x 2(y- i) = (y- i)(x + x 2 )
4.8 Methods of solving a quadratic equation
A quadratic equation is one in which the highest power to which the

unknown quantity is raised is 2, e.g., 6x2 + llx- 10 = 0, and such
equations frequently occur in engineering.
The general form of a quadratic equation is
ax2 +bx+c = 0
where a, b and c are constants, and xis the unknown. There are four general
methods of solving quadratic equations:
I. By factorisation (where possible),
2. By 'completing the square',
3. By the use of the 'quadratic formulae',
4. Graphically (see Chapter 8).
In the type of quadratic we consider, there are (generally) two possible
solutions for the unknown value, as will be illustrated below.
(a) Solution of a quadratic equation by factorisation

In a number of cases, solution of a quadratic equation by factorisation is
fairly simple, and is obtained by extracting the factors of the equation.
Initially we must write down the equation so that it is equated to zero.
Consider the case of the equation
x 2 +x=6
This is re-written in the form
x 2 +x-6=0 (4.1)
At this stage it is not obvious that the factors of the equation are (x- 2) and
(x + 3), and we will look at a method of obtaining the correct factors.
In a simple case of this kind, the equation can be re-written in the form
(x+m)(x+n)=O
where m and n are the factors we need. If we multiply the above equation
out we get
x 2 +x(m +n) +mn = 0
Comparing this form of the equation with (4.1 ), we see that if the two
equations are equivalent, then the coefficient of x in (4.1) is equal to
(m + n), and the numerical coefficient in (4.1) is equal to mn.
To solve (4.1), we need to determine two values whose sum, i.e., (m + n),
is unity, and whose product, i.e., mn, is -6. Initially, we will write down the
factors of -6, which are (1,-6), (-6, 1), (3,-2) and (2,-3); all four of
these combinations satisfy the requirement that their product is -6.
Algebra 73
However, only the pair (3, -2) satisfy the requirement that their sum is
unity, hence
x2 + x- 6 = (x + 3)(x- 2) = 0
Since the equation is equal to zero, either of the two bracketed terms can be
zero, so that either
x +3 = 0 or x- 2 =0
that is
x = -3 or x = 2.
If either of these values is inserted into (4.1 ), we will find that the value of
the equation is zero.
We therefore say that the roots of the equation are x = -3 and x = 2.
Let us consider the following equation, which is somewhat more complex
2x 2 - llx- 6 = 0
Initially we consider the factors of the coefficient of x 2 , i.e., the factors of 2,
which are 2 and I, respectively. That is, 2x 2 simply comprises the product of
2x and x. Next we consider the factors of -6; as before, these are (3, -2),
(2, -3), ( -6, I) and (1, -6). Having done this, we look at a tabular method
of determining the roots of the equation 2x 2 - llx- 6 = 0 as follows:
Table 4.1 Simple tabular method of determining the roots of the equation
2x 2 - llx - 6 = 0 for one set of factors
2x
~
3 2x 3
x I 2x 2 X 2x 2 3x X 2x 2 3x
-2 -4x -2 -4x -6
(a) (b) (c)
We must build up a table for each set of factors and, initially, we do this
for the factors 3 and -2, as shown in Table 4.1. Firstly, we write down the
factors of 2x 2 , namely 2x and x, as shown in Table 4.l(a), and enter the
product of the two factors in the top left-hand corner.
Next, in Table 4.1 (b), we enter the first two factors of -6, namely 3 and
-2 in the top row and the left-hand column, respectively. We then multiply
each of these factors with the appropriate 'x' factor and show it inside the
table. That is, we enter ( -2 x 2x) = -4x by the side of the -2 factor, and
enter (3 x x) = 3x below the 3 factor. We will refer to these two values as
the 'diagonal' terms.
The complete version of the table is shown in Table 4.1 (c), where we enter
the product of the -2 and 3 factors in the bottom right-hand corner of the
table. Let us consider the equation again, which is
2x 2 - llx- 6 = 0
If we have selected the correct factors, the left-hand term of the equation
(2x 2) should appear in the top left-hand corner of Table 4.l(c), and the
right-hand term of the equation ( -6) should appear in the bottom right-
hand corner of the table.
The centre term of the equation ( -llx) should be equal to the sum of the
'diagonal' terms of Table 4.l(c). In our case the sum of the diagonal terms is
( -4x + 3x) = -x; clearly the factors (2x- 3) and (x- 2) are incorrect. To
obtain the correct factors, we must repeat the tabular process until the
conditions we have specified are satisfied. This is done in Table 4.2 for the
factors (3, -2) (see also Table 4.1), (2, -3), (6, -1) and (1, -6) as shown in
Table 4.2 (a), (b), (c) and (d), respectively.
Table 4.2 Complete table for the roots of 2x 2 - 11x - 6 = 0

2x 3 2x 2
X 2x2 3x X 2x 2 2x
-2 -4x -6 -3 -6x -6
(a) (b)
2x 6 2x
X 2x2 6x X 2x2 X
-1 -2x -6 -6 -12x -6
(c) (d)
We see that table 4.2(d) gives the correct solution for the sum of the
'diagonal' terms, namely ( -12x + x) = -llx, hence the equation reduces to
2x2 - llx- 6 = (2x + l)(x- 6) = 0
and the roots of the equations are obtained as follows.
2x + 1 = 0 or x= - !
x- 6 = 0 or x=6
Obtaining the roots by factorisation is not always easy, or even possible!
(b) Solution of a quadratic equation by 'completing the square'
In this method, the quadratic equation is written in the form in which the
variable, i.e., x, appears only in a term which is 'squared'. That is, an equation
of the form
ax 2 +bx+c = 0
Algebra 75
is written in the form
(x+M) 2 +N= 0
where a, b, c, M and N are constants. The reader is asked to note that the
coefficient of x in the final form of the equation is unity; one of the first
steps in this method of solution is, therefore, to divide throughout the
equation by the coefficient a, so that it appears in the form
2 b c
x +-x+-=0
a a
Let us use this method to solve the equation
2x2 - 8x - 24 = 0
Initially we reduce the coefficient of x 2 to unity by dividing throughout by 2,
as follows
x2 - 4x- 12 = 0
or
x2 - 4x = 12
That is, we have kept all the terms containing the variable on the left-hand
side of the equation. We complete the square of the left-hand side of the
equation by adding the square of half the coefficient of x to it. We must
balance the equation by adding the same value to the right-hand side of the
equation as follows
x2 - 4x + [~] = 12 + [~f = 16
Writing the left-hand side of the equation as a 'square' we have
or
(x- 2) 2 = 16
Taking the square root of both sides of the equation gives
x- 2 = V16 = 4
that is
x = 4 + 2 = +6 or -2
therefore
x 2 - 4x- 12 = (x- 6)(x + 2) = 0
Worked Example 4.4 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,
Solve the following quadratic equations by 'completing the square'

- 5x + 4 = 0, (b) x 2 + x- 6 = 0.
(a) x 2
Solution
(a) Re-writing the equation in the form

x 2 - 5x = -4
hence
x 2 - 5x + [5]2 2
[5] 2
= -4 + 2 = 2.25
That is
[x -~r= 2.25
or
5
x- 2= v2.25 = u
Therefore x = 1.5 + 2.5 = 4 or 1

That is x 2 - 5x + 4 = (x- 4)(x- 1) = 0
(b) The equation is re-written
x 2 +x=6
hence
x 2 +X+ [~r = 6 + [~r = 6.25

therefore
[x+~r= 6.25
or
X+!= V6.25 = 2.25
giving
x = 2.5 - 0.5 = -3 or 2
That is
x 2 + x- 6 = (x + 3)(x- 2) =0
Algebra 77
(c) Solving a quadratic equation using the quadratic formulae

The solution of a quadratic equation of the type
ax 2 + bx+ c = 0
can be obtained using the equation
-b y'(b 2 - 4ac)
X=----~~----~
2a
We will use the equation to solve equations at this time, and will prove it a
little later. The equation is, in fact, based on the solution of a quadratic
equation by the method of 'completing the square'. Let us solve the
equation
2x2 - lOx +8 = 0
In this case a= 2, b = -10 and c = 8. Substituting these values m the
equation gives
-(-10) y'((-10) 2 - (4 X 2 X 8))
x= 2x2
10 y'(IOO- 64) 10 -/36 10 6
4 4 4
= 4 or 1
Substituting either of these values into the equation will satisfy it.
The term (b 2 - 4ac) is known as the discriminant which, for the moment,
must either be zero or have a positive value. Since we cannot, at the moment,
take the square root of a negative quantity, we cannot deal with a negative
discriminant.
If the discriminant is negative, the equation is said to have imaginary
roots; we deal with 'imaginary' quantities in Chapter 11.
Next, we take a look at how the formulae is deduced. The original
equation is re-written in the form
ax 2 +bx = -c
or
2 b c
x+-x=--
a a
Using the method of 'completing the square' gives
b
x 2 +-x+ - = [ b] -~+ [!!_]2
a 2a a 2a
4a 2 a 4a 2
Writing the left-hand side as a 'square', we get
2 2
[X + -b] = --:-:::-
b - 4ac
2a 2 4a
Taking the square root of both sides of the equation yields

!?___ _ f[b 2 - 4ac] _ J(b2 - 4ac)
x + 2a - y 4a2 - 2a
or
x = _ !?___ J(b 2 - 4ac) = -b J(b 2 - 4ac)
2a 2a 2a
Worked Example 4.5 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,

The e.m.f., E microvolts, produced by a thermocouple operating at
temperature 0 is given by the law
E = -0.0190 2 + 6.90
The temperature is known to be in the range 250-400C. If the
thermocouple e.m.f. is 280 11 V, determine the temperature measured.
Solution
Inserting the values given, the equation becomes

280 = -0.01902 + 6.90
or
0.0190 2 - 6.90 + 280 = 0
Using the above values in the quadratic equation gives
I
O = -(-6.9) )(6.92 - (4 X 0.019 X 280))

2 X 0.019
6 9
0~0 ~~131 = 316.6C or 46SC
Since the measured temperature is known to be in the range
250-400C, the temperature is clearly 316.6C.
Self-test questions----------------------.,
4.1 Simplify (a) 1x- 6y + 3x + 15y- 8y + 1x,
(b) 5a + lOb- ( -9a) - 6b + 4(a- b),
(c) 15x + 1b + 9(b- x) - 9x.
4.2 Simplify (a) x 2 + 2xy + y2,
(b) a3 + 2a2b- 2ab2 - b3
4.3 Simplify (a) (lOx- 15y + 25xy)j5xy,
(b) xyz(x2 + y 2 (2- w) + 4wx)jwxz,
(c) (a 2 + 2ab + b2 + ab + b2)j(a +b)
Algebra 79
4.4 Transpose the following equations so that the variable listed is

the subject of the equation
(a) IinH=NljL, (b) xinB=I!!o/(21tx),
(c) Bin F = B 2a/(2!! 0 ), (d) din L = (!l/7t) ln(d/r),
(e) In in IR2 = (/R + a2 /y + ain)/3,
(f) tin i = (E/R)e-t/T,
(g) C2 in wo = J[ (~1 + ~J ]
4.5 Factorise (a) 2x2 + x- 15, (b) 2x2 + 4x- 6.
4.6 Use the factors obtained in question 4.5 to simplify
1 1
2 2
2x + x - 15 + 2x + 4x - 6
4. 7 Solve the following quadratic equations by factorisation
(a) x 2 - 1 = 0, (b) 2x2 - 3x- 9 = 0,
(c) x 2 +4x+4=0.
4.8 Solve the following quadratic equations by 'completing the
square'
(a) x 2 + 8x + 10 = 0, (b) x 2 +lOx+ 15 = 0,
(c) 4x + 16x + 5 = 0.
2
4.9 An unknown resistance is connected in series with a IOQ

resistor, the voltage across the unknown resistor being 40 V. If
the total power dissipated by the circuit is 120 W, deduce the
quadratic equation relating the current, I, to the known factors.
Solve the equation for I.
4.10 When two resistors are connected in parallel, the effective
resistance is 4.8 n, and when they are connected in series the
effective resistance is 20 n. Determine the resistance of each
resistor.

An algebraic expression is any mathematical form which can be represented
in symbols. An equation is true for certain values if the variable and an
identity is true for all values of the variable.
When transposing or manipulating an equation, it is always necessary to
make the same changes throughout the equation. Factorisation is the process
of extracting common factors from an expression; after factorising an
expression, it is advisable to check the answer by multiplying it out in full.
A quadratic equation is an equation of the second degree, i.e., one variable
is raised to the power of 2. The four methods of solving a quadratic are (a)
by factorisation, (b) by completing the square, (c) by using the quadratic
formulae and (d) graphically (see Chapter 9).
Simultaneous equations
5.1 Introduction
The formulation and solution of simultaneous equations is a fairly

problematical area for most young engineers, and it is the purpose of this
chapter to establish the principles involved.
write down the equations for a circuit,
solve simultaneous linear equations by substitution and elimination,
solve simultaneous equations by determinants,
solve simultaneous equations using the BASIC programming language.
5.2 General principles
Many electrical circuit equations involve several variables, and gives rise to
an equation such as
10 = 25!, + 20h (5.1)
Unfortunately, the equation does not give enough information to allow us
to solve it, and it is necessary to have a second equation from the same
circuit in order to determine the value of the variables I, and h Such an
equation may be
-10 =51,- 10h (5.2)
Equations (5.1) and (5.2) form a pair of simultaneous equations. In general,
in order to solve a problem of this kind we need as many simultaneous
equations as there are unknown variables. That is, if there are two unknowns,
we need two simultaneous equations to determine their value.
A knowledge of the formulation and solution of simultaneous equations
is most important to electrical and electronic engineers, and in this chapter
we look at several methods of solution.
5.3 Deducing simultaneous equations for a circuit
Consider the circuit in Figure 5.1, which contains two sources of e.m.f., each
supplying current to the circuit. The circuit has three branches or paths
through which current can flow, and these meet at node 2 (and also at
80
Simultaneous equations 81
R1=SO
2
15/3 t R3=1sn
Figure 5.1 Analysis of an electrical circuit
node 0*): we allocate currents IJ, h and h to the branches. The direction of
the current in any branch is selected at random, but the most sensible thing
to do is to draw each current arrow in the direction in which the current is
likely to flow.
At this stage, we need to know how many simultaneous equations are
needed to solve the circuit. As mentioned above, the number of equations
required is generally equal to the number of unknown variables in the
problem.
If we apply Kirchhoffs current law (KCL) to node 2 (or to node 0), we see
that
Clearly, if we know two of the three currents, we can calculate the third
current. That is, there are only effectively two unknowns, and we only need
two simultaneous equations. If we calculate the value of /1 and h then
(5.3)
The two equations can be obtained by applying Kirchhoffs voltage law
(KVL) to two closed loops in the circuit. The circuit contains three closed
loops which are, respectively, loops 0120, 0230 and 01230.t It is important
to note that each closed loop starts and finishes at the same node. Strictly
* The reader may ask why we have numbered the nodes or junctions rather than giving them
alphabetical characters and, in particular, why we have used node zero (0) as one of them. The
reason is that, in Chapter 16, we shall be looking at SPICE software (Simulation Program with
Integrated Circuit Emphasis) for the solution of electrical and electronic circuits, and this uses
numbered nodes, node zero being the reference node or zero voltage node. Where possible, we
shaH use this notation throughout the book.
t At this point we should differentiate between a loop and a mesh in a circuit. A mesh is a loop
which does not contain any other loops within it. For the circuit drawn in Figure 5.1, the closed
path 01230 is, strictly speaking, not a mesh since it contains loops 0120 and 0230 within it. For
our purposes this difference is strictly academic, but for readers wishing to proceed to higher
academic levels it is worth noting.
speaking, we can 'start' a closed loop at any node, and proceed around the
circuit in either direction. That is, the loop 2102 is technically equivalent to
the loop 0120. Since we only need two closed loops to solve for two
unknowns, we select loops 0120 and 01230.
Before applying KVL to each closed loop, we must ensure that:
1. Current arrows are assigned to each branch in the loop.

2. Voltage arrows are assigned to each e.m.f. in the loop (the arrowhead
pointing towards the more positive terminal).
3. Potential drop arrows are assigned to each resistor (the arrow pointing
in the opposite direction to the current flow through the resistor).
We commence at the 'start' node for the loop, and proceed around it until
we reach the 'finish' node, writing the loop equation as we pass round the
loop as follows
(a) Assign a positive sign to any potential arrow which points in the
direction in which we move around the loop.
(b) Assign a negative sign to any potential arrow pointing in the opposite
direction to the way in which we move around the loop.
(c) Rearrange the equation with e.m.f.s on one side of the equation, and
p.d.s on the other side.
(d) Rewrite the equation with all the variables, i.e., / 1, hand h, written in
terms of the unknowns, i.e., /1 and h.
Loop 0120
Steps 1, 2 and 3 above have been completed in Figure 5.1, and we will
proceed around the loop in the direction 0120, and will now apply steps (a}-
(c) above. Starting at node 0, we note that the potential arrow associated
with E1 (10 V) points in the direction of travel around the loop, and the
potential arrows associated with R1 and R3 oppose the direction of travel.
Accordingly, the loop voltage equation from KVL for the loop is
10 - 5h - 15h = 0
or (step (c))
10 = 5h + 15h
The use of (5.3) and step (d) above tell us that
10 = 5h + 15(/1 + lz)
= 201J + 15/z
We can also obtain this equation if we start at any node within the closed
loop and proceed either in the same direction or in the reverse direction. For
example, applying KVL to loop 2102 gives us the equation
5/l- 10 + 151) = 0
or
-10 = -5h- 151)
that is, using (5.3), we get
10 = 5/l + 151) = 20/l + 15h
Loop 01230
Applying steps (a)-(d) above to this loop gives the equation

10- 5/l + 10h- 15 = 0
or
-5 = 5/l- 10h (5.5)
The complete solution of the circuit is obtained by solving (5.4) and (5.5).
5.4 Solving simultaneous linear equations by substitution

Using the substitution method of solution, the first equation is used to
express one of the unknowns in terms of the other unknown. This
relationship is then used in the second equation to allow one of the
unknowns to be calculated, after which it is a simple matter to calculate the
other unknown, as shown below. Let us solve for / 1 and h in (5.4) and (5.5)
as follows
10 = 20/l + 15h ( (5.4) rewritten)
-5 = 5/l- lOh ((5.5) rewritten)
from (5.4) we get
20/l = 10- 15h
or
10 15
/l = 20- 20h = 0.5- 0.75h (5.6)
This completes the first stage of the solution. The second stage is completed
by substituting (5.6) into (5.5) as follows
-5 = 5/l - 10h = 5(0.5- 0.75h)- 10h
= 2.5- 3.75h- 10h = 2.5- 13.75h
or
-5-2.5 = -13.75h
that is
-7.5
h = _ 13 .75 = 0.5455A
By substituting the value of h into one of the other equations, we can

calculate the value of I 1 . Using (5.4) we get
10 = 20Ii + 15h = 20Ii + (15 X 0.5455)
= 20I, + 8.1825
that is
20I, = 10-8.1825 = 1.8175
therefore
I 1 = 1. 8175 = 0.0909A
20
The solution of the circuit is
I, = 0.0909A
h = 0.5455A
h =I, +h = 0.6364A
At this point we should apply some engineering common-sense to the
solutions. We cannot, in practice, make measurements better than about 1
per cent accuracy. Furthermore, depending on the instrument, the accuracy
may be much worse than this! The readings obtained with normal
laboratory instruments may, typically be 0.09 A, 0.55 A and 0.64 A for the
respective currents. In fact, if we connected three ammeters in the circuit as
shown, the resistance of the meters would cause the current to be slightly
different than the values calculated and, depending on the accuracy of the
meters, it may be the case that I 1 + h may not appear to be quite equal to h!
Do not despair. We are only commenting on the accuracy of instruments
and of the readings, and not on the mathematics or the method of solution.
5.5 Solving simultaneous equations by elimination
In this method, one of the unknowns is eliminated by making the

multiplying coefficient of that quantity the same in both equations. The
two equations are, appropriately, either added or subtracted, so that the
selected variable is eliminated from the equation, leaving one unknown.
After calculating the value of that unknown, the remaining unknown is
evaluated by substitution in one of the original simultaneous equations.
We will use this method to solve for I 1 and h in the circuit in Figure 5.1.
Once again, the circuit equations are
10 = 20I, + 15h ((5.4) rewritten)
-5 = 5h -lOh ((5.5) rewritten)
We can make the coefficient of I 1 the same in both equations by multiplying
(5.5) by 4; h can then be eliminated between the two equations by
subtracting them as follows
10 = 20/1 + 15h ((5.4) rewritten)

-20 = 20/1 - 40h ((5.5) x4)
SUBTRACT 30 = 55h
hence
30
h = 55 = 0.5455 A
Substituting this value into (5.4) gives
10 = 201J + (15 X 0.5455) = 201J + 8.1825
that is
20/1 = 10- 8.1825 = 1.8175
and
!1 = 1.~~75 = 0.0909 A
giving the results obtained in section 5.4. Hence
h = h + h = 0.6364 A
Once again, the values which are measured in practice may differ from the
values calculated here for the reasons mentioned earlier.
5.6 Checking the calculated values

Once a calculation has been completed, it is important to check if the results
agree with the original equations. This process takes a little time, but it is
well worth doing. If the results and the equations do not agree, there are
three general reasons, namely
1. An error in the original equations.
2. An error in the calculations.
3. The equations are not independent of one another.
Errors can be introduced when writing down the original equations, the
simplest of all being drawing the potential arrows on the circuit incorrectly.
Another source of errors is in manipulating the equations when getting them
in the final form. The only solution is to be vigilant.
Many errors in calculations are due to elementary arithmetical
operations, and a simple check on this cause is to solve the equations
using another method, i.e., solve by substitution (section 5.3) rather than by
elimination (section 5.4).
Two alternative methods of calculation will also be available to us later in
this chapter, namely solution by determinant~> (section 5.7) or by computer
solution (section 5.8), the latter also using the determinant method.
Let us check the solutions obtained for the circuit in Figure 5.1. The
solutions were / 1 = 0.0909 A and h = 0.5455 A. The equations for the
circuit are
10=20h+15h ((5.4) rewritten)
-5 =51,- 10h ((5.5) rewritten)
Substituting the solutions into (5.4) gives for the right-hand side of the
equation
RHS = (20 X 0.0909) + (15 X 0.5455)
= 1.818 + 8.1825 = 10.0005
and substituting them into (5.5) yields for the right-hand side
RHS = (5 X 0.0909)- (10 X 0.5455)
= 0.4545- 0.5455 = -5.0005
Since (5.4) was used to calculate / 1 then, strictly speaking, we should use
(5.5) to check the results.
In both cases, the small difference between the left-hand and right-hand
side of the equations are due to 'rounding' errors when writing the solution
down in the first place. Since we have written down the solutions to four
decimal places, the errors in the calculations are small enough to be ignored.
5. 7 Further examples of simultaneous equations

In this section we look at the solution of three electrical circuits.
Worked Example 5.1 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _-----.,
In the circuit in Figure 5.2, a battery of e.m.f. Es and internal resistance

0.5 n, is charged from two generators, having a respective internal
resistance of 2 n and 3 n (see Figure 5.2), which are connected in
parallel. Calculate
(a) the current supplied by each generator,
(b) the battery charging current when Es is IOV, and
(c) the terminal voltage Es of the battery when Es is lOV.
Solution
(a) The arbitrarily chosen direction of current in each branch is

shown in Figure 5.2; the directions chosen are thought to be
reasonable. The circuit is redrawn in Figure 5.3, on which the
direction of the 'potential' arrows are drawn (remember, the
direction of a potential arrow associated with a resistor opposes
the direction of current in the resistor).
fa
Va
generators
Figure 5.2 Worked Example 5.1
/2
3/2 ~ R2=3n j 0.5/s
E1=12V i E2=25V i i Ea=10V
Figure 5.3 Solution of Worked Example 5.1
We can select any suitable pair of loops, and here we select

loops 01230 and 01240, and applying KVL, we get the following
equations.
Loop 01230
10 + 0.5/B + 3/z - 25 = 0
or
-15 = -0.5/B- 3/z (5.7)
Loop 01240
10 + 0.5/B +2ft - 12 = 0
or
-2 = -0.5/B- 2/1 (5.8)
Applying KCL to node 2 gives
IB =I,+ /z (5.9)
Inserting the expression for Is into (5.7) shows that

-15 = -0.5/s- 3h = -0.5(1, +h)- 3h
= -0.51, - 3.5h (5.10)
and into (5.8) yields
-2 = -0.518 - 21, = -0.5(1, +h) - 21,
= -2.5h - 0.5h (5.11)
We can eliminate 11 between (5.10) and (5.11) by multiplying
(5.10) by 5 and subtracting (5.11) from it as follows
-75 = -2.5h - 17.5h ((5.10)x5)
-2 = -2.51, - 0.5h ((5.11) repeated)
SUBTRACT -73 = 17h
or
h = -73 I (-17) = 4.294 A
11 is calculated by substituting the value of h into (5.10) as follows
-15 = -0.5/1 - 3.5h = -0.5h - (3.5 X 4.294)
= -0.51, - 15.029
hence
h = 15- 15.029 = _ 0 .058 A
0.5
The reader should note here that / 1 has a negative value, implying
that the 'generator' E 1 receives current, rather than exporting it,
i.e., it is driven as a motor by generator E 1
Check: Inserting the values of 11 and h into (5.11) gives
RHS = -2.511 - 0.5h
= -(2.5 X ( -0.058)) - (0.5 X 4.29)
= 0.145-2.145 = -2
which agrees with the left-hand side of (5.11).
(b) From (5.9), the battery charging current is
Is = I, + h = -0.058 + 4.294 = 4.236 A
(c) We can calculate the terminal voltage V8 of the battery by writing
down the equation for the voltage across branch 012, and
inserting appropriate values as follows
Vn =En+ 0.5/s = 10 + (0.5 x 4.236) = 12.118 V
In practice we cannot measure these values quite as accurately as
they can be calculated.
Worked Example 5.2 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,
Three d.c. generators are connected in parallel with one another. The
e.m.f. and internal resistance of the generators are
Generator 1: 1 = IOOV, R 1 = 40
Generator 2: 2 = 90 V, R2 = 3 n
Generator 3: 3 = 80 V, R3 = 5 n
Calculate the terminal voltage of the generators.
Solution
The circuit is shown in Figure 5.4, together with the assumed direction
of current flow and the associated p.d. arrows across the resistors.
Applying KCL at node 4 (or node 0) gives
/1 +h +h = 0
There are three variables, but we only need two simultaneous equations
because, if we can calculate /1 and [z, we can determine h from the
following
h = -(h + lz) (5.12)
Using KVL, we will write down equations for two of the closed loops
in the circuit as follows.
Loop 01420
100- 4[] + 3/z - 90 = 0

or
10 = 4/1- 3/z (5.13)
Loop 02430
90 - 3h + 51] - 80 = 0
or
10 = 3h- 51]
that is
10 = 3h- 5(-(I, +h))= 5I, + 8h (5.14)
h can be eliminated from (5.13) and (5.14) by multiplying (5.14) by 0.8
and subtracting it from (5.13) as follows.
10=4I, -3 h ((5.13) rewritten)
8 = 4I, + 6.4h (0.8x (5.14))
SUBTRACT 2= -9.4h
or
/z = 2/ (-9.4) = -0.213 A
Substituting this value in (5.13) gives
10 = 4Ii- 3h = 4Ii- 3 X (-0.213) = 4Ii + 0.639
that is
I, = 10- ~.639 = 2.34 A
and from (5.12) we get

h =-(I,+ h)= -(2.34 + ( -0.213)) = -2.127 A
Check: Inserting the above values into (3.13) gives
RHS = 4h - 3/z = (4 X 2.34)- (3 X ( -0.213))
= 9.999
which is in very close agreement with the value of 10 on the left-hand
side of the equation.
It is interesting to note that, with no external load connected between
nodes 0 and 4, current flows in all three generators; E 1 supplies a
current of 2.34 A, whilst E2 and E3 absorb this amount of current
between them! That is to say, with no load connected, 'generators' E 2
and E 3 operate as 'motors'. We look at the case when a load is
connected to the generators in Worked Example 5.3.
The terminal voltage can be determined by following the voltages
and p.d.s in any branch between nodes 0 and 4. Choosing the branch
024, we have
Terminal voltage = V4o = 90 - 3/z
= 90- 3( -0.213) = 90.64 v
Worked Example 5.3 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,
Calculate the current in each generator in Worked Example 5.2 if a 6 Q

load is connected between nodes 0 and 4. Determine also the current in
the load and the voltage across it.
Solution
The circuit is drawn in Figure 5.5. Applying KCL to node E (or

node A) tells us that
h+h+h-h=O
or
(5.15)
where h is the load current. In other words, even though there are four
variables in (5.15), there are only three unknowns because, once we
have calculated three of them, we can determine the value of the fourth
from (5.15). We therefore need three simultaneous equations from the
circuit to solve for three unknowns; in this case we choose to solve for
/1, hand h
0 4
It is pointed out here that the solution of three simultaneous equations

is no more difficult than the solution of two simultaneous equations, it
merely takes longer.
There are four closed loops in the circuit, and we apply KVL to
loops 01420, 02430 and 0340.
Loop 01420
100- 4!, + 3h- 90 = 0

or
10 = 4!,- 3h (5.16)
Loop 02430
90 - 3/z + 5h - 80 = 0
that is
10 = 3/z- 5h (5.17)
Loop 0340
80- 51)- 6h = 0
or
80 = 5h + 6h = 5h + 6(1, + h +h)
= 6!, + 6h + 11h (5.18)
Next, we group the three equations together so that we can decide what
steps to take.
10 = 41,- 3/z ((5.16) rewritten)
10 = 3/z- 5h ((5.17) rewritten)
80 = 61, + 6h + 11 h ((5.18) rewritten)
We can solve the three simultaneous equations by elimination if we take
the following steps
1. Eliminate one variable (say h) from the first and second
equations. This leaves a new equation.
2. Eliminate the same variable (h) from the first and third equations.
This produces a second new equation.
3. Solve for the remaining unknowns (/1 and h) from the two new
equations.
4. Insert the value of /1 and h into one of the original equations, and
determine h
Step 1: To eliminate h between (5.16) and (5.17), it is merely

necessary to add the two equations together as follows
10 = 4!, - 3/z ((5.16) rewritten)
10 = 3/z- 5h ((5.17) rewritten)
ADD 20 = 41, (5.19)
Step 2: To eliminate h between (5.16) and (5.18), we multiply (5.18)

by 0.5 and add it to (5.16)
10 = 4/,- 3h ((5.16) rewritten)
40 = 3/, +3h + 5.51) (0.5 X (5.18))
ADD 50= 7/, + 5.51) (5.20)
For clarity, we rewrite (5.19) and (5.20)
20 = 4/,- h ((5.19) rewritten)
50= 71, + 5.51) ((5.20) rewritten)
Step 3: To eliminate h between these two equations, multiply (5.20)

by 5/5.5 = 0.9091, and add the resulting equation to (5.19), as follows
20 = 41, -51) ((5.19) rewritten)
45.45 = 6.361J + 51) (0.9091 X (5.20))
ADD 65.45 = 10.36/1
g1vmg
/ 1 = 65.45/10.36 = 6.32 A
Substituting this value into (5.19) yields
20 = (4 X 6.32) - 51)
hence
h = (25.28- 20)/5 = 1.06 A
Step 4: Equation (5.16) enables us to calculate h as follows

10 = 4/1 - 3h = (4 X 6.32)- 3h
that is
h = (25.28- 10)/3 = 5.09 A
The reader should observe that, when the load is connected, all the
generators supply a 'positive' current (see Worked Example 5.2, where
some supply a 'negative' current under no-load condition).
Check: Inserting these values into (5.18) gives
RHS = 6/1 + 6h + Ill)
= (6 X 6.32) + (6 X 5.09) + (11 X 1.06)
= 80.12
which is within 0.2 per cent of the value of 80 on the left-hand side of
the equation.
The load current h is calculated from (5.15) as shown below

h = h + h + h = 6.32 + 5.09 + 1.06 = 12.47 A
and the voltage across the load is
VL = 6h = 6 X 12.47 = 74.82 V
5.8 Solution of simultaneous equations using determinants
The solution of simultaneous equations either by substitution or elimination

(particularly when there are more than two unknowns) requires great care,
and can be very time consuming.
An alternative method of solving simultaneous equations using what are
known as determinants is less demanding, less error-prone and is quic}cer
than the methods described hitherto. We will not give a general proof of the
method used here, and the reader should refer to books on mathematics for
the validity of the method.
Suppose we have the following simultaneous equations
Vt =Ah+Bh (5.21)
V2 = Ch +Dh (5.22)
where Vt, V2 , A, B, C and D are numerical values, and It and h are

unknowns. If we arrange the coefficients A, B, C and D in determinant form
we get
The vertical lines on either side of the coefficients tell us that we are dealing
with a determinant. The numerical value of the determinant (which we will
call det in this case) is
det= 1:x;1 =AD-BC (5.23)
That is, we multiply the diagonal coefficients together, and subtract the
diagonal product BC from the product AD.
The simultaneous equations (5.21) and (5.22) are solved using the
following equation
It h
(5.24)
det detlt det h
where det is the determinant whose value was obtained from (5.23), and
det It and det lz are calculated as follows
v, B
det/1 = XD = v,n- V2B (5.25)
v2
A v,
deth = X = AV2- CV, (5.26)
c v2
That is, det I, is obtained by replacing the coefficients A and C by v, and
V2, respectively in the determinant det, and det h is obtained by replacing
the coefficients Band D by V1 and V2
To summarise, from (5.24) we may say
v, DBI
I V2
d 1 _ deth _
et ' - det - .:.,.~-~=---~~~
1 _ det h _I ~ ~: I
2
- det - .:,.~--,~:--~-=-:-~
Let us use this method to solve the circuit in Figure 5.1, for which the circuit
equations are
10 = 201, + 15h ( (5.4) rewritten)

-5 =51,- IOh ( (5.5) rewritten)
From (5.23), the value of det is
det=l 20 15 1=(20x(-10))-(5xl5)
-5 -10
= -200- 75 = -275
From (5.25), the value of det h is
det/1 = IJQ 15 1 = (JQ X (-10))- (-5 X 15)

-5 -10
= -100 + 75 = 25
and from (5.26), det h is
det h = 120 10 I = (20 x (- 5)) - ( 10 x 5)

5 -5
= -100 - 50 = - 150
(5.24) tells us that

det/1 25
h = det = _ 275 = -0.909 A
and
= det h = -150 = 0 455 A

h det 5
-275
which values agree with the solutions obtained in sections 5.3 and 5.4.
The reader will see that this is a quicker and less error-prone method of
solving a pair of simultaneous equations because it is more systematic than
other methods; it will be an interesting exercise to use this method to solve
other simultaneous equations containing two unknowns.
If there are three simultaneous equations of the form
V1 = AI1 + Bh + Ch
V2 = D/1 +Eh +Fh
V3 = Gl] +Hh +lh
The general solution is obtained from
/1 h h
(5.27)
det det 1] det h det h
All we need to know now is how to evaluate the four determinants det,
detl1, det h and det h Once again, the procedure is fairly straightforward
using a mathematical procedure known as the rule of Sarrus. Let us apply
this to the determinant det as follows
A B C A B
XX X/'
D E F D E
det =
G
XX
H J
X~
G H
= (AEJ) + (BFG) + (CDH)- (GEC)- (HFA)- (JDB)
The steps involved are as follows

1. Repeat the first two columns in the determinant, but on the right-hand
side of the determinant.
2. Mentally draw diagonal lines joining sets of three determinants.
3. Multiply the value of the three elements on each diagonal line. The
product terms AEJ, BFG and CDH are given a positive sign, and the
terms GEC, HFA and JDB are given a negative sign.
4. The value of the determinant is the sum of all the diagonal products.
The determinant detl1 is obtained by replacing the first column (column

A, D, G) in the determinant det by the column V 1, V2, V 3 as shown below.
The value of det / 1 is obtained by applying the rule of Sarrus as outlined
above
v1 B c
detl1 = Vz E F
V3 H J
= V1EJ + BFV3 + CVzH- V3EC- HFV1 - JVzB
and / 1 is calculated as follows (see (5.27))
1 _ det/1
1- det
Similarly
A v1 c
detl2 = D Vz F
G V3 J
= AVzJ + V1FG + CDV3- GV2C- V3FA- JDV1
A B V1
deth = D E Vz
G H V3
= AEV3 + BVzG + V1DH- GEV1 - HVzA- V3DB
also
/z = detlz/ det and h = det h / det

It is important to note that the rule of Sarrus applies only to third-order
determinants.
Whilst the general procedure for working out the value of determinants is
fairly simple, errors can easily occur when changing the values in the
columns associated with the different determinants. Do take care (the author
speaks from experience!).
Let us apply this to the circuit in Worked Example 5.3, for which the
equations are
10 = 4/1 - 3/z ( ( 5.16) rewritten)

10 = 3/z- 5h ( ( 5.17) rewritten)
80 = 6/1 + 6/z + 11 h ((5.18) rewritten)
For these equations
4 -3 0
det = 0 3 -5
6 6 11
= 4.3.11 + (-3).( -5).6 + 0.0.6- 6.3.0.- 6.( -5).4- 11.0.( -3)
= 132 + 90 + 0-0 + 120-0 = 342
10 -3 0
det/1 = 10 3 -5
80 6 11
= 10.3.11 + (-3).( -5).80 + 0.10.6- 80.3.0- 6.( -5).10- 11.10.( -3)
= 330 + 1200 + 0-0 + 300 + 330 = 2160
4 10 0
detl2 = 0 10 -5
6 80 11
= 4.10.11 + 10.( -5).6 + 0.0.80- 6.10.0- 80.( -5).4- 11.0.10
= 440-300 + 0-0 + 1600-0 = 1740
4 -3 10
deth = 0 3 10
6 6 80
= 4.3.80 + (-3).10.6 + 10.0.6- 6.3.10- 6.10.4- 80.0.( -3)
= 960 - 180 + 0 - 180 - 240 - 0 = 360
From (5.27) we may write
11 = detl1/ det = 2160/342 = 6.32 A

[z = det[zjdet = 1740/342 = 5.09 A
h = det h/ det = 360/342 = 1.05 A
which agree with the values obtained in Worked Example 5.3.
5.9 Programs for solving simultaneous equations using the

BASIC language
In this section we will briefly describe BASIC language programs for solving
simultaneous equations for two and three variables respectively.
As mentioned earlier, the programs given in this book are straight-
forward, and should run on most versions of BASIC. Some versions do not
10 CLS
20 PRINT TAB(3); "Solution of two simultaneous equations"
30 PRINT TAB(15); "of the form": PRINT
40 PRINT TAB(13); "V1 = A*X + B*Y"
50 PRINT TAB(13); "V2 = C*X + D*Y": PRINT
60 PRINT TAB(3); "Where V1 and V2 are numerical values,"
70 PRINT TAB(3); "A,B,C and Dare numerical coefficients,"
80 PRINT TAB(3); "and X andY are the variables."
90 PRINT
100 INPUT "V1 = ", V1
110 INPUT "A=", A
120 INPUT "B = ", B
130 PRINT
140 INPUT "V2 = ", V2
150 INPUT "C = ", C
160 INPUT "D = ", D
170 PRINT
180 Det = (A * D) - (B * C)
190 REM **There is no solution if Det = 0 **
200 IF Det = 0 THEN PRINT TAB(3); "The equations cannot be solved.": END
210 REM **Calculate Det X and Det Y **
220 DetX = (V1 * D)- (V2 * B): DetY ~(A* V2)- (C * V1)
230 REM ** Calculate the value of the variables **
240 PRINT TAB(3); "X="; DetX I Det: PRINT TAB(3); "Y = "; DetY I Det
250 END
Figure 5.6 Solution of two simultaneous equations
use line numbers, but these will operate even if the line numbers are
included. However it is pointed out that the programs are merely a 'tool',
and do not help the learning process.
Both programs operate in much the same way, and use determinants to
solve the problem. Firstly, they display the general form of the equation,
and then they ask for the data associated with each equation (see Figure 5.6).
The numerical values on the left-hand side of the equation are v, and V2 (or
V1, V2 and V3 in the case of three unknowns), and the numerical coefficients
on the right-hand side of the equation are A, B, C and D (orA-Hand J (I is
omitted for obvious electrical reasons)). The unknowns are X and Y (or X, Y
and Z in the case of three unknowns (see Figure 5.7)).
Should the determinant 'det' have zero value, the equation cannot be
solved.
In the case of two unknowns, the value of Det X and Det Yare evaluated
directly. For three unknowns, Dl is the sum of the terms which are given a
'positive' sign by the rule ofSarrus (see section 5.7), and D2 is the sum of the
terms given a 'negative' sign.
10 CLS
20 PRINT TAB(3); "Solution of three simultaneous equations"
30 PRINT TAB(15); "of the form": PRINT
40 PRINT TAB(11); "V1 = A*X + B*Y + C*Z"
45 PRINT TAB(11); "V2 = D*X + E*Y + F*Z"
50 PRINT TAB(11); "V3 = G*X + H*Y + J*Z": PRINT
60 PRINT TAB(3); "Where V1, V2 and V3 are numerical values,"
70 PRINT TAB(3); "A to Hand J are numerical coefficients,"
80 PRINT TAB(3); "and X, Y and Z are the variables."
90 PRINT
100 INPUT "V1 = ", V1
110 INPUT "A=", A
120 INPUT "B = ", B
130 INPUT "C = ", C
140 PRINT
150 INPUT "V2 = ", V2
160 INPUT "D = ", D
170 INPUT "E = ", E
180 INPUT "F = ", F
190 PRINT
200 INPUT "V3 = ", V3
210 INPUT "G = ", G
220 INPUT "H = ", H
230 INPUT "J = ", J: PRINT
240 D1 = (A * E * J) + (B * F * G) + (C * D * H)
250 D2 = (G * E * C) + (H * F * A) + (J * D * B)
260 Det = D1 - D2
270 REM ** There is no solution if Det = 0 **
280 IF Det = 0 THEN PRINT TAB(3); "The equations cannot be solved.": END
290 REM ** Calculate Det X, Det Y and Det Z **
300 D1 = (V1 * E * J) + (B * F * V3) + (C * V2 * H)
310 D2 = (V3 * E *C)+ (H * F * V1) + (J * V2 * B)
320 DetX = D1 - D2
330 D1 = (A * V2 * J) + (V1 * F * G) + (C * D * V3)
340 D2 = (G * V2 * C) + (V3 * F * A) + (J * D * V1)
350 DetY = D1 - D2
360 D1 = (A * E * V3) + (B * V2 * G) + (V1 * D * H)
370 D2 = (G * E * V1) + (H * V2 * A) + (V3 * D * B)
380 DetZ = D1 - D2
390 REM ** Calculate the value of the variables **
400 PRINT TAB(3); "X = "; DetX I Det
410 PRINT TAB(3); "Y = "; DetY I Det
420 PRINT TAB(3); "Z = "; DetZ I Det
430 END
Figure 5.7 Solution of three simultaneous equations

5.1 Solve the following equations for x and y

5 = 4x + 3y
10 = 2x+ 5y
5.2 Solve the following for x and y
8 2x 2y
14=5+3
5 2x y
9 9-3.
5.3 If, in Worked Example 5.2, the e.m.f.s are
E, = lOOV, E 2 = llOV, E 3 = 120V
and the resistance values are
write down a set of simultaneous equations for the solution of the

circuit. Calculate the current in each battery, and determine the
voltage of node 4 with respect to node 0 (see also Figure 5.4).
5.4 If a 5 n resistance is connected between nodes E and A in question
5.3, evaluate the voltage across the resistor.
5.5 Solve the equations
14.5 = 5x + 6y + 7z
13.6 = x- y + 3.5z
-6.8 = 2x - 3y - 5z
5.6 Calculate the current in each battery in Figure 5.8.
50 20
24V
Figure 5.8 Self-test question 5.6
5.7 What current is drawn from each generator, and what is the
battery charging current, if the voltage EB in Worked Example 5.1
(see Figure 5.2) is 8 V?
Linear equations contain only variables raised to the power unity, i.e., x, y,
lJ, V1, etc., and do not contain variables raised to any other power, i.e., x 2 ,
y3A, etc.
Simultaneous equations relate to a number of variables, and occur
frequently in electrical and electronic circuits.
Simultaneous linear equations may be solved by hand either by
substitution or by elimination. Solution by substitution is carried out by
expressing one variable in terms of another; once its value is known, it can
be inserted in another equation to allow the calculation of a second
unknown. Solution by elimination involves multiplying through one
equation by a constant, allowing one variable to be eliminated from the
equations.
An alternative method of solution by hand is to use determinants. This
method is generally more straightforward and less error-prone than solution
by substitution or elimination. Computer solution of simultaneous equations
often involves solution by determinants.
Another method of computer solution of electric circuits is by the use of
special software such as SPICE (see Chapter 16). This software does not
solve the equations of the circuit by conventional methods, but uses
numerical methods which are beyond the scope of this book.
G) Trigonometry
6.1 Introduction
Trigonometry is concerned with the solution of triangles using trigonometric
functions, and is of immense practical value in all branches of engineering.
The earliest rudiments of trigonometry date back to 1900 BC, and there is
an Egyptian papyrus (c. 1650 BC) containing trigonometric calculations
relating to the pyramids.
In this chapter we look at methods of angular measurement, the solution of
triangles and many other aspects of trigonometry which concern electrical
and electronic engineers.
recognise acute, obtuse and reflex angles,
calculate angles in degrees and radians,
perform calculations using sine, cosine, tangent, cosecant, secant and
cotangent functions,
manipulate angles in any of the four quadrants, and angles which are
greater than 360,
draw sine, cosine and tangent curves,
determine the amplitude, phase angle, period and frequency of a
sinusiodal wave.
6.2 Angles and angular measure

--- ' '
(a)
L (b) (c)
/
::~
/
(d)
Figure 6.1 (a) an acute angle, (b) a right angle, (c) and obtuse angle,
(d) a reflex angle, (e) the radian
An angle is a measure of the 'rotation' between two lines which meet at a

point or vertex (see Figure 6.1). There are four general types of angle,
namely acute, obtuse and reflex (the latter expression is not used very
103
frequently in engineering), together with the right-angle or quadrant of a

circle.
The most popular unit of angular measurement is the degree, in which a
circle is divided into 360 degrees or 360; this subdivision dates back to
Babylonian times. Formerly the degree was itself subdivided into sixty
minutes, and each minute was divides into sixty seconds. Today, however,
the degree has been decimalised. For example, and angle of 26.32
corresponds to 26, 19 minutes and 12 seconds, and is written in the form
26.32 = 2619'1211
Yet another angular measure used in engineering is the radian (often
abbreviated to rad), and I radian is the angle subtended at the centre of a
circle by an arc of length equal to the radius (see Figure 6.1 (e)). The name
'radian' is said to have been invented by James Thomson for an examination
paper in Belfast in 1870. There are 2n radians in a complete circle, so that
2n radians=:360o
or
I radian=:57.3
Both the degree and radian are widely employed in engineering, and we
shall use both of them in this chapter. Referring to Figure 6.1, the angles are
classified as follows
(a) Acute angle- less than 90 or n/2 rad.
(b) Right angle- 90 or n/2rad (quarter of a complete circle).
(c) Obtuse angle- between 90 and 180 (between n/2 and 1t rad).
(d) Reflex angle - between 180 and 360 (between 1t and 2n rad).
The small rectangular shape drawn in the corner of the angle in Figure
6.1(b) indicates that the angle is a right-angle.
If two angles have a sum of 90 they are said to be complementary angles.
That is if
A +B= 90
then
A = 90 - B and B = 90 - A
Each of the above angles is said to the complement of the other.
Two angles that have a sum of 180 are said to be supplementary angles.
For example, if
C+D = 180
then
C = 180- D and D = 180- C
C and Dare said to be the supplement of one another.
Trigonometry 105
6.3 Trigonometric ratios of acute angles
b opposite (to 9)
a
adjacent (to 9)
Figure 6.2 The names of the sides of a right-angled triangle
With reference to Figure 6.2, the three sides of the right-angled triangle are:
adjacent - the side which commences at the vertex of the angle and
terminates at the right angle. It is said to be adjacent to the angle.
opposite - the side which is opposite to the angle.
hypotenuse - the side which commences at the vertex of the angle and
terminates at the top of the opposite side.
The three principal trigonometric ratios or functions are:
. e opposite . e b
sine = h or sm = -
ypotenuse c
. e adjacent a
cosme = or cose =-
hypotenuse c
opposite b
tangente = d" or tane =-
a Jacent a
Also we see that
sine = b1c = ~ = tan e

cose afc a
Other ratios are

hypotenuse c
cosecant e = . or cosece = b
opposite
_hypotenuse c
secant e - d" or sece =-
a Jacent a
adjacent a
cotangente = . or cote= b
opposite
6.4 Inverse trigonometric functions
These are the inverse of the trigonometric functions (also known as anti-
trigonometric functions). If
q = sin9
The inverse is written
9 = arcsinq
and is described as '9 is the angle whose sine is q'. Similarly we have arccos q
and arctan q.
The inverse sine function is also described as sin- 1 q; similarly we have
cos- 1 q and tan- 1 q. The reader is cautioned against the use of these because
sin -I q is not 1/ sin q; 1/ sin q is, in fact, ( 1/ sin q) -I. To avoid any confusion,
arcsin q, arccos q and arctan q will be used in this book.
6.5 The four quadrants
An angle may lie at any point within a circle, and we define the four
quadrants of a circle as (see Figure 6.3)
second first
first quadrant: 0-90 quadrant quadrant
second quadrant: 90-180 third fourth

quadrant quadrant
third quadrant: 180-270
fourth quadrant: 270-360 Figure 6.3 The four
quadrants of a circle
As is shown below, the mathematical sign of the function of an angle (sin,

cos, tan, etc.) may change from one quadrant to another. In fact, a simple
rule is given below which allows us to predict the mathematical sign of the
function of the angle (see also Figure 6.6).
In the first quadrant, all the sides of the triangle, i.e., ON1, N1M1 and
OM1 are all positive, and all the trigonometric ratios of the triangle are
positive in this quadrant.
In the second quadrant the adjacent side is negative, the other sides of the
triangle having a positive value. That is, the sine of the angle is positive; its
cosine and tangent are negative.
In the third quadrant the adjacent and opposite sides are both negative, so
that the tangent of the angle is positive, whilst the sine and cosine of the
angle are negative.
In the fourth quadrant the opposite side is negative, so that the cosine of
the angle is positive and its sine and tangent are negative.
Trigonometry 107
Figure 6.4 shows which trigonometric ratio is positive in each of the four
quadrants of the circle. Moving in an anticlockwise direction we have
ALL, SIN, TAN, COS
SIN ALL
which can be remembered by either of the
following mnemonics. TAN cos
All Stations To Crewe Figure 6.4 Trigonometric
All Students of a Technical Course ratios are always positive
6.6 Angles greater than 360 and negative angles

By convention, the measurement of angles is positive in an antic/ockwise
direction, and the horizontal direction is normally taken as the reference
direction. Thus an angle of 150 implies a rotation of 150 in an
anticlockwise direction, and -40 implies a rotation of 40 in a clockwise
direction.
So far as trigonometrical ratios are concerned, we must reduce any angle
(even one greater than + 360 or -360) to within 360. For example, we
regard 370 as an angle of (360 + 10) = 10; that is 370 is equivalent to
+ 10, so that any trigonometric ratio of 370 has the same value as the
identical trigonometric ratio of 10. Similarly, we can regard 560 as being
equivalent to an angle of (360 + 200) = 200, i.e., we think of it as being
equivalent to 200. An angle of gooo is regarded as being ((2 x 360) +goo),
and its trigonometric ratios are the same as those of goo.
B
Figure 6.5 Negative angles
If the line OA in Figure 6.5 rotates in a clockwise direction to position

OB, then we can say that its angle is -60. If it continues to rotate in a
clockwise direction to position OC, its angle is -320.
Alternatively, we may reach OB and OC by assuming that the line has
rotated in an anticlockwfse direction. Clearly, the angle of -60 can be
regarded as a positive angle of (360- 60)" = +300, and the angle of -320
is equivalent to (360- 320)" = 40.
6. 7 The sine ratio
Figure 6.6 Angles in the four quadrants
In the following we will refer to Figure 6.6, and see that the sine of any angle
is the ratio of the length NM (i.e., N1M 1, N2M2, etc.) to OM (i.e. OM1,
OM2, etc.). Since the maximum value of the ratio NM to OM can never
exceed either +I or -I (when NM is negative), the maximum value of the
sine of any angle is either +I or -1.
First quadrant
In this case .
. 9 NIMI
Sill I= OMI
Since both N1M1 and OM1 are pos1t1ve, the sine of any angle in this
quadrant has a positive sign. When N 1M 1 and ON1 have the same value, the
angle is 45, and
OM1 = y'(1 2 + 12 ) = y'2
hence
sin45o = NIMI =_I_= 0.7071

\f"2NIMI V2
We can also say that arcsin0.7071 = 45o (or n/4rad).
We can also see that when
81 = 0, then N1M1 = 0 and sinOo = 0
also when
Trigonometry 109
Second quadrant
Referring again to Figure 6.6, we see that
. N2M2
sme2 = OM2
Once again, both the numerator and the denominator of this equation are
positive, so that the sine of the angle in this quadrant is always positive.
When 92 = 180, then N 2 M 2 = 0, and sin 180 = 0.
Third quadrant
In this case
. N3M3
sme3 = OM3
Here N3M3 is negative and OM3 is positive, so that the sine of any angle in
this quadrant is negative.
When 83 = 270, N3M3 = OM3 so that sin270o =-I.
Fourth quadrant
We see from Figure 6.6 that
. N4M4
sm84 = OM4
In this case N4M4 is negative and OM4 is positive, so that the sine of any
angle in this quadrant is negative.
When 84 = 360 (= 0), then N 4 M 4 = 0 and sin 360 = 0.
Worked Example 6.1 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - .
Determine the sine of (a) 10.1, (b) 90, (c) 0.7227t rad, (d) 180,
(e) 220, (f) 5.59 rad, (g) 400, (h) -100, (i) 1510'5".
Solution
We can use either a set of sine tables or a calculator to determine the

answers, which are as follows.
(a) sinl0.l 0 =0.1754
Note: 10.1 is equivalent to 360 + 10.1 = 370.1, or
(2 x 360) + 10.1 = 730.1, etc.
(b) sin 90 = I.
(c) In this case 0.7227t x 57.3 = 130, and sin 130 = 0.766.
(d) sin 180 = 0.

(e) sin 220 = -0.6428.
(f) Converting the angle into degrees gives
5.59 rad = 5.59 x 57.3 = 320, and sin 320 = -0.6428.
Note that the answers in (e) and (f) are the same.
(g) sin 400 = 0.6428.
Note: 400 = 360 + 40 = 40
That is sin 400 = sin 40.
(h) sin( -100) = -0.9848.
Note: -100 = 360 - 100 = 260, so that
sin( -100) = sin 260 = 0.9848.
(i) In this case 10' = (10/60t = 0.1667, and
5" = (5/(60 x 60)t = 0.0014, so that
1510'5" = (15 + 0.1667 + 0.0014t = 15.1681
Using a calculator we find that
sin 15101511 =sin 15.1681 = 0.2617
Worked Example 6.2 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - .
In the following a = length of adjacent side, b = length of opposite

side, and c = length of the hypotenuse (see also Figure 6.2). Using the
sine relationship, evaluate the angle corresponding to the following:
(a) a= 2, c = 3, (b) a= -5, b = 4, (c) a= -3.3, b = -2, and
(d) a= 3.1, b = -2.5.
Solution
(a) In this case a is positive, so that the angle lies either in the first
quadrant or in the fourth quadrant. Since we are to use the sine
relationship we must, initially, evaluate the length of the opposite
side of the triangle using Pythagorus's theorem as follows. Since
cz = az + bz
then
b = J(c2 - a 2 ) = v(3 2 - 22 ) = 2.2361
If the angle lies in the first quadrant, then
Sa= arcsin(b/c) = arcsin(2.2361/3)
= arcsin0.7454 = 48.19
If the angle lies in the fourth quadrant then
angle= -Sa=- 48.19
or 180-48.19 = 131.81.
Trigonometry 111
(b) In this case a= -5 and b = 4, i.e. the angle must lie in the second
quadrant. Clearly, it is advisable to sketch the angle (see Figure
6. 7) and treat the calculation on its merits.
-------- - b=4
I
a=-5
Figure 6.7 Solution to Worked Example 6.2(b)
We see that
. magnitude of opposite side
Sinrt. = .
magmtude of the hypotenuse
The length of the hypotenuse is
c = .J(a2 + b2 ) = .J(( -5) 2 + 42 ) = 6.4031
hence
sinrt. = 4/6.4031 = 0.6247
or
rx = arcsin 0.6247 = 38.66
If the reader were to insert the above values into a calculator,
it would simply indicate that the answer is 38.66! It is very
clear that we must apply our experience to the data given in
order to obtain the correct solution. That is the reason why
we should draw a diagram which displays the data before we
rush into the solution. Clearly, from Figure 6. 7 we see that
eb = 180- r1. = 141.34
(c) In this case a= -3.3 and b = -2, so that the angle lies in the third
quadrant; once again, we should draw a diagram which shows the
angle (see Figure 6.8).
a=-3.3
- - - - - - - - - - - - b=-2
Figure 6.8 Solution to Worked Example 6.2(c)

In this case
. A length of opposite side
sm '"' = -:--::........,,-----;:-7-=------
length of hypotenuse
and the length of the hypotenuse is
c = J(a 2 + b2 ) = J(( -3.3) 2 + (-2) 2 ) = 3.86
hence the magnitude of sin ~ is
sin~= 2/3.86 = 0.5181
and
~ = arcsin0.5181 = 31.21
Referring to Figure 6.8 we see that
ec = 180 + ~ =180 + 31.21 = 211.21
or (211.21- 360t = -148.79
(d) Here a= 3.1 and b = -2.5, so that the angle lies in the fourth
quadrant (see Figure 6.9).
a=3.1
I
b=-2.5 - - - - - - - - - -
Figure 6.9 Solution to Worked Example 6.2(d)
In this case, the length of the hypotenuse is

c = J(a 2 + b2 ) = J(3.1 2 + (-2.5) 2 ) = 3.98
hence
sin 8d = length of opposite side = -2.5 = _ 0 .6281
length of hypotenuse 3.98
or
ed =arcsin( -0.6281) = -38.91 o
or ( -38.91 + 360t = 321.09
Trigonometry 113
Worked Example 6.3 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,
The number of kilo volt-amperes reactive, kV Ar, consumed by a three-

phase load is given by the equation
)3 VLh sin <P
k VAr=--=:c....::~______:__
1000
where VL is the line voltage, h is the line current, and <P is the phase
angle between V L and h (see also section 6.9). Determine the value of <P
if VL is 3300 V, h is 150 A, and the kV Ar consumed is 742.5.
Solution
Initially we will transpose the equation in terms of sin 
v3VLh
hence
. 1000
sm = arcsin 0.866 = 60
Note: the theory of three-phase work is outside the scope of this book,
and the reader should refer to Noel Morris, Mastering Electrical
Engineering (Macmillan, 2nd edn 1991 ).
Worked Example 6.4 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,
In alternating current circuits the power consumed in watts is

represented by P (see Figure 6.10), and the volt-amperes reactive
consumed or reactive power in VAr is represented by Q, and these are
related by the power triangle
in Figure 6.10. The number
of volt-amperes consumed in Q
VA is represented by S, and = ~
or
S= Q/ sin<!>= 200/ sin40 = 311.1 VA
From Pythagorus's theorem S2 = P 2 + Q2 Transposing for P gives
p = J(S2 - Q2 ) = y'(311.1 2 - 2002 ) = 238.3 W
6.8 The graph of a sine wave

Graphs show the relationship between two variables and, strictly speaking,
are the subject of Chapter 9. However, at this stage, we need to understand
the way in which a function such as sine varies with e, and we therefore
need to introduce the graph concept; readers needing more detail should
study Chapter 9.
y
~ co radls
/ } 1\ Y=~s1inG r-r-
/ I
I c I
csin9 I
I 1/ \
1/'\9 I
0 angle
9 90 o 180 270 360
I
\
I'
\ v
(a) (b)
Figure 6.11 Graph of y = c sine
If a line of length c (see Figure 6.ll(a)) is rotated at a constant speed in an

antic/ockwise direction then, at some point in time, it reaches angle e. The
vertical projection of this line (the 'opposite' side of the triangle) has a value
c sin e. If we plot the length of this line in the 'y direction' or vertical
direction, to a base of the angle of rotation (which is in the 'x direction' or
horizontal direction), we get the curve in Figure 6.11 (b) as the line completes
one complete revolution.
This curve is known as a sine curve, and has a sinusoidal shape. Its value is
zero at angles of 0, 180, 360 and (n x 180), where n is an integer. The
curve reaches its first maximum positive value of c at 90, and its first
maximum negative value at 270. If the line which produces the curve
Trigonometry 115
continues to rotate, the sine curve is repeated over and over again, and is
said to be a repetitive wave or a periodic function. That is a positive
maximum occurs at (90 + (n x 360)t, and a negative maximum occurs at
(270 + (n x 360)t, where n is an integer.
sine
.I
! 1.0
I.
_C
sin9=0.866 - ~
I 1\
I \
I \
- f-~
I \
p2 I \
-e e
1\ P,_ r-S,
\ I L
\ I
sin9= 1-o.s
\ I
\ I
\... / 1.0
I
Figure 6.12 Primary and secondary solutions of a sine equation
If you use a calculator or a set of sine tables to determine e from the

expression sine = 0.866, you will get the solution e = 60; this is known as
the primary solution of the equation, and is labelled P1 in Figure 6.12.
However the graph shows that, in the first positive half cycle of the wave,
there is another solution known as the secondary solution, S 1 . We can also
see from the graph that
S1 = 180o- P1
In our case, S 1 = 180-60 = 120; a calculator shows that
sin 120 = 0.866. As shown in section 6.5, the sine of angles in the first
and second quadrants are both positive, which agrees with the above. It is
very clear that we should take great care when using a calculator to
determine the value of an angle from the value of its sine because it could lie
in either of two quadrants.
Similarly, if sine= -0.5, the calculator shows that e = -30. This is the
primary solution, P2, of the equation in the negative half cycle of the sine
wave (see Figure 6.12). Similarly, there is a secondary solution, S2, which is
determined from the equation
s2 = -180- P2 = -180- (-30) = -150
The reader should verify that sin( -150) = -0.5.
Since the sinewave is symmetrical about the origin we can see, without
mathematical proof, that
sine= -sin( -9) or sin( -e) = -sine
For example, if e = 45 then sin45 = 0.7071, and

-sin( -45) = -( -0.7071) = 0.7071
Any function with this type of characteristic, i.e. one which is symmetrical
about the origin, is known mathematically as an odd function.
6.9 Period, frequency, angular frequency, amplitude and phase

angle
We saw in Figure 6.11 that a sine wave repeats itself every 360; one
complete cycle is known as the period of the wave.
The time taken for the line which draws out the wave to make one
complete revolution or 360 is known as the periodic time, T, of the wave. In
fact, any periodic function (not just a sine wave) has its own periodic time,
and is the time between any point on the wave to the next identical point on
the wave. For example, it could be the time between the start of the wave and
the next start, or the time between a positive maximum and the next positive
maximum, etc.
Since T is the periodic time of the wave, and ro the angular frequency
which produces it, one complete cycle (2n rad) is complete in a time of roT
seconds. That is
roT= 2n
or
T= 2n
ro
The frequency,/, of a periodic function is the number of cycles occurring per
second, and is given the dimensions of hertz (Hz), named after H.R. Hertz.
The shorter the periodic time, the greater the frequency; the frequency and
periodic time are related by the equation
f= ljTHz
A wave with a periodic time of 20 ms has a frequency of
f= 1/(20 X w- 3 ) =50 Hz
and if the periodic time is 0.1 ms, the frequency is
f= 1/(0.1 X w- 3 ) = 10000 Hz or 10kHz
If the frequency is 1.0 cycle per second or 1.0 Hz, then the wave completes
2n radians in one second, and a wave of frequency fHz completes 2nf
radians in one second. This frequency is known as the angular frequency of
the wave, and is given the Greek symbol ro, that is
ro = 2rrf radfs
Trigonometry 117
/
Vrms _ ~
Vav-- II -r- -[\- -
\
I
I \
I
1\ I
\
I
\ I
l/
Figure 6.13 Amplitude values of a sine wave
When describing a sinusoidal wave, there are various amplitude values

that may be used to define it (see Figure 6.13).
The simplest is the peak value, Vp, which occurs at each positive peak of
the wave; alternatively, a negative peak, - Vp, occurs once in each cycle.
Sometimes we need to know the peak-to-peak value, VPP which, in the case
of the sine wave, is 2 Vp.
The usual value used when stating the value of a sinusoidal voltage is the
root-mean-square value (r.m.s.), Vrms, or the effective value, which, in the case
of a sine wave is given by
Vrms = Vp/ -./2
Details of the method of calculation of the r.m.s. value of a sine wave is
given in Chapter 13. Another value associated with sinusoidal waves is the
average value or mean value, Vav. which for a sinewave is
2Vp
Vav = - 1t = 0.637 Vp
Details of the method of calculation of the electrical average value of a sine
wave is also given in Chapter 13.
Consider the two rotating lines in Figure 6.14, of length Vm * and Im,
respectively, which are displaced from one another by angle <j>. Both lines
rotate at ro rad/s in an anti clockwise direction, and the vertical displacement
of the tip of each line traces out one of the sinewave on the right of the
figure. The equation of the curve traced out by Vml is
v= Vm1sin8= Vmlsinrot= Vmlsin21tft
where vis the instantaneous voltage of the wave at angle e (or, alternatively,
at time t), and Vm 1 is the maximum value of the waveform. When e = 0 (or
* The subscripts m and p are interchangeable in electrical and electronic engineering, m meaning
maximum and p meaning peak. That is, Vm and Vp are taken to mean the same thing.
,--~t--- w rad/s
Vm1
'\
...... /
I V1=Vm1 sinwt_ - I -
.I I I I I
1m1 1- If. - _::o-lt-_
, i1=llm1l sin(wt-4>1)
/ 1\
I - - f-Vm1 I \
1/ \
(a) angle
k ~l ,
I
180
or
360
/or 2n rad
\ rad '
14>-;
1t
1m1 1-
\ I
~
I
../
,--~ w rad/s
vm2
' I ' v2=Vm2sinwt
I 1\
r--
1m2 I~ ;-- V- !2=1m2
/
I ' 1\
\ I
~ ~2 I
angle
(b)
vm2 180 360
' /
I
\ II
r-...
Figure 6.14 Phase angle
t = 0), the instantaneous value of the wave is Vm 1 sin 0 = 0 V but, at this

angle (or time), the rotating line represented by lmi has not reached the
horizontal, so that its vertical component has a negative value.
Since Vmi and 1m 1 rotate at the same speed, we see that lmi reaches the
horizontal some time after t = 0, that is 1m! lags behind Vmi by angle <j> 1 .
Alternatively, we may say that Vmi leads lm1 by angle <j> 1. The concept of
lagging and leading phase angles is widely used in electrical and electronic
engineering. We can describe the sinewave drawn out by the rotating line 1m 1
by means of the equation
i, = lmi sin( rot- <!> 1)
which tells us that the line 1m 1 is at angle -<!> 1 when t = 0, i.e. the current
lags behind the reference direction when t = 0.
In the case of Figure 6.14(b ), we see that 1m2 leads Vm2 by <!> 2 (or Vm2 lags
behind 1m2 by <!> 2), and the equation for the sinewave of iz is
iz = lmz sin( rot+ <!> 2 )
Trigonometry 119
Worked Example 6.5 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,
For the following voltage waves, determine (a) the maximum voltage,
(b) the periodic time, (c) the frequency, (d) the instantaneous value of
each wave when t = 2 ms and (e) the phase relationship between the
two voltages
(i) VJ = 100 sin( 1OOnt + 20)
(ii) vz = 50sin(314.2t- 30)
Solution
The general equation for the instantaneous value of both waves is of

the form
v = Vm sin( rot+<!>)
where Vm is the maximum value, ro is the angular frequency of the
wave, and <!> is the phase angle of the wave.
(a) (i) Comparing the above equation with the equation for v1, we see
that
Vm! = 100 V
m1 = 1OOn = 314.2 rad/s
<J>J = +20o
That is, VI has a maximum value of lOOV, its angular frequency is

lOOnradjs, and its phase angle at t = 0 is +20.
(ii) When we look at the equation for v2, we see that
Vm2 =50 V
m1 = 314.2 =lOOn rad/s
<J>J = -30o
The waveform for vz therefore has a maximum value of 50 V, its

angular frequency is 1OOn radjs, and its phase angle at t = 0 is
-30.
(b) Since the angular frequency of both waves is lOOn radjs, the
periodic time of both waves is
T = 2n/m = 2n/IOOn = 1/50 = 0.02 s or 20 ms
(c) The frequency of both waves is
f = l/T = 1/0.02 =50 Hz
(d) (i) The value of v1 when t = 2 ms or 0.002 s is
VJ = 100 sin(lOOnt + 20)
= lOOsin((lOOn x 0.002) + 20)
= 100 sin(0.2n + 20)
At this point the reader should note that the angle within the
brackets contains one part in radians, and a second part in
degrees. We will convert the part in radians into degrees as
follows.
0.21t ::;: 0.21t X 57.3 = 36
Hence the value of Vt when t = 2 ms is
Vt = 100sin(36+20) = 100sin56o = 82.9 V
(ii) The value of v2 when t = 2 ms is
v2 = 50 sin(314.2t- 30)
= 50 sin(0.6284 rad - 30)
= 50 sin(36o - 30) = 50 sin 6 = 5.23 V
(e) The voltage waveform equations tell us that when t = 0, the angle
of the rotating line which traces out Vt is at +20o to the reference
direction, and the line tracing out v2 is at -30. That is, Vt leads v2
by (20- ( -30)Y = 50 or, alternatively, v2 lags behind Vt by 50.
6.10 The cosine ratio

In the following we refer to Figure 6.6 (see also section 6.7).
First quadrant
Since cos e = adjacent/hypotenuse, we see that in the first quadrant

coset= ONt/OMt
and we observe that
I. the cosine is always positive since both ONt and OMt are positive, and
2. when et = 0, coset= I (since ONt = OMt); when et = 90, coset= 0
(since ONt = 0).
That is the value of cos e falls from 1 to 0 as e changes from oo to 90.
Second quadrant
In this case
cose2 = ON2/0M2
and we note that
Trigonometry 121
1. since ON2 is negative, the cosine is always negative in this quadrant,

and
2. when e2 = 90 then cos e2 = 0, and when e2 = 180 then cos e2 = -1
(since ON2 = -OM2).
That is cos e changes from 0 to -1 as e changes from 90 to 180.
Third quadrant
In this case
cose3 = ON3jOM3
and we see that
1. since ON3 is negative, the cosine is always negative in this quadrant,
and
2. when e3 = 180 then cos e3 = -1' and when e3 = 270 then cos e3 = 0
(since ON3 = 0).
That is cos e rises from -1 to 0 as e changes from 180 to 270.
Fourth quadrant
We see that
cose4 = ON4/0M4
and
1. since both ON4 and OM4 are positive, the cosine is always positive in
this quadrant, and
2. when e4 = 270 then cos e4 = 0, and when e4 = 360 then cos e4 = 1
(since ON4 = OM4).
That is cos e rises from 0 to 1 as e changes from 270 to 360.
6.11 Graph of cosine 9

Using a calculator we can obtain the cosine of any angle, and the graph of
cos e over the range -90 to 360 is shown in Figure 6.15.
We see that the graph has a generally similar shape to that for sine, with
the exception that the sine graph has a positive peak at 90, and a negative
peak at 270. We can therefore conclude that
cos e = sin(e + 90)
and
sine= cos(e- 90)
cos9 ~'
~=c~s9 1
v
I
/
'\ I
I
'"
jl
I
~
I \
I \
180-9--180+9
I
~-o~,___l!. _.:....:;_
I I
I "
I
I -9
I I I \ +9
~
I I ~ r-
, 9
I I I I
- -eoo- -o- -eoL I I IT t--2'.,oo --, 1-360 -
~ i \ I
180
I I I
I I \ I I 1/ I
-9 9 360-9
~ 1/
\ 1/
""
./
Figure 6.15 Graph of cos 0 for the range of 0 = -90 to 0 = 360
for example
cos 30 = sin(30 + 90) =sin 120 = 0.866

sin 30 = cos(30 - 90) =cos( -60) = 0.5
Also from Figure 6.15 we see that

cos( -9) = cos 9
and
cos 9 = cos(360 - 9)
also
cos 9 = - cos(180- 9) =- cos(180 + 9)
For example,
if 9 = 60 then cos 9 = 0.5 and

cos( -60) = cos 60 = 0.5
cos(360- 60) =cos 300 = 0.5 =cos 60
- cos(180- 60) = -cos 120 = 0.5 =cos 60
- cos(180 + 60) = -cos 240 = 0.5 =cos 60
Trigonometry 123
Worked Example 6.6 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - . ,
In alternating current theory, electrical engineers are concerned about

the power factor of a.c. circuits, the power factor being defined as
., power consumed in watts
power tactor = ; : _ _ - - , - - - - - - - -
volts x amperes
The power factor is also given by cos <J>, where <P is the phase angle
between the sinusoidal applied voltage and the sinusoidal current in the
circuit. That is
,~,. power in watts
cos'+' = - , - - - - - -
volts x amperes
If an a.c. circuit energised by a 440 V sinusoidal supply draws a current
of 60 A, and consumes a power of 18.48 kW, calculate the power factor
and the phase angle of the circuit.
Solution
From the equations given

watts 18.48 x 103
power factor = --=------
volts x amperes 440 x 60
= 0.7
That is to say, the power factor of the circuit ts 0. 7. Using our

calculator
<!> = arccos0.7 = 45.57
In fact, from the work in this section, we know that
cos )
which means that the phase angle could be either 45.57 or -45.57.
Unless we know more about the circuit (which, at this stage, we do
not), either of these solutions could be correct!
Worked Example 6.7 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,
In alternating current theory, the total opposition of a circuit to current

flow is known as the impedance, Z, of the circuit (see Figure 6.16). The
impedance is calculated from Figure 6.16 using the resistance R of the
circuit, and the reactance X. The phase angle, <j>, of the circuit is the
angle between R and Z. The triangle in Figure 6.16 is known as the
impedance triangle of the a.c. circuit.
z
X
If R = IOQ and Z = 11.55 Q, determine the power factor (cos <j>), the
phase angle , and the reactance X of the circuit.
Solution
The power factor of the circuit is

cos<!>= R/Z = 10/11.55 = 0.866
hence
<!> = arccos 0.866 = 30
From Pythagorus's theorem
Z = y'(R 2 + X2)
therefore
6.12 The tangent ratio
Once again we refer to Figure 6.6.
First quadrant
Since tan El = opposite/adjacent, we see that in the first quadrant

tan9 1 = N 1MJ/ON 1
and we observe that
1. the tangent is always positive since both N 1M 1 and ON1 are positive,
and
2. when 9 1 = oo, tan 91 = 0 (since N 1M 1 = 0); when 9 1 = 90,
tan 9, = +oo (since ON, = 0).
That is the value of tan e rises from 0 to +oo as e changes from oo to 90.
Trigonometry 125
Second quadrant
In this case
and we observe that
1. the tangent is always negative since ON2 is negative, and

2. when 82 is slightly greater than 90, tan 92 :::::; -oo (since ON2 is both
negative and practically zero); when 92 = 180, tan82 = 0 (since
N2M2 = 0).
That is the value of tan 9 changes from -oo to 0 as 9 changes from 90 to

180.
Third quadrant
Here we have
and
1. the tangent is always positive since both N 3 M 3 and ON3 are both
negative, and
2. when 83 = 180, tan 83 = 0; when 83 = 270, tan 83 = +oo (since
ON3 = 0).
That is the value of tan 9 rises from 0 to +oo as 9 changes from 180 to 270.
Fourth quadrant
In this case
and we see that
1. the tangent is always negative in this quadrant because N 4 M 4 is

negative, and
2. when 94 = 270, tan 84 = -oo (since ON4 is negative and practically
zero in the region of 270); when 84 = 360, tan 84 = 0 (since
N4M4 = 0).
That is the value of tan 9 changes from -oo to 0 as 9 changes from 270 to
360.
6.13 The graph of tan 9

The value of tan e over the range -90 to 360 can be obtained from a
calculator or set of tangent tables, and the resulting graph is plotted in
Figure 6.17.
tana J~
I I
II II
I I
I I
p ~
I I
Jl Jl
I I
_j I 180-9 I I
9 v
I
I ... 9
+9
I
I
1/
/ I
I 1/ I
7-r ~ I
I 1/
,... 9
~--90 0 I goo 180 I 1~70 360
9 180+9 I
1/ 1/ 1/
I I I
I I I
I
I I I
I II II
Figure 6.17 Graph of tan 9 for the range of 9 = -90 to 9 = 360
We see from the graph that

tan e = -tan( -e)
tan(180 +e) =tan e
tan(180- e) =tan( -e)
For example,
if e = 60 then tane = 1.732 and
- tan( -60) = - (-I. 732) = I. 732 = tan 60
tan(I80 + 60) = tan240 = 1.732 = tan60
tan(180- 60) =tan 120 = -1.732 =tan( -60)
Trigonometry 127
Worked Example 6.8 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,

An engineer needs to determine the length of a lightning conductor to
be fixed to the side of a substation. Using a theodolite positioned 20m
from the side of the building, the angle of elevation of the top of the
building is 30; the height of the theodolite above the ground is 1.6m.
What length of lightning conductor is needed to reach from the top of
the building to the ground?
Solution
A diagram showing the problem

is given in Figure 6.18. The
distance A is calculated from
tan 30o = 20Am
or
- -
A = 20 x tan 30 = 11.55 m
hence 20 m
height of building = A + 1.6

Figure 6.18 Solution to Worked
= 13.15 m Example 6.8
Note: the engineer must also allow for the length of conductor required
to terminate it at either end.
Worked Example 6.9 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - .

The phase angle of a balanced 3-phase load can be determined by the
two-wattmeter method of measuring power, in which two wattmeters P 1
and P2 are used to measure the total power consumed. The tangent of
the phase angle, <j>, of the load is calculated from
tan <j> = v/3 -p

[PIPt +P2
2]
Determine the phase angle of the load if P 1 = 7 kW, and P2 = 3.5 kW.
Solution
From the equation given

tan = v3[(7- 3.5)/(7 + 3.5)] = 0.5774
We can calculate the phase angle from the inverse trigonometric
function as follows
<!> = arctan0.5774 = 30 or - 30.
6.1 Determine the following: (a) sin45.6, (b) cos 5026',

(c) tan148.2, (d) sin230.7, (e) cos300.6, (f) tan386.2,
(g) sin( -102.5"), (h) cos( -200.5"), (i) tan( -796.3).
Note: In part (b) there are 60 minutes in one degree.
6.2 Given the following inverse trigonometric ratios, determine the
angle: (a) arcsin = 0.866, (b) arccos = 0.1736,
(c) arctan<!>= 0.1763, (d) arcsin<!>= -0.2079.
6.3 For the following periodic functions, calculate the periodic time,
the frequency, and the maximum amplitude given that the
instantaneous amplitude is 2 when t = 4ms.
(a) v = Vm sin lOOnt
(b) i = lm COS 600t
6.4 State the phase relationship between the following
(a) v1 = 100 sine and v1 = 20 sin(e + 2n/3)
(b) i, = 20 cos rot and i2 = 30 sin( rot - 40)
(c) v1 = 90 sin( rot+ n/2) and V2 = 40 sin( rot- n/4)
(d) i 1 = 80cos9 and v2 = 90sin(9 -n/3)
6.5 Given that an angle lies in the third quadrant, and that its sine is
-0.4, calculate the angle, its cosine and its tangent.
6.6 If cos 9 = -0.08, determine all possible values of 9 up to 360.
6. 7 Evaluate
(a) cos(n/2). sin(3n/2) + cos(3n/2). sin(n/2)
(b) cos(n/6). cos(n/4)- cos(n/6). sin(n/4)
Angles are measured in degrees and in radians, where

1 rad = 57.3
Positive angles are measured in an anti-clockwise direction, and negative
angles in a clockwise direction.
An acute angle is one less than 90, a right-angle is one whose angle is 90,
an obtuse angle is one between 90 and 180, and a reflex angle is one
between 180 and 360.
Two angles whose sum is 90 are complementary angles, and if the sum of
two angles is 180 they are supplementary angles.
The three sides of a right-angled triangle are the hypotenuse, the opposite
side and the adjacent side. The hypotenuse is the side opposite to the right-
angle, the opposite side is the side which is opposite to the angle (and is one
of the sides forming the angle), and the adjacent side is the side which is
adjacent to the angle which is not the hypotenuse (see Figure 6.2).
Trigonometry 129
The usual trigonometric ratios are the sine, the cosine and the tangent,
which are defined as
sine= opposite/hypotenuse
cos e = adjacent/hypotenuse
tan e = opposite/adjacent = sin 9/cos e
Other ratios are the cosecant, the secant and the cotangent, which are
defined as
cosec e = 1/sin e = hypotenuse/opposite

sec e = 1/cos e = hypotenuse/adjacent
cote = 1/tan e = adjacent/opposite
Inverse trigonometric functions are the inverse of the above trigonometric

functions. If y = cos 9, the inverse trigonometric function is 8 = arccos y (or
cos- 1 y). Other inverse trigonometric functions are arcsiny (or sin- 1 y), and
arctany (or tan- 1 y).
The circle is divided into four quadrants as follows
first quadrant- oo to 90
second quadrant- 90 to 180
third quadrant- 180 to 270
fourth quadrant- 270 to 360
All trigonometric ratios are positive in the first quadrant, the sine ratio is
positive in the second quadrant, the tangent ratio is positive in the third
quadrant, and the cosine ratio is positive in the fourth quadrant. This
sequence can be remembered by either of the following mnemonics.
All Stations To Crewe

All Students of a Technical Course
Both the sine and the cosine waves are known as sinusoidal waves, and are
related by
cos 8 = sin(8 + 90)

sin 8 = cos(8- 90)
A waveform which repeats itself periodically is known as a periodic wave,

and the time taken for one complete cycle of the wave is its periodic time, T.
The frequency of a periodic wave is
f = 1/T hertz (Hz)
The angular frequency of a wave is given by
co= 2nf = 2n/T
The instantaneous value of a sine wave is given by

y = Ym sin 9 = Ym sin rot= Ym sin 2rcft
where Ym is the maximum value or peak value of the wave. If the wave has a
phase angle <J>, the equation of the sine wave becomes
y= Ymsin(9<J>) = Ymsin(rot<J>)
= Ym sin(2rcft )
where <1> may be in degrees or radians.
Q) Further trigonometric skills
7.1 Introduction
In this chapter we look at further skills which are particularly useful in

trigonometric applications related to some of the problems involved in
electrical and electronic circuits. By the end of this chapter, the reader will
be able to
solve problems involving the sine rule and the cosine rule,
appreciate and apply trigonometric identities,
use compound and double angle formulae,
solve equations involving the product of sines and cosines.
7.2 The sine rule

Electrical and electronic engineers frequently need to solve alternating
current circuit problems which involve phasors (see Chapter 10 for details),
in which the sine rule is invaluable.
- - - - - - d-----J-;-- (c-d)------
--------c-----~
Figure 7.1 The sine rule
Consider the triangle in Figure 7.1 in which side a is opposite to angle A,

side b is opposite to angle B, and side c is opposite to angle C. Lengthy is a
perpendicular drawn from side c to angle C. From basic trigonometry, we
get
. B y
sin A=~ and sm =-
a
That is
y = bsinA = asinB
131
hence
a sinE = b sin A
or
a b
sinA sinE
This argument can be extended to show that
a b c
sinA sinE sinC
This relationship is known as the sine rule, and applies to any triangle
whether the angle is acute or obtuse.
The sine rule allows us to solve a triangle if we know either
1. two sides and one of the opposite angles, or
2. two angles and the length of the side between them.
Worked Example 7.1 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,

A triangle has the following dimensions: a = 30m, c = 25m, LA = 17.
Determine the remaining side and angles.
Solution
From the sine rule we see that

a c
sin A sin C
or
sin C =~sin A=~~ sin 17 = 0.2436

hence
LC =arcsin 0.2436 = 14.1 o
Since the sum of the angles in a triangle is 180, then
LA+ LE + LC = 180
or
LE = 180- LE- LC = 180- 17- 14.1 = 148.9
and
b a
sinE sinA
or
b = as~nE = 30 x si~ 148.9o =53 m
smA sm 17
Further trigonometric skills 133
7.3 The cosine rule
As with the sine rule, the cosine rule is very useful for the solution of
triangles.
The vertical broken line y in Figure 7.1 splits the main triangle into two
smaller right-angles triangles for which
or
That is
or
a2 = b2 - d 2 + (c- d) 2 = b 2 - d2 + c2 - 2cd + d 2
= b2 + c2 - 2cd (7.1)
From the left-hand triangle in Figure 7.1 we see that
cos A= djb
that is
d = bcosA
Substituting the above expression into equation (7.1) gives
a2 = b2 + c2 - 2bccosA
which is one expression of the cosine rule. Similarly, it may be shown

that
and
The cosine rule allows us to determine:
1. the third side of a triangle if we know two sides and the included angle,
or
2. any angle if we know all three sides.
Worked Example 7.2 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,
The following data refers to a triangle: a = 4 m, b = 7 m and LC = 28.

Using the cosine rule, determine the other side and angles of the
triangle.
Solution
From the cosine rule

c2 = a2 + b2 - 2ab cos C
= 42 + 72 - (2 x 4 x 7)cos28 = 15.55
hence
c = y'15.55 = 3.94 m
Since we know all three sides and one angle of the triangle, the other
angles can be calculated using either the cosine rule or the sine rule. We
will use the former. Transposing for cos A from the equation
a2 = b2 + c2 - 2bccosA
gives
b2+c2-a2
cosA = 2bc
= (72 + 3.942 - 42 )/(2 X 7 X 3.94) = 0.8797

hence
LA= arccos0.8797 = 28.4
We know that
LA+ LB+ LC = 180
hence
LB = 180- (LA+. LC) = 180- (28.4 + 28)
= 123.6
At this stage it pays to get a mental image of the triangle so that you
can 'see' if the answer appears to be correct. Clearly, our solution
indicates that the longest side is opposite the largest angle (side b and
angle B), and the shortest side is opposite to the smallest angle (side c
and angle C), which agrees with common sense.
7.4 Trigonometric identities

An identity is a statement which is true for all values of the variable. For
example
sine
tane=--
cose
is true for all values of e. The identity sign '=' should be used, but is often
replaced by the ' = ' sign.
Figure 7.2 Trigo nometrical identities
Consider the right-angled triangle in Figure 7.2, for which

a2 +b2 =2
Dividing throughout the equation by c2 gives
or
cos2 9+sin2 9=1
Although this is written in the form of an equation it is, in fact, an identity
because it is true for all values of e. For example, if e = 35.6, then
cose = 0.8131 and sine= 0.5821, and
cos2 e + sin2 e = 0.6611 + 0.3389 = 1.0
Other identities can be obtained from the original equation. For example,
dividing through by a2 gives
or
1 + tan2 9 = sec2 9
and dividing through by b2 results in
core + 1 = cosec2 9
7.5 Compound angle formulae
When two angles are added or subtracted, such as (A+ B) or (A- B), they
are known as compound angles. Sines and cosines formulae for the sum and
difference of two angles are
sin(A +B) =sin A cos B +cos A sin B
sin(A- B) =sin A cos B- cos A sin B
cos (A + B) = cos A cos B - sin A sin B
cos( A- B)= cos A cosB +sin A sinE
The reader is asked to particularly note that sin(A +B) is not equal to
(sin A+ sin B), and cos(A +B) is not equal to (cos A+ cos B), etc. For
example, if LA = 30 and LB = 60, then
sin(30 + 60) = sin 30 cos 60 +cos 30 sin 60
= (0.5 X 0.5) + (0.866 X 0.866)
= 1.0 = sin 90
Note: cos 30 +sin 60 = 0.5 + 0.866 = 1.366!
Since compound angle formulae are true for all angles, they may be used
in trigonometrical identities. For example
sin(A +B)
tan (A + B) = --'----"-
cos(A +B)
sin A cos B + cos A sin B
cos A cos B - sin A sin B
which, by further manipulation, can be reduced to the following (the reader
will find it an interesting exercise to verify them)
tan A + tan B
tan (A + B) = -,-----.,....-------=
1- tan Ax tanB
and
A B tanA -tanB
tan( - ) = 1 +tan A x tanB
A sine wave which has been subjected to a phase shift of <1> (see Chapter 10)
can be represented in the form Y sin( rot+ <1> ), where Y is the maximum value
of the wave and ro its angular frequency. Since we are dealing with an angle
of (rot + <1>), which is a compound angle, the expression can be expanded
using the compound angle formulae as follows:
Y sin( rot + ) = Y( sin rot cos + cos rot sin <1>)
= Y sin rot cos <1> + Y cos rot sin 
Since Y and <P are 'fixed' factors, i.e., they do not vary with time, we can
group the fixed factors together to give
Y sin( rot + <P) = ( Y cos <P) sin rot + ( Y sin <P) cos rot
That is to say, the sine wave Y sin( rot+ <P) can be thought of as the addition
of a sine wave (sin rot) and a cosine wave (cos rot), each wave being
multiplied by a constant coefficient. That is we may write
Y sin( rot+ <P) = A sin rot+ Bcos rot
where A = Y cos . If we now 'square' each of these terms
we get A2 = Y2 cos 2 . Next we add the 'squared' terms
as follows
A2 + B2 = Y2 cos 2 
or
B
<P =arctan A
Worked Example 7.3 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,
Alternating voltages of 100 sin 500t V and 150 cos 500t V are connected
in series. Express the resultant voltage in the form Ysin(500t+<J>);
determine also the frequency of the wave.
Solution
The instantaneous voltage applied to the circuit is

v = 100 sin 500t + 150 cos 500t
Relating the values in the problem to the equation developed in section
7.5, we see that
I 00 sin 500 t = A sin rot
and
150 cos 500t = B cos rot
That is A = 100, B = 150 and ro = 500. It follows that

Y = y'(A 2 + B2 ) = y'(100 2 + 1502 ) = 180.3
That is to say, the peak value of the resultant wave is 180.3 V, and its
r.m.s. voltage is 180.3/v'2 ~ 127.5V. Also
B 150
<j> =arctan A= arctan 100 = 56.3
o
We may therefore say that the resultant voltage is

v = 180.3 sin(500t + 56.3)
The angular frequency of the wave is ro = 500 radjs, or
f = 500/21t = 79.6 Hz
That is, the applied voltage is
180.3 sin(500t + 56.3)
7.6 Product of sines and cosines

If we add together the equations for sin( A +B) and sin( A -B) listed in
section 7.5, we get
sin( A +B) +sin( A - B)
=(sin A cos B +cos A sin B)+ (sin A cosB- cos A sin B)
= 2sinAcosB
or
sin A cos B =! (sin(A +B) + sin(A - B))

Similarly, if we subtract sin( A- B) from sin( A+ B) we get
cos A sinE= }(sin(A +B)- sin(A- B))
Next, adding cos( A+ B) to cos( A- B) gives

cos A cosB =!(cos( A+ B)+ cos( A- B))
and subtracting cos( A+ B) from cos(A -B) gives

sin A sinE=! (cos( A- B)- cos( A+ B))
These equations allow us to manipulate the product of angles, as seen from

the following.
cos 59 cos 29 = ! (cos( 59 + 29) + cos( 59 - 29))

=!(cos 79 +cos 39)
7. 7 Double-angle formulae
If, in the compound-angle formulae (see section 7.5) we let LB = LA, then
sin2A =sin( A+ A)= sin A cos A+ cos A sin A

= 2sinAcosA
cos2A =cos( A+ A)= cos A cos A- sin A sin A
= cos 2 A - sin 2 A
Cos 2A may, alternatively, be written as
(2cos 2 A- 1) or as (1- 2sin2 A)
As an exercise, the reader should prove these. Also

tan A+ tan A
tan 2A = tan (A + A) = ..,...------
1- tan A tan A
2tanA
1- tan 2 A
Self-test q u e s t i o n s - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - . ,
Use only the trigonometric formulae provided in this chapter to answer

the following questions.
7.1 Solve the following triangles: (a) LA= 60, b = 4.75, c = 5,
(b) b = 19, c = 22, LC = 60, (c) LA= 88, LB = 36, a= 9.5,
(d) a= 38, b = 25, LC = 78, (e) a= 27, c = 21, LB = 60.
7.2 Given that sin A= 0.342 and cosB = 0.766, and that A and Bare
acute, determine the value of (a) sin(A +B), (b) sin(A- B),
(c) cos( A+ B), (d) cos( A- B), (e) tan( A+ B), (t) tan( A- B).
7.3 Show that (a) cos(EI- 1t) = -cos 9, (b) sin(EI + 1t) = -sin 9,
(c) tan(EI + 1t) =tan e.
7.4 Convert each of the following in the form Y sin( cot + )
(a) 6 sin rot+ 8 cos cot, (b) 4cos cot- 6 sin cot,
(c) 30 sin rot+ 42 cos cot.
7.5 If e is acute, and given that sin 29 = 0.719, determine the value of
sin 9 and sin(EI/2).
7.6 Prove that cos(EI + 45) + sin(EI- 45) = 0.
7. 7 Solve for 9 in cos 29 = 1 - 6 cos 2 9 for all positive values of 9 up to
360.

A triangle having sides a, b and c with opposite angles A, B and C,
respectively, can be solved by the sine rule as follows
a b c
sin A sin B sin C
Similarly, a triangle can be solved by the cosine rule which states
a2 = b2 + c2 - 2hccosA
b2 = a2 +c 2 - 2ac cos B
c2 = a2 + b 2 - 2ab cos C
A trigonometric identity is true for all angles, and typical identities include
tan 8 = sin 8/ cos 8
cos 2 8 + sin 2 8 = 1
1 + tan 2 8 = sec2 8
cot 2 8 + 1 = cosec 2 8
A compound angle is formed either by the addition or subtraction of two

angles. Compound angle equations include the following
sin(A +B) =sin A cos B +cos A sin B
sin(A - B) = sin A cos B- cos A sin B
cos(A +B)= cos A cosB- sin A sinE
cos(A - B) = cos A cos B +sin A sin B
tan(A +B)= (tan A+ tanB)/(1 -tan A tan B)
tan(A- B)= (tan A- tanB)/(1 +tan A tan B)
The equation Y sin( rot+ <P) can be written in the form

Y sin( rot + <P) = A sin rot + B cos rot
where
y = J(A 2 + B 2 ), , B = Ysin<J>
Equations for the product of sines and cosines are
sin A cos B = ~ [sin(A +B) + sin(A - B)]
cos A sinE=~ [sin(A +B)- sin(A- B)]
cos A cosB =~[cos( A+ B)+ cos( A- B)]
sin A sinE=~ [cos( A- B)- cos( A+ B)]
If angle A = angle B, the compound angle formulae give the following

double-angle formulae
sin 2A = 2 sin A cos A

cos 2A = cos 2 A - sin 2 A
= 2 cos2 A - 1 = 1 - 2 sin2 A
tan2A = 2tanA/(1- tan 2 A)
@Men surati on
8.1 Introduction
Mensuration is a branch of mathematics involved in the determination of the
length, area or volume of geometrical shapes and figures. In engineering we
are concerned not only with the more usual shapes such as rectangles,
triangles, circles, etc., but also irregular shapes. These include the area under
a graph which may represent the variation of voltage, current or power
plotted to a base of time or angle.
recognise the shapes of polygons,
calculate the areas of plane figures,
determine the volume and surface area of solids,
evaluate the area of irregular figures using the mid-ordinate rule and
Simpson's rule,
calculate the average value or mean value of a waveform.
8.2 Introduction to polygons

A polygon is a closed shape bounded by straight lines, and the more usual
polygons are
a triangle which has three sides
a quadrilateral which has four sides
a pentagon which has five sides
a hexagon which has six sides
a heptagon which has seven sides
a octagon which has eight sides
In particular, there are several types of triangle, including the equilateral
triangle in which all three sides are of equal length, the isosceles triangle in
which two sides have equal length, the right-angled triangle in which one
angle is a right-angle, and the scalene triangle in which all three sides are of
unequal length. A feature of a triangle is that the sum of the three internal
angles is 180.
There are several types of quadrilateral (see Figure 8.1) including the
following:
(a) a rectangle, which has four internal angles which are all right-angles,
and opposite sides are parallel and equal in length,
(b) a square, which has four internal right-angles, and all sides have equal
length,
142
Mensuration 143
[
(a)
] D (b)
--
'
- ' -'
'
' '
(c) (d)
Figure 8.1 (a) A rectangle, (b) a square, (c) a parallelogram, (d) a trapezium
(c) a parallelogram, in which opposite sides are equal in length and are
parallel to one another, and the diagonals bisect one another, and
(d) a trapezium, in which only one pair of sides are parallel.
8.3 Areas of plane figures
[ w
J! Dlw I
--w- w
/!
(a) (b) (c)
--w2---
I \! Dl w1
(d)
--w--
(e)
8 (f)
()}
(g)
Figure 8.2
(h) -- a-
A number of shapes occurring in engineering practice

In the following, the area and (where of interest) the perimeter of the shapes
in Figure 8.2 are quoted.
(a) Rectangle: Area= wh
(b) Square: Area= w 2
(c) Parallelogram: Area = wh
(d) Trapezium: Area=! (wi + w2)h
(e) Triangle: Area= !wh = y'(s(s- a)(s- b)(s- c)) where s is one-half
of the total perimeter of the triangle, in which a, b and c are the length
of the sides.
(f) Circle: Area= nr2 = nd 2 /4
Circumference = nd
(g) Arc: Area= nr 29o /360 = !r2 9 (8 in rad)
Arc length= nr9 /180 = re (8 in rad)
(h) Ellipse: Area= nab
Perimeter= n(a +b)
Worked Example 8.1 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - . . . . . ,
Determine the area of the hexagon in 2cm
t
Figure 8.3, each side of the hexagon
being 2cm.
h
j_

Solution
The hexagon can be divided into six equilateral triangles, as shown by

the dotted lines in Figure 8.3. It is of interest to note that an equilateral
triangle is equi-angular, and all internal angles are 60. The height h of
each triangle is calculated from
tan 60 = ( 2c~)/ 2
or
h = 1 em x tan60o = 1.732 em
and
area of one triangle = ! x base x height
=!x2cmxh=hcm 2
= 1.732cm2
Mensuration 145
Alternatively, the length of half the perimeter of one triangle is

s = !(2 + 2 + 2) = 3cm
and
area= y'(s(s- a)(s- b)(s- c))
= y'(3(3 - 2) (3 - 2) (3 - 2)) = 1.732 cm 2
The total area of the hexagon is, therefore

total area = 6 x 1. 732 = 10.392 cm2
8.4 Volume and surface area of solids
w X
(a) (b)
(c)
(d)
(e) (f)
Figure 8.4 Surface area and volume of some solids
In the following, the volume and surface area of the solid shapes m
Figure 8.4 is given.
(a) Rectangular prism: Volume = whl
Surface area = 2(hw + wl + hi)
(b) Pyramid: Volume= x 2 h/3
Surface area = x 2 + 4(area of each triangle
forming the side)
(c) Cylinder: Volume = nr h = nd h/4
2 2
Surface area = 2(rtr2 + nrh) = 2nr(r + h)

(d) Cone: Volume= nr2 h j 3
Surface area = nr2 + nrl = nr(r + l)
(e) Frustum of a cone: Volume= rrh(rt 2 + r1r2 + r2 2)/3

Surface area = rrl{rt + r 2) + rrr 12 + rrr/
= rr(l(rt + r2) + r1 2 + r2 2 )
(t) Sphere: Volume= 4rrr3/3
Surface area = 4rrr2
Worked Example 8.2 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - . ,
A hollow shaft of internal diameter lOcm has the same volume and
length as a solid shaft whose diameter is 5 em. Determine the thickness,
t, of the material in the hollow shaft (see Figure 8.5).
t
solid shaft hollow shaft

Solution
The volume of the solid shaft is
i X 52 X l
and the volume of the hollow shaft is

~ (d 2 - 10 2 )1
4
Since the two volumes are the same, then
~ (d 2 - 10 2 )1 =~X 52 X l
4 4
hence
d2 - 102 =5 2
or
d2 = 102 +5 2 = 125
therefore
d= v'l25 = 11.18cm
That is, the thickness of the hollow shaft is
t = (11.18- 10)/2 = 0.59cm.
Mensuration 147
8.5 Area of irregular shapes
The area of an irregular shape can be determined approximately by several

methods, each of which is a form of numerical integration. The two most
popular methods are the mid-ordinate rule and Simpson's rule, the latter
being named after Thomas Simpson, a British mathematician. Alternatively,
an instrument known as a planimeter can be used, in which the outline of the
figure is traced out manually using the instrument.
The mid-ordinate rule and Simpson's rule are described in sections 8.6
and 8.7.
8.6 The mid-ordinate rule
mid-ordinates
c
I
y, ).;'4 Ys
I I
A D
lc: w lc: w lc: w :.>IE w :.>IE w I
Figure 8.6 The mid-ordinate rule
To determine the area ABCD in Figure 8.6, the base (AD) is divided into a
number of equal parts, each of width w (the number of parts could either be
odd or even). The greater the number of parts, the more accurate the result
will be. Next, the height of the mid-ordinates (y 1 ,y2,y3 ) are measured at
the centre of each part, and their values are added together.
The mid-ordinate rule states that the approximate value of the area of
ABCD is
area = w x sum of the mid-ordinates

= w(y, + Y2 + Y3 Ys)
sum of mid-ordinates h AD
----::----::----::-::--------::-.::--- x lengt
number of mid-ordmates
This method is, perhaps, the simplest of all the available methods of
estimating the area of an irregular shape.
8.7 Simpson's rule

ordinates
8
c
Y2 Y3 Y4 Ys Ys Y1
J
Y1
I
w :.I w
I w
I I I
w :.I w :.I w
lo
I l'l"" I I
Figure 8.7 Simpson's rule
This rule provides perhaps what is one of the most accurate of the 'strip'
methods and, although the method is difficult to prove, is easy to apply. In
this case, the base line under the curve is divided into an even number of
strips of equal width, and ordinates are erected at each point of division
(there is, therefore, an odd number of ordinates)- see Figure 8.7. Simpson's
rule states that the area ABCD of the curve in Figure 8.7 is:
~x [[first .+ last] +4 [sum ?f even] +2 [sum .of odd]]

ordmate ordmates ordmates
3
Note: the sum of the odd ordinates does not include the first and the last
ordinates, since they have already been used.
Worked Example 8.3_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _---,
The graph of a current waveform plotted to a base of time is divided

into ten strips, each having a width of 1 second. The ordinates and
mid-ordinates are listed in Table 8.1. Determine the area of the graph
using (a) Simpson's rule and (b) the mid-ordinate rule.
Solution
(a) When determining the area by Simpson's rule we use the value of
the ordinates as follows.
w
area= 3 x [(y, + Yll) + 4(y2 + Y4 + Y6 + Ys + Yw)
+2(y3 + Ys + Y7 + Y9)]
1
= 3 X [(29 + 12) + 4(33 + 44 + 36 + 22 + 17)
+2(40 + 43 + 28 + 18)]
1
= 3x [41 + 608 + 258] = 302.3 ampere-seconds
Mensuration 149
Table 8.1 Data for Worked Example 8.3; the ordinates (for Simpson's
rule) are listed as y values, and mid-ordinates (for the mid-ordinate rule)
are listed as m values
Ordinates (amperes) Mid-ordinates (amperes)
YI 29
m1 31
Y2 33
m2 36.5
YJ 40
m3 42
Y4 44
m4 43.5
Ys 43
ms 39.5
Y6 36
m6 32
Y7 28
m7 25
Ys 22
ms 20
Y9 18
m9 17.5
YIO 17
mw 14.5
YII 12
(b) We use the mid-ordinate values when calculating the area by the
mid-ordinate rule, as shown below.
area= w(mi +m2 +mJ + ... +mw)
= 1(31 + 36.5 +42 + 43.5 + 39.5 + 32 +25 +20
+17.5 + 14.5)
= 301.5 ampere-seconds
In this case, the difference between the two methods is only about
0.3 per cent, which is small enough to be ignored, and either
solution is acceptable.
8.8 The average value or mean value of a waveform
The mathematical average value of a waveform is its average value taken over
a complete cycle. That is, the mathematical average value is
area under the waveform
length of the base
equal area
,, 'I r----
(a) ....__----1f--+.--,...j
-----;~ time
equal area
(b)
Figure 8.8 (a) A rectangular or square wave, (b) a sine wave
Figure 8.8 shows two types of alternating waveform; that in Figure 8.8(a)
is a rectangular wave or square wave, and that in Figure 8.8(b) is a sine wave.
It is an interesting fact that a true alternating wave has an equal area under
both the positive and negative half-cycles, so that the total area taken over
the whole cycle is zero. That is, the mathematical average value of any
alternating wave is zero!
However, electrical engineers put a different interpretation on the
meaning of 'average' when dealing with waveforms. They say that the
average value or mean value of a waveform is the average value of the positive
half-cycle. This is sometimes known as the rectified value of the wave.
Worked Example 8.4 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,
Using the mid-ordinate rule, determine the average value or mean

value of a sinusoidal alternating voltage of peak value 100 V .
Solution
Since we are dealing with an alternating voltage wave, we will

determine the average value of the positive half-cycle of the wave.
Initially, we divide the first 180 of the wave into ten strips of width 18,
and then take the mid-ordinates of the strips. These can be determined
from a calculator (you can also obtain them by drawing out the
sinewave, and measuring the mid-ordinates, but this is not quite so
accurate).
Mensuration 151
The first mid-ordinate is at go, and others occur at 18 intervals up to

and including 171 a as follows
Mid-ordinate number Value
I 100sin9a 15.64
2 100sin27a 45.4
3 100sin45 70.71
4 100sin63a 89.1
5 100 sin 81 a 98.77
6 100 sin99a 98.77
7 IOOsin 117 89.1
8 100 sin 135 70.71
9 100sinl53 45.4
10 100 sin 171 a 15.64
sum 639.24
Hence the average value of the wave is

sum of mid-ordinates = 639.24 = 63 924 V
number of mid-ordinates 10
As mentioned earlier, the mid-ordinate method provides an approx-
imate result (but reasonably accurate), but Simpson's rule gives a more
accurate result of 63.66 V (the reader should verify this fact). A true
value is only obtained by using integral calculus (see Chapter 13 for
details), which uses an infinite number or 'strips' of 'zero' width to
determine the area.
Self-test questions - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - . ,
8.1 If the width of one face of a hexagon is w, what is the area of the
hexagon?
8.2 If the radius of the tyre of a car is 0.25 m, calculate the rotational
speed of the wheel in rev/s when the car is travelling at 50 km/h.
8.3 If the maximum allowable speed of the rim of a flywheel is
30 m/s, determine the maximum rotational speed in rev /s of the
flywheel if its radius is 1.4 m.
8.4 A pyramid is constructed from four isosceles triangles having
two sides 6 m in length, and a square base whose side is 5 m in
length. Determine the total surface area of the pyramid.
8.5 Determine the area of the largest hexagonal shank that can be
cut from a circular bar 2 em in diameter.
8.6 Determine the relative volumes of a cylinder, a sphere and a cone

which have the same diameter (of the base in the case of the
cone), and height (diameter in the case of a cone).
8. 7 A cathode-ray tube of a laboratory oscilloscope can be regarded
as consisting of a cylinder of diameter 4 em and length 15 em,
and a frustum of a cone of length from the end of the cylinder to
the flared end of 15 em, the diameter of the flared end of the
frustum being 20 em. Calculate (a) the total surface area of the
tube and (b) its total volume.
8.8 Estimate the area under a curve and its mathematical average
value given that the ordinates are 2.3, 3.8, 4.4, 6.0, 7.1, 8.3, 8.2,
7.9, 6.2, 5.0 and 3.9.
8.9 The waveshape of a current applied to a circuit is shown in
Figure 8.9. Determine the average current in the circuit.
20At-------..
15A - - - ---- - "----------..
0 '-------1-0--15_ _ _ _ _2_5-----'-30_ _. t (ms)
8.10 The instantaneous values of an alternating current waveform

taken over one half-cycle are as follows
Time (ms) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Current (A) 0 92 160 200 86 132 100 64 0
The second half-cycle is a mirror-image of the first half-cycle.

Determine the frequency of the wave and its mean value.
Mensuration is concerned with the determination of lengths, areas and

volumes of shapes and figures, including polygons, the most important of
which are the triangle, the quadrilateral, the pentagon, the hexagon, the
heptagon and the octagon.
Mensuration 153
The area of an irregular shape can be determined approximately by a

number of methods, which include forms of numerical integration. The
principal methods are the mid-ordinate rule and Simpson's rule, which
require the shape to be divided into strips. Simpson's rule requires an even
number of strips, whilst the mid-ordinate rule can employ either an odd
number or an even number of strips. The mid-ordinate rule is the simpler of
the two to understand, but Simpson's rule is generally more accurate.
An instrument known as a planimeter can be used manually to estimate
the area of a figure drawn on a piece of paper.
The mathematical mean value or average value of an alternating
waveform is the average taken over a complete cycle, and has zero value.
The electrical (rectified) average value or mean value of an alterna.ting wave
is the average value taken over the positive half-cycle of the wave.
Graphs
9.1 Introduction
In this chapter we look at graphs which are frequently encountered in

electrical and electronic engineering including the straight line graph, inverse
proportion graphs, parabolas, graphs of cubic equations, graphs having a
law of the form y = Axn, and exponential curves such as may be
encountered in transients in electrical circuits. We will also see how to
obtain the graphical solution of simultaneous equations.
understand basic facts about graphs,
draw a straight line graph, and determine the equation of the graph,
predict the 'best' straight-line graph from a set of 'points' or
experimental results,
solve linear simultaneous equations by means of a graph,
understand the meaning of direct and inverse proportionality,
plot graphs of quadratic equations, and graphically solve quadratic
equations,
plot graphs of cubic equations,
plot graphs of the form y = Axn, and graphically solve an equation of
the form y = Axn + B,
use logarithmic graph paper,
plot exponential graphs of the form y = Ae-tfr and y =A( I - e- 11'),
such as occur in transients in electrical circuits,
determine the settling time, rise time and fall time of transients in R-C
and R-L circuits.
9.2 Basic facts about graphs
A graph is simply a way of representing pictorially how a quantity or

variable changes with another. If, for example, we change the voltage
applied to a circuit, the current in the circuit changes. The quantity which we
control is known as the independent variable since the circuit itself has no
control over the value of the voltage. However, since a change in the value
of the voltage causes the current in the circuit to alter, the current is known
as the dependent variable.
Graphs are usually drawn on a paper using axes which are at right-angles
to one another (see Figure 9.1), the points on the graph are defined using
rectangular co-ordinates or cartesian co-ordinates (after Rene Decartes in the
154
Graphs 155
"0
5j ,~
c.
Cll
"0
abscissa P(3,5)
5
4
Q(-4,3) Cll
3 (;j
c:
2 E0
1
-
indepe ndent variable
-"" (x-axis)
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5 6
-1
-2
-3
R(-5,-3)
-4
-5
I s 6,-5)
Figure 9.1 Defining points on a graph using cartesian or rectangular

co-ordinates
17th century). The point of intersection of the two axes of the graph in
Figure 9.1 is known as the origin of the graph.
The vertical axis or y-axis is reserved for the dependent variable, and the
horizontal axis or x-axis is reserved for the independent variable. Distances
above and to the right of the origin of the graph are positive, and distances
below and to the left of the origin are negative. The x co-ordinate of a point
on the graph is the abscissa, and they co-ordinate is called the ordinate. The
four quadrants of the graph are defined in the same way as those for angles
(see chapter 6) namely the first, second, third and fourth quadrants,
respectively, starting at the top right and moving anticlockwise to the
bottom right quadrant.
The rectangular co-ordinates of any point on the graph in Figure 9.1 are
written in the order (x,y), so that point Pis defined as the point (3, 5), Q is
defined as (-4, 3), R as ( -5, -3) and S as (6, -5).
As stated above, a graph is a line or curve showing the relationship
between two variables which, in many cases, are linked by an equation. For
example, we can plot the following equations using cartesian co-ordinates.
y=2x+3
y = 10sin9
y = x2 + 5x + 6, etc.
The dependent variable, y, in the above equations is written on the left-hand
side of the expression, and the independent variable is on the right-hand
side.
9.3 The straight-line graph
In a straight-line graph, the independent variable, x, is raised to the power

unity. For example
y=2x+3
y = 2x+ 1
y=2x-1
are all examples of equations which have a straight-line graph. A table of
values for y for each of these equations is given in Table 9.1, and values are
plotted in Figure 9.2
TABLE 9.1 Data for some straight-line graphs
X -2 -1 0 2 3
y=2x+3 -1 1 3 5 7 9
y=2x+1 -3 -1 1 3 5 7
y=2x-1 -5 -3 -1 1 3 5
y
,,
10
8
'~ /
6
~/ /
~
,....
4 /
/ ~/ 'i'l?~
2
/_
v ...-(
/
v
v / -v / ~
~ ..... X
0 1 2 3 -
-2
v / v ,oy I
-4
v -- -- ~
ox
-6
Figure 9.2 Straight-line graphs
Two parameters of great importance when defining a straight-line graph

are the gradient and the y-axis intercept (also known as the vertical
intercept).
The gradient is defined as
. _ change in y oy
gra d1ent- h .
c ange m x ox
Graphs 157
where by and bx are shown in the graph for y = 2x- 1 in Figure 9.2. The
gradient is, in fact, the tangent of the angle that the graph makes with the
x-axis. Using the values for the graph of y = 2x- I, we see that its tangent
lS
. by 3- 1
grad1ent = - = -- = 2
bx 2- 1
Since all the graphs are parallel to one another, the slope of each graph in
Figure 9.2 is 2 (the reader should verify this from the values in Table 9.1).
If the graph slopes upwards as x increases in value (as it does in all cases
in Figure 9 .2), the gradient is positive, and if it slopes downwards the gradient
is negative. If the graph is horizontal, the gradient is zero, and if it is vertical,
the gradient is infinite.
The vertical intercept or y-intercept is the distance from the origin to the
point where the graph cuts they-axis. In the case of the graph for y = 2x + 3
they-intercept is 3 (see Figure 9.2), in the case of y = 2x + 1 it is 1, and in
the case of y = 2x - 1 it is -1. That is, the y-intercept is equal to the
constant in the equation.
The law of a straight-line graph can be stated as
y = mx+ c
where m is the gradient and c is the y-intercept. In the case of the graph
y = 2x + 3, we can observe that the graph has a gradient of m = 2, and a y-
intercept of c = +3.
Worked Example 9.1 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,
State the gradient and y-intercept of the following graphs

y X 2
(a) y = 4x + 6, (b) 2y = 3x- 7, (c) -2y = 4x- 6, (d) 3 = 6- 3'
(e) 4x + 5y- 8 = 0.
Solution
(a) In this case

y = 4x + 6 = mx + c
hence m = 4 and c = 6. That is, the gradient of the graph is +4,
and they-intercept is +6.
(b) Here the equation of the graph is
2y = 3x -7
To reduce this to the 'standard' straight-line graph format, we
must reduce the coefficient of y to unity by dividing throughout
the equation by 2 as follows
y = 1.5x - 3.5 = mx + c
which has a gradient of m = +1.5 and a y-intercept of c = -3.5.
(c) The equation -2y = 4x- 6 is rewritten in the form

4x 6
y= _ 2 - _ 2 =-2x+3=mx+c
The gradient of the graph ism= -2 and they-intercept is c = +3.

y
~~
6
4 ~
~
"'~
3 J-
\::1
2
,/slope= -2
0 I~ ,.... X
-1 I 01 1
I ~
Figure 9.3 Solution of Worked Example 9.1(c)
The graph is shown in Figure 9.3, and we see that the

negative gradient means that the graph slopes downwards as
the value of x increases, and intersects the y-axis when
y = +3. The reader should plot the graph over the range
x = -2 to x = +2 to verify the shape of the graph.
. case th e equat10n
(d) I n th 1s . 1s. y = X - 2, wh'1ch can be rewntten
. .
3 6 3 m
the form
y = 3[~- ~] = ~ - 2 = mx + c
From the above we see that the gradient is m = +! and the y-

intercept is c = -2.
(e) It is necessary to rewrite the equation in the form
5y = -4x+ 8
or
4 8
y=--x+-=mx+c
5 5
Clearly, the gradient of the graph is m = -4/5 = -0.8, and the
y-intercept is c = 8/5 = 1.6
Graphs 159
Worked Example 9.2 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,

The way in which the terminal voltage, V r volts, of an electronic power
supply varies with the current, I amperes, in supplies is shown in the
following table.
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

12 11.98 11.96 11.94 11.92 11.90
Determine the law relating I and Vr.
Solution
~~
12.02
llx
12.00
11.98
~~
(x,, y,) .........___
11.96 ~
> ............
:t 11.94 ~ .........___ lly
11.92 ~ ~2.Y2l
11.90
,. ~
11.88 ~
0.00 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80 1.00

I (A)
Since the value of I causes V r to vary, I is the independent variable, and

is plotted on the x-axis in Figure 9.4. The graph is plotted from a false
zero; that is to say, the minimum value of Vr is not equal to zero
(which enables us to show variations in Vr to a much greater scale).
However, the current scale does start at zero, and we can see that
y-intercept, c = 12
The gradient of the graph can be determined from the points on the
graph, and
oy Y2 -y, 11.9-12 -o.I
gradient m = - = =--------=--
' ox X2 - x, I- 0
= -0.1
The law of the graph is therefore

Vr= -O.ll+ 12 V
Worked Example 9.3 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,
The following results were obtained from an experiment in which the

resistance of a wire-wound resistor was measured at different
temperature values
Resistance, 0 20.85 21.6 22.35 23.3 23.9 24.85

Temperature, oc 10.0 20.0 30.0 40.0 50.0 60.0
Determine the law relating the resistance of resistor to its temperature.
Solution
~
26
25
24 ~
~
v--
23
22 _.,../
~
21 ~
.... ....
20
.... ....
"'
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
temperature ("C)
The points marked on the graph are plotted from the values in the
table. Even though the results theoretically lie on a straight line, most
of the points lie either side of the supposed position of the graph
(typical of experimental results!).
The author has drawn what he considers to be the 'best' straight line.
This line may not be what every reader considers to be the 'best'
position for the graph, so that there will be a variation between
individuals on the position of the graph. In fact, there is a
mathematical method known as the least squares method of estimating
the 'best fit' straight line (see section 9.4 for details). After reading
section 9.4, the reader will find it interesting to predict the 'best fit'
equation to the above set of values.
Once again, the graph is plotted with a 'false zero' and, since the
independent variable (the temperature) results do not extey1d to zero,
the graph must be extended or extrapolated (see the broken line in
Figure 9.5) until it reaches they-axis. Here we see that
resistance axis intercept, c = 200
Graphs 161
When estimating the gradient of the graph, we must take the results
from the 'best' straight line. In fact, it has been assumed that the points
(I on, 20.8C) and ( 60!1, 24.8C) lie on this line. That is
. 8y Y2 - Y1 24.8 - 20.8
gradient, m = s;- =
uX X2 -Xi 60- lQ
= 5~ = o.o8 n;ac
The estimated law of the graph is, therefore
resistance = m x temperature+ c
= 0.089 + 20!1
where e is the temperature in C.
9.4 Predicting the 'best fit' straight-line graph
y
'
/
v r
v -~
g
v _OJ
y, !/" 1-
/ A
v~''<:;.0/~~
~~ "'
0
OJ
/ ,,o~
::l
<a
>
/ !~-~
ll.o;; "0
1-- ~--o0o;; l!!
/ ::l
(/)
C1l
OJ
E
... X
x,
Figure 9.6 The effect of an 'error' in a measured value
If point A in Figure 9.6 corresponds to one point on a graph, and the

estimated 'best fit' straight-line graph is shown in full line, there is an 'error'
between the position of the point and the graph itself.
Mathematicians have devised a method of least squares technique for
estimating the equation of the straight-line graph from a set of results. This
method endeavours to reduce the value of (error) 2 to the smallest value; the
reason for this being that, since the error may either be positive or negative,
then (error) 2 is always positive. The resulting straight-line graph is known as
the line of regression of X on Y or as the line of prediction of Y.
Below we write down an expression for the method of calculation of the

gradient, and one for the calculation of they-intercept, and will apply them
to a set of results.
The gradient is given by the expression
gradient m = (N x E XY) - (EX x E Y)

' (N X E(..2))- (EX) 2
and the y-intercept is
intercept c = E y- (m x EX)
' N
where
N = number of points on the graph
L XY = sum of the products of X and Y
LX = sum of the X-values
L Y = sum of the Y-values

L(X2 ) = sum of the square values of X
Worked Example 9.4 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,
The following table gives the resistance of a resistor as its temperature

alters
Resistance, Q 10.04 10.079 10.1 10.139

Temperature, oc 10.0 20.0 25.0 35.0
Using the least squares method, determine the equation relating

resistance to temperature.
Solution
Before reading any further, the reader should plot the graph and
estimate the equation of the graph. Since the temperature is the factor
which controls the resistance of the resistor, we use the temperature as
the independent variable, i.e., X= temperature. This graph will be
useful in assessing the accuracy of this method. Table 9.2 shows how
the values in the least squares method are calculated.
Graphs 163
TABLE 9.2 Method of least squares: solution to Worked Example 9.4
X 10.0 20.0 25.0 35.0 l:X = 90

y 10.04 10.079 10.1 10.139 2::: y = 40.358
XY 100.4 201.58 252.58 354.87 2::: XY = 909.35
x2 100.0 400.0 625.0 1225.0 l:(X2 ) = 2350
Substituting the values in the right-hand column of Table 9.2 into the
equations in section 9.4 gives
. (N X ....... XY) - ("""X X ....... Y)
gradient m = -'---=L...J=----'--=L...J=---=L...J~-'-
, (N x L(_x2))- (2:X) 2
(4 X 909.35)- (90 X 40.358)
(4 X 2350)- 902
5.18 -3
= l300 = 3.98 X 10
and
intercept c = L y- (m x 2:X)
' N
= 40.358- (3.98 X 10- 3 X 90) = 10
4
That is
w- 3e + 10n
R = 3.98 x
where 8 = temperature in oc.
9.5 Graphical solution of linear simultaneous equations

The mathematical solution of linear simultaneous equations was fully
discussed in Chapter 5, but here we have the option of solving them
graphically. Consider the circuit in Figure 9.7 (a), in which currents I 1 and /z
are unknown. Using electrical circuit theory, we deduce the following
simultaneous equations for the circuit which are (see also Chapter 5)
10 = 20I, + 10/z
15 = 10I, + 30/z
Since both currents are unknown, we cannot (strictly speaking) say which
one of them is to be the independent variable. However, we must nominate
one of them, and we choose /z; that is, /z will be plotted on the.x-axis. The
above equations are therefore written in the form
20I, = -10/z + 10 or I 1 = -0.5/z + 0.5 (9.1)
10I1 = -30/z + 15 or I 1 = -3/z + 1.5 (9.2)
10Q 20Q
10V I 10Q
I 15V
(a)
1~
2.0
1.5
j
Rr<l
1.0 ~ 1or
~ 0.5
~
...... Graph for (9.D
-= /1 =0.3 r- -
0.0
~ """"
0.2
I
0.4
I
~:~ 0.8-
I
N
-0.5
-1.0
(b)
Figure 9.7 (a) An electrical circuit, (b) its graphical solution
TABLE 9.3 Graphical solution of linear equations
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
/1 (from (9.1)) 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1

/1 (from (9.2)) 1.5 0.9 0.3 -0.3 -0.9
If we calculate / 1 for the range of h values of 0 to 0.8 A we get the results in

Table 9.3. The two graphs of h plotted to a base of h are shown in Figure
9.7(b). Clearly h has the same value for both equations where the two graphs
intersect; this occurs when
/1 = 0.3 A and h = 0.4 A
These values give the solution to the two simultaneous equations. The
reader will find it an interesting exercise to verify the solution of the circuit
using any of the methods outlined in Chapter 5.
Graphs 165
9.6 Direct proportionality

The graph of a straight line is given by the law y = mx + c, where m and c
have been defined earlier. In a relationship of this type, the variables y and x
are said to be linearly related to one another. That is, a change in x produces
a linear change in y.
In the special case when c = 0, i.e., the graph passes through the origin,
then k = mx (or, as is often quoted, y = kx), y and x are directly
proportional to one another, that is y ex x, where ex means 'is proportional
to'. The shorter forms 'y is proportional to x' and 'y varies as x' are also
used.
For example, the e.m.f. induced in the armature of a d.c. machine is given
by the expression
E = 2P ct>Zn volts
c
in which the factors p, c and Z are constants for a particular machine, whilst
ci> (the magnetic flux in the machine) and n (the armature speed) can be
controlled by the user, i.e. they are independent variables. If we write
K = 2pZjc, then the equation can be written in the form
E = Kct> n volts
or
Eexct>n
On the other hand, if ci> is maintained at a constant value, it too is a constant
and we may write K 1 = Kct>, and
E=K,n
or
Eexn
We frequently manipulate equations in this way in order to prove a
particular point in electrical and electronic theory.
9. 7 Inverse proportionality
If
k
y =-=kx-
I
x
where k is a constant, then y is proportional to the reciprocal of x, that is
y ex 1/x
Here we say that y varies inversely as x, or y is inversely proportional to x. In
this type of relationship, if x becomes very small (we say that it 'tends to'
zero), then y becomes very large (it 'tends to' infinity); if x tends to infinity,
then y tends to zero.
From the original expression we can say that

xy_=k
y ~~
x;, ~ k
_....
x'
r--xy=k
Figure 9.8 Graph of xy =k or y = k/ x

That is, the product of x andy always gives a constant value. The graph of
such a curve is known as a rectangular hyperbola, and is shown in Figure 9.8.
Clearly, in practice neither x or y can have an infinite value, and we say that
the curve is asymptotic with they and x axes (but does not touch them!) as x
approaches zero and infinity, respectively. Let us consider practical
situations in electrical engineering where this occurs.
Firstly, in Ohm's law I= Ej R; if E is a constant voltage, then
I= constant=~= kR_ 1
R R
The graph of this relationship corresponds to the curve in the first quadrant
of Figure 9.8, with R being plotted as the independent variable in the x-
direction, the current I being the dependent variable. Clearly, as the
resistance of the circuit reduces in value, the current increases, and as R
tends to zero value, the circuit current tends to rise to an infinite value
(which is prevented in a practical circuit by a fuse or overcurrent trip). Also,
if the resistance of the circuit approaches an infinite value, the current in the
circuit tends towards zero.
Next, let us look at the power rating of a semiconductor device. In
practice, we design the circuit to work within the power rating of the
semiconductor. The power, P, dissipated by the semiconductor is given by
P= VI
where Vis the voltage drop across the device, and I is the current flowing in
it. If Pmax is the maximum power that the device can dissipate, we can re-
write the above equation in the form
VI= Pmax
Graphs 167
That is if Pmax = lOOmW, and V = lOV, then the maximum current the
device can carry is
I= Pmax/ V = 100/10 = 10 rnA
and if V= 20 V, then the maximum current is
I= Pmax/V= 100/20 = 5 rnA
I II'
I
\
\
max
\
\ Pmax curve
--- ----
safe f-A
~
--
working
area 1'--- ........
t-
...
Vmax V
Figure 9.9 Safe working area for a semiconductor device
A typical graph for Pmax is shown in Figure 9.9. Further, the safe working
area under the Pmax curve is bounded by the maximum current Umax) the
device will carry, and the maximum voltage ( Vmax) that the device will
support.
9.8 Graphs of quadratic equations

The general form of quadratic equation (or, more strictly, a second order
polynomial) is
y = ax 2 +bx+ c
where a, b and c are constants, and the shape of the x-y graph is called a
parabola.
An interesting point about a parabola is that if it is rotated about its axis,
it produces a shape known as the paraboloid of revolution, and is the shape
of optical reflectors and radar antennae. A property 9Jcthis shape is that if a
source of light or electronic radiation is placed at its focal point, the beam it
produces is parallel to the axis. Also, in radar applications, the waves
impinging on it are focused onto the focal point.
To get an idea of the general shape of the parabola, we will consider one
or two special cases as follows
(a) . The case where b = 0 and c = 0; that is y = ax 2 .

y
r---8
1\ I
\ I
\ I
\ I r=2
\ y
f----' r-2
\ I
\J
-1( \1
X
-2 2
I \
r-- -2
\
I \r=-
I \
I \
II \
f---- -8
(a) (b) (c)

Figure 9.10 Parabolas for which parameters b and c are both zero
The graphs for y = x 2 andy= -x2 , i.e., parameter a= 1, are shown in

Figure 9.10(a). In this case we can see that the graph has a turning point at
(0, 0), i.e., x = 0, y = 0, and the slope of the tangent to the curve at this
point is zero. If the value of parameter a is increased to 2, i.e., y = 2x 2 and
y = -2x2 (see Figure 9.10(b)), the graph h~s a turning point as (0, 0) again,
but the shape of the graph is much sharper than for a = 1. If a = the !,
curve is much more shallow (see Figure 9.10(c)).
We also see that if the sign of parameter a is positive the graph is concave
looking from the top, and if the sign is negative it is concave from below.
The case where b = 0; that is y = ax 2 +c.
We see in figures 9.11(a) and (b) that when parameter cis positive, the
turning point occurs when x = 0 and y has a positive value. When c is
negative, the turning point occurs when x = 0 and y has a negative value.
Moreover, they-intercept of the curve is equal to the value of parameter c.
The reader should also note, in Figure 9.11(a), the curves do not touch or
intersect the x-axis. We will return to this fact later.
Graphs 169
y
r-----r-6
:\ I
\ I
~ I Y=X
R _/ 2
y
X
-2 -1 1 2
-2
f--- -3
/ \
I \y=- x 2 -2
I \
1/
r--- -6
\
(a) (b)
Figure 9.11 Parabolas for which parameter b is zero
(b) The case where a, band care finite; that is y = ax 2 + bx +c.
To consider the general effect of parameter b on a quadratic equation,

consider the two following equations
y = x2 + 2x- 2
y = x 2 - 2x- 2
y
14
[\. I
12
10
\ y=x 2 +2X-2 I
I
v
\ y=x 2 -2x-2
8
\
I
6
4
\
/
"" "-~1~ v
2
'5-.2.73 1\;"0.73 0.71/ 2.7v
0 X
-2
13 "'-,::}
....___ /
1 __......, fL 7
-4
Figure 9.12 The effect of bon the position of the parabola

The graphs are plotted in Figure 9.12, and we see that the net effect of
parameter b is to shift the graph in the x-direction. The basic curve with
b = 0 is shown in Figure 9.ll(b); when b has a positive value, the turning
point of the graph is shifted to the left (see Figure 9.12), and when b has a
negative value it is shifted to the right.
Summary
1. A parabola has a turning point.
2. The larger the value of parameter a, the 'sharper' the turning point.
3. A positive value of parameter a results in the curve being concave
looking from above, and a negative value of parameter a causes it to be
concave from below.
4. Parameter b causes the turning point to be shifted in the x-direction; a
positive value causes it to be shifted to the left.
5. The value of parameter c gives the y-intercept of the parabola.
6. If the parabola cuts the x-axis, the points of intersection with the x-axis
give the roots of the equation (see also sections 4.8 and 9.9). If the curve
just touches the x-axis, there are two equal roots to the equation (e.g.,
y = x 2 - 6x + 9). If the curve does not cut the x-axis (see Figure
9.ll(a)), the roots are 'imaginary' (see Chapter 11).
9.9 Graphical solution of a quadratic equation
A quadratic equation is formed when y = 0 in a quadratic polynomial. That

is
ax2 +bx+c = 0
The equation can be solved graphically by plotting the graph and noting the
values of x for which y = 0 (note: a solution is said to be 'imaginary' (see
Chapter 11) if the graph does not cut the x-axis).
In general, a quadratic equation has two possible solutions or values of x
for which y = 0, since the graph normally cuts the x-axis twice (see also
Figure 9.12).
The special case where the curve only just touches the x-axis (see, for
example, Figure 9.10) appears to give only one result (where the curve
touches the x-axis). In fact, there are two solutions and both are identical.
Consider the equations
x 2 - 2 = 0 and - x 2 + 2 = 0
the solution is
X= ..,fi = 1.414
Graphs 171
That is
x = +1.414 or x = -1.414
as shown in Figure 9.11 (b).
The equation
x 2 +2x-2=0
gives the solutions x = -2.73 and x = 0. 73, whilst the equation
x 2 -2x-2=0
gives the solutions x = -0.73 and x = 2.73 (both graphs are drawn m
Figure 9.12).
9.10 Graphical solution of simultaneous equations

The graphical solution of simultaneous equations is obtained by plotting
both graphs on the same graph paper, the solution (or solutions) being given
by the points where the graphs intersect. The graphical solution of linear
simultaneous equations was described in section 9.5. Here we look at more
complex problems; in some cases, the graphical solution is the only method of
obtaining a solution. However, the reader is advised that, at best, a graphical
solution gives only an approximate solution since the point(s) of intersection
is not always clearly defined.
Worked Example 9.5 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,

Plot the graph of y 1 = 2x2 - 6x + 3, hence solve the equation of
2x2 - 6x + 3 = 0. On the same piece of graph paper plot Yz = x- 1
and solve graphically the simultaneous equations
2x 2 - 6x + 3 = 0
x-1=0
Solution
TABLE 9.4 Graphical solution ofsimulataneous equations: Solution to Worked

Example 9.5
X 0 2 3 4
2x 2 0 2 8 18 32
-6x 0 -6 -12 -18 -24
3 3 3 3 3 3
Y1 3 -1 -1 3 11
Y2 -1 0 1 2 3
172 Mastering M athen:zatics for Electrical and Electronic Engineering
y
12
10
/
y, =2i!-6x-3/
8
/
/
6
2
'-..
0
-1
-2
- 1 2 3 4
Figure 9.13 Solution to Worked Example 9.5
A table of values for Yt = 2x 2 - 6x + 3 and Y2 = x - 1 for the range

x = 0 to x = 4 is given in Table 9.4.
Using the summary in section 9.8, we can conclude for Yt that, since
parameter a in the equation y 1 = 2x2 - 6x + 3 is positive, the curve will
be concave looking from above, the negative sign associated with
parameter b indicates that the turning point occurs at a positive value
of x, and that since parameter c = 3, the curve for Yt intersects they-
axis at y = 3. The graph is drawn in Figure 9.13, and a careful
inspection shows that the parabola intersects the x-axis at
x = 0.63 and x = 2.37
which are the solutions for 2x2 - 6x + 3 = 0.
Next.we plot the straight-line graph for Y2 Although the results from
Table 9.4 can be used, we can apply the information we already know
to draw the graph, that is
Y2 =x- 1 = mx + c
The graph therefore commences at they-intercept of c = -1, and has a
slope of 1.0, so that by the time that x = 4, then Y2 = 3.
Once again a careful inspection reveals that the graphs for Yt and Y2
intersect when
x = 0.72 and x = 2.78
These two values give the solution of the simultaneous equations.
There is yet another method at our disposal of solving the
simultaneous equations, since we know that not only does Yt = 0 at
the intersection of the curves, but also Y2 = 0. That is
2x2 - 6x + 3 = 0 = x - 1
or
2x2 - 7x -f 4 = 0
If we plot the graph y = 2x2 - 7x + 4, we will find that its roots are
x = 0.72 and x = 2.78, which agree with the solutions in Figure 9.13.
Graphs 173
Worked Example 9.6 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,

Plot the graph y = x 2 - 4x + 4, and determine its solution. Also, solve
graphically
y = x2 - 4x+4
xy=4
Solution
For the equation y = x 2 - 4x + 4 = ax2 + bx + c, we note that (see

section 9.8) since a is positive, the parabola is concave looking from
above, the turning point occurs when x is positive (parameter b is
negative), and the vertical intercept of the curve occurs at y = 4 (since
c = 4). The table of values for y in the range x = 0 to x = 4 is given in
Table 9.5.
TABLE 9.5 Table for solution to Worked Example 9.6
X 0 2 3 4
x2 0 1 4 9 16
-4x 0 -4 -8 -12 -16
4 4 4 4 4 4
y 4 0 4
y
40
...........
1
30
............ ~=i'-4x+4
-- ---..... __,
xy=4
20
\
-10
10
0
4 xy=4 -2
- io-
..........._ 0
-
1 2
x~3.13 _
3 4
X
The graph is plotted in Figure 9.14, and we see that the parabola
touches the x-axis at x = 2, which is the solution to the equation
x 2 -4x+4 = 0.
From what has been said earlier, the graph of the equation xy = 4 is
a rectangular hyperbola, which gives curves in the first and third
quadrants, as shown in Figure 9.14. From the graph, we see that there
is one intersection point which occurs at x = 3.13, which is the solution
of the simultaneous equations.
This is an example of a problem which is difficult to solve by other
than graphical methods.
9.11 The graph of a cubic equation

A cubic polynomial is an equation of the third degree, and typical cubic
equations include
y=ax 3
y = ax 3 + bx2
y = ax 3 + bx2 + ex
y = ax 3 + bx 2 + ex + d
A cubic equation is one in which the polynomial is equated to zero, such as
2x3 - 7x- 3 = 0
Typical graphs for cubic expressions are shown in Figure 9.15.
y y
(a) (b)
/
1/
v
v
X
v X
y y
(c) (d)
1"1. ll
ll
1\ 1 !-..
\
X X
1 ~ 1
11
\ 1\..V I
I I
\,
Figure 9.15 Graphs of cubic equations
In general (though not in every case), a cubic graph has two turning
points, and the y-intercept is given by the value of parameter d in the
expression y = ax 3 + bx 2 +ex+ d. For example, in the expression
y = 2x3 - 7x + 3, they-intercept occurs at y = 3.
The roots of a cubic equation are given by the value(s) of x where the
graph cuts the x-axis. Simultaneous equations involving cubic equation(s)
can be solved by plotting the equations on the same piece of graph paper,
the solution(s) being given by the x-values where the graphs intersect.
Graphs 175
9.12 Graph of the law of the form y = Axn

In earlier sections we have looked at simple cases of a law of the form
y = Axn, i.e., when n = I (a simple straight-line graph), when n = 2 (a
quadratic), when n = 3 (a cubic) and when n = -1 (inverse proportionality).
However, when n is a decimal fraction, such as n = 2.5, the graph is a
curve whose form we cannot easily identify. In particular, when we obtain
experimental results from a device whose law is of the form y = Axn, and we
need to determine both A and n, we must use techniques other than those
described hitherto.
In Worked Example 9.7, we will look at a basic method of plotting a
graph of the form y = Axn, and in Worked Example 9.8 we investigate a
method of determining A and n from a set of experimental results.
Worked Example 9.7 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - . ,
Draw a graph of the equation y = 4x2 5 over the range x = 0 to x = 3.
Solution
We must first produce a table of results over the specified range of

values. This is relatively easy if your calculator has an xY key but, for
the moment, we will assume that this facility is not available to you.
However, it is assumed that you either have a table of common
logarithms, or you can look them up using a calculator. Since the law is
of the form
y = Axn
we can take common logarithms of both sides, giving
logy= log(Axn) = logxn +log A
= n log x + log A
The resulting table for y = 4x25 , where A = 4 and n = 2.5, over the
range x = 0 to x = 3 is given in Table 9.6, and the graph is plotted from
these results in Figure 9 .16.
X 0 0.5 1.5 2 2.5 3
logx -00 -0.301 0 0.1761 0.301 0.3979 0.4771

2.51ogx -00 -0.7526 0 0.4402 0.7526 0.9949 1.1928
log4 0.602 0.602 0.602 0.602 0.602 0.602 0.602
logy -00 -0.1506 0.602 1.0422 1.3546 1.5969 1. 7948

y 0 0.707 4 11.02 22.62 39.52 62.35
y
70
I
60
50 I
40
y=4x25
~
I
30
v
20
10
/
v
_/
0
0 1 2 3 X
Worked Example 9.8 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,
The following values of voltage, v, and current, i, were obtained from a

test on a semiconductor device
v (V) 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 6.0 8.0

i (rnA) 0.6 1.48 2.55 3.75 6.5 9.5
Assuming that the law of the device is i = A vn, determine the value of A
and n.
Solution
12
v
10
/
v
6
<
.
4 /
/ /
_...... v
2
v
0
0 2 4 6 8
v(V)
Figure 9.17 Graph for the v-i values in Worked Example 9.8
Graphs 177
The graph is plotted in Figure 9.17 and, quite clearly, it is a non-linear

curve. Given that the law is of the form i = Avn, we can determine the
law using either of two types of graph paper. We can use linear graph
paper (that is normal squared graph paper), or a logarithmic scaled
graph paper (that is log-log graph paper).
Use of linear graph paper
As mentioned in Worked Example 9.7, when the law of the graph is of

the form i = Avn, we can take common logarithms of both sides and
represent the law of the graph in the form
log i = n log v + log A
Taking logarithms of the values in the table in Worked Example 9.8,
we get the following results
log v 0 0.301 0.477 0.602 0.778 0.903

logi -0.22 0.17 0.407 0.574 0.813 0.98
1.2
1.0 /
0.8
/
XV B
0.6 /
0.4
-{<'~j.~
Ol
.Q
II //
>- 0.2
0.0
/
-0.2 ?/
A
Voi2 Oj4 Oj6 oia ?
-0.4
X=logv
Figure 9.18 Using linear graph paper with logarithmic scales marked
on it
When these values are plotted on a piece of linear graph paper, we get
the graph in Figure 9 .18, and all of the points lie on a straight line (or
nearly so!). We can re-write the above equation in the form
Y=MX+C
which is the equation of a straight line in which M is the gradient and C
the vertical intercept. In this case
Y = Iogi
M=n
X= logv
C =log A
Clearly, when we plot Y to a base of X (that is log ito a base of log v),
the gradient of the graph is M ( = n in the earlier equation), and the
Y-axis intercept is C ( = log A in the earlier equation). Taking points
A (0, -0.22) and B (0.903,0.98) in Figure 9.18, we see that the gradient
of the graph is
= 0.98 - ( -0.22) = 1.33 =
M 0.903-0 n
and the vertical intercept is
C = -0.22 =log A
or
A = Io- 022 = 0.6
That is, the law of the graph is
i = 0.6vl. 33
Use of log-log paper
Special paper is available marked with logarithmic scales, and the use
of this paper avoids the need for use to take logarithms of the table of
results in Worked Example 9.8.
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Figure 9.19 Logarithmic scale divisions
A typical logarithmic scale is shown in Figure 9.19, and the distance

along the scale is proportional to the logarithm of the value. Thus, if
the distance between I and I 0 in Figure 9.19 is taken as I unit, then the
value 2 is positioned at log 2 = 0.301 along it, 4 is positioned at
log 4 = 0.602 along it, and so on.
The scale markings are from I to 9, and the pattern is repeated
several times both (in the case of log-log paper) along the x- and y-
scales. Each time the scale I - 9 appears it is described as one cycle or
one decade. For example, if the scale 1-9 is repeated twice in the x-
direction and twice in the y-direction, the graph paper is described as
'Log 2 cycles x 2 cycles'; if it is repeated twice along the x-axis and
once along the y-axis it is called 'Log 2 cycles x I cycle', etc.
Graphs I79
In the case of log-log paper, we write down the numerical value from
the table in Worked Example 9.8 by the side of the logarithmic scale,
the logarithmic scale effectively converting the number into a
logarithm. Since the voltage (v) in the table alters in value from 1.0
to 8.0, we only need I cycle in the x-direction; the current (i) changes
from 0.6mA, through LOrnA to 9.5mA, and we need 2 cycles in they-
direction to plot the results.
-----ox=11.3cm---
10.0
9.0 Q
8.0
7.0
6.0
5.0 v
4.0 /
/
<
3.0
v
..
- I
2.0
v
1.0
0.9
/
/
I
0.8
0.7 /
0.6 VP
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
v(V)
Figure 9.20 Log-log plot, Worked Example 9.8
The graph is plotted in Figure 9.20 directly from the original table of
values for v and i. There are two methods of determining the value of A
and n for the law i = Av".
One method is to determine the slope directly from the graph as
follows. We see in Figure 9.20 that ox= Il.3 em and oy = I5.05 em,
hence
gradient, n = oyjox = I5.05/11.3 = 1.33
Remembering that the y-intercept on a normal linear graph is
determined at the point where x = 0, the equivalent x-axis point on a
log-log graph is when x = I (because log I = 0!) Hence the y-intercept
on our log-log graph is measured when x = I and is
A = y - intercept = 0.6
That is
i = 0.6vl. 33
which agrees with the result obtained when we plotted the graph using
linear graph paper.
The above method is suitable for the determination of A if x = 1 is

available on the x-scale. If this is not the case, then the method
described below can be used.
In the second method, we take any two well-separated values on the
straight line. Let us take points P (1, 0.6) and Q (8, 9.5), and write the
two equations which satisfy them as follows.
For point P we have
0.6 =Ax In
and for point Q
9.5 =A X 8n (9.3)
Dividing the second of these by the first gives
9.5 =A X 8n = 8n
0.6 A X 1n
or
15.83 = 8n
Taking common logarithms of both sides yields
log 15.83 = n log 8
that is
n =log 15.83/ log 8 = 1.33
Substituting this value into (9.3) gives
9.5 =A X 81. 33 = 15.89A
or
A = 9.5/15.89 = 0.6
that is
i = 0.6vl.3 3
9.13 Law of the form y = Axn +B

Some types of apparatus have a law of the form y = Axn + B, where n is a
known value. For example, the resistance of a tungsten-filament lamp
follows a law of the form R = A V2 + B, where V is the voltage applied to
the lamp. If we write this type of equation in the form
y=AX+B
which is a straight line in terms of X and y, we can plot the graph and
determine the value of A and B; in this case X = xn. Consider Worked
Example 9.9.
Graphs 181
Worked Example 9.9 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,
In a test on a new type of semiconductor device, the following values of

voltage (v) and current (i) were obtained.
v 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.45 3.0

0.75 1.1 1.48 2.04 2.75
It is thought that the law relating v and i is of the form i = Av2 +B.
What are the probable values of A and B?
Solution
Since we know the form of the law which relates v and i, we can reduce
it to the form
i = A v2 + B = AX+ B
where X= v2 Accordingly, we list X and i in Table 9.7, and plot X to a
base of i in Figure 9.21.
1.0 1.5 2.0 2.45 3.0

1.0 2.25 4.0 6.0 9.0
0.75 1.1 1.48 2.04 2.75
3.0
Q
L
v v
2.5
2.0
/
v
'i
~:::>
1.5
/
v
/ v
<J
1.0
0.5
0.0
0 2 4 6 8
X(=v")
The results are subject to experimental error, and a suitable straight

line is drawn in Figure 9.21. We see that the i-intercept (or y-intercept)
at X= 0 is i = 0.5, so that parameter B = 0.5.
The gradient can be calculated from the value of two well-separated

points on the line. Let us take points P ( 1, 0. 75) and Q (9, 2. 75); the
slope is calculated as follows
oi i2- i1 2.75- o.75 2
slope, A = oX= X2 - X1 9- 1 8
= 0.25
Hence the law of the device is of the form
i = 0.25v2 + 0.5
9.14 Plotting and sketching an exponential curve of the form

y = Ae-tft
An exponential function is one containing the expression eax, where e is the

base of Naperian logarithms (e = 2.71828 ... ), a is a constant, and x is a
variable which, in many electrical problems, is time. Many laws of growth
and decay in engineering systems (see also Chapter 14) contain exponential
functions, and we need to appreciate the way in which the law controls the
response of systems.
Not only do we need to be able to plot these curves accurately, but we also
need to be able to visualise and sketch them with some facility. By the end of
this chapter, the reader will be able to do this.
Many quantities in electrical and electronic circuits are controlled by
exponential laws, including the charge and discharge of capacitors, the rise
and decay of current in inductive circuits, etc.
At the moment we will concentrate on the exponential expression
y = Ae-tft
where A is a constant, t is time, and 't is a time constant of a circuit. Since
both t and 't have dimensions of time, the ratio t/t is dimensionless. In
electrical and electronic circuits, the value of 't depends on the resistance of a
circuit together with the capacitance or the inductance of a circuit. In a
resistor-capacitor circuit, the time constant of the circuit is given by
't = RC seconds
where R is in ohms, and Cis in farads. In a resistor-inductor circuit, the time
constant is
t=L/R
where R is in ohms and L in henrys.
Let us look for the moment at the graph for the expression
Y = loe-o.sr
Graphs 183
in which T = 1/0.5 = 2. If t is in seconds then T = 2 s, if t is measured in

minutes then T = 2 min, etc. Let us assume for the moment that T = 2 s. The
value of y over a 12 s period of time commencing from t = 0 is given in
Table 9.8, and the corresponding graph of y plotted to a base of time is
shown in Figure 9.22.
TABLE 9.8 Data for the graph of y = toe- 0 51
t 0 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 10.0 12.0

-0.5t 0 -1.0 -2.0 -3.0 -4.0 -5.0 -6.0
e-O.St 0.386 0.135 0.05 0.018 0.007 0.002
y 10 3.68 1.35 0.5 0.18 0.07 0.02
12
10
8 \
,., 6
\ y= 10e-o.st
""
4
--------
t
2 _0.368x 11 ~ ....._ .___
=3.i8
0
---------
0 2 4
----~-
6
time (s)
______
8
, ___
10 12
Figure 9.22 Graph of y = e- 051
Whilst this may seem to be a complex curve, in fact it is a relatively simple

curve to sketch because
an exponential curve changes by the same proportion for equal time
intervals (or equal 'x' intervals).
For example the curve starts at the value of 10, and diminishes in value to
3.68 after a time interval ofT, i.e., it changes by a factor of 0.368 for each
interval of 't. The above rule for exponentially falling curves says that the
curve will change by another 0.368 after the next T seconds. That is, after 2T
seconds from the start of the curve the value of y is
10 X 0.368 X 0.368 = 1.35
and after another Tseconds (i.e., t = 3T) its value is
10 X 0.368 X 0.368 X 0.368 = 0.05, etc.
In fact, we can define the time constant of the system as

the time taken for the value of y to fall to 0.368 of its initial value.
Fortunately, there is an even easier way of being able to sketch the curve,
because after a time of approximately 0.7-r the value of y falls to 0.5 of its
initial value. Taking 't to be 2s, then 0.7-r = 0.7 x 2 = 1.4s; the value of y
after the first 1.4 s is therefore
10 X 0.5 =5
In the following 0. 7-r interval the value of y falls by a factor of 0.5 again, so
that after 2.8 s the value of y is
10 X 0.5 X 0.5 = 2.5
and by 3 x 0.7r = 2.1 r = 4.2 s the value of y is
10 X 0.5 X 0.5 X 0.5 = 1.25, etc.
Using this technique, it becomes a very simple procedure to sketch a falling
exponential curve, and this is shown in Figure 9.23. In fact, the author uses
this technique when sketching exponential curves.
1.0A
\
\r=Aet
O.BA
l\o.
0.6A
1
5A
0.4A
I
0.2A
I
~ 0.25A
~
I I
I I
0 0625A 0.03125A
0 I I
0 0.7! 1.4r 2.h 2.8! 3.5! 4.2! 4.9! 5.6!
time in steps of 0.7r
Figure 9.23 A simple method of sketching a decaying exponential curve
9.15 Settling-time of y = Ae-t/'t
A transient is a condition which occurs for a very short period of time,

usually when a circuit is either switched on or is switched off, and engineers
need to know several things about transients in circuits.
Firstly, we need to know how long it takes for the transient to settle down
or settle out. With a falling exponential curve, the transient is said to have
settled when the value of y has fallen to about I per cent of its initial value,
Graphs 185
i.e., to about O.OIA for the equation y = Ae- 11'. We can calculate the settling
time for the falling exponential transient from the equation
O.OIA = Ae-t/t
where tis the time taken for y to fall to O.OIA. Cancelling A on both sides of
the equation gives
0.01 = e-t/t =1/e 11'
that is
e11' = 1/0.01 = 100
Taking naperian logarithms of both sides of the equation gives
t
-lne =In 100 = 4.61
"C
but since In e = 1, then
~ = 4.61
"C
or
t = 4.6h
That is, the transient has settled out in a time of 4.6lt. Most engineers err on
the conservative side and say that it takes 5t for the transient to have settled
out. That is, if t = 2 s, we say that the transient has decayed to an
insignificant value after 5 x 2 = 10 s.
The period of time taken for the transient to settle out is known as the
transient period, after which the system enters its steady-state operating
period (this is illustrated in Figure 9.24).
9.16 Fall-time of y = Ae-tlr
1.0 A
i
0.9 A -rtau-tlme""2.2-
:\
0.8 A
I
I
0.6 A
I I
I \r=Ae-"' I
0.4 A
~
.,r:t,
.l--
12
"~ I
J
0.2 A
...............
~
I- - - - ----
0.1 A
I I--
0
O.h 5t 6t
- - - - - - - t r a n s i e n t time (or settling time) ""5----steady-state
period - ->
Figure 9.24 The settling-time and fall-time of y = e-t/

The fall-time of a decaying curve is defined in engineering terminology as

the time taken for y to fall from 90 per cent to 10 per cent of its original
value.
We can determine this period of time by reference to Figure 9 .24, in which
t 1 is the time taken for y to fall to 0.9A, and t2 is the time taken for y to fall
from I.OA to O.IA. The time taken for y to fall to 0.9 A is determined from
the equation
0.9A = Ae-r,f
that is
or
e 1'/ = 1/0.9 = 1.1111

Taking Naperian logarithms of both sides of the equation gives
!!.In e = In 1.1111 ~ 0.1

't
hence
t, ~ O.lt
The time taken for y to fall from I.OA to O.IA is t2, where
0.1 A = Ae- 12 1
Solving for t2 in much the same way we did for t, gives

t2 ~ 2.3t
and the fall-time of the decaying exponential curve is
tf = t2 - t, ~ 2.3t - 0.1 't = 2.2t
and is shown in Figure 9.24.
Worked Example 9.10 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,
A capacitor is initially charged to 50 V. It discharges into a circuit, the

voltage decay follows a law of the form
V = 50e-tf0.01
Calculate (a) the settling time of the voltage across the capacitor,
(b) the fall-time of the capacitor voltage, (c) the capacitor voltage 2 ms
after the discharge commences and (d) the time taken for the voltage
across the capacitor to fall to 10 V.
Graphs 187
Solution
(a) Since the law of the discharge is v = 5oe-tfO.OI' it follows that the
circuit time constant is
= 0.01 s or 10 x 10- 3 s (10 ms)
Since the settling time is about 5't, then
settling time= 5 x 10 ms =50 ms or 0.05 s
After this period of time, we can assume that the capacitor is fully
discharged.
(b) The fall-time of the capacitor voltage is
t1 = 2.2't = 2.2 x 10 ms = 22 ms
This is the time taken for the capacitor voltage to fall from
0.9 X 50 = 45 V to 0.1 X 50 = 5 V.
(c) When t = 2 ms, the voltage across the capacitor is
V = 50e-tft = 50e- 0002 fO.OI = 50e- 02 = 40.94 V
(d) Since v = ve-tft = V/e 11t, then
etft = V/v = 50/10 = 5
t
-In e = In 5 = 1.609
't
t = 1.609 't = 1.609 x 10 ms = 16.09 ms
9.17 Plotting and sketching a curve of the form

y = A(l- e-tfr:)
The equation y = A(l- e-tft) is typical of an exponential 'growth' curve

(see Figure 9.25), such as the rise in voltage across the terminals of a
capacitor when it is being charged from a d.c. source, or in the rise of
current in an inductor when it is connected to a d.c. supply. Once again, A is
a fixed numerical value, e = 2.71828 ... , tis time and 'tis the time constant
of a circuit.
Let us look at a graph whose equation is
y = 10(1- e- 112 ) = 10(1- e- 051 )
where A = 10 and 't = 2 (which is usually in seconds). A table corresponding
to the time range t = 0 to 12 seconds is given in Table 9.9, and the
corresponding graph is drawn in Figure 9.25.
TABLE 9.9 Table of results for the graph in Figure 9.25
t 0 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 10.0 I2.0

-0.5t 0 -1.0 -2.0 -3.0 -4.0 -5.0 -6.0
e-0.51 I 0.386 0.135 0.05 O.Ql8 0.007 0.002
I_ e-0.51 0 0.632 0.865 0.95 0.982 0.993 0.998
y 0 6.32 8.65 9.5 8.82 9.93 9.98
10
f.-
9 ---- ----
~
/v
__,../
8 I
I
I
I
6
I
I
I
7
4
I
I
2 I
1 -1Frise-~ime,.,2.2-r- h I
0
0 2 4 6 8
Figure 9.25 The graph of y = 10(1 - e'lt)
It can be seen from the graph that the final value of y approaches 10 as t
becomes very large. We can prove this to be the case by putting t = oo in the
equation for y, as follows. If Yoo is the value of y when t = oo, then
Yoo = 10(1 - e-O.Sxoo) = 10(1 - e- 00 )
= 10(1- 1/e 00 ) = 10(1- 0) = 10

That is, the final value of the equation y = A(1-e-tft) is equal to A.
Also, we can see from the graph that y rises from zero to 63.2 per cent of
its final value in the first period of 't (= 2 s in Table 9.9). As with other
exponential curves, a curve of exponential growth changes by the same
proportion during equal time intervals.
That is, in the first period equal to 'tit grows by 63.2 per cent of the final
value, in the second period it grows by 63.2 per cent of the difference
between its initial value (i.e., 0.632A) and the final value, and so on.
For example, if A = 10 then in the first period of 't it grows to 0.632A
(= 6.32), in the next period of 'tit grows by 0.632(1 - 0.632)A = 0.233A so
that the value of y at the end of this period is (0.632 + 0.233)A = 0.865A
= 8.65 (see t = 4 sin Table 9.9). In the next period of 't the value of y grows
by 0.632(1 - 0.632)(1 - 0.632)A = 0.085A, and the value of y when t = 3't is
(0.632 + 0.233 + 0.085)A = 0.95A = 9.5 (see t = 6s in Table 9.9), etc.
Graphs 189
Once again, it is possible to simplify the curve sketching process, since the
value of y grows by 50 per cent for each 0.7-r period (the reader will find it an
interesting exercise to verify this fact). The following table of results shows
how this happens
0 0
0.7-r 0.5A
1.4-r 0.75A
2.h 0.875A
2.8-r 0.9375A
3.5-r 0.9688A
4.2-r 0.9844A
4.9-r 0.9922A
5.5-r 0.9961A
To sketch a growing exponential curve quickly and accurately, it is merely

necessary to divide the time base into 0.7-r intervals, and mark points of 50
per cent of the remaining magnitude between the starting point of the period
and the final value.
Using the engineering assumption that the transient has 'completely'
decayed when y has reached 99 per cent of its final value, then we can say
that the transient has settled out or settled down in a period of about 5-r (see
the above table of values). This is known as the settling time of the transient.
The rise-time of the curve is defined as the time taken for it to rise from 10
per cent to 90 per cent of its final value. Analysing the equation shows that it
takes a time of about 0.1 't to rise to 10 per cent of its final value, and 2.3-r to
rise to 90 per cent. That is, the rise-time of the curve is
rise-time, t, = 2.3-r - 0.1 't = 2.2-r
Worked Example 9.11 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _-----,
The current in an inductor which is suddenly connected to a d.c. supply

rises exponentially according to the law i = 10(1- e- 0 11 ) A, where tis
in seconds and i is in amperes. What is (a) the time constant of the
circuit, (b) the settling time of the transient, (c) the rise-time of the
transient curve, (d) the current in the inductor 4 s after the instant that
the supply is connected and (e) the time taken for the current to reach
8A?
Solution
(a) The equation of the transient is

i = 10(1 - e- 0 11 ) = 10(1 - e- 11')
That is
-O.lt = -t/'r
or
0.1 = 1/t
hence
't = 10 s
(b) The settling time of the transient is
5t = 5 X 10 = 50 S
so that steady-state operating conditions are reached after 50s.
(c) The rise-time of the transient curve is
t, = 2.2t ~ 2.2 X 10 = 22 S
(d) The current in the circuit when t = 4 s is
i = 10(1- e-O.ix 4 ) = 10(1- e-OA)
= 10(1- 0.67) = 3.3A
(e) If i = 8A when t = t 1, then
8 = 10(1 -e-O. it,)
or
1- e- 0 11 ' = 8/10 = 0.8
giving
e- 0 11 ' = 1 - 0.8 = 0.2
that is
eo.u, = 1/0.2 = 5
Taking natural logarithms of both sides of the equation gives
O.lt,lne =In 5 = 1.609
t, = 1.609/0.1 = 16.09 s
9.1 A straight-line graph passes through points ( -2, -4), (4, 8).
What is the equation of the graph?
9.2 One straight-line graph passes through the points ( -2, 1), (2, 5),
and another passes through the points (-2,-3), (2, 1). What is
the equation of each graph, and what is the y-intercept in each
case?
9.3 Determine the gradient and y-intercept of the following graphs:
(a) X+ 3- 5y = 0, (b) X= 7 + 4y.
Graphs 191
9.4 In a test on an electric motor the following results were obtained.
Speed N (rev/min) 300 600 900 1200 1500

V (volts) 61 118 182 241.5 299
Determine the equation relating N and V, making N the

dependent variable. Calculate the speed of the motor in rev/s
when Vis (a) 80V, (b) 250V.
9.5 The terminal voltage, V, of an electronic power supply unit is
given by V = E- Rl, where E and R are constants. Under test
conditions it is found that when I= 2 A then V = 9.8 V, and
when I= 10 A then V = 9 V. Plot the graph and determine the
value of E and R.
9.6 Solve graphically for x andy between the following simultaneous
equations: y = 6 + 2x and y = 3x - 3.
9.7 Solve the following quadratic equations graphically:
(a) 6x 2 + 11x- 10 = 0, (b) 6 = 5x2 - 7x, (c) x 2 - 5x = 24,
(d) 3x2 - 7x = 2.
9.8 Solve graphically y = x 2 andy= 4x + 15.
9.9 Plot the graphs of (a) 2x3 - 9x2 + 3x + 14 = 0,
(b) x 3 - 6x + 3 = 0.
9.10 Two values are related by an equation of the form y = ax +b.
The following values were obtained for x and y
X -1 0 2.5 3 9
y 7 13 28 52
Determine the law relating x andy, and also the missing values
in the table.
9.11 The breakdown voltage, VkV, of an insulator and its thickness,
Tmm, are thought to be related by an equation of the form
V = kTn, where k and n are constants. If the following values
were obtained under test conditions, determine the value of k
and n.
T(mm) 4 7 15 22
V(kV) 283 430 762 1016
9.12 The total iron loss, P, of a transformer is related to the

frequency, f, by the equation P = kd + kd 2 If the following
values were obtained on a test on the transformer, determine the
value of k, and k2 by plotting PIf to a base off (this gives a
graph of the form y = mx + c, where y = P/f, m = k2, x = fand
c = k,).
f(Hz) 25 50 75 100 125

p (W) 5.65 17.5 35.65 60 90.63
9.13 The pressure, p, and the volume, v, of a gas are connected by the
equation C = pvn, where C and n are constants. Given the
following values, plot a suitable graph to determine the value of
C and n.
v 5 7 9 11 13
p 54.6 34.1 24.0 18.1 14.34
9.14 A voltage pulse of amplitude 5 Vis applied to an inductive circuit

with a time constant of 5 ms. If the steady-state current in the
circuit is 50 rnA, draw a curve of the current to a base of time if
the equation is given by i = /(1 - e- 11'), where I is the steady-
state current in the circuit. Also determine the current in the coil
1.6 ms after the supply is connected.
9.15 A fully charged capacitor is discharged through a resistor, the
time constant of the discharge path being 10 s. The voltage
across the capacitor is given by the expression Vc = Ee-rfr, where
E is the initial voltage across the capacitor. Draw the graph of Vc,
and determine the time taken for the voltage across the capacitor
to fall to (a) 50 per cent, (b) 36.8 per cent and (c) 5 per cent of its
initial value.

A graph shows how one variable changes with another. For example, if the
equation of a graph is A = nr 2 , r is the independent variable and A the
dependent variable.
Graphs are most frequently drawn on axes which are at right-angles to
one another, and points drawn on the graph are defined using rectangular
coordinates or cartesian coordinates relative to the origin of the coordinate
system. The x-coordinate is called the abscissa and the y-coordinate the
ordinate.
A straight-line graph has the equation
y=mx+c
where m is the gradient of the line, and c is the y-axis intercept or vertical
intercept. Many experiments give a graph which is thought to give a straight
line, but the results are scattered in a random fashion about the mean
position of the line. One method of predicting the equation of the 'best'
Graphs 193
straight line is the method of least squares, and the resulting straight line is
known as the line of regression of X on Y or the line of prediction of Y.
Two quantities are said to be linearly related to one another if the graph of
one variable plotted to the base of the other is a straight line. If the graph
passes through the origin, the two quantities are directly proportional to one
another.
If xy =constant, y is inversely proportional to x, and the curve of y to a
base of x is a rectangular hyperbola.
The graph of the quadratic equation y = ax 2 + bx + c is a parabola. A
parabola has a turning point (that is the slope of the graph changes from
negative to positive, or vice versa) and, in general
I. the larger the value of parameter a, the 'sharper' the turning point,
2. if parameter a has a positive value, the curve is concave looking from
above; if a has a positive value, the curve is concave looking from
below,
3. parameter b causes the turning point to be shifted along the x-axis, a
positive value shifts the turning point to the left,
4. the value of parameter c gives the y-intercept of the parabola,
5. if the parabola cuts the x-axis, the points of intersection with the x-axis
give the roots of the equation ax 2 + bx + c = 0,
6. if the parabola does not cut the x-axis, the roots are 'imaginary' (see
Chapter II for details).
The graphical solution to a pair of simultaneous equations is given by the
point(s) where the graphs intersect when they are plotted on the same graph
paper.
A cubic polynomial is an equation of the third degree, and is of the form
y = ax 3 + bx 2 + ex + d and, in general, the graph normally has two turning
points. A cubic equation is a cubic polynomial in which y = 0, i.e.,
ax 3 + bx 2 + ex + d = 0; the solution of a cubic equation is given by the
point(s) where the graph cuts the x-axis, and they-axis intercept is given by
y= d.
A graph of the form y = Axn can be solved by plotting the graph on
logarithmic scaled paper (or linear graph paper which has logarithmic scales
on it).
An exponential function describes a function containing eax, where e is the
base of Naperian logarithms (e = 2.7I828 ... ), and a is a constant. In
electrical and electronic engineering, we are frequently concerned with
graphs whose equations are either of the form
Y = Ae-t/t
or
y =A( I - e-t/t)
where A is a constant, t is time and t is the time constant of a circuit. The
first of the above equations gives a graph which decays exponentially from
an initial value of A at t = 0, to a zero when t approaches infinity. The

second of the above equations produces a graph which rises exponentially
from zero at t = 0 to a value of A when t approaches infinity.
For both types of curve, the settling time of the transient is 5't; the
fall-time of the falling exponential curve is 2.2't, and the rise-time of the
rising exponential curve is 2.2't.
@Vectors and phasors
10.1 Introduction
When defining many physical quantities, such as mass, length, area, volume,
etc, we are concerned only with their magnitude. These quantities are known
as scalar quantities. To define some other physical quantities such as force
and velocity we need to know the direction in space in which they act; when
we need to know both the magnitude and the direction to define a quantity,
we are dealing with a vector quantity.
In electrical and electronic engineering we meet with quantities in
alternating current theory whose magnitude varies sinusoidally with time.
Wheras a vector quantity has a fixed magnitude, an alternating quantity
varies continuously with time. Fortunately, engineers have devised a method
of converting a sinusoidally varying quantity into a 'fixed' quantity, and
these are known as phasor quantities.
Fortunately, we can manipulate phasors in much the same way that we
can manipulate vectors. However, phasors and vectors should not be
confused, since a vector quantity has a direction in 'real' space, whilst a
phasor is an electrical engineering concept which converts a sinusoidally
varying quantity into something which has magnitude and 'direction' (but
not in space!). The way in which this is done is described in this chapter.
understand the difference between vectors and phasors,
add and subtract vectors,
add and subtract phasors,
calculate the frequency and angular frequency of sinusoidal waves,
determine the phase relationship between sinusoidal waves,
understand phasor diagrams.
10.2 Vector addition and subtraction

(a) Resolution of a vector
F
reference
direction
Fh
Figure 10.1 Resolving force F into its horizontal and vertical components
195
A vector can be resolved into separate components which are at right-angles

to one another. Consider force Fin Figure 10.1. This can be resolved into
two separate components as follows; the component acting in the horizontal
direction or reference direction is given by
Fh = Fcose
and the component acting in the vertical direction is
F.= Fsine
It follows from Pythagorus's theorem that
F= y'(Fh 2 + F/)
and
Fv
tane = Fh
Worked Example 10.1 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - .
A force of 200 kN acts on a body at an angle of inclination of 70 to the

reference direction. Resolve the force into its reference (horizontal) and
quadrature (vertical) components.
Solution
From the above equations, the horizontal component is

Fh = Fcose = 200cos70 = 68.4kN
and the vertical component is
Fv = Fsin e = 200 sin 70 = 187.9 kN
Check: J(Fh 2 + F. 2 ) = v'(68.42 + 187.92 ) = 199.96kN
The small error of 0.04 kN in the final calculation is due to 'rounding'
the values of Fh and Fv to one decimal place.
(b) Addition of vectors
If several vectors act on a body, the resolved components of the resultant is

equal to the sum of the resolved components of the individual vectors. The
magnitude of the sum of the vectors can be obtained by applying
Pythagorus's theorem to the result (see Worked Example 10.2).
Vectors and phasors 197
Worked Example 10.2 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - .
Three tugs A, B and C tow an oil platform, and apply the following
forces to it
tug A: 18 MN at 10 N of E
tug B: 15 MN at 40 N ofE
tug C: 12 MN at 35 S of E
Determine the magnitude and direction of the resultant force acting on
the rig.
Solution
The problem can be solved either graphically or mathematically.

However, it should be pointed out that, at best, the graphical solution
will only be an approximate solution.
Mathematical solution
Using East as the reference direction, we will resolve the forces applied
by the tugs in an Easterly (reference direction) and in a North-South
(quad-rature) direction as follows.
(i) Tug A: The force applied in the Easterly (reference) direction is

FhA = 18 cos 10 = 17.73 MN
and the Northerly (vertically upwards) force is
FvA = 18 sin 10 = 3.13 MN
(ii) Tug B: The force applied in the Easterly (reference) direction is
FhB = 15 cos 40o = 11.49 MN
and the Northerly (vertically upwards) force is
FvB = 15sin40o = 9.64MN
(iii) Tug C: The force applied in the Easterly (reference) direction is
Fhc = 12 cos 35o = 9.83 MN
and the Southerly (vertically downwards) force is
Fvc = 12 sin 35o = 6.88 MN
In fact, we often consider all forces in the same plane to act in the same
direction. That is, force Fvc can be thought of as producing a force
acting in a Northerly (i.e., vertically upwards) direction. In this case, we
consider the angle of action of this force as being -35 relative to the
East. This results in the following for tug C:
Force acting towards the East= 12 cos( -35)

= 9.83MN
Force acting towards the North= 12sin(-35o)
= -6.88MN
The net result of the calculation is the same in both cases. The resultant
force acting on the oil rig is
Force acting towards the East= FhA + FhB + Fhc
= 17.73 + 11.49 + 9.83
= 39.05MN
Force acting towards the North= FvA + FvB + Fvc
= 3.13 + 9.64 + (-6.88)
= 5.89MN
Hence the magnitude of the total force acting on the rig is
F = yl(39.05 2 + 5.89 2 ) = 39.49 MN
The direction of the force relative to the reference direction (East) can
be calculated from the following
tan e = vertical (North) force = 5.89 = O 1508
horizontal (East) force 39.05
Hence
e = arctan0.1509 = 8.58 N of E
Graphical solution
A+B
E (reference)
c
One method of solving the problem graphically is to add the forces

together in pairs as follows. Initially we add the force produced by two
of the tugs, say A and B, using the parallelogram of forces to get the
force (A+ B) in Figure 10.2.
Next we add the vector corresponding to tug C to the force (A+ B),
giving not only the magnitude of the resultant force (A + B + C) on the
oil rig, but also its direction.
It should be pointed out that the forces A, B and C must accurately
be drawn to scale and in the correct direction. Any lack of care in doing
this means that the answer will be in error.
(c) Subtraction of vectors
To subtract one vector from another, we add the negative value of the vector
being subtracted (the subtrahend) to the number it is being subtracted from
(the minuend). That is
vector difference = vector A - vector B
=vector A+ (-vector B)
Worked Example 10.3 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,
Two forces act on the frame of a transformer, and the first force has a
magnitude of 10 kN acting at an angle of 60 to the reference direction.
If the resultant force on the frame is 12 kN at an angle of 15 to the
reference direction, determine the magnitude and direction of the
second force.
Solution
There are three forces (which are all vector quantities) in this problem,
one of which we do not know (we will call this force B). The first force
(force A) has a magnitude of 10 kN acting at an angle of 60, and the
resultant force (forceR) has a magnitude of 12kN acting at an angle of
15. The vector equation connecting the three forces is
resultant force = force A + force B
that is the vectors are related by
force B = resultant - force A
= resultant+ (-force A)
That is, force B is the vector difference between the resultant force and
force A.
Graphical solution
scale
0 SkN
,/I
I
I
1
I II Bv
I
I
I 1/
I B=R+(-A)
I -=-=---<.....::::....--+!1 =R- A
I
I
-A Ji----
Force A and the resultant force (force R) are shown in Figure 10.3.
Initially we draw (-force A) by rotating force A through 180 (or
-180), and then we add (-force A) to the resultant forceR to give
force B =forceR+ force (-A)
= force R - force A
From Figure 10.3, we measure force B to be 8.65 kN, and its angle of
action, e, is judged to be -40.
Mathematical solution
Initially we determine the horizontal and vertical components of force

as follows.
Force A
horizontal component, Ah =A cos 60 = lOcos 60
=5kN
vertical component, Av =A sin 60 = 10 sin 60
= 8.66kN
ForceR
The horizontal and vertical components of the resultant force are
horizontal component, Rh = Rcos 15 = 12cos 15
= 11.59kN
vertical component, Rv = Rsin 15 = 12sin 15
= 3.1 kN
Force B
Hence (see Figure 10.3), the horizontal component of force B is
Bh = Rh + (-Ah) = 11.59 + (-5) = 6.59kN
and the vertical component of force B is
Bv = Rv + (-Av) = 3.1 + (-8.66) = -5.56kN
The magnitude of force B is therefore
B = J(Bh 2 + B}) = yl(6.59 2 + (-5.562 )) = 8.62kN
and angle e (see Figure 10.3) is calculated from
tan 9 = Bv/ Bh = -5.56/6.59 = -0.844
hence
e =arctan( -0.844) = -40.2
10.3 Phasor representation

The reader will recollect that sinusoidal waves were discussed in Chapter 6,
and is reminded that a sinewave is the graph of the vertical displacement of
the tip of a line which rotates at a constant speed in an anticlockwise
direction. The length of the rotating line is the maximum value of the
sinewave, and the speed of the rotating line in rad/s corresponds to the
angular frequency of the wave.
A phasor is associated with a sinusoidal wave, and is an engineering 'tool'
which enables us to describe the magnitude and angle of the line producing
the wave at a particular point in time. The point to note about a sinewave is
that its value varies continuously, and the phasor notation allows us to 'fix'
its magnitude and angle at a point in time (note: a vector defines, say, a force
in space, whereas a phasor describes, say, a sinusoidal voltage in time).
Electrical engineers refer to the effective value or r.m.s. value (root-mean-
square value)- see Chapter 13 for details- of a sinusoidal wave, which is the
equivalent d.c. value of the alternating wave so far as heating is concerned.
Where the case of a sinusoidal wave is concerned, the r.m.s. value of the wave
is
_ maximum value
r.m.s. vaIue - J2
= 0.7071 x maximum value
The reader should note very carefully that the figure of 0. 7071 applies only to
a sinusoidal wave, and does not apply to other waves, i.e., a square wave and
a triangular wave have their own r.m.s. 'multiplying factor'.
We can therefore say for a sinewave of peak value Vm its r.m.s. value or
effective value is
Vrms = 0.7071 Vm
l
v
(a)
v
/ (b) (c) (d)
Figure 10.4 Phasor diagram representing a sine wave at (a) 9 = 0,

(b) 9 = 30, (c) 9 = 60, (d) 9 = 90
The r.m.s. value is quoted when we refer to the 'value' of an alternating

wave. For example, a 250 V sinewave has a maximum value of
250 X V2 = 353.6 V
A sinusoidal current represented by the expression i = Im sin rot has an r.m.s.
voltage of
lrms = 0.7071/m
To represent a sinewave in phasor form, we simply 'freeze' the wave at a
particular point in time (or at a particular phase angle), and draw a line
equal in length to its r.m.s. value at that angle. This is illustrated in Figure
10.4 corresponding to an angle of (a) 0, (b) 30, (c) 60 and (d) 90. Also,
the length (V) of the phasor is equal to the r.m.s. value of the wave.
10.4 Phase relationship between sinewaves

The sinewaves drawn out by the rotating lines Vm and Im in Figure 10.5(a)
commence at the same point, and simultaneously pass through zero at the
end of each cycle. That is, the two sinewaves are in phase with one another.
Two sinusoidal waves of the same frequency are said to be out of phase
with one another if they commence at different times. In particular (see
Figure 10.5(b)), if i commences before v we say that i leads v by angle ~ 1 .
I
v
\ V= Vmsincot +- I-
i=lmsincot- I-
7 '<
(a) I
" ~\
' 1\
~
J
VI
1\ J
~
\ 1/
/
v _I I I I I
I i\ v=Vmsincot ff -- f--
f--
!"'-
1\
I
I
I \ 1/
(b) I 1\
II
~ 1\ \ 1/
1/
i=lmsin (rot+<!>1) '\ 1/
I I I I I I j \ 1/
I I I /
I 'I\ v=Vmsincot +-+-i

"" \\ i=lmsin (rot-4>2)
II 7 1\
(c) 1/ \ \
I r--. JI
1/ 1\ \ 1/
1-o 1\ 'J
)
I<Pi 1\ 11
1\. I/
Figure 10.5 (a) v and i are in phase with one another, (b) i leads v by cJ>,
(c) v leads i by +
Angle <1> 1 is known as the phase angle between the two waves. In this case
there are two possible ways of describing the phase angle. The first is to say
that i leads v by <1> 1; the second is to say that v lags behind i by <j> 1 Engineers
tend to think of the voltage as being the 'reference quantity' and, in this
case, we generally prefer to use the former expression.
If v commences its cycle before i (see Figure 10.5(c)), we can say that
v leads i by <1> 2 or, alternatively, i lags behind v by <1> 2 (once again, an engineer
may prefer to use the latter statement).
In all three waveforms in Figure 10.5, the voltage waveform starts from
zero when t = 0 so that, in all three cases we may say that
v= vm sin rot
Also, when v and i are in phase with one another (Figure 10.5(a)), we can
write
i = Im sin rot
When the current leads the voltage by <1> 1 (Figure 10.5(b)), we can write
i = Im sin( rot+ <1> 1 )
and when i lags behind v by <1> 2 (Figure 10.5(c)) we can write
i = Im sin( rot- <1> 2 )
Worked Example 10.4 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,
What is the phase relationship between the following:

(a) v,
= IOsinrot and v2 = 20sin(rot- n/6),
(b) i = 15 sin rot and v = 4 cos rot,
(c) i 1 = 15 sin( rot+ 30) and i 2 = 20 sin( rot- n/3).
Solution
Some of the phase angles in the problem are given in radians and some
in degrees. To simplify matters, we will convert all phase angles to
degrees, bearing in mind that 360 = 2n rad, or I rad = 57.3 o.
(a) Since the phase shift associated with v1 is zero, we may say that
v, = 10 sin( rot+ 0). The phase shift associated with v2 is
-n/6rad or -30, so that v2 = 20sin(rot- 30). That is
v2 lags 30 behind v1 (or v1 leads v2 by 30).
(b) Here the phase shift associated with i is zero, and the waveform
for v follows a cosine curve. Since we already know that
cos e = sin(e + 90) (see Chapter 6), then we may write
v = sin( rot+ 90)
Comparing the expressions for v and i, we see that
v leads i by 90 (or i lags behind v by 90)
(c) In this case the phase angle associated with i 1 is + 30, and that
associated with i 2 is -n/3 or -60. That is
i 1 leads i 2 by 90 (or i 2 lags behind i 1 by 90)
10.5 Phasor diagrams

A phasor diagram shows the line representing the r.m.s. value of sinusoidal
waves, together with an associated phase angle. There are many possible
phasor diagrams for a given waveform combination, depending on the point
in the waveform diagram where we draw the phasor diagram; bearing this
fact in mind, each phasor diagram is equivalent so far as magnitude and
phase angle is concerned. This is explained in more detail below.
v v
(a) 9=0 (b) 9=45 (c) 9 = 180
A
v
(d) 9=0 (e) 9 = 90
v
~ I
(g) 9=-135
Figure 10.6 (a), (b), (c) possible phasor diagrams representing Figure 10.5(a);
(d), (e) possible phasor diagrams representing Figure 10.5(b); (t), (g) possible
phasor diagrams representing 10.5(c)
In Figure 10.6 we draw a range of phasor diagrams which will represent

the waveform diagrams in Figure 10.5.
If we compare the phasor diagram in Figure 10.6(a) with the waveforms
in Figure 10.5(a), we see that the phasors for the voltage and current have
been drawn for rot= 0 (ore= 0), the phasors merely being the rotating lines
in Figure 10.5(a) reduced by a factor of 0.7071 so that they represent the
r.m.s. value of the respective wave. Also, the line has been 'frozen' at t = 0
or rot= 0.
If we allow time to progress in Figure 10.5(a) until rot= rt/4 ore= 45,
and 'freeze' the phasors in time once again, we get the phasor diagram in
Figure 10.6(b). To all intents and purposes, the phasor diagrams in Figures
10.6(a) and 10.6(b) are equivalent to one another, because other events in the
circuit, i.e., the voltage across the circuit elements and the current in the
circuit have also progressed by the same amount of time. The reader should
note that although the phasor diagrams are equivalent'to one another, they
are not equal to one another since they represent events at different times in
the circuit.
Next, if we allow time to progress so that rot = 1t rad or e = 180, we get
the phasor diagram in Figure 10.6(c). Once again, we can regard the phasor
diagrams in Figures 10.6(a), (b) and (c) as being equivalent to one another.
The reader will note that, in all cases, Vand I are in phase with one another,
and the r.m.s. value of V is always the same, and the r.m.s. value of I is
always the same.
Similarly, we see that phasor diagrams (d) and (e) in Figure 10.6 represent
the waveform diagram in Figure 10.5(b) at different points in time. Phasor
diagrams (f) and (g) in Figure 10.6 also represent the waveform in Figure
10.5(c) at different points in the cycle.
10.6 Addition and subtraction of phasors
As with vectors, phasors can be added or subtracted either graphically or

mathematically, both methods being based on the parallelogram addition
(or subtraction) technique. Again, it should be pointed out that graphical
methods are less accurate than numerical calculations. Also, when adding or
subtracting phasors graphically, we can only deal with one pair ofphasors at
a time.
Worked Example 10.5 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,
Two alternating currents enter a node in a circuit, the magnitude and

phase angle of the currents being, respectively
I 1 = 10 A at - 10 to the reference direction,
h = 20 A at 15 to the reference direction.
Determine the magnitude and phase angle of the current entering the
node.
Solution
We will solve this problem both graphically and by calculation as

follows.
Graphical solution
The two phasors / 1 and [z are drawn to scale in Figure 10.7, and the
parallelogram completed by dotted lines. The total current, I, is given
by the diagonal of the parallelogram, and is measured to be 29.5 A at a
phase angle of about 6.5 relative to the reference direction.
The parallelogram must be drawn to give the largest possible
diagram, and the length and phase angle of I must be measured very
carefully. Although this method may appear to be quick and easy to
obtain, in reality it takes just as long as the calculation, and is rather
less accurate!
Solution by calculation
The resolved components of the two currents are calculated below. The
horizontal or reference component of / 1 is
hh =lOcos( -10) = 9.85A
and the vertical or quadrature component of /1 is
l1v = IOsin(-10) = -1.74A
For [z the resolved components are
lzh = 20cos 15 = 19.32A
hv = 20sin 15 = 5.18A
The horizontal or reference component of the total current, I, entering
the node is
lh = l1h + lzh = 9.85 + 19.32 = 29.17 A
and the vertical component of I is
fv = hv + lzv = -1.74 + 5.18 = 3.44A
hence the magnitude of the total current is
I= y'(29.17 2 + 3.442 ) = 29.37 A
and its phase angle with relative to the reference direction is
 = arctan(!./ Ih) = arctan(3.44/29.17)
= 6.73
Worked Example 10.6 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - . ,
In a three-phase system, the magnitude of the red line to neutral

voltage, VRN, is 200 V and its phase angle relative to the reference
direction is zero. The magnitude of the yellow line to neutral voltage is
200V and its phase angle relative to the reference direction is -120. If
the voltage of the red line with respect to the yellow line is given by the
phasor difference
VRY = VRN- VyN
determine the magnitude and the phase angle of VRY
Solution
Once again, we will obtain the result both graphically and by

calculation.
Graphical solution
I I
I I
I
I
1ao' I I
I
As with vectors, to subtract one value (the subtrahend) from another

value (the minuend), we obtain the 'negative' of the subtrahend ( V YN)
by rotating it through 180, and add it to the minuend (VRN ). In this
case we draw the phasor for V YN (200 Vat an angle of -120), and then
rotate it through 180 (or -180) to form - V YN as shown in the chain-
dotted line in Figure 10.8.
Next, using the conventional parallelogram method, we add V RN to
- VYN to give the required voltage VRY The magnitude of VRY is
measured to be 344 V at an angle of 30 relative to the reference
direction, that is at + 30 to V RN That is
VRy leads V RN by 30 (or V RN lags behind V R y by 30)
Solution by calculation
Once again, we must resolve each phasor into its horizontal (reference)
component, and its vertical (quadrature) component, and determine
the total value of the resolved components. From these values, we can
evaluate the magnitude and the phase angle of the resultant voltage.
The magnitude of V RN is 200 V and its phase angle relative to the

reference direction is 0, hence
horizontal component, V RNh = 200 cos oo = 200 V
vertical component, V RNv = 200 sin 0 = 0 V
For VyN
The magnitude of V YN is 200 V and its phase angle relative to the
reference direction is -120, hence
horizontal component, VYNh = 200 cos( -120)
= -lOOV
vertical component, V YNv = 200 sin( -120)
= -173.2V
The total horizontal component of VRY is

horizontal component, VRYh = V RNh - V YNh
= 200- (-100) = 300V
vertical component, VRYv = VRNv- VYNv
= 0- (-173.2) = 173.2V
hence the magnitude of VRY is
VRY = y'(VRYh 2 + VRy}) = y'(300 2 + 173.22)
= 346.4 v
and its phase angle relative to the reference direction is
<!> = arctan(VRYv/VRYh) = arctan(l73.2/300)
=arctan 0.577 = 30
That is, V RY has an r.m.s. value of 346.4 V, and leads VRN (which is in
the reference direction) by 30.
10.7 Problems involving more than two vectors or phasors
Many problems in engineering involve several vectors or phasors. For

example, in a mechanical problem there may be several forces acting on a
structure, and electrical engineers may be concerned with calculating the
sum of several phasor voltages or currents.
As mentioned earlier, when dealing with graphical solutions, only two
vectors or phasors can be dealt with at a time. However, when dealing with
the mathematical solution, we can add together a large number of resolved
components which act in the same direction. That is, the addition of a large
number of resolved components is quicker and more accurate than
graphical methods.
When subtracting vectors or phasors, we can only subtract one vector or
phasor from another at a time.
Self-test q u e s t i o n s - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,
10.1 A force of 20 kN acts on a body at an inclination of 50 to the
reference direction, and another force of 30 kN acts at an angle
of -120 relative to the reference direction. Determine (a) the
resultant resolved components of the total force and (b) the
total force acting on the body and its direction relative to the
reference direction.
10.2 If an additional force of 25 kN at an angle of -60 relative to
the reference direction acts on the body in question 10.1,
determine the new value of total force and its direction acting
on the body.
10.3 The r.m.s. value of a sinusoidal current is 25 A, and its periodic
time is 45 ms. Determine an expression for the instantaneous
current, and calculate its value after (a) 5ms, (b) 15ms, (c)
25 ms and (d) 40 ms.
10.4 Determine the frequency and periodic time of a voltage
sinewave having a peak value of 10 V, and which has an
instantaneous value of 5 Vat 10 ms after the commencement of
the wave.
10.5 Calculate the sum of the following currents
i1 = 20 sin rot
iz = 10 sin(rot + n/6)
i3 = 15 cos rot
i4 = 10 sin( rot- n/6)
is = 25 cos( rot+ 2n/3)
The sum should be represented in the form Im sin( rot <j>).
Vectors and phasors 2II
I0.6 Voltages VAB and VBc of magnitude 50V and 75V,

respectively, have a phase difference of 60 between them.
The two voltages are connected in series so that the voltage VAc
is given by VAc = VAB + VBc Determine the magnitude of VAc
and its phase angle with respect to VBc
I0.7 The e.m.f. applied to two series-connected elements is given by
e = 100 sin rot, and the voltage across one of the elements is
89.44 sin( rot+ 0.4637). Determine the magnitude and phase
angle of the voltage across the second element.
I0.8 Two currents are given by i 1 = 50sin(I001tt)A and
i2 = 25 sin(1001tt + 1tj6) A, where t is in seconds. Plot a graph
showing i 1 and i2 to a base of time over the range t = 0 to
t = 40 ms. If the two currents flow into a node in a circuit, plot
the resultant waveform of i 1 + i 2 on the same graph. Determine
also the expression for the instantaneous current flowing into
the node.
10.9 A parallel circuit has three branches, the instantaneous current
in each of the branches is
i 1 = I0sin(rot+1t/3)A
i2 = 5 cos rot A
i3 = 8 sin( rot - 45) A
Determine the expression for the instantaneous current, i,
drawn by the circuit given that i = i1 + i2 + i3, and evaluate the
r.m.s. value of the current in each branch, and the r.m.s. current
drawn from the supply.
I O.I 0 The total voltage applied to a series circuit is given by
v = v1 + v2 + v3 , where
v = I95 sin( rot- 9.3)
VI = I 00 sin rot
v2 = I 00 sin( rot + 80)
Determine an expression for v3.
A vector quantity has both magnitude and direction in space. A phasor

quantity defines a sinusoid which continually changes in magnitude; the
magnitude of the phasor corresponds to the root-mean-square (r.m.s.) value
of the sinusoid, and has a phase angle relative to a reference direction
(usually the horizontal direction on the phasor diagram).
Vector addition or phasor addition can either be carried out graphically (by
constructing a parallelogram of the vector or phasor quantities), or by
adding the resolved components of the vectors or phasors. If Vh is the total
horizontal component, and Vv is the total vertical component then, by
Pythagorus's theorem, the magnitude of the resultant is
Vr = J(Vh 2 + V})
and its phase angle is
= arctan(Vv/Vh)
Vector subtraction or phasor subtraction is carried out by adding the negative
value of the vector or phasor to be subtracted (the subtrahend) to the vector
or phasor it is subtracted from (the minuend). If for example, we wish to
subtract v2 from VI' then v2 is the subtrahend and VI the minuend. The
difference VE is given by
vE = v1 - v2 = v1 + (- V2)
Given that we know V2 as a phasor (or vector), it is merely necessary to
rotate it through 180 to obtain - V 2
A phasor diagram shows lines representing the r.m.s. value of sinusoidal
waves, together with their associated phase angles.
@Complex numbers
11.1 Introduction
In Chapter 10 we discussed the way in which a phasor was represented in

terms of its rectangular co-ordinates, i.e., measurements in the horizontal
(reference) and vertical (quadrature) directions. When dealing with the
addition or subtraction of phasors we saw that, mathematically, the process
is quite straightforward when we know the rectangular co-ordinates of the
phasor. Fortunately, the process has been made even more convenient for us
when we use the method of complex numbers, as outlined below.
The reader should not confuse the word complex with the word
complicated, since the techniques we use only involve fairly straightforward
trigonometry of right-angled triangles. In its engineering terms, a complex
number is one having both magnitude and direction, i.e., a complex number
represents a line drawn at some angle to a reference direction.
---3---
Figure 11.1 Representation of a complex number
Consider the line of length 5 units in Figure 11.1, which has a horizontal
component of 3 and a vertical component of 4. The line can be described in
terms of a complex number (since it has both magnitude and direction) as
follows
complex horizontal vertical
number component of 3 + component of 4
However, this is a rather verbose description, and we simplify it by replacing
the expression 'vertical component or by the letter ')' or the letter 'i';
mathematicians use the letter 'i' but, because 'i' represents current in
electrical engineering, engineers use the letter 'j '.
213
Using this notation to represent the complex number given above we

have, for Figure 11.1
complex number = 3 + j 4
This form is known as the rectangular form (or cartesian form) of
representation of a complex number, and in section 11.4 we will meet an
alternative form known as the polar form of representation.
Clearly, by Pythagorus's theorem, the magnitude of the complex number
is
magnitude = y'(3 2 + 42) = 5
and the angle <!> is
<!> = arctan(4/3) = 53.13
We describe the horizontal component of the complex value as the real part
of the complex number, and the vertical part of the complex number as the
imaginary part. This is, of course, a rather superficial division because both
components are as 'real' as one another (or as 'imaginary' as one another!).
Nonetheless, this notation has been developed, and we are stuck with it.
Moreover, the imaginary part of a complex number can be thought of as
being in the form
imaginary part = imaginary operator x a real value
For example, the imaginary part of the complex value given above is }4,
where 'j' is the imaginary operator, and 4 is a real value.
To distinguish between a 'normal' number and a complex number, we
write complex values in bold upright characters (as in this chapter). For
example, if Z is a complex value, then
Z = real part + (j x imaginary part)
and we can write
real part of Z = Re Z = Re (3 + j4) = 3
and
imaginary part of Z = Im Z = Im (3 + j4) = 4
where Re and Im are understood, respectively, to mean 'the real part of and
'the imaginary part of. In the case of the imaginary part of the number
above, we are only looking at the imaginary part of the number, and the
complex operator j is dropped.
understand what is meant by a 'complex' number,
appreciate the difference between the 'real part' and the 'imaginary part'
of a complex number,
use the imaginary operator j,
draw Argand diagrams,
Complex numbers 215
appreciate the difference between polar and rectangular forms of

complex numbers, and convert from one form to another,
represent the impedance of a circuit in complex form,
add, subtract, multiply and divide complex numbers,
determine the conjugate of a complex number,
perform electrical circuit calculations.
11.2 More about imaginary numbers
Consider the quadratic equation x 2 + x + 1 = 0. If we solve the equation

using the quadratic formulae (see Chapter 4) we get
-1v(1 2 -[4x1x1]) -1)(1-4)
X =. 2X1 = __...:.,2:-'----'-
-1)(-3)
2
Since the square of either a positive number or a negative number is itself a
positive number, it follows that a negative number cannot have a 'real' square
root. We can therefore write down
y'(- 3) = y'(( -1) X 3) = J(- 1) X )3 = V(- 1) X 1.732
and, once again, we can describe J( - 1) as the imaginary operator, so that
y'(- 3) =}1.732
Clearly, we can write
-1}3 1 .3 1 .3
x = = -- +1 - or - - -1 -
2 2 2 2 2
The reader will observe that x is written in bold because it is a complex
value. We can therefore see that
i=J(-1)
l = (y'(- 1)) 2 = -1
l=/xj=-j
j 4 = / x / = -1 x ( -1) = 1, etc.
11.3 The Argand diagram
A complex value can be drawn on an Argand diagram (although it was

named after Jean Robert Argand, the method was first suggested in 1797 by
Caspar Wessel), in which the horizontal direction on the diagram is known
as the real direction, and the vertical direction is known as the imaginary
direction (see Figure 11.2).
c;,
co
.~
A=4+j4
j4
/'
8=- 3+j2
v
v
j2
~~~
v
-3 -2
"" I
I .""'
I""
3 4
real di rection
I'\.
I I j3 0=3-j3
c =-2-js
v ~j5 I
Figure 11.2 The Argand diagram
The Argand diagram is drawn in what is known as the complex plane

because it has a 'real' axis and an 'imaginary' axis. The four complex values
represented in Figure 11.2 are
A= 4+}4
B = -3 +}2
C=-2-}5
D = 3- }3
11.4 The polar form of a complex number
An alternative method of representing a complex number is known at the

polar form of the number, in which the complex number is represented by its
magnitude or modulus, and its angle or argument with respect to a reference
direction.
Both the rectangular form and the polar form have their own advantages,
and these will be explained as the chapter unfolds.
Consider the complex value in Figure 11.1, which is represented in
rectangular form by
z = 3 + }4
Complex numbers 217
The modulus or magnitude of the number is 5 (see Figure 11.1), and we

write* this as
Z= 5
The angle, <j>, that Z makes with the reference direction is obtained by simple
trigonometry as follows.
<!> = arctan(4/3) = 53.13
The complex number 3 + }4 can therefore be represented in polar form as
follows
Z=ZL<j>
that is
Z = 5L53.13o
11.5 Relationship between rectangular and polar complex

numbers
c
b
a
Figure 11.3 Relationship between rectangular and polar forms of a complex
number
Referring to Figure 11.3, we see that the complex value c can be written in
either of the following forms.
c =a+ jb
or
c = cL<!>
where the relationship between the two is obtained from Figure 11.3, that is
c = J(a 2 + b2 ) and<!>= arctan(b/a)
or
a = c cos<!> and b = c sin<!>
* Since the modulus is simply the 'size' of the complex value, and does not involve 'direction',
we write it in normal print and not in bold.
Any reader having a calculator with rectangular to polar conversion, and

polar to rectangular conversion on it will find these features invaluable for
complex number calculations. However, the reader is reminded that these
features are merely an aid to the solution of problems, and they do not
'teach' you how to do the conversion.
After studying Worked Example 11.1, the reader will be able to show that
the rectangular complex values in Figure 11.2 are represented in polar form
as follows
A= 5.66L45, B = 3.61L146.3
C = 5.39L- 111.8, D = 4.24L- 45
Worked Example 11.1 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - . ,

(a) Determine the modulus and argument of the following complex
numbers: (i) 3 + j 5, (ii) -4 - j 6.
(b) Determine the rectangular complex form of the following complex
numbers: (i) 4L50, (ii) 5L- 120.
Solution
(a) Referring to Figure 11.3, we see that if c = a+ j b, then

c = J(a 2 + b2 ) and <1> = arctan(b/a).
(i) In this case, a = 3 and b = 5, hence
c = y'(3 2 +5 2 ) = 5.83
and
= arctan(5/3) = 59.04
That is
3 + j 5 := 5.83L59.04
(ii) Here a = -4 and b = -6, therefore
c = J(( -4) 2 + ( -6) 2 ) = 7.75
and
<1> = arctan((-6)/(-4)) =arctan 1.5
It should be pointed out here that, since both a and b have
negative values, the angle is in the third quadrant. However, if we
are using a calculator, it will show that (using a = -4 and b = -6)
the angle appears to be 56.3. We must use our knowledge of
mathematics to realise that the angle <1> is in the third quadrant
and is given by
= 56.3 + 180 = 226.3 (or - 123.7)
hence
-4- j6 = 7.75L226.3
Complex numbers 219
(b) Here we use the relationships

a = c cos and b = c sin <1>
(i) For the complex value 4L50, c = 4 and = 50, hence
a = 4 cos 50 = 4 x 0.6428 = 2.5712
and
b = 4 sin 50 = 4 x 0.766 = 3.064
hence
4L50 := 2.5712 +j3.064
(ii) Here c = 5 and = -120, giving
<1>
a= 5 cos( -120) = 5 x (-0.5) = -2.5

and
b = 5 sin( -120) = 5 x ( -0.866) = -4.33
that is
5L- 120 := -2.5- j4.33
11.6 Representation of electrical impedance in complex form
z X
R
Figure 11.4 Impedance triangle of a series inductive circuit
A typical impedance triangle of a series circuit is shown in Figure 11.4, where

R is the resistance, X the reactance, Z the impedance and the phase angle of
the circuit. From the knowledge we already have of complex numbers, we
can say that
Z = R + jX and <1> = arctan(X/ R)
also
Z = ZL<j>
where Z = yi(R 2 + X2 )
If, for example, R = 10Q and X= SQ (note: since X has a positive value,
the circuit is inductive!), then
z = 10+j5Q
The modulus of the impedance is
Z = y'(R2 + X2 ) = y'(10 2 +5 2 )= 11.180
and the phase angle of the circuit is
c1> = arctan(X/ R) = arctan(S/10) = 26.57
That is
Z = 11.18L26.57Q
Note: If X was a capacitive reactance of SQ, then the impedance of the
circuit would be
Z = 10 -j5Q = 11.18L- 26.57an
11.7 Addition and subtraction of complex numbers

The reader should note that:
Complex numbers must be converted into their rectangular form before
they are added together or subtracted from one another.
Polar complex numbers cannot be added together or subtracted from one
another. The polar to rectangular complex number conversion key on a
calculator is very useful in this situation.
Complex numbers (in their rectangular form) are added together by
separately adding the real parts and the imaginary parts. For example, if
Zt = Rt + jX1, Z2 = Rz + jXz, and Z3 = R3 + jX3, then
Zt + Z2 + Z3 = (Rt + Rz + R3) + j(Xt + Xz + X3)
Two complex numbers are subtracted from one another by subtracting
separately the real parts and the imaginary parts of the numbers (n9te:
although many complex numbers can be added together, we can only
subtract one complex number from another). For example, if V1 =A+ jB
and V2 = C + jD, then
Vt- V2 =(A- C)+ j(B- D)
Worked Example 11.2 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,

Two complex voltages V1 = 10 + j6V and V2 = 8L- l0V are
connected in series with one another, the resultant voltage being
applied to two series-connected impedances ofvalue Zt = 3 + j5 Q and
Z2 = 2- j4 Q (the former has an inductive reactance, and the latter
having a capacitive reactance). Determine the total voltage applied to
the circuit, and the complex impedance of the circuit.
Complex numbers 221
Solution
To add the two voltages together we must, initially, convert V2 into its
rectangular form as follows. The real component of V2 is
Re V2 = Re (8L- 10) = 8cos(-10o) = 7.88 V
and its imaginary part is
Im V2 = Im (8L- 10) = 8sin(-10o) = -1.39 V
That is
v2 = 7.88- JI.39 v
and the total voltage applied to the circuit is
VT = Vt + V2 = (10 + j6) + (7.88- j 1.39)
= (10 + 7.88) + j(6- 1.39) = 17.88 + }4.61 v
Now, the modulus or magnitude of VT is
vT = v(17.88 2 +4.61 2) = 18.46 v
and the phase angle <l>T of the total voltage is
<l>T = arctan(4.61/17.88) = 14.46
or
VT = VTL<J>T = 18.46L14.46 V
The reader should note that engineers prefer to use the polar notation
because, in practice, most of the instruments we use measure polar
quantities. For example, we use voltmeters and ammeters to measure
the modulus of voltage and current, respectively, and we use
oscilloscopes to measure phase angles. Only a few specialised
instruments give rectangular complex values.
The total impedance of the circuit is
zT = Zt + z2 = (3 + J 5) + (2 - J 4)
= (3 + 2) + J(5- 4) = 5 + 11 n
From this we see that the phase angle of the circuit is
<!> = arctan(l/5) = 11.31 o
and the magnitude of the total impedance is
zT = J(5 2 + 12 ) = 5.099 n
or
Worked Example 11.3 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,
Two complex voltages V 1 and V 2 are connected in series, and the total
voltage is VT = 15L80V. If V1 = 7.1 + j7.1 V, determine the value of
v2.
Solution
Since the two voltages are connected in series, then

VT = Vt + V2
or
V2=VT-V1
To perform the subtraction, both voltages must be in their rectangular
form, and we must convert VT into its rectangular form as follows.
Re VT = 15cos80 = 2.6 V
and
lm VT = 15 sin 80 = 14.77 V
That is
VT = 2.6 + j14.77 V
From the above equation
V2 = VT- Vt = (2.6 + j 14.77)- (7.1 + j7.1)
= (2.6- 7.1) + j(14.77- j7.1)
= -4.5 + j7.67V
When converted to its polar form (which is left as an exercise for the
reader) this becomes
v2 = 8.89L120.4 v
11.8 Multiplication of complex numbers
Although it is possible to multiply complex numbers in their rectangular

form, all values should (preferably) be converted into their polar form.
The reason for suggesting the use of polar complex numbers is that
multiplication is more difficult (and error-prone) when using the rectangular
form. The rectangular to polar complex number conversion key on a
calculator is very useful in this situation.
Complex numbers 223
Multiplication using polar complex values
If the complex current in a circuit is given by I = IL9 and the impedance of

the circuit is Z = ZL<j>, then the complex voltage across the circuit is
V = IZ = IL9 x ZL<j> = IZL(9 + <J>)
That is, when we multiply polar complex numbers together, we multiply
the magnitude values and add the angles.
Multiplication using rectangular complex values
If the values are given in rectangular complex form, we can use the usual
algebraic methods to carry out the multiplication, as shown below. If
I = a + jb and Z = c + jd, then
V = IZ = (a + jb) (c + jd) = ac + jad + jbc +i bd

= ac + jad+ jbc- bd = (ac- bd) + j(ad+ be)
From the above, the reader will appreciate that multiplication using
rectangular complex values is quite a slow process, and is error-prone.
Worked Example 11.4 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,
The impedance of an a.c. circuit is given by Z = 3 + j 6 n, and the

current in the circuit is 5L30 A. Determine the complex value of the
voltage applied to the circuit.
Solution
Initially we will convert the impedance into its polar form as shown
below. The modulus of the impedance is
z = y'(3 2 + 62 ) = 6.71 n
and its phase angle is
<!> = arctan(6/3) = 63.43
that is
z= 6.71L63.43 n
From Ohm's law, the voltage applied to the circuit is
Vs = IZ = 5L30 x 6.71L63.43
= 5 x 6. 71 L(30 + 63.43) = 33.55L93.43 V
Alternatively, we can carry out the calculation using the rectangular

complex version of the numbers as follows. The rectangular complex
version of the current is
ReI= 5cos30o = 4.33 A
Im I= 5sin30 = 2.5 A
that is
I = 4.33 + ]2.5 A
Hence
Vs = IZ = (4.33 +}2.5)(3 + }6)
= 12.99 + }7.5 + }25.98 + /15
= (12.99- 15) + }(7.5 + 25.98)
= -2.01 +}33.48 v
The reader should verify that the two values of Vs are equivalent.
11.9 The conjugate of a complex number
Before moving on to the division of complex numbers, we need to know

about the conjugate of a complex number.
The conjugate of a complex number is obtained by changing the sign of
the imaginary part of the complex rectangular value, or by changing the
sign of the angle of a complex polar value.
c jb
'' I
'' II -}"b
c' '
''
''
' I
'I
Figure 11.5 Conjugate of a complex number

Complex numbers 225
Referring to Figure 11.5, we see that the rectangular complex value

represented by c in the figure is
c =a+ jb
so that its conjugate (written as c*) is
c* =a- jb
where c* is shown in the dotted line in Figure 11.5. We can also see that if we
reverse the mathematical sign of the complex part of the number, then the
mathematical sign of <1> also changes. That is + becomes -<1> in the
conjugate. That is if
c = cL
then

c* = cL-
Hence if c = 3 + j4 = 5L53.13, then
c* = 3- j4 =5L- 53.13
A complex number and its conjugate form a conjugate pair, and the product
of a conjugate pair is a real number. For example, if c =a+ jb, then
c x c* = (a+ jb)(a- jb) = a2 +jab- jab -lb
= (a 2 + b2) + j(ab- ab) = a2 + b2
or
c x c* = cL x cL- <1> = c2 L( <1> - <1>) = c2
Note: since c = y'(a2 + b2) then c2 = a2 + b2.
11.10 Division of complex numbers

Division of complex numbers can be carried out using either polar or
rectangular complex values, but polar complex values are quicker and less
error-prone.
Division using polar complex values
If V is a complex voltage applied to an a.c. circuit, and Z is the complex

impedance of the circuit, where V = VL9 1 and Z = ZLG2, then from Ohm's
law the current in the circuit is
V VLG1 V
I=- =- = - L(9I - 92)
Z ZLG2 Z
That is, when we divide one polar complex number by another, we divide the
magnitudes and subtract the angles, in the manner shown above.
For example if V = 250L10a and Z = 10L25, then
1=~= 25 0L10o =25 (10-25)"=25 (-15)A

z 10L25 !_ !_
Division using rectangular complex values

Suppose that V = a + jb and Z = c + jd, then the complex current in the
circuit is
1 =~=a+ jb
Z c+jd
In this case we can convert the denominator to a 'real' number having no
complex part simply by multiplying the denominator by its conjugate. To
keep the equation balanced, we must also multiply the numerator by the
conjugate of the denominator.
The process of multiplying the denominator by its conjugate is known as
rationalising the denominator.
That is
I=~= VZ* = (a+jb)(c-jd)
Z ZZ* (c + jd)(c- jd)
ac- jad + jbc- j 2bd (ac + bd) + j (be- ad)
c2 - jdc + jdc- j2d c2 + d2
For example if V = 3 + }4 volts and Z = 6-}8 n, then

l=~=3+j4= VZ* =(3+}4)(6+}8)
Z 6-}8 ZZ* (6-}8)(6+}8)
18 + }24 + j24 + } 2 32 (18- 32) + j(24 + 24)
62 + 82 100
= -0.14+}0.48 A
11.11 a.c. electric circuit calculations

In this section we look at the solution of a series circuit and a parallel circuit.
A series a.c. circuit

Figure 11.6 shows a series a.c. circuit in which Z 1 and Z2 are complex
impedances of value
z. = 10 +J6 n
z2 = 8L- 30 n
and the supply voltage is
Vs = 200L50o V
Complex numbers 227
v,
......--
z,
Figure 11.6 A series a.c. circuit
We will calculate the complex value of the total impedance of the circuit, the
current in the circuit, and the voltage across each impedance in the circuit.
The process involved is much the same as for any circuit analysis problem
of this type in that, after determining the total impedance of the circuit, we
use Ohm's law to calculate the current. Once the current is known, we apply
Ohm's law once again to calculate the voltage across each impedance.
In order to determine the total impedance of the circuit, we must add the
complex impedances together, and to do this we need to express the
impedance values in rectangular form. We already have Z 1 in this form, and
Z2 = 8L- 30 = 8cos30-j8sin30
=6.982-j4Q
The above calculation illustrates the usefulness of a polar-to-rectangular

conversion key on a calculator. The total impedance of the circuit is
ZT = Zt + Z2 = (10 + j6) + (6.982- j4)
= 16.928 + j2 Q
In order to calculate the current, we must divide the complex voltage by the
complex impedance of the circuit, and this is best done using the polar form
of the complex values. Hence
ZT = )(16.928 2 + 22)Larctan(2/16.928)
= 17.05L6.74o Q
The complex value of ZT tells us that the circuit has an inductive impedance
(since <t> is positive), and that the current lags behind the voltage by 6.74,
i.e., the angle of the current relative to the reference direction is
(50- 6.74t = 43.26.
From Ohm's law
Vs 200L50o o
I= ZT = l7.0SL 6 _74 o = 11.73L43.26 A
To calculate the voltage across each impedance we use the equation V = IZ.
Since we are multiplying complex numbers together, both I and Z need to be
in polar form, and
Z 1 = 10 + j 6 = yl(10 2 + 62 )L arctan(6/10)
= 11.66L30.96 Q
hence the voltage across Zt is
v. = IZt = 11.73L43.26 X 11.66L30.96
= 136.77 L74.22 v
and
Vz = IZ2 = 11.73L43.26a x 8L- 30
= 93.84Ll3.26 v
The reader will find it an interesting exercise to verify that the sum of V 1 and
Vz is equal to Vs.
The phasor diagram for the circuit is shown in Figure 11.7.
Vs
reference direction
Figure 11.7 Phasor diagram for the series circuit calculation
A parallel a.c. circuit

A typical two-branch parallel a.c. circuit is shown in Figure 11.8 in which
z. = 10- j6 Q
Zz = 12L30o Q
It= 4L20a A
Using complex numbers, we will determine the impedance of the parallel
circuit, the current in Z 2 , the voltage Vs across the circuit, and the total
current I drawn by the circuit.
Complex numbers 229
....____
Vs
Figure 11.8 A parallel a.c. circuit
The effective impedance, ZT, of the parallel circuit is given by

ZT = ZtZ2/(Zt + Z2)
That is, we need to multiply and to add Z 1 and Z2 , so that we need the
impedances both in rectangular and polar form! Initially we will convert Z 1
into its polar form as follows.
=
Zt = 10- j6 )(10 2 + ( -62 )) arctan( -6/10)
= 11.662L- 30.96 n
and we convert Z 2 into rectangular form.
z2 = 12L30 = 12 cos 30 + j 12 sin 30
= 10.392+}6
The effective impedance of the parallel circuit is therefore
ZT = ZtZ2/(Zt + Z2)
11.662L- 30.96 X 12L30 139.94L- 0.96
(10- j6) + (10.392 + j6) 20.392L0
= 6.862L - 0.96
The voltage across the parallel circuit is calculated below
Vs = ItZt = 4L20o x 11.662L- 30.96
= 46.65L- 10.96 V
The current flowing in Z 2 is calculated using Ohm's law as follows.
I = Vs = 46.65L- 10.96 = 3 89 _ O 96 o A
2 Z2 12L30 . L 4 .
and the total current drawn by the circuit is
I= Vs = 46.65L- 10.96o = 6 SL _ 10o A
ZT 6.862L- 0.96 .
The reader will find it a useful exercise to verify that

I= l1 + lz
The phasor diagram for the circuit is shown in Figure 11.9.
''
'
''
'
Figure 11.9 Phasor diagram for the parallel circuit calculation
Self-test q u e s t i o n s - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,
11.1 Draw an Argand diagram showing the following complex values

(a) 4 + j5, (b) 10L30, (c) -5 + j2, (d) 7 L120, (e) -6- j7,
(f) 6L200, (g) 7- j4, (h) 4L- 40.
11.2 Without using a calculator with a rectangular-to-polar conver-
sion key, convert the following rectangular complex values into
their equivalent polar values (a) -7- j8, (b) 7 + j4, (c) 4- j7,
(d) -4 + j3.
11.3 Without using a calculator with a polar-to-rectangular conver-
sion key, convert the following polar complex values into their
equivalent rectangular complex values: (a) 8L- 140, (b) 6L120,
(c) 3L- 78, (d) 6.5L85.2.
11.4 Add the following complex values, and convert the result into
both polar and rectangular form (a) (2 + j 5) + (3 + j 8),
(b) ( -5 + j6) + 7 L45, (c) 15L30o + 9L- 120.
11.5 Subtract the following complex values (a) (2+j5)- (3+j8),
(b) ( -5 + j6)- 7 L45, (c) 15L30o- 9L- 120.
11.6 Multiply the following complex numbers
(a) 10L20o x 30L0.8rad, (b) (-2- j3) x 8.2L2.0rad
(c) (3+j4) x (-5-j6).
11.7 Divide the following complex values: (a) 10L20o /30L0.8 rad,
(b) (-2-j3)/8.2L2.0rad, (c) (3+j4)/(-5-j6).
11.8 Two voltages are connected in series to an a.c. circuit whose
impedance is (3 + j4) Q. Calculate the current in the circuit if
V 1 = 8 + j 2 V and V2 = 8L - 50 V.
Complex numbers 231
11.9 Voltages of V 1 = 35.36LOo V and V 2 = 35.36L90o are connected

in series to a circuit whose impedance is Z = R + j (XL- X c),
where R is a resistance of 10 0, XL an inductive reactance of
200, and Xc a capacitive reactance of 1300. Determine (a) the
total voltage applied to the circuit, (b) the complex impedance of
the circuit, and (c) the current in the circuit.
11.10 A voltage of 110L45 V is applied to three elements in series
whose impedances are, respectively, Z 1 = 3 + j 6 0, Z 2 = 4L0
and Z3 = 8- }20. Determine (a) the total impedance of the
circuit, (b) the current in the circuit and (c) the complex voltage
across each impedance.
A real number is one simply having a value, and lies in the 'reference'
direction. An imaginary number is a real number in association with a
complex operator (j or i), which implies a 'direction' at right-angles to the
reference direction. A complex number is the sum of a real number and an
imaginary number, and can be drawn on an Argand diagram.
The complex operator j can be written j = y'( - 1), and
i = -1
l =-j
j 4 = 1, etc.
The rectangular or cartesian form of a complex number is written as
Z = a+jb
where 'a' is the real part of the number, and 'jb' is the imaginary part of the
number. The polar form of a complex number is written as
Z = rL9
where r is the modulus or magnitude of the number, and e the argument or
angle. Rectangular and polar complex values are related as follows.
r = J(a 2 + b 2 )
e = arctan(b/a)
where
a= rcos e
b = rsine
The rectangular form of complex numbers can be added by separately adding
the real and imaginary parts, and can be subtracted by separately
subtracting the real and imaginary parts. If Z 1 = a + jb and Z2 = c + jd,

then
z. + z2 =(a+ c)+ j(b +d)
and
z. - z2 = (a- c)+ j (b- d)
Multiplication and division of complex numbers is best carried out using
polar complex values (see below for details of division using rectangular
complex numbers). If A= r 1 L8 1 and B = r2L82, then
AB = r 1r2L(8, + 82)
and if C = r3L83 and D = r4L8 4, then
c r3
- = -L(83- 84)
D r4
The conjugate of a complex number is obtained by changing the sign of the
imaginary part of a rectangular complex number, or by changing the sign of
the angle of a polar complex number. That is if a complex number is
Z =a+ jb = rL8
then the conjugate of the complex number is
Z*=a-Jb=rL-8
A complex number and its conjugate form a conjugate pair, and the product
of a conjugate pair is a real number. In the above case
ZZ* = (a+ jb)(a- jb) = a2 + b 2
and
ZZ* = rL8 X rL- 8 = r2
Division of complex numbers using rectangular complex values is carried out
by rationalising the denominator of the equation, in which both the
denominator and the numerator are multiplied by the conjugate of the
denominator. If A = a + jb and B = c + jd, then
A AB* (a+ jb)(c- jd)
B BB* (c + jd)(c- jd)
(ac + bd) + j (be - ad)
c2 + d2
@Differentiation
12.1 Introduction
The differential calculus is a method used to determine the rate of change of

one quantity with respect to another. For example, the speed of an object is
the rate of movement of the object with respect to time; provided that we
know the equation for the movement of the object, we can determine its
velocity at any point in time by differentiating the equation. Differential
calculus is of great interest in all branches of engineering, and we will take a
gentle approach to the topic.
understand the concept of a function,
understand more about the gradient and slope of a graph,
differentiate from first principles,
differentiate higher-order functions,
differentiate y = anx
differentiate the sum of a number of functions,
determine the second derivative of a function,
determine the maximum values, the minimum values and turning points
on a graph,
understand and be able to apply the maximum power transfer theorem
to electrical and electronic circuits,
differentiate a function of a function,
differentiate the product of two functions,
differentiate a quotient,
use a table of standard derivatives.
12.2 The concept of a 'function'

We have referred occasionally to the word 'function' several times without
having to fully understand it. For example, in the equation
y = 6x 2 + 4x + 10, the value of y depends on the value of x, and we say
that y is a function of x. Also, the resistance of a length of wire depends on
the length of the wire, so that the resistance is a function of its length. We
can therefore define a function as follows:
When two quantities are related so that the value of the dependent
variable is related to the independent variable, then the dependent variable
is said to be a function of the independent variable.
233
In the case of the equation y = 6x2 + 4x + 10, x is the independent variable

and y is the dependent variable, so that any change in x produces an x
change in y. The symbolf(x) is used to denote 'a function of x' and, in the
case of the above equation, we can say that
y=6x2 +4x+10
or
f(x) = 6x 2 + 4x + 10
Sometimes capital F is used in place off, and we may say
F(x) = 6x 2 +4x+ 10
If the independent variable is time, t, as in the following equation
v = Vm sin(mt + <!>)
then we may say v = f(t), or
f(t) = Vm sin(mt + <!>)
When the independent variable has a particular value, we may write it down
inside a pair of brackets to give an answer to the expression. For example, if
f(x) = 2x + 3, then
f(O) = (2 x 0) + 3 = 3
j(2) = (2 X 2) + 3 = 7
f( -1) = (2 x ( -1)) + 3 = 1, etc
12.3 Notation for a small change in a variable

When dealing with functions, we adopt a special notation to indicate a small
change in the value of the variable (note: the change may either be an
increase or a decrease). If we consider the movement of an object, a change
in its movement can be denoted by 8x (8 is the lower case Greek letter delta
or 'd'), and the corresponding amount of time during which the change
occurs is 8t.
We can say that if two variables x andy are related so that y is a function
of x, then a change 8x in x produces a corresponding (but not equal) change
8y in y. For example, if y = 3x2 + 5x + 10, then when x = 4 then
y = (3 X 42 ) + (5 X 4) + 10 = 78
If there is a change 8x in x, then the change 8y in y can be calculated from
y + 8y = 3(x + 8x) 2 + 5(x + 8x) + 10
If 8x = 0.1 then
y + 8y = 3(4 + 0.1) 2 + 5(4 + 0.1) + 10 = 80.93
that is
8y = 80.93 - y = 80.93 - 78 = 2.93
Differentiation 235
12.4 Gradient and slope of a graph
/v;:,;:)
y
/
v
/
v
/
v
/
L
/ --\0
/
X
- - x, -~t----lix--~
Figure 12.1 The gradient and slope of a line
Consider the straight-line graph in figure 12.1, in which y is a function of x.

We see that a change 8x in the variable x produces a change 8y in the
variable y.
The ratio ~~is known as the gradient of the line. The line makes angle 9
with the x-axis, so that ~~ is the tangent of angle 9, hence the gradient of the
line is the tangent of the angle made with the positive direction x-axis. Angle 9
is known as the slope of the line and, on occasions, it may be described
(although not strictly correctly) as the gradient of the line.
r
y
1/y=f(X)
- - -- -- -- -r-- - - /,
/ II
/ /
/ I
liy /
/
~-
/ I
A / ........... v I
- - - -;::: f;-1"' I
/
/ I
I
y / _l 0 I
I
1
I
I
I
I
I
- - x _,.__ _ _ lix----~ X
Figure 12.2 The gradient of a curve

Defining the gradient of a curve is a little more difficult than in the case of
a straight line (see figure 12.2). The co-ordinates of point A on the graph are
(x, y) and the co-ordinates of point Bare (x + 8x, y + 8y), and the gradient
of the line joining A and B is
8y
ox= tane
This is, of course, the gradient of the line joining A to B, but is not
necessarily the gradient of the curve either at A or at B.
The only way we can determine the gradient at a point on the curve is to
make 8x (and therefore 8y) progressively smaller until 8x is zero (or nearly
so!). We describe this by saying that 8x--+ 0. To illustrate our point,
consider the curve defined by y = x 2 ; we will attempt to determine the slope
of the curve when x = 4. Initially, we will consider a change in x of 8x = I,
and calculate the slope of the graph. When x = 4, the value of y is
y = x 2 = 42 = I6
and
y + 8y = (x + 8x) 2 = (4 + 1) 2 = 25
so that 8y = 25- y = 25- 16 = 9, giving a gradient of
8y =~=9
8x I
TABLE 12.1 Estimation of the gradient of y = x 2 when x = 4
8y
Value of x 8x x+lix (x + 8x) 2 liy
8x
4 1.0 5.0 25.0 9.0 9.0
4 0.5 4.5 20.25 4.25 8.5
4 0.1 4.1 16.81 0.81 8.1
4 0.01 4.01 16.0801 0.0801 8.01
4 0.001 4.001 16.008001 0.008001 8.001
In Table I2.I we gradually reduce 8x from 1.0 to O.OOI, and see how the
estimated value of the gradient changes. Clearly we see that, as 8x gets
smaller and smaller, the gradient approaches the value 8. That is
8y .
- --+ 8 as 8x --+ 0
8x
If the process in Table I2.1 is carried out for a value other than x = 4, the
gradient tends to a final value other than 8. Try it for x = 2 and x = -3.
The limiting value of 8y/8x as 8x approaches zero is written as
dy
dx
(pronounced 'dy by dx') and is known as the first derivative or differential
coefficient of y with respect to x. Alternative symbols are Dx, .X andf'(x).
Differentiation 237
The process of differentiation is one of determining the gradient of the

tangent to a graph; the reader should appreciate that : means that the
equation has been differentiated once with respect to x.
12.5 Differentiation from first principles
Consider the equation y = x 2 If x changes by ox, then y will change by oy

according to the relationship
y + oy = (x + ox) 2 = x 2 + 2xox + (ox) 2
Since y = x 2 , we can subtract y from the left-hand side of the equation and
x 2 from the right-hand side, and the equation will remain balanced to give
the following
oy = 2xox+ (ox) 2
or
oy
ox= 2x+ ox
Now
dy oy .
dx = ox as ox tends to zero
Writing ox= 0 in the above expression gives
dy = 2x
dx
That is, the first derivative of the curve y = x 2 is equal to 2x for any value of
x! Looking at Table 12.1 shows that, when x = 4, the gradient tends to
2x = 8 as ox tends to zero. This confirms the above calculation; the reader
should reproduce this table for values other than x = 4.
Worked Example 12.1 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,
Determine the first derivative for the equation of a straight-line graph,

i.e.
y=mx+c
where m is the gradient of the graph, and c is the y-axis intercept.
Solution
When x increases by ox then

y+ oy = m(x+ ox)+ c = mx+mox+ c
Subtracting y from the left-hand side of the equation, and (mx +c)
from the right-hand side leaves
oy = mox
or
oy
-=m
ox
Clearly, the graph is a straight line, and has a gradient of m. It follows
that, as ox tends to zero, then
dy
dx=m
That is, the first derivative of y = mx + c is
dy
-=m
dx
The reader may like to show that
(a) if y = 4x + 6 then ix = 4
(b) if y = 4x - 6 then ix = 4,
(c) if y = -3x + 6 then ix = -3.
12.6 Differentiating higher-order functions
The general rule for differentiating higher-order functions follows that given
above. We will take a look at some higher-order functions in Worked
Examples 12.2 and 12.3, and the general solution is given in Table 12.3 in
section 12.17.
Worked Example 12.2 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,
Determine an expression for dy j dx for the equation y = ax2 + b.
Solution
When x increases by ox we have

y + oy = a(x + ox) 2 + b
= a(x2 + 2xox + (ox) 2 ) +b
= ax2 + 2axox + a(ox) 2 + b
Differentiation 239
Subtracting y from the left-hand side of the equation and (ax 2 +b)
from the right-hand side leaves
8y = 2ax8x + a(8x) 2
or
8y
Bx = 2ax+a8x
When 8x tends to zero we see that
dy = 2ax
dx
In fact we have already seen for this equation that when a= 1, i.e.,
y=x 2 , then
dy = 2x
dx
(a) if y = 4x2 + 3 then dx = 8x,

(b) if y = 4x2 - 3 then dx = 8x,
(c) if y = -2x2 + 8 then dx = -4x.
Worked Example 12.3 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Determine an expression for dy / dx for the equation y = ax 3 + b.
Solution
If x in the above expression increases by 8x then
y + 8y = a(x + 8x) 3 + b
= a(x 3 + 3x2 8x + 3x(8x) 2 + (8x) 3) + b
= ax 3 + 3ax2 8x + 3ax(8x) 2 + a(8x) 3 + b
Subtracting y from the left-hand side of the equation and (ax 3 +b)
from the right-hand side gives
8y = 3ax2 8x + 3ax(8x) 2 + a(8x) 3

hence
~~ = 3ax2 + 3ax8x + a(8x) 2
In the limit when 8x tends to zero we get
dy = 3ax2
dx
(a) if y = 4x3 + 8, then dx = (3 x 4)x 2 = 12x2 ,
(b) if y = 4x3 - 8, then dx = (3 x 4)x 2 = 12x2 ,
(c) if y = -2x3 + 6, then dx = (3 x (-2))x2

= -6x2
12.7 Differentiating the general case of y = axn
We will not attempt to analyse this equation in detail, but will draw general
conclusions from the following.
(1) If y = ax + b, then dx = a.
dy
(2) If y = ax2 + b, then dx = 2ax.
(3) If y = ax3 + b, then dx = 3ax2 .
We can therefore conclude that
if y = ax" + b, then : = naxn-I

For example
If y = 5x2 - 3, then dx = 2 x 5 x x 2- 1 = lOx.

If y = 9x3 + 7, then dy = 3 x 9x3 - 1 = 27x2
dx
4 dy 4 X X4-I 3
If y = x J5, then dx = 5 = 0.8x .
Differentiation 241
12.8 Differentiating a constant
In the expression y = 4, clearly y has a constant and unchanging value, so

that its rate of change is zero. That is
dy=d(4)=0
dx dx
That is
the derivative of a constant is zero.
12.9 Differentiating a sum of functions
In the case of a sum of functions of the following form
y = ax2 +bx+c
then, when x changes by ox, we have
y + <>x = a(x + ox) 2 + b(x + <ix) + c

= (ax 2 + 2ax3x + a(ox) 2 ) + (bx +box)+ c
Subtracting y from the left-hand side of the equation and (ax 2 + bx +c)
from the right-hand side, we get
<iy = 2axox + a(3x) 2 + b<ix

or
~~ = 2ax + a<ix + b
As ox tends towards zero we get
!=2ax+b
We note here that 2ax is the differential coefficient of ax2 , b is the

differential coefficient of bx, and the differential coefficient of the constant c
is zero. That is
the differential coefficient of a sum of functions is the sum of the

individual differential coefficients.
Worked Example 12.4 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,
Determine the differential coefficient of the following

(a) y = 2x4 - 4x- 6, (b) s = ut + !at 2 , (c) y = x 3 + 2/Jx,
(d) v = ul.S- l/(2u 35 ).
Solution
(a) dy = (4 x 2x4 - 1 ) - (1 x 4x 1- 1) = 8x3 - 4

dx
(b) ~; = (1 + (2 x ~at2 - 1 ) = u +at
x ut 1- 1)
(c) In this casey= x 3 + 2x- 112 , hence

dy = (3 x x 3- 1) + (--1 x 2x (-o.s- 1) )
-
dx 2
= 3x2 - x-1.5 = 3x2 - 1/xl.5
(d) This equation is rewritten in the form v = ui. 5 -! u- 35 , hence

~: = (1.5 X ul. 5- 1) - ((-3.5) X ~U(- 3 5 - 1 ))
= 1.5u05 + 1.75u- 45 = 1.5Ju + !).;
Worked Example 12.5 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,
Determine the first derivative of the graphs (a) y = 2x2 - 1.5x + 1 and
(b) y = x 3 + x 2 + 1 when (i) x = 3, (ii) x = -2.
Solution
(a) The equation of the curve is y = 2x2 - 1.5x + 1, and its

differential is
dy
dx = 4x- 1.5
(i) When x = 3 then
dy
dx = (4 X 3)- 1.5 = 10.5
(ii) When x = -2 then

dy
dx = (4 x (-2))- 1.5 = -9.5
Differentiation 243
(b) The equation of the curve is y = x 3 + x 2 + 1, and its differential is
dy = 3x2 +2x
dx
(i) When x = 3 then
: = (3 X 32 ) + (2 X 3) = 33
(ii) When x = -2 then
: = (4 X ( -2) 2 ) + (2 X ( -2)) =8
12.10 The second derivative of a function
If the linear distance, s, moved by an object is given by s = lOt+ 2t2 , where t

is time, then the velocity of the object is
ds
v=-=10+ 4t
dt
and its acceleration, a, is the rate of change of the velocity, and is
given by
a= dv = d(lO + 4t) = 4
dt dt
That is, the acceleration is obtained by twice differentiating the distance
moved. This is expressed mathematically as
d 2s
a= dt2
which is pronounced 'd two s by dt squared', and is the second derivative

of s.
In functional notation, the second derivative ofj(x) is writtenf"(x) .
Worked Example 12.6 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,
A body moves in a straight line according to the equation

s = 3?- 2t+ 5
where S is the distance moved in metres and t is time in seconds.
Determine (a) the distance moved (3S) between t = 4s and t = 4.1 s,
(b) the velocity when t = 4s and (c) its acceleration.
Solution
(a) If t changes by ot, the increment in movement, oS, can be

calculated from
s + os = 3(t + ot) 2 - 2(t + ot) + 5
= 3~ + 6tot + 3(ot) 2 - 2t- 2ot + s
Subtracting S from the left-hand side of the equation and
(3~ - 2t + 5) from the right-hand side l<;:aves the equation
unchanged, as follows
os = 6tot + 3(ot) 2 - 2ot
= (6 X 4 X 0.1) + (3 X 0.1 2 ) - (2 X 0.1)
= 2.23 m
Alternatively, the value of Scan be calculated from the original
equation both for t = 4 s and t = 4.1 s, and the distance moved is
the difference between the two values.
(b) The velocity of the body is
v = ds = d(3t 2 - 2t + 5) = 6t - 2
dt dt
when t = 4s
v = (6 x 4)- 2 = 22 m/s
(c) The acceleration of the body is
a= dv = d(6t- 2) = 6 mjs2
dt dt
12.11 Stationary points on a graph
y
A
+ +
v \ I
1/
\
1--1-- +I
- I +- 1--
I v
+I r-...- /+
II )... . / I
I' Is I
I _j_ I
X
Figure 12.3 Stationary points on a curve; '+ ' means a positive gradient,
'-' means a negative gradient
Differentiation 245
Consider the graph in Figure 12.3; the gradient of the graph is positive for
both high and low values of x, and is negative between them, and is zero at
points A and B. We say that the graph has turning points at A and B, at
which point the first derivative, f'(x), is zero.
12.12 Introduction to turning points

A turning point on a graph is defined as a point where the sign of the
gradient of the graph changes from positive to negative (or from negative to
positive).
We are particularly interested in two types of turning points, namely
maximum points (the plural is maxima) and minimum points (the plural is
minima).
A maximum point occurs where the gradient changes from a positive value
to a negative value, and the tangent to the curve at that point is parallel to
the x-axis (see point A in Figure 12.3). A minimum point occurs where the
gradient changes from a negative value to a positive value, and the tangent
to the curve at that point is parallel to the x-axis (see point Bin Figure 12.3).
12.13 Determination of maxima and minima
~6
\ I Y=X2
\ l
\ I
\ II
\ I
\ I
\ I
4
1\ I
\ v
!\. ./
X
-4 -2 0 2 4
Figure 12.4 The graph of y = x 2

We have already said that the slope of a curve is zero at a maximum or a

minimum point. Consider the curve y = x 2 in Figure 12.4; the first
derivative of the equation is
dy = 2x
dx
Clearly, when x has a positive value the gradient of the curve is positive, and
when x is negative the gradient of the curve is negative, and when x is zero,
the gradient of the curve is zero. That is, there is a stationary point at x = 0.
Moreover, since the gradient of the curve changes from negative to positive
as it passes through zero, it follows that there is a minimum point when
x=O.
However, what we need is a mathematical method of telling us whether
the turning point is a maximum or a minimum.
In the case of a curve having a minimum point (see, for example, Figure
12.4), the gradient of the curve increases as the value of x passes through the
turning point, i.e. the gradient changes from a negative value to a positive
value. That is to say
the rate of change of the gradient of the curve is positive at a minimum
point,
or
at a minimum point, d2~ is positive.

dx
Let us take a further look at the curve for y = x 2 In this case
dy = 2x
dx
and
d2y
dx2 =2
Since d 2 yjdx2 is positive, it follows that the curve has a minimum point.
Let us take a look at the curve for the equation y = -x2 , which is plotted
in Figure 12.5. The first derivative of this equation is
dy = -2x
dx
Hence, for negative values of x the gradient is positive, and for positive
values of x the gradient is negative. That is, the curve has a maximum point.
The second derivative of the equation is
d 2y _ d(-2x) _ 2
dx 2 -~--
From this we see that

. . t d2y. ti
at a maximum pom , dx 2 IS nega ve.
Differentiation 247
-4 -2 0 2 4
v
X
\
I \
1/ \
-4
I 1\
I \
1/ \
I 1\
I \
I \
\ y=-x2
\ I
16
Figure 12.5 The graph of y = -x2
Summary
Minimum point Maximum point
Decreasing before Increasing before

y =f(x)
Increasing after Decreasing after
Negative before Positive before

dy
Positive after Negative after
dx (hence decreasing)
(hence increasing)
Jly
Positive Negative
cJx2
Worked Example 12.7 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,

Determine the value of x and y at the turning point of the graph of
y = 6x2 + llx- 10. Show mathematically whether the turning point is
a maximum or a minimum.
Solution
Initially we will make a few comments which are based on the work in
previous chapters. It was shown in Chapter 9, for an expression of the
form y = ax 2 + bx + c = 6x2 + llx- 10 that (1) the graph has a

turning point; (2) since parameter a (= 6) is positive the graph is
concave looking from above i.e., it has a minimum point; (3) since
parameter b (= 11) is positive, the turning point is shifted to the left of
x = 0, i.e., the minimum point occurs when xis negative; and (4) the
value of parameter c (= -10) is equal to the y-intercept of the graph.
Moreover, using the mathematical method of solving the quadratic
equation, we find that the curve cuts the x-axis at x = -2.5 and
x = 0.6667. With this information, the reader is practically in a
position to sketch the shape of the curve.
The first differential of the equation with respect to xis
dy = d(6x2 + llx- 10) = 12x + 11

dx dx
The turning point in the curve occurs when
dy = 0 = l2x + 11
dx
or at
11
X=
12 = -0.917
when the value of y is
y= 6r + Ilx- 10
= 6(-0.917) 2 + 11(-0.917)- 10 = -15.04
Also
Since this value is positive, the graph has a minimum point.
Worked Example 12.8 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,
Determine the turning points of the curve defined by the equation

y = 2x3- 7x- 3. State also which of the turning points is a minimum
and which a maximum.
Solution
We can observe that when x = 0, then

y = 2x3 - 7x- 3 = (2 x 03 ) - (7 x 0) - 3 = -3
Differentiation 249
That is, they-intercept is at y = -3. The first derivative of the equation

is
dy = d(2x 3 - 7x- 3) = 6x 2 _ 7
dx dx
Hence turning points occur when
dy =0= 6x 2 -7
dx
or when
that is
X= y'(7 /6) = 1.08
That is, there is one turning point at x = -1.08 and another at
X= +1.08.
The second derivative of the equation is
d2y = d(6x2- 7) = 12x
dx 2 dx
When x = -1.08, then the value of the second derivative is
12x = 12 x (-1.08) = -12.96. Since d2y j dx 2 is negative at this point,
it follows that the curve has a maximum at x = -1.08.
The value of y at the maximum point is
= 2x3 -7x- 3 = 2(-1.08) 3 -7(-1.08)- 3 = 2.04
y
When x = + 1.08, then the value of the second derivative is

12x = 12 x 1.08 = 12.96. Since d2yjdx 2 is positive at this point, it
follows that the curve has a minimum at x = 1.08.
The value of y at the minimum point is
y = 2x 3 - 7x- 3 = 2(1.08) 3 - 7(1.08)- 3 = -8.04
12.14 Differentiating a function of a function
If y = (x 2 + 3) 5 , we can let z = x 2 + 3, so that this complex function above

reduces to
y = zs
Hence, y is a function of z, and z is a function of x. We therefore say that
y is function of a function of x.
If we differentiate the above expression for y with respect to z, we get

dy = 5z4
dz
and
dz = d(x 2 + 3) = lx
dx dx
It therefore follows that
dy dy dz 4 2 4
dx = dz. dx = 5z x 2x = 5(x + 3) x 2x
= 10x(x2 + 3) 4
The rule
dy dy dz
dx dz.dx
is known as the function of a function rule and applies to all functions of
functions.
Worked Example 12.9 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - . ,

Determine dyjdx for (a) y = (x 3 - 6x + 3) 2 ,
(b)y= (3x4 -4x2 +x-6) 5 .
Solution
(a) In this case we let z = x 3 - 6x + 3, that is y = z2 , hence
dy = 2z
dz
and
dz = 3x2- 6
dx
Therefore
dy = dy. dz = 2z(3x2 - 6)
dx dz dx
= 2(x 3 - 6x + 3)(3x2 - 6)
(b) Here z = 3x4 - 4x 2 + x - 6 and y = z 5 , hence
dy = 5z4
dz
and
dz 3
- = 12x - 8x+ I
dx
Differentiation 251
Therefore
dy = dy. dz = 5z4 (12x 3 - 8x + 1)
dx dz dx
= 5(3x4 - 4x2 + x- 6) 4 (12x3 - 8x + 1)
12.15 Differential of a product

If y = uv, where u and v are both functions of x, then, as x changes to
x +ox, it follows that u changes in value to (u + ou), and v changes in value
to (v + ov), andy becomes (y + oy). That is
y + oy = (u + ou)(v + ov)
= uv + vou + uov + ouov
Subtracting y from the left-hand side of the equation and uv from the right-
hand side maintains equilibrium between the two sides, giving
oy = vou + uov + ouov
and dividing throughout the equation by ox leaves us with
oy ou ov ouov
ox = vox+ u ox+~
In the limit that ox tends to zero the above equation becomes
dy du dv
-=v-+u-
dx dx dx
or
d(uv) du dv
--=v-+u-
dx dx dx
This expression is the differential coefficient of the product uv.
Worked Example 12.10 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - . . . . . ,
Differentiate the following equations with respect to x:

(a) y = x!(x2 + 4x- 2), (b) y = 3x2 /(1 - x).
Solution
(a) In this case we will let u = x! and v = x 2 + 4x- 2, hence

dy du dv
dx=dx+dx
= (x 2 + 4x- 2) x ~xo.S-I +xi x (2x + 4)
2
1
= -x-0 5 (x 2 + 4x- 2) + x 05 (2x + 4)
2
(b) Although this expression contains a quotient (see also section

12.16), we can treat it as a product as follows.
y = 3x2 /(1- x) = 3x2 (1 - x)- 1 = uv
where u = 3x2 and v = (1 - x)- 1 The derivative of u with respect
to xis
du = d(3x2 ) = 6x
dx dx
and, in this case we must treat v as a function of a function. If we
let z = 1 - x, so that v = z- 1 , it follows that
dv=dy.dz=-z- 2 x(- 1)=z-2= 1

dx dz dx (1 - x) 2
Using the derivative product rule
dy du dv
-=v-+u-
dx dx dx
3x2
=((1-x)- 1 x6x)+ 2
(1- x)
- -6x- + 3x2 6x(l - x) + 3x 2

- --'----'-;:.----
- (1 - x) (1 - x) 2 - (1 - x)
2
6x- 6x 2 + 3x2 3x(2- x)

(1 - x) 2 (1 - x) 2
12.16 Differential coefficient of a quotient
Consider the expression

u
y=-
v
where u and v are functions of x. If a change ox in x causes u to change to
(u + ou), and v to change to (v + ov), then
. ., u+ou
y+uy=--
v+ ov
or
oy = u + ou _ Y = u + ou _ ~
v + ov v + ov v
(u + ou)v- u(v + ov) uv + vou- uv- uov vou- uov
(v + ov)v (v+ov)v (v+ov)v
Differentiation 253
Dividing throughout by ox gives

ou ov
oy- v&X-u&X
ox-(v+ov)v
As ox tends to zero, (v + ov) tends to v, so that the denominator term
becomes v2, and the differential coefficient of the quotient u j v is
du dv
dy- vdX-udX
dx - v2
Worked Example 12.11 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,
. t h e d"f""
D etermme . 1 coe ffiICient
1 1erent1a . o f (a ) x2 2+ 3x 1+ 4 , (b) -13x2
-
x+ -x
Solution
(a) In this case u = x 2 + 3x + 4 and v = 2x + 1, hence

du dv
dx = 2x + 3 and dx = 2, therefore
du dv
dy vdx- udx
dx v2
(2x + 1)(2x + 3)- (x2 + 3x + 4) x 2

=
(2x + 1) 2
The reader will find it an interesting exercise to show that the
above expression can be simplified to
dy 2x 2 +2x- 5
dx (2x + 1) 2
(b) In this case we let u = 3x2 and v = (1 - x), and
du dv
dx = 6x and dx = -1, hence
du dv
dy v--u-
dx dx
dx v2
(1- x)6x- 3x2 x (-1)
(1 - x) 2
3x(2- x)
= 2
(1- x)
The reader should compare this with the solution of Worked
Example 12.10(b).
Worked Example 12.12 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - . ,
,-----------
r
load
I
I ___________ J
Practical voltage source
A practical electrical power source can be regarded as an ideal voltage

source of e.m.f. E, in series with an internal resistance R, as shown in
Figure 12.6. If a resistive load, r, is connected to the terminals of the
source, determine the value of r which consumes the maximum power
from the source.
Solution
This is a practical situation that every electronic engineer meets daily

because, when connecting a load to a power source (which may be, for
example, connecting a loudspeaker to an electronic amplifier), he must
decide what the resistance of the load must be if maximum power is to
be extracted from the source.
From Ohm's law, the current in the circuit is
I= E/(R + r)
and the power, P, consumed by the load is
E2 r
P=Pr=------,.
(R + r) 2
In this problem we shall look at the way in which the value of r affects
the power it consumes. Clearly, r can have any value between zero and
infinity.
When r = 0, no voltage is developed across the load (even though the
current is very high), and the power consumed by the load is zero. When
r = oo, no current flows in the load and, once again, no power is
developed in the load. Clearly, in practice, power is developed in the
load, and it is the function of this exercise to determine the condition
for maximum power consumption.
Differentiation 255
1/
I
--~ -r- r-
I
I
I
'
I
I
I
resistance resistance
for Pmax
Figure 12.7 Graph showing the curve for power consumption in a

resistive circuit as the resistance changes in value
A graph showing how the power consumed varies with load

resistance is plotted in Figure 12.7. Most colleges have a laboratory
experiment in which this graph is plotted, and is used to verify the
maximum power transfer theorem, which is taught in all courses in
electrical engineering principles.
It was shown in section 12.12 that a maximum occurs when the
gradient of the dPI dr graph in Figure 12.7 is zero. Writing down the
equation for power once more we get
E 2r u
P- --
- (R+r) 2 - v
where u = E 2r and v = (R + r) 2 In this case we can easily see that
duldr = E2 but, in order to determine dvldr we must write z = (R + r),
and v = z2 . Using the function of a function notation (where R is a
fixed value) we see that
dv dv dz
dr = dz dr = 2z x 1 = 2z = 2(R + r)
From the differential of a quotient rule we get
du dv
dP vdr- udr
dr v2
((R + r) 2 x E2 ) - (E2 r x 2(R + r))

=
(R + r) 4
The power in the load is a maximum when dPI dr = 0, which occurs
when the numerator of the above equation is zero, that is when
(R + r) 2 E 2 = E 2 r x 2(R + r)
or when
R+ r = 2r
hence maximum power is consumed when
r=R
that is to say, the load resistance is equal to the internal resistance of
the source. This is verified by the results in Table 12.2, which lists the
power consumed when the load has resistance values of(a) r = R/2, (b)
r = R and (c) r = 2R. The results are calculated using the equation
P = E 2r/(R + r)
TABLE 12.2 Solution to Worked Example 12.12
Load resistance r= R/2 r=R r=2R

Power consumed 0.2222 /R 0.252 /R 0.2222 /R
The reader will find it of value to plot the curve in the region of r =R
in some detail.
12.17 Standard derivatives

TABLE 12.3 A list of standard derivatives
dy
y
dx
x!' nx!'-1
ax!' an:x:"- 1
sinx COSX
sin ax a cos ax
sin( ax+ b) acos(ax +b)
COSX -sinx
cos ax -asmax
cos( ax+ b) -a sin(ax +b)
ekx kekx
aekx akekx
Inx l/x
In( ax+ b) aj(ax +b)
The subject of differential calculus covers a vast range of topics and, at this
point, a number of equations of importance are listed in Table 12.3, in
which a, b, k and n are constants. Worked Examples 12.13-12.16 illustrate
the use of many of the standard derivatives.
Differentiation 257
Worked Example 12.13 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - . ,
Differentiate the following with respect to x: (a) y = sin 5x, (b).

y = sin 3 x, (c) y = cos 2 4x.
Solution
(a) From Table 12.3 we see that
~x (sin ax)= acosax,

hence
dx = 5cos5x
(b) The expression in this case is a function of a function, and we
write z = sinx, andy= z3 , hence
dy dydz 2 2
dx = dz dx = 3z cosx = 3sm x.cosx
(c) In this case we may write z = cos4x, andy= z2 , so that

dy dy dz
dx = dz dx = 2z ( - 4 sm
4 ) 8
x =- cos 4x. sm4x

Worked Example 12.14 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - . ,
The e.m.f., e, induced in inductor L is given by

di
e=L-
dt
If i = Im sin rot, where Im is the maximum current, and ffi is the angular
frequency of the supply, determine an expression for e.
Solution
Since i = Im sin rot, then

di
dt = lm X (f) COS ffit
or
di
e = L dt = wLim cos rot = X Lim cos rot
where XL = wL is known as the inductive reactance of the inductor, and

has the dimensions of ohms.
Worked Example 12.15 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,
Differentiate the following: (a) y = x 2 sin x, (b) y = 4x3 cos 3x,

(c) y = (6sin2t)/t2
Solution
(a) This is a product term of the type y = uv, where u = x 2 and

v = sin x, hence
dy du dv
-=v-+u-
dx dx dx
= (sin x x 2x) + (x 2 cos x) = 2x sin x + x2 cos x
(b) Again, this is another product term with u = 4x3 and v =cos 3x,
therefore
dx = (cos 3x x 12x2 ) + (4x3 x (-3 sin 3x))

= 12x2 cos 3x- 12x3 sin 3x
= 12x2 (cos3x- xsin3x)
(c) This expression is a quotient term of the type y = ujv, where
u = 6sin2t and v = t2 , hence
du dv
dy vdt- udt
dt v2
(t 2 x (6 x 2cos2t))- (6 sin2t x 2t)
t4
12t2 cos2t- 12tsin2t
t4
1
= ; (tcos2t- sin2t)
t
Worked Example 12.16 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,
Differentiate (a) y = e3x sin2 x, (b) y = lnx/ cos 2 x.
Solution
(a) Here we have a product term y = uv, where u = e3x and v = sin 2 x.
In this case
du = 3e3x
dx
Differentiation 259
We must treat vas a function of a function where z = sinx and

v = z 2 , hence
dv dvdz .
dx = dz dx = 2z x cosx = 2smx.cosx
Therefore
dy du dv
- = v-+u-
dx dx dx
= (sin2 x x 3e 3x) + (e 3x x 2sinx.cosx)
= e3x sinx(3 sinx + 2cosx)
(b) We can write
lnx u
y = cos2 x = v
Once again, v is a function of a function, and the reader should be
able to show that
dv .
dx = - 2 cosx.smx
hence
du dv
dy vdx- udx
dx = v2
(cos 2 x x Ijx) -lnx x (-2cosx.sinx)
cos4 x
= [~cos 2 x + 2lnx.cosx. sinx] /(cos4 x)
12.1 Explain what is meant by a 'function'.
12.2 From first principles, differentiate: (a) y = Sx- 3,
(b) d = 6t4 + t 3 , (c) s = 4t2 - 3t + 6, (d) y = Ijxl.
12.3 Differentiate by inspection (a) y = 4x3 - 6x + I, (b)f(x) = S..jx,
(c) I= 5m4 +6m2 - 3m+ 2, (d) y = 5.6x 22 + sx- 1 - S..jx,
(e) y = 0.6x2.4.
12.4 If
x3 5x2
y= 3 + 2 -6x+4,
determine the number of stationary points on the graph, and

state which is a maximum and which a minimum.
12.5 If y = 4x 3 - 48x 2 + I44x, determine the turning points on the

graph, and calculate the value of x and y at each turning point.
12.6 Plot the graph for y = -x2 + 5x- 7 over the range x = 0 to
x = 5, and determine the gradient of the graph when x has the
value (a) 1.5, (b) 2.5, (c) 3.5. What is the value of y at each of
these points?
Using calculus, show that the graph has one turning point,
and state whether this is a minimum or a maximum point.
12.7 When designing an electrical system, the following equation was
obtained
y = (2x+ I)+ Ij(2x+ I)
Determine the values of x which make y either a maximum or a
minimum.
12.8 Differentiate the following equations with respect to x
(a) y = 4xsinx, (b) y =e-x in x 2 , (c) y = sinx.cosx.
When two quantities are related to one another, so that a change in the
independent variable produces a specific change in the dependent variable,
then the dependent variable is said to be a function of the independent
variable. For example, if A= nr2 , then A is a function of r.
The gradient of a straight-line graph is the tangent of the angle the line
makes with the x-axis.
Differentiation is the process of determining the tangent to a graph at a
point, and
dy
dx
means that the equation has been differentiated once;
d2y
dx 2
is the second differential of the equation to the curve.
The differential coefficient of a sum of functions is the sum of the
individual differential coefficients.
A stationary point on a graph occurs when
dy =0
dx '
and a turning point occurs when the gradient of a graph changes from
positive to negative (or vice-versa). At a maximum point the slope changes
from positive to negative, and at a minimum point the slope changes from
Differentiation 261
negative to positive. The second differential at a minimum point has a

positive value, and at a maximum point it is negative.
If y = cos 2 x, we can write z = cos x, andy = z2 . In this case we describe y
as !t function of a function of x. A function of a function is differentiated
using the following rule.
dy dy dz
dx dz.dx
If y = uv, where u and v are functions of x, then
dy du dv
-=v-+u-
dx dx dx
and if y = ~' then

v
du dv
d v--u-
..!. = dx dx
dx v2
@Integration
13.1 Introduction
Integration is the reverse of differentiation. That is, if we know the derivative

of an equation, integration allows us to obtain the original equation.
Also, integration is a process of summation or adding parts together, and
it allows us to determine the area under a curve or graph. Engineers
frequently need to know the average value and the 'effective' value of a
waveform in an electrical circuit; the process of integration allows us to
calculate it.
A knowledge of the processes involved in integration gives us a sound
grasp of many theoretical principles of electrical and electronic engineering.
understand what is meant by an 'indefinite' integral and the arbitrary
constant of integration,
determine the value of the arbitrary constant of integration,
integrate the sum of differentials,
integrate trigonometrical functions,
determine the value of a definite integral and calculate the area under a
curve,
determine a 'volume of revolution',
compute the mean value and the root-mean-square (r.m.s.) value of an
alternating waveform.
13.2 Indefinite integrals and the arbitrary constant of

integration
If we consider the equation

x4
y=-
4
it follows from Chapter 12 that
dy x4-l 3
-=4X--=X
dx 4
or
dy=x 3 dx
262
Integration 263
It would seem reasonable at this point to suggest that, if we integrated the

above equation, we should be able to predict that y = x4 /4.
However, if we consider the function
x4
y=4+6
then the work in Chapter 12 also tells us that
dy 3
dx =X
Clearly it is not possible, on face value, to commence with the expression

dy = x 3 dx and return to the original equation since we have at least two
possible solutions, namely
x4 x4
y = 4 andy = 4 +6
In fact, there are an infinite number of possible solutions because the
differential coefficient of any constant in the equation is zero!
An integral without any specified limits, such as the examples given
above, is known as an indefinite integral, and its solution must contain an
arbitrary constant of integration in the answer (sometimes known as the
constant of integration or arbitrary constant). We will use letter K for this
constant. Thus the integral of x 3 .dx is
x4
y=-+K
4
where the value of K is determined by inserting known values of x andy into
the above equation.
In electrical and electronic circuits, the 'known conditions' usually occur
at the instant when the circuit is connected to (or is disconnected from) the
supply, and are described as the boundary conditions.
Although integration is simply 'differentiation in reverse', we can use the
list of standard integrals in Table 13 .1, which is based on the list of standard
derivatives (Table 12.3) in Chapter 12. The reader will note that the process
of integration is represented by the elongated 's' symbol, f.
For example, if dy = x 3 .dx, we can use Table 13.1 to say that
y I
= x 3 .dx =
1 x x( 3+1)
3+1
x4
+K = 4 +K
where K is the constant of integration. Also if dy = S.jx.dx then
y I I I sxH+l)
= S.jx.dx = Sx'i.dx = -1- - + K
2+1
10
= -xl.5 +K
3
TABLE 13.1 List of standard integrals

Note: K is the constant of integration.
Function Integral
a ax+K
axn+I
axn - - + K (n # 1)
n+1
1
smax --cosax +K
a
1
sin(ax +b) --cos( ax+ b)+ K
a
1 .
cos ax -smax+K
a
cos( ax+ b) !sin( ax+ b)+ K
a
aef<x C!_ekx +K
k
Inx+K
X
1
-In(ax +b)+ K
ax+b a
and if dy = 45 .dx = 4x- 5 .dx, then

X
4x(-S+i) -1
y = J4x- 5.dx = + K = -x- 4 + K =- + K
-5+1 ~
The reader should note that the integral of xn in the first row of Table 13.1
does not apply when n= -1. We will return to this in section 13.3.
The accuracy of an integration can be tested by differentiating the integral,
which should give the original expression.
(a) Determining the value of the arbitrary constant of

integration
Using two of the above examples, we will determine the value of the
constant of integration for each.
Suppose, in the equation dy = x 3 .dx (corresponding to the equation
4
y =: + K), the boundary conditions are y = 12 when x = 2; to determine
the value of K, we simply insert these values into the equation for y, that is
we insert them in the equation
x4
y=-+K
4
Integration 265
This gives
24 16
12=-+K=-+K=4+K
4 4
hence
K = 12-4 = 8
The complete equation is, therefore
x4
y=-+8
4
Also if, in the equation dy = (4jx 5 ).dx (or y = (-1jx4 ) + K), we know that
y = 0.988 when x = 3, then
1
0.988 =- 34 + K = -0.012 + K
or
K = 0.988 + 0.012 = 1
and the complete equation is
1
y=-x4+1
13.3 Integrating xn when n = -1

If n = -1 in the equation dy = xn .dx, then the integral is
I x- 1 .dx =I~
If we simply apply the rule in the first row of Table 13.1 we would get
xo 1
Ix- 1 .dx
x(-l+l)
= - - - + K = - =- + K = oo + K
-1+1 0 0
Clearly we cannot apply this rule in the case where n = -1. In fact, it is shown
in the seventh row of Table 13.1 that
I~=lnx+K
The reader should carefully note this fact.
When integrating an expression with x in the denominator, the reader
should investigate the possibility that the integral may be logarithmic. If, for
example, we wish to evaluate
I dx
3x+2
we can let Y = 3x + 2, so that ~~ = 3, or dx = dY/3, and we may re-write

the above equation in the form
dY/3 IJdY I I
J -y- =-3 -=-In Y +K= -ln(3x +2) + K
y 3 3
In fact, this is expressed in row eight of Table 13.1 when we say that
dx b = ~In (ax + b)
J ax+ +K
a
Clearly, in cases like these, we make the numerator of the equation equal to
the derivative of the denominator (see examples (g) and (h) in Worked
Example 13.1).
Worked Example 13.1 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,
Integrate the following functions with respect to x: (a) x 2 , (b) Jx,

(c) x-!, (d) 4x 6 , (e) 5x- 213 , (f) 2.5x08, (g) l/(3x + 1), (h) x 2 /(x 3 + 2).
Solution
x(2+l) x3
(a) Jx 2 .dx = 2+ 1+ K = 3 + K
x(0.5+1) xl.5
(b) J Jx.dx = Jx 05 .dx = 1 + 0. 5 + K = U + K
(c) Jx-"i.dx =xH+l)

1 x~
--+K= 1 +K= 2Jx+K
1
1
-2+ 2
4x( +l) 4 6
(d) J4x6 .dx=6+}+K= 1x 7 +K
5x(l- 2/ 3l 5
(e) J5x- 213 .dx = I - 2/3
+ K = - x 113 + K = I5x 113 + K
1/3
2 5x(0.8+1)
(f) J2.5x08 = + K = 1.389xl. 8 + K
0.8 +I
(g) In this case we let Y = 3x + I, or dY/ dx = 3, hence dx = dY/3,
therefore
dx I JdY I I
J 3x + 1 = 3 y = 3 1n Y + K = 3 Jn(3x + I) + K
(h) Here we let Y = x 3 + 2, or dY = 3x2 .dx, therefore x 2 .dx = dY/3,

hence
Integration 267
13.4 Integrating a sum of differentials
The integral of a sum of differential is the sum of the separate integrals; there
is only one constant of integration. This is illustrated in Worked
Example 13.2.
Worked Example 13.2 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,
Integrate the following with respect to x (a) 2x 2 + 3x4,

(b) 1.8x22 - 3x- 02 + 3.
Solution
(a) J(2x2 + 3x4) dx =

2x2+1 3x4+1
2+ 1+4+1+ K
2 3
=-x3 +-x5 +K
3 5
(b) J(1.8x22 - 3x- 2 + 3) dx = 1.8x2.2+1

0
2.2 + 1
3x1-0.2
- - - + 3x +
1-0.2
K
= 0.5625x32 - 3.75x0 8 + 3x + K
13.5 Integration of trigonometrical functions
Using the integrals of trigonometrical functions in Table 13.1, we see that
J3 sin 2e.de = 3 Jsin2e.de = 3(- ~cos 2e) + K

3
= --cos2e+ K
2
The reader will observe that the constant (= 3) can be taken outside the
integral sign without affecting the integration (but variables must not be
taken outside the integral sign).
We can also see that
J5 sin(e + 15) de= 5 Jsin(e + 15) de

= -5 cos(e + 15) + K
and
Jcos(4e- ~)de=
2
~sin(4e- ~) + K
4 2
Worked Example 13.3 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,
Integrate the following expressions: (a) 4 sin 39, (b) 3 sin 29, (c) 2 cos! e,
(d) 5 cos 28- 4 sin 39, (e) 2 cos( 49- n/8), (f) 3 sinG-e).
Solution
(a) I4sin39d8=-~cos38+K
(b) I3 sin 29 de = - ~cos 29 + K
(c) I cos~
2
2
ed e = ~sin !e + K =
2
4 sin !e + K
(d) I(5cos28-4sin39)d8=~sin2e- [-~cos3e] +K

= ~sin 29 + ~cos 39 + K
(e) I2cos(49 -n/8)de = ~sin(4e- n/8) + K
= ~sin(4e- n/8) + K
(f) I3 sinG-e) de=- ~ 1 cosG- e)+ K
= 3 cos G - e) + K
13.6 The definite integral - area under a curve
Consider the graph in Figure 13.1, in which y is a function of x, that is

Y =f(x)
The area ABDEFA under the curve lies somewhere between the areas
ABCDGFA and ABEFA, that is between the area given by (y + oy)ox and
the area yox. We will call this area oA. It follows that
(y + oy)ox > oA > yox
Dividing through the above expression by ox gives
oA
(y + oy) > ox > Y
Integration 269
I I
I
y+Oy
b v
/
/
y E- - 1-
'8
"-- !-- - ......
A ,.
X x+Ox X
Figure 13.1 The area under a graph
As ox tends to zero, y + oy tends to y, and 8A j ox becomes dA / dx. That is

dA
-=y
dx
or
dA = ydx
Clearly the total area under the curve is given by
Such an integration leaves a constant of integration and, to determine the

area under the curve, we need to eliminate the constant of integration. To
find the area under the curve between, say, x = x , and x = xz (where
x 2 > xJ), we need to subtract the value of the integral when x = x 1 from the
value of the integral when x = x 2 . That is
Area A = [value of integral] _ [value of integral]

when x = x 2 when x = x 1
Since the constant of integration, K , has the same value in both cases, it will
vanish from the calculation. The above calculation is written in the form
J
X2
A= ydx
XJ
This is known as the definite integral, the two limiting values or limits being
respectively written at the top of the integral sign (the upper limit) and the
bottom of the integral sign (the lower limit).
y y=x
/
/
6
/
/_
/
/
v
v area
A
1/ I
0 X
6
Figure 13.2 Simple application of integration to determine the area under a

graph between two limits
Consider now the case of the area enclosed under the straight-line graph
in Figure 13.2. The equation of the graph is y = x, and the area under the
graph between x = 0 and x = 6 is given by
Jx=6
xdx= -
[x2] 6
x=O 2 0
We enclose the result of the integration inside square brackets, and place the
upper and lower limits as shown. Next, we replace each x value inside the
brackets by the values given by the limits as follows
[~2 ]: = [~- ~] = 18 square units
This value is easily verified by the fact that

area of triangle=! x base x height
= 1x 6 x 6 = 18 square units
Let us now determine the area under the graph in Figure 13.2 between x = 2
and x = 6 as follows
J: xdx = [x;J: = [~- ;] = 18-2

= 16 square units
The reader will find it an interesting exercise to verify the result.

Integration 271
Worked Example 13.4 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,
Determine the area under the curve y = x 2 + 3 between x = 2 and

x=4.
Solution
y =11+3
y
I
If_
19 -- - -
I
I
/
7
./
3 f-
0 2 4 X
The graph of the curve is drawn in Figure 13.3, and the required area is
area= J:(x + 3)dx = [~ + 3xJ:

2
= [[~ + (3 X 4)]- [2: + (3 X 2)]]
= [33.333 - 8.667] = 24.666 square units
Worked Example 13.5 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - . ,

What is the area
(a) in the first half-cycle, and
(b) in the second half-cycle
of a sine wave whose maximum value is 1.0.
Solution
In this case we choose to plot the sine wave to a base of angle, that is
y =sine
(a) As with many engineering applications of this kind, we use the
angular measure of the radian, so that the first half-cycle is
complete in 1t radians, qence
1.0
/ '\
y = sin9
I \
I \
I \
\
9
1t 121t - -
\ I
I
\ 1/
- 1.0
"' /
area under curve = I sin 9d 9 = [- cos 9] :
= [(-cosn)- (-coso)]
= [-(-1)- (-(1))]
= I + I = 2 square units
(b) In the case of the second half-cycle
area under curve= " sin 9d9 =J 2rt [

-cos 9 "
] 2rr
= [(-cos2n)- (-cosn.)]
= [-(1)- (-(-1))]
= -1 - I = -2 square units
It follows from the above that the total area under the complete
alternating wave is (2 - 2) = 0 square units! An inspection of the
curve in Figure 13.4 shows that each half-cycle has the same area
(but different sign), and the two have the effect of cancelling each
other out so far as the total area is concerned!
Integration 273
Worked Example 13.6 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,
( I + I) dz
Determine the value of (a) J (x 3 + x 2 - x) dx, (b) Jqfp
3
-4 pfq
2
z
Solution
(a) J3 (x3 + x2 - x) dx = [x4 + x3 - x2] 3

-4 4 3 -4
= (20.25 + 9- 9)- (64- 21.33- I6)

= -6.42
(b) Jqfp [1 + ~] dz = [z- ~]qfp

pfq z z pfq
13.7 Volume of revolution
y ~
.1 I l
y::: f(X~I1" '
-r--
I
' I
I
I
I
I 1
I
a b X
I I I
'
' /
Figure 13.5 Volume of revolution
If the shaded area between a and bin Figure 13.5 is rotated through 360, it
produces a volume of rotation or solid of revolution, whose volume is
J: nidx
where y is a function of x.
Worked Example 13.7 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,
Determine an equation for the volume of the cylinder in Figure 13.6.
)J~
,
I \
,
I I
- ,_ o X=L -r - X
Figure 13.6 Volume of a cylinder
Solution
The equation of the line describing the outer edge of the cylinder is
y = R , i.e., y is a constant, and the volume of the cylinder is
V = x=L 1tl dx = 1t JL R 2 dx = 1t [R 2x ] L
Jx=O 0 0
= 1tR2 [xJ: = 1tR (L- 0) = 1tR L

2 2
Worked Example 13.8 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,

Determine an expression for the volume of the sphere of radius R in
Figure 13. 7.
y
I I I
R I I
\ --r--. R2 =X2+y2
/ ""-
\
R_ X
'
-
/
Figure 13.7 Volume of a hemisphere

Integration 275
Solution
The equation of the curve bounding the hemisphere in the x-y plane in
the figure is
R2 = x2 +i or i = R2 - x2
r::
hence
volume of hemisphere = ni dx
= 1t J: (R 2 - x 2 ) dx = 1t [ R 2 x- ~3 [
= 1t [( R 3 -R)3 ) - (0- 0) ] = 32 nR3
That is, the volume of the sphere is
4
volume = 3 nR 3
13.8 Mean value or average value of an alternating waveform
y
I I I
A y=A sine
/
""' '
/
v v ""'
"'
1t "
I I'>/ v
V2n " e
(a) '--- equal area.....- I I

y
B I I I I
-- -- are~
_..........-
/ equal
v !I _.....v
/ /
v e
/
(b) _.....v
1t 2n
Figure 13.8 Examples of alternating waveforms
An alternating waveform is a periodic waveform having equal values both

above and below the x-axis (see Figure 13.8). The mathematical average
value of any waveform is defined as
area under the curve over the complete cycle
'length' of the base
As outlined above (see also Worked Example 13.5), the area under the
positive half-cycle is equal to the area under the negative half-cycle, so that
the total area under the complete cycle is zero. That is, the mathematical
average value is zero.
Engineers have defined another type of average value or mean value,
which is the rectified average value. For our purposes, we can regard this to
be the average value under the positive half-cycle of the wave.
If the equation of the curve is a function of e, then the average value taken
over the positive half-cycle is
area under the curve between e = 0 and e = 1t
average vaIue = - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
1t
Worked Example 13.9 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - . ,

Determine the average value of (a) the sinewave in Figure 13.8(a), (b)
the triangular wave in Figure 13.8(b).
Solution
(a) The equation of the sinewave is y =A sine, where A is the

maximum value of the wave, hence
average value=-1 J!l A sin EldEI =-AJ1l sin EldEI

1t 0 1t 0
= ~ [- cos eJ: = ~ [(- cos 1t) - (- coso) J
A 2A
=-(1- (-1)) =-=0.637A
1t 1t
In practice we are dealing either with a voltage wave of maximum

value VM, or a current wave of maximum value IM, whose average
value is Vav or lav. respectively, so that
Vav = 0.637 VM
lav = 0.637/M
The reader will recall that in Chapter 8 (Worked Example 8.4), the
average value of a sinusoidal voltage of peak value 100 V was
evaluated by approximate (numerical) methods as
mid-ordinate rule= 63.924 V = 0.639VM
Simpson's rule = 63.66 V = 0.6366 V M
and the reader will observe that Simpson's rule gives the more
accurate result.
Integration 277
(b) In the case of the triangular wave in Figure 13.8(b), the gradient
of the curve is B/n, and the equation of the wave between 8 = 0
and 8 = n is y = B8jn, hence
average value=-I Je=rr -B8 d8 = 2B Jrr 8d8

1[ 8=0 1[ 1[ 0
B
2
That is if B = I 0 V, the average value of the triangular wave is

10/2=5V.
13.9 Effective value or root-mean-square (r.m.s.) value of a

wave
The effective value or root-mean-square (r.m.s.) value of an alternating

current or voltage wave is the value which develops the same electrical
power in a resistor as an identical value of direct current. For a current
wave, the r.m.s. value is determined from the expression
r.m.s. current = J[ area under P curve

'length' of base of waveform
]
From the above we see that the effe~tive value of the current wave is given
by the square Root of the Mean value of the sum of the Square values (r.m.s.)
of the wave.
For a sinusoidal current, the equation for the wave is
i=/Msin8
hence the effective current, Ierr, is calculated from
Ieff = J[ rrr
2ln 1M 2 sin 2 8 d8]
The reader should note that we can take current waveform over the complete
cycle because, in the second half-cycle, the negative values of current are
'squared' so that the answer is still a positive value.
It was shown in Chapter 7 that
sin A sin B = ~ [cos(A -B) - cos(A +B)]

If we let A and B have the value 8, then
sin 2 8 = ~ [cos(8- 8) - cos(8 + 8)]

1 1
= 2 [cos 0 - cos 28] = 2[I -cos 28]
Substituting this value into the equation for /err gives
Ierr = y/ [Z1tJ J2rr J~ 2(I- cos2e) de]

J[::
0
= [(27t- ~sin4e)- (0- ~sinO)]]

= J[~2 [(21t- 0)- (0- o)J] = v[ 1~2 ] ~ =
= 0.707!/M
Similarly, it may be shown that for a voltage sinewave the effective value is
Verr = vz
VM
One method of approximate numerical integration for determining the

r.m.s. value of a sinewave is shown in Worked Example 13.10.
Worked Example 13.10 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,

Using a simple numerical method, determine the r.m.s. value of a
voltage sinewave of maximum value V M
Solution
For simplicity, we will use the mid-ordinate rule. The equation of the
wave to be integrated is v = vM sine, so that v2 = vM 2 sin 2 e. A table
of v2 values for mid-ordinates taken at 15 intervals (the first being at
15/2 = 7S) for the first 180 is given in Table 13.2.
TABLE 13.2 Solution to Worked Example 13.10
eo v2 = VM2 sin 2 8
7.5 0.017VM 2
22.5 0.1464VM 2
37.5 0.3706VM 2
52.5 0.6294VM 2
67.5 0.8536VM 2
82.5 0.983VM 2
97.5 0.983VM 2
112.5 0.8536VM 2
127.5 0.6294VM 2
142.5 0.3706VM 2
157.5 0.1464VM 2
172.5 0.017VM 2
sum 5.96VM 2
Integration 279
Since the wave is symmetrical, the sum of the mid-ordinates v2 values

in the second half-cycle is 5.96VM 2, hence the sum of the mid-ordinates
over the complete cycle is 11.92 VM 2 The mean value of the mid-
ordinates of v2 taken over the complete cycle is therefore
1~.92V~2 = 0.4967VM2
24 mtd-ordmates
The r.m.s. value of the wave is therefore
Veer= J(mean value of the v2 graph)
= J(0.4967VM2) = 0.705VM
This should, of course, be compared with the value of 0.7071 VM
obtained by the calculus method.
Worked Example 13.11 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,

Determine the r.m.s. value of the triangular wave in Figure 13.9.
Solution
20V ,/ v
L 1/
,/ ,/ v
1/ ./ I/
0.1s 0.2s
I+-- T----+1

In this case the graph is plotted to a base of time, and the periodic time
of the wave is T = 0.1 s. The gradient of the curve is
maxi~u~ :alue = 20 = 200 V/s

penodtc time 0.1
Hence the equation of the wave between t = 0 and t = 0.1 s is
y = slope x t = 200t
The r.m.s. value of the wave is
= J[o\ f' (200t) 2 dt]
= J[IO f' 4ooooPdt]
= J[4003000 [0.13- 03]] = v'133.33

= 11.55 v
13.1 Integrate the following with respect to x (a) -6x2 + 2x- 3,
(b) (2x + 1)(3x- 2), (c) 1/x4 , (d) (4- 5x) 2 jx2 , (e) J(x 5 ),
(f) (mx+c) 3 , (g) e4x, (h) ex(l-ex) 2 , (i) 6cos 2 x.
13.2 Determine the area bounded by the given equations and the
x-axis, between the given values of x (a) y = x between x = 2
and x = 6, (b) ay = bx between x = 0 and x =a, (c) y = 9- x 2
between x = -3 and x = +3, (d) y = 2Jx between x = 4 and
x = 9, (e) y = 1 + sinx between x = 0 and x = 1t.
13.3 Calculate the volume of revolution when the area under the
given curve is rotated about the x-axis, and between the given
values of x: (a) y = x between x = 2 and x = 4, (b) y = x 2
between x = 0 and x = 5, (c) 2y = x + 4 between x = 0 and
x = 8, (d) xy = 6 between x = 2 and x = 9, (e) y = sinx
between x = 0 and x = 1t.
13.4 Determine the average and r.m.s. value of the waveform in
Figure 13.10.
y
0 0.15 0.25 0.35 0.45

T-----1

Integration 281
13.5 Determine the r.m.s. value of the wave in Figure 13.11.
5v
['\. v 1'\
"' 1"-.
1'\. 1/
/
/ '\
1-1- 0.00~ 1- 0.01 f- L'o.o1s.. - 0.2 t (s)

~ 7
1"- /
-5v
['\. v
13.6 Evaluate the average and effective value of the waveform in

Figure 13.12.
100v
v
1/
I
"\
1\ I
II
'\
~
I \ I \
It 21t 3lt rot
I + - - - one cycle -----+1
Integration is the inverse process to differentiation, i.e., the process of

determining a function from its derivative.
An integral without specified limits is known as an indefinite integral, and
its solution must contain an arbitrary constant of integration. The value of the
constant of integration is obtained by inserting known values (the boundary
conditions) of x andy into the equation.
The integral of a sum of differentials is the sum of the separate integrals.
An integral with specified limiting conditions is known as a definite
integral, the upper limit of integration being written at the top of the integral
sign, and the lower limit being written at the bottom of the integral sign.
The value of a definite integral gives the area under the curve between the
specified limits of integration. When a curve is rotated about the x-axis, it
produces a volume of revolution or solid of revolution, the volume being given

by the expression
J: n/dx
where a and bare the lower and upper limits of integration, respectively, and
y is the expression which defines the curve.
The average value or mean value under a curve is given by
area under the curve
length of the base
An alternating waveform has equal positive and negative areas, so that its
mathematical average value is zero. Engineers define the average value of an
alternating wave as the rectified average value, that is it is the mean value of
the positive half-cycle of the wave, or
average value= 1t1 J"0 f(9) de= T/12 JT/2

0
f(t) dt
where Tis the periodic time of the wave.

The effective value of an alternating wave is the root-mean-square (r.m.s.)
value, and is calculated from
square root of the mean of ]
r.m.s. value = [
l
the square value of the wave
= / [ area under (f (x)) 2 wave

V base of wave
= J[2~ J:" (f(x)) 2

dx]
= J[~ I: (f(t)) 2 dt]

e Transients in electfical circuits
14.1 Introduction
The dictionary defines a transient phenomenon as something which is not
durable, and passes away with time. So it is with electrical circuits which
contain energy storage elements such as inductors and capacitors. When
there is a change in the circuit conditions in these circuits, such as a change
in supply voltage or current, the voltage across and the current in the circuit
elements changes in a predictable fashion, and it is this we investigate here.
It is the purpose of this chapter to show how we can, mathematically,
predict the way in which the current and voltage change in simple resistor-
capacitor and resistor-inductor circuits under transient conditions.
Initially we will see how the differential equations of simple R-C and R-L
are formulated, and how they are solved.
Broadly speaking, an electrical circuit containing only one type of energy
storage element, such as a capacitor or an inductor, is known as a single-
energy circuit or a first-order circuit, and it is these we will study in this
chapter.
A circuit containing both capacitors and inductors is known as a double-
energy circuit or a second-order circuit. These are outside the range of this
book, and the reader should study more advanced books on electrical and
electronic engineering for details of these. Many industrial systems employ
third-, fourth-, fifth-, and higher-order circuits.
The reader who hopes to study electrical and electronic engineering to a
higher level, will find that this chapter gives long-term benefit to their
knowledge.
understand how a differential equation is formulated,
solve a first-order differential equation of the variables separable kind,
write down and solve the differential equation of an R-C circuit both for
capacitor charging and discharging conditions,
sketch and plot graphs for the voltage across the circuit elements and the
current through them in an R-C circuit during the charge and discharge
period,
deal with R-C circuits in which the capacitor has an initial charge,
write down and solve the differential equation for an R-L circuit both
for the rise and decay of current in the circuit,
sketch and plot graphs for an R-L circuit during transient conditions,
283
understand the problems involved in breaking the current in an

inductive circuit,
calculate the time constant, the rise-time, the fall-time and the transient
period of R-C and R-L circuits.
14.2 An introduction to differential equations
A differential equation is an equation containing differential coefficients,

such as
dx = 4x2 + 6
The order of a differential equation is the number of times differentiation
has been carried out. The above equation is a first-order equation; an
equation containing d 2y / dx 2 is a second-order differential equation. The
degree of the equation is the highest power to which the whole derivative is
raised. The above equation is one of the first order and first degree, and the
following is a first-order, second-degree differential equation.
[czr = 6x 2 +7
When solving a differential equation, we initially obtain a general solution

which contains an arbitrary constant of integration (see Chapter 13 for
details) such as
y = 3x2 -x+K
where K is the constant of integration. Providing that we can insert the value
of x andy at a particular point (the boundary conditions), we can determine
the value of the constant K. In most engineering cases, the known boundary
conditions usually occur when the circuit is switched on or switched off, and
are known as the initial conditions in the circuit. Examples of these were
given in Chapter 13.
When the value of the constant of integration has been inserted into the
equation, the resulting solution is known as the particular solution of the
equation.
14.3 Solution of a differential equation whose variables can be

separated
Perhaps the simplest type of differential equation we meet with in electrical

engineering contains two variables, such as voltage and time, which can
physically be separated on either side of the equals sign. This type is known
as the variables separable type, and we will look at its mathematics in this
chapter.
Transients in electrical circuits 285
Mathematically, this type of differential equation is of the form

dy
dx = f(x)f(y)
where f(x) is a function of x, and f(y) is a function of y; in electrical
applications, x may typically be a voltage andy is time. We can rewrite the
equation in the form
dy
f(y) = f(x) dx
Next, we integrate both sides of the equation as follows
J~~~) = J!(x) dx
When each integral is complete we, theoretically, have two constants of
integration (one for each integral). However, in practice, we combine them
into one constant as shown in Worked Example 14.1.
Worked Example 14.1 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - . ,
Solve dx = 4yx 3, given that x = 1 when y = 1.
Solution
We will re-write the equation in the form
dx = 4x 3 dx
Integrating both sides of the equation gives
r; = 4x3 dx
that is
4x3+ 1
lny = 3 + 1 + K = x 4 + K
The reader should note that we only have one constant of integration!
Inserting the specified boundary conditions, namely x = 1 when y = 1,
gives
ln 1 = 14 +K
or
0=1+K
therefore
K=-1
The particular solution of the differential equation is therefore
lny = x4 - I
14.4 Capacitor charge
.t=O( ...__
VR
[ R
Ji
Ei 1 C Vc
Figure 14.1 Capacitor charge
In the circuit in Figure 14.1, the switch is closed when t = 0 and, applying
Kirchhoffs voltage law (KVL) to the circuit gives
E=vR+vc (14.1)
where VR is the voltage across the resistor, and vc is the voltage across the
capacitor.
Now, from electrical circuit theory, we know that the current flowing in
the capacitor is given by i = cd;; and, since this current flows through R,
then vR = iR = RCdvc/dt. Inserting these expressions into the circuit
equation gives
dvc
E = VR + vc = RCdt + vc
Since E and vc have the same dimensions, i.e. voltage, we can collect them
together as follows
dvc
E- vc = RCdt
or
dt dvc
= (14.2)
RC E-ve
What we have done here is to separate the variables. On the right-hand side
of the equation we have
dvc change in voltage
E- vc voltage difference
Since this is a ratio of two voltages, it is dimensionless. Since the parts to the
left and to the right of the equals sign in (14.2) are equal to one another, it
follows that both sides of the equations have the same dimensions, i.e., the
ratio dt / RC must also be dimensionless. This means that the product RC
must have the dimensions of time. For this reason we describe the product RC
as the time constant, 't', of the circuit. Hence we may re-write the equation in
the form
dt dvc
't' E- vc
To solve the equation we simply integrate both sides as follows
J dt=J~
E- vc
't'
(14.3)
If we let z = E- vc, then

dz
- = -1 or dvc = -dz
dvc
Inserting this into (14.3) gives
Integrating both sides of the above equation yields

t
- = -lnz + K =-In(- vc) + K (14.4)
't'
where K is the constant of integration. Equation (14.4) is the general solution

of the differential equation, since it contains the unknown constant of
integration, which we will now calculate.
Assuming that the capacitor is initially discharged (see section 14.5 for the
case where the capacitor is initially charged) when the switch is closed, that
is vc = 0 when t = 0, we can use this condition as the initial condition in eqn.
(14.4) to determine the value of K as follows
0
- = -In(- 0) + K
't'
or
K=lnE
Inserting this value into (14.4) tells us that
~=-In(-
't'
vc) +In= In[--]
E- vc
It will be seen from the work in Chapter 3 on logarithms that if

X= lny, then ex = y
hence the above equation or ~ tells us that
t
el/t =--E-
E- vc
or
E- vc = Eje 11' = Ee- 11'
therefore the voltage across the capacitor at time t is
vc = E- Ee- 11' = E(l- e- 11') (14.5)
It was shown in Chapter 9 on graphs that the mathematical form in (14.5) is
that of an exponentially rising curve, and is plotted in Figure 14.2(a). It was
shown in Chapter 9 that transients of the type described by eqn. (14.5) have
decayed after a period of 5t (= 5RC). We therefore describe the first period
of 5t as the transient period, and the remaining time as the steady-state
period (since the circuit has achieved steady-state operating conditions after
this time).
The initial rate of change of vc can be determined as follows. From the
original circuit equations, it can be seen that the slope of vc at any time is
dvc E- vc
dt RC
The initial slope is determined by putting the initial conditions in the circuit
(that is vc = 0 when t = 0) into the equation as follows
[dtdi] E-0 E
1=0 RC
That is, the slope of the vc curve at t = 0 is E/tV/s. This means that if the
initial rate of rise of vc were maintained, then vc would have a value of E
after the first ts (see the chain-dotted line in Figure 14.2(a)). This allows us
to define the time constant of the circuit as follows.
The time constant of an R-C circuit is equal to the time which would be
taken for the voltage across the capacitor to reach the final voltage if the
initial rate of change of vc were maintained constant.
We will now determine the actual value of vc when t = t; this is done by
inserting t = t into (14.5) as follows
[veL=,= E(l- e- 11') = E(l- e- 1 )
= E(l - 0.368) = 0.632E
This expression allows us to give the following alternative definition of the

time constant of an R-C circuit
The time constant of an R-C circuit is the time taken for the voltage
across C to rise from zero to 63.2 per cent of its final value.
(a) ~initial slope=E/r = EjRC
E l
.I.
I ...............
1-- -
/
Vc = E(1 - e~tf)
I
0.632E
II
I
I I
I
1/f I
0 r 5r time
~<~lEE---- transient period ----i~I...,.E;.-- steady-state - - - _.
~sr period
E
\
1\
0.368E
1\ VR = E- Vc = Ee~tf
........
'
1--
0
(c)
E
fo =R
\
1\
0.368l0
1\ i = VR = !!_ e~tf = foe~tf
R R
N 11111111
"'h.
I I -r-t
0
Figure 14.2 Transients in an R-C circuit during capacitor charge

(a) The voltage across the resistor during charging
From (14.1) we see that

E= VR +vc
or
VR = E- vc = E- E(1- e-l/t) = Ee-l/t
This is the equation which commences at a value of E when t = 0, and falls
exponentially with a time constant of 't. Once again, in such a curve, the
transient period is complete when t = 5't, and thereafter (in the steady-state
period) the voltage across R is practically zero.
It is left as an exercise for the student to complete, to show that the
voltage across the resistor reduces to 36.8 per cent of its original value when
t = 't (see Figure 14.2(b)).
(b) Capacitor charging current
From Ohm's law the current in the circuit is

l =
VR E -1/t =
-=-e T
~oe
-1/t
R R
where / 0 is the charging current when t = 0. The curve for this expression is
shown in Figure 14.2(c), and it falls from an initial value of / 0 with a time
constant of 't; the transient period of the curve is complete in a time of 5't
and, thereafter, the current is practically zero.
As an exercise, readers should show that the current in the circuit falls to
36.8 per cent of its original value when t = 't (see Figure 14.2(c)).
Worked Example 14.2 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,

A 10 J.LF capacitor is connected via a 10 kQ resistor and a switch to a
100 V battery. Write down an expression after the switch is closed for
(a) the voltage across the capacitor, (b) the voltage across the resistor
and (c) the current in the circuit. Calculate the value of (d) vc when
t = 0.2s, (e) VR when t = 0.3s and (f) i when t = 0.4s.
Solution
The time constant of the circuit is

't = RC = (10 X 103) X (10 X 10-6 ) = 0.1 s
This tells us that the transients in the circuit will have decayed when
t=5't=0.5s.
(a) The expression for vc is

vc = E{1- e-tfT) = 100{1- e- 111)
= 100{1 - e- 101 ) V
(b) The expression for vR is
vR = Ee-t/T = 10oe-rfo. 1 = 100e- 101 V
(c) The initial value of the charging current is /o = E/ R

= 100/10 x 103 = 0.01 A, hence the expression fori is
i = loe-tfT = 0.01e-tf01 = 0.01e- 101 A
(d) When t = 0.2s, we have

vc = 100{1 - e- 101 ) = 100{1 - e- 2 )
= 100{1 - 0.135) = 86.47V
(e) When t = 0.3 s, we have
vR = 100e- 101 = 10oe- 3 = 100 x 0.05 = 5V
(f) When t = 0.4 s
i = loe-t/T = 0.01e-0411 = 0.01e- 4
= O.Ql x O.Q18 = 0.18 x 10-3 A or 0.18mA
14.5 Charging a capacitor when it initially stores some charge

In many practical cases, the capacitor in Figure 14.1 may initially be
charged to some voltage before the switch is closed. We need to know the
way in which the circuit responds to the new charging voltage.
The mathematical procedure for the solution of the circuit is the same up
to and including (14.4). The initial charge on the capacitor is accounted for
in the way we calculate the value of the arbitrary constant of integration, K,
in that equation.
Let us suppose that the capacitor is charged to voltage V c at t = 0, the
polarity of V c opposing E. That is vc = + V c when t = 0; inserting this
value into (14.4) gives
0
-=-ln(E- Vc)+K
't
or
K= ln(E- Vc)
It is left as an exercise for the reader to re-insert this in the equation and
show that the capacitor voltage is given by
vc = E- Vce-tfT
We can simplify this expression by letting the ratio Vc/ E have the value k.
This allows the above expression to be written as
Vc= E- kEe-tf'c = E(l - ke-tf~)
If, for example, E = 100 V and the initial charge on the capacitor is
Vc = 50V, then k = 0.5 and
Vc = 100(1 - 0.5e-tf~)
I
~
r- -1oov
Q)
Cl
.!!! v
1/ -
0
~ /
I
I
r- i 7 iti~l ~oltfgr =~oy
I I t
0 0.07 0.14 0.21 0.28 0.35 0.42 0.49 t(s)
I transient period ... I
Figure 14.3 Capacitor charge with an initial charge on the capacitor
A graph for vc for the above equation for 't = 0.1 sis drawn in Figure 14.3,
and it is left as an exercise for the reader to plot the graph in detail to verify
its shape. The reader will note that the time scale has been subdivided into
increments of 0.7't = O.?RC simply for the convenience of sketching the
graph (see Chapter 9 for details).
Since the supply voltage is 100 V, the capacitor voltage rises exponentially
with a time constant of 0.1 s, from the initial capacitor voltage of 50 V to the
final voltage of 100 V. Once again, it takes a time equal to five time
constants to reach its final voltage.
As with any exponential curve, the graph changes by 50 per cent of the
possible change for each 0.7't time interval (= 0.07 s). That is, in the first
0.07s, vc changes from 50V to (50+ [100- 50]/2) = 75V.
14.6 Capacitor discharge
Suppose that the switch in the circuit in Figure 14.4 has been in position A
long enough for the capacitor to become fully charged to E.
When t = 0, we change the switch blade to position B, so that the
capacitor begins to discharge. For the purpose of continuity, we assume that
the current flows in the same direction both during the charge and discharge
of the capacitor. This may seem strange, but it means that there is continuity
Figure 14.4 Capacitor discharge
between the equations for the charge and discharge periods and, equally
importantly, we can easily account for the direction of current later in the
procedure.
When the switch blade is in position B, the e.m.f. E is disconnected from
the circuit, and the only voltage acting in the circuit is the voltage across the
capacitor. Applying Kirchhoffs voltage law to the loop containing Rand C
when the switch blade is in position B, we get
0= VR + Vc
or
VR = -vc
Since the capacitor current is i = Cdvc/dt, then
dvc
VR= iR = RC- = -vc
dt
and since RC = 't, then
dvc
'tdt = -vc
Separating the variables in the equation gives
dt dvc
't vc
Integrating both sides of the equation leaves us with
t
- = -lnvc+K
't
where K is the arbitrary constant of integration. As was stated earlier, the
initial condition in the circuit is vc = E when t = 0. Inserting this in the
above equation gives K = In E, hence
t E
-=-In vc + lnE= ln-
't vc
and taking antilogarithms gives
etft = !!_
vc
294 Mastering Mathematics for Elec(rica/ and Electronic Engineering
or
vc = Ee-t/t
The reader will note that this form of equation is that of an exponential
curve which decays from a maximum value of E (when t = 0) with a time
constant oft (= RC). That is, the vc transient will have decayed to one per
cent of its original value in a time of about 5t. The capacitor voltage decay
curve is shown in Figure 14.5(a).
(a)
Vc
it
E
~
\
in
ch arge r--
r-- \-Vc = Ee-tft
\
I
.36~E
\.
' !'....
0
1. . . . .~
...
- -"'
-
0 t
' St
(b) '
I/~'
/
-0 .368E I'
/ VR = -Ee-tft
1/
I
1/
-E
(c)
IJ -
0
/
/
-
"'""
St
-0.368R /
1/
;= - !:. e-t/t
R
1/
I
- E
R
Figure 14.5 Capacitor discharge curves

(a) Voltage across the resistor during discharge
During the discharge period, Kirchhoffs voltage law tells us for the circuit
that
Vc + VR = 0
or
That is, the graph for VR is a mirror image of the voltage across the capacitor
(see Figure 14.5(b)). Consequently, at the instant the switch blade in Figure
14.4 is changed from A to B, the voltage across the resistor becomes - E, and
it decays exponentially towards zero with a time constant of 't.
(b) Capacitor discharge current

From Ohm's law
where ! 0 is the initial value of the discharge current. The current decays
towards zero with a time constant of ; the shape of the discharge current
curve is given in Figure 14.5(c). The negative sign in front of the equation
tells us that the discharge current flows in the opposite direction to that
shown in Figure 14.4.
Worked Example 14.3 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,
A O.lJlF capacitor is charged to I 0 V, and is discharged through a

100 kn resistor, commencing at t = 0. Determine (a) the time constant
of the circuit, (b) the time taken for the voltage across the capacitor to
fall to 5 V, (c) the voltage across the resistor at the instant the discharge
commences, (d) the voltage across the resistor 20 ms after the
discharge commences and (e) the time taken for the magnitude of
the discharge current to fall to 0.04 rnA.
Solution
(a) The time constant of the R-C circuit is

= RC = (Ioo x 103 ) x (O.I x w- 6 )
= 0.01 s or IOms
(b) Since the capacitor voltage is given by vc = Ee-tl~ then, when

vc = 5V, we have
S = 10e-t/O.ot = 10e-lOOt
or
2_ = e-lOOt
10
transposing gives
elOOt = 100 = 2
50
lOOt= ln2 = 0.6931
hence
t = 0.6931/100 = 0.00693 s or 6.93 ms
(c) When t = 0, the voltage across the resistor is
VR = -Ee-tl~ = -10e0 = -IOV
(d) When t = 20ms = 0.02s, the value of VR is
vR = -Ee- 11~ = -10e-om;o.ot = -loe- 2
= -10 x 0.135 = -1.35V
(e) The discharge current is given by
i = -foe-ti~
where Io is the initial discharge current and is
/0 = E/R = 10/100 x 103 = 0.0001 A or 0.1 rnA
The expression for the magnitude of the discharge current is
i= Ioe-tl~
When the discharge current is 0.04 rnA, the equation becomes

0.04 X 10-3 = 0.1 X 10- 3 X e-t/O.Ol
= 10-4 X e-lOOt
hence
elOOt = 10-4 /0.04 X 10- 3 = 2.5
Taking natural logarithms of both sides of the equation yields
lOOt= ln2.5 = 0.916
giving
t = 0.916/100 = 9.16 x 10- 3 s or 9.16ms.
14.7 The rise of current in an inductive circuit
t=O('
A
Figure 14.6 Rise of current in an inductive circuit
Figure 14.6 shows a typical L-R circuit, in which we close the switch at
t = 0. When the switch is closed, the loop voltage equation is
E = VR + VL
where VR is the voltage across the resistor and VL is the voltage across the
inductor. From basic electrical circuit principles, the reader will know that
the voltage across the inductor is given by
di
VL =L-
dt
where L is the inductance of the inductor, and di/ dt is the rate of change of
current through the inductor. By Ohm's law, the voltage across the resistor
IS
VR = iR
where i is the current in the circuit. It therefore follows that
di
E= VR + VL = iR + L dt
Grouping the 'voltage' terms together gives the expression
. di
E-zR=L-
dt
Since the equation contains di, we will convert the voltage terms into
'current' terms by dividing throughout by R as follows
E . L di
--l=--
R R dt
Next, we rearrange the equation with all the 'current' terms on the right-
hand side of the equation as follows
dt di
L/R r -
-- i
R
Since the right-hand side of the equation is dimensionless (i.e., it is the ratio
of current/current), then the left-hand side of the equation is also
dimensionless. That is, the ratio L/ R has the dimensions of time, and is
the time constant, 't, of the L-R circuit.
In the above equation, we have separated the variables, and we can
integrate both sides as follows.
Jdt-c = J_!!!_
E .
--1
R
that is
~=-ln[~-i]+K ( 14.6)
where K is the arbitrary constant of integration. The method of integrating

the expression on the right-hand side of the equation is carried out in much
the same way as for (14.2) in section 14.4.
To determine the value of constant K, we will insert the initial value of i in
(14.6), namely i = 0 when t = 0, as follows
0=-In[~- 0] + K
or
K = In(E/R)
Reinserting this into (14.6) gives
~=
-c
- In [~ -
R
i] + In~R = In [(E/r)-
E/ R ]
i
From the work on logarithms in Chapter 3, it can be shown that (the reader
should do this as an exercise)
erfr = E/R
(E/R)- i
Cross-multiplying gives
E . E -rfr
R.-l=R.e
or
E E -rfr E [
1. = R.- R.e = R. 1 - e-rfr]
( 14. 7)
where, as will be shown below, I is the final value or steady-state current in

the circuit.
(a)
I= 5_
R
I
' ./
./
~ -
/ i= (1- e- 11')
0.632 I I
/i
I
I I
I
IV I
0 "t 51:
lc transient period ----l~~l..,.c;-- steady-state - - - .._
~5 period
(b)
E ..,....- ~
v
VR = E(1 - e- 11')
0.632E
/I
I I
1/ I
I
l I
1/
0 "t 51:
(C) VL
E
\
1\
".,.
0.368E vL = Ee- 11'
t'.....
-
........
0 "t 51:
Figure 14.7 Curves during the rise of current in an L-R circuit
From Chapter 9 on graphs, the reader will appreciate that (14.7) is that of
an exponential curve which rises from zero to a value of I(= E/ R) with a
time constant of -r (= L/ R); this curve can be quickly and accurately
sketched using the method outlined in Chapter 9.
As with other rising exponential curves, the final value is reached in a time
of about 5-r, and this period of time is known as the transient period.
By the time the circuit transients have settled down, the circuit enters its
steady-state period, when the current and the circuit voltages have reached a
steady value.
The initial rate of change of i can be determined as follows. From the
original circuit equation, it can be seen that
di E- iR
dt L
Putting the initial conditions in the circuit (that is, i = 0 when t = 0) into
this equation gives
[dtdi] t=O
E-0
L
E
L
If we divide both the numerator and the denominator in the above
expression by R we get
E/ R I final current
[di]
dt t=O L/ R t time constant
This allows us to define the time constant of the L-R circuit as follows
The time constant of an L-R circuit is equal to the time which would be
taken for the current in the circuit to reach its final value if the initial rate
of rise of current were maintained.
It is of interest to engineers to determine the value of i when t = t. Inserting
t = t into ( 14. 7) gives
[i]t=t = /(1- e-tft) = /(1- e- 1) = /(1- 0.368)
= 0.632/
This value is shown in Figure 14.7(a), and can be used to provide another
definition of the time constant as follows
The time constant of an L-R circuit is the time taken for the current to
rise from zero to 63.2 per cent of its final value.
(a) The voltage across the resistor

From Ohm's law
E
VR = iR = -(1- e-tft) x R = E(1- e-tft)
R
Once again, this is an expression for a rising exponential curve, having a
final value of E and a time constant oft. That is, it reaches its final value in
a time of about 5t. The corresponding graph is shown in Figure 14. 7(b).
It is left as an exercise for the reader to show that the value of VR is 0.632E
when t = t (see Figure 14.7(b)).
(b) The voltage across the inductor
The original equation for the circuit tells us that

E=vR+vL
or
VL = E- VR = E- E(l - e- 11') = Ee-tl
The reader will note that this equation is that of a curve which falls
exponentially from an initial value of E, with a time constant oft. That is,
the transient has decayed when t = 5t. The graph of VL is shown in Figure
14.7(c).
The reader should test his skills to show that VL has fallen to 0.368 by the
time that t = t (see Figure 14.7(c)).
14.8 The decay of current in an inductive circuit
.------"A ~
B R
Figure 14.8 Decay of current in an L-R circuit
Let us suppose that the contact of the switch in Figure 14.8 has been in
position A long enough for all the transients in the circuit to have died away,
so that the current in the circuit is
lo = E/R
We wish to study what happens in the circuit when, at t = 0, the switch
blade is instantaneously changed from A to B (the word 'instantaneously' is
important, because the contacts of a practical switch cannot change over
instantaneously. More is said about this in section 14.9).
One of the important laws in electrical science is Lenz's law, which states
that an e.m.f. is induced in an inductor whenever the current in the coil
changes; moreover, the e.m.f. acts in a direction to oppose the change in
current. In effect, the law says that if the current is reduced by, say, altering
the supply voltage, then an e.m.f. is induced in the coil which tries to
maintain the current at its original direction.
The net result is that (when the switch blade is changed from A to B) the
current in the circuit begins to reduce, and an e.m.f. is induced in the coil
which tends to maintain the current. That is, changing the position of the
switch blade does not instantaneously cut off the current in the circuit.
For t > 0, the loop voltage equation for Figure 14.8 is
VL + VR = 0
or
di .
L dt + Rz = 0
That is
. di
Rz = -L-
dt
hence
R di
-dt= - -
L i
The left-hand side of the equation can be written in the form
!!. d - _!!__ - dt
L t- L/R- t
Therefore
dt di
=
t
Integrating both sides of the equation gives
J~ =- J~
The result of the integration is
t .
-= -Inz+K (14.8)
t
where K is the arbitrary constant of integration. When the initial condition

of i = E/ R at t = 0 is inserted into (14.8), we get
0 = -1n(E/ R) + K
or
K = In(E/R) =Info
Reinserting the above value of K into (14.8) gives (the reader should verify
this)
( 14.9)
(a) c
~
~
r-5
_I I I I I I 11 I I~
lo
1\ Initial slope= - ~ = - -
\ t L
,,
\ I,
t= 0 e
I j I -1/T
.I\.
0.368/0
\
' t'... -.....~--..
~ -r-
y..__ t~ansient ~5t

period Ill(
5t
steady-state - - - , .
period
(b)
a: I
>
E
\
1\ VR = R; = R/0e- 11< = Ee-l/<
0 .368E
' \. r--..
I
"" ..............
-r-
-
0 t 5t
(c)
.....
/I'
v
-0 .368E - I'
1/
VL =- VR = -Ee-l/<
I
I
-E
IJ
I
Figure 14.9 Curves during the decay of current in an inductive circuit
Equation (14.9) describes an exponentially decaying curve commencing

from / 0 , and decaying with a time constant oft. That is, the transient period
is complete in 5t = 5Lj R.
The initial rate of decay of i can be determined by inserting the initial
condition in the basic equation of the circuit, that is in the equation
di Ri
- -
dt L
Putting the initial condition into this equation gives

E
L
E/R Io
L/R t
The chain-dotted line in Figure 14.9(a) shows this initial rate of decay, and
the reader will see that if this rate of fall were maintained, the current would
become zero when t = t.
The value of i when t = t can be determined by inserting t = t into (14.9)
as follows
[iJr=, = Ioe-tfr = Ioe- 1 = 0.368/o
(a) The voltage across R during the decay of current

From Ohm's law we see that
VR = iR = Ioe-tfr x R = !0 Re-tfr = Ee-tfr
Once again, this is the equation of a decaying exponential curve (see Figure
14.9(b)), which will have completely decayed in a time of about t = 5t. The
voltage across the resistor when t = t is 0.368E (the reader should verify
this).
(b) The voltage across L during the decay of current

From the basic equation of the circuit we see that
VL+VR=O
or
VL = -VR = -Ee-tfr
That is, the curve for VL commences at -E when t = 0, and decays to zero
exponentially in a time of about 5t (see Figure 14.9(c)). The reader should
show that the voltage across the inductor when t = t is -0.368E.
Worked Example 14.4 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,
A voltage pulse of amplitude 5 V and duration 5 ms is applied to a relay

coil of inductance 0.1 H and resistance 100 !1. The relay contacts close
when the current in the coil has risen to 40 rnA, and open when the
current has fallen to 15mA. Determine (a) the time delay before the
contacts close and (b) the length of time the contacts remain closed.
Assume that the current in the coil is initially zero, and that the internal
resistance of the pulse source is zero.
Solution
This question involves both the rise and decay of current in an

inductive circuit. The maximum (steady-state) value that the current
can reach is
I= Ej R = 5/100 = 0.05 A or 50 rnA
50mA
40mA
V'
~
...... - \
/ \
I
1\.
1/ 1\..
15mA
1'-
ll I ......
I r-
I ~t2~
~ t1 )II IE f.1---+--=-)lool
~ 5ms(pulse width)~
The waveform of the current in the coil is shown in Figure 14.10 in

which
t 1 = time delay before the contacts close,
t2 = time delay for the contacts to open after the applied voltage
has been reduced to zero,
t 3 = length of time the contacts remain open
= 5ms- t1 + t2.
The time constant of the circuit is
't=L/R=0.1/100=0.001 or lms
Since it takes 5't = 5 ms for the current to reach its final value, and the
voltage pulse has a duration of 5 ms, a current of 50 rnA flows in the
coil at the end of the voltage pulse.
(a) Determination of t1.
Initially, the current rises exponentially, and the current at t1 is 40mA.

From (14.7) we see that
i = /(1 - e-tt/t)
or
40 X 10-3 =50 X 10-3(1- e-lt/0.001)
It is left as an exercise for the reader to transpose the equation for t,,
giving
t 1 ='tin 5 = 0.001 x 1.609
= 1.609 x w- 3 s or 1.609 ms
(b) Determination of t2.
Equation (14.9) mathematically describes the decay of the current in

the circuit, in which Io = 50 rnA, hence
or
15 X 10-3 =50 X 10-3e-t2/0.001
Solving for t2 (the reader should do this) gives

t2 = 'tln(50/15) = 0.001 x 1.204
= 0.001204 s or 1.204 ms
(c) Determination of t3.
From the expression given earlier for t3, the length of time the contacts
remain closed is
t3 = 5 - t1 + t2 = 5 - 1.609 + 1.204 ~ 4.6 ms
14.9 Breaking the current in an inductive circuit

t=O;-
Vcoil
Figure 14.11 Breaking an inductive circuit

The equation for the voltage across the coil, Vcoi!. in the circuit drawn in full
line in Figure 14.11 is
. di
Vcoit = Rr + L dt
where di/ dt is the rate of change of current in the coil, and L di/ dt is the self-
induced e.m.f. in the coil.
If the switch in the circuit is ideal, it can theoretically cut off the current in
the inductor in zero time! If this is the case then, at the instant the switch is
opened, i = 0 and di/ dt = -oo! Inserting this value into the above equation
gives
Vcoil = (R X 0) +(LX (-oo)) = -ooV
That is, the magnitude of the voltage across the coil at the instant the switch
is opened is infinite. In practice, we cannot reduce the current to zero in zero
time, but the rate of current can be very high and, with it, the voltage
induced in the coil is also very high.
The net result is that we often see arcing at the contact of a switch in an
inductive circuit when it is opened (even in a low-voltage bell circuit; it is for
this reason that gas service engineers never ring a door bell because of the
potential risk of a gas explosion!).
We will now look at one method of reducing the voltage across the coil
(and, therefore, across the switch contacts) to a reasonable level. The
method discussed here (and there are alternative methods) involves
connecting resistor Rd (shown in broken line in Figure 14.11) across the
coil; this resistor is sometimes called a spark quench resistor.
The steady-state current in the coil is
l=E/R
and when the switch is opened at t = 0, the induced e.m.f. in the coil (at the
instant the switch is opened) acts to maintain this value of current flowing in
the coil. When the switch contacts are opened, the path for the current in the
coil is through R and Rd, so that I flows in Rd, and the voltage across the coil
at this time is Vcoil = /Rd.
If, for example, E= IOV and R=20., then I= I0/2=5A. Hence if
Rd = 100 0. them, at the instant the switch is opened
Vcoil = /Rd = 5 X 100 = 500V
which is 50 times greater than E! If Rd = I 0 0., then
Vcoil = /Rd = 5 X 10 = 50V
That is, tr.e value of Rd controls the voltage across the coil at the instant of
opening the switch.
The voltage across the switch contacts when the switch is opened is
( Vcoil +E), which can be considerably greater thanE (the reader should use
basic circuit theory to verify this equation).
14.1 A 10 !!F capacitor is connected to a d.c. source via a 1 Mn
resistor. Determine the time taken for the capacitor to receive 90
per cent of its final charge.
14.2 A 5!!F capacitor is connected to a d.c. supply through a 2 Mn
resistor. If the d.c. source is short-circuited, determine the time
taken for the capacitor to lose (a) 50 per cent, (b) 63.2 per cent
and (c) 95 per cent of its charge.
14.3 How long does it take for the current i in Figure 14.12 to reach
25mA?
soon
14.4 A 75!!F capacitor is connected in series with a 10 kQ resistor to a

100V d.c. supply. Determine (a) the time constant of the circuit,
(b) the initial rate of change of the voltage across the capacitor,
(c) the voltage across the capacitor after a time equal to two time
constants, (d) the initial value of the charging current and (e) the
time taken for the charging current to fall to 25 per cent of its
initial value.
14.5 A 50 !!F capacitor is initially charged to 100 V. If it is suddenly
connected through a 20 kQ resistor to a 150 V supply at t = 0,
determine the voltage across the capacitor when t = 0.75 s.
14.6 A circuit containing a coil of resistance R and inductance L is
connected to a d.c. source, and the current reaches 0.632 of its
final value in 1 s. When the current has reached its final value,
the coil is short-circuited. What is the current in the coil in terms
of the maximum current 2 s after it is short-circuited?
14.7 Plot a graph showing the rise in current in a coil of inductance
10 H and resistance 2 n when it is connected to a 100 V d. c.
source (use a time base of 30 s). What is the current in the coil
7.5 s after it is connected to the d.c. supply?
14.8 A coil of inductance 0.5 H and resistance 20 n is connected to a
200V d.c. supply. Determine the rate of change of current in the
coil (a) at the instant it is connected to the supply and (b) after a
time equal to the time constant of the coil. Calculate also (c) the
steady-state value of the current in the coil.
14.9 A coil of resistance 40 nand inductance 10 His connected in the
circuit in Figure 14.13. The switch blade has been in position A
long enough for all transients to have settled down, when the
switch blade is changed to position B.
(a) If R = 500 n, determine the voltage across the coil at the
instant the switch is changed over and (b) what should be the
value of R if the voltage across the coil is allowed to rise to 200 V
at the instant of switching.
200
120V I
A transient is a phenomenon which passes away with time. A single-energy

circuit or first-order circuit is one containing a single energy-storage element
(such as a capacitor or an inductor).
A differential equation is an equation containing differential coefficients,
and the order of the equation is the number of times differentiation has been
carried out. The degree of the equation is the highest power to which the
highest derivative is raised. For example
d2i di
LC dt 2 + RC dt + i =0
is of the second order and first degree.
There are many types of differential equation, the most common in
electrical circuits being the variables separable type, which is of the form
dy
f(y) = f(x) dx
which is solved by integrating both sides of the equation. This leaves us with
the general solution which includes an arbitrary constant of integration. The
value of this constant is determined by inserting a set of boundary conditions
(which are usually initial conditions in electrical circuits).
The equation for the charge of a capacitor from a d.c. source is (see
Figure 14.1)
E=iR+RCdvc
dt
in which all the terms have been defined earlier. If the capacitor is initially
discharged (i.e. vc = 0 at t = 0), then
vc = E(I - e-t/t)
VR = Ee-t/r
i = Ioe-tf'c
where 't = CR and is the time constant of the circuit, and Io = E/ Rand is the
initial value of the charging current. Also vc has risen to 0.632E when t = -r,
VR has fallen to 0.368E when t = -r, and i has fallen to 0.368/o when t = -r.
The equations for the discharge of a capacitor (see Figure 14.4) are
vc = Ee-t/t
VR = -Ee-t/t
i = -Ioe-t/r
where / 0 = E/ R and is the initial value of the discharge current.

The circuit equation for the rise of current in an inductive circuit when it is
connected to a d.c. source (see Figure 14.6) is
. di
E= zR+L dt
the terms having been defined earlier. If there is no initial current in the
inductor (i.e. i = 0 when t = 0), then
i = 1(1 - e-'1')
VR = E(l - e-t/t)
VL = Ee-tfr
where 't = L/ R, and is the time constant of the L-R circuit, and lis the final
value or steady-state value of the current. Also, when t = -r, i has a value of
0.632/, VR = 0.632E, and VL = 0.368.
The equations for the decay of current in an inductor (see Figure 14.8) are
i = Ioe-t/t
VR = Ee-tft)
VL = -Ee-t/t
where / 0 = E/ R, and is the initial current in the inductor at the time that the
decay of current commences.
@Boolean algebra and logic circuits
15.1 Introduction
It is ironic to think that the foundations of modern electronic logic theory
was laid down by the Rev. George Boole in 1847 before electronics were
even thought of1 He wrote a paper entitled Mathematical Analysis of Logic,
where he showed that algebraic formulae can be used to express logical
relationships. Mathematicians refer to logic theory as set theory, or the
theory of 'sets'.
In this chapter we look at the basis of logic theory, and see how it is
implemented in electronic logic gates, which can be 'opened' or 'closed' by
appropriate combinations of input signals to the gate. This type of theory is
used in the design of control systems for modern industry and commerce.
understand the meaning of positive logic and negative logic,
appreciate the operation of AND, OR and NOT gates, and design basic
logic systems,
manipulate logical (Boolean) equations, and understand the laws of
logic,
design logic circuits using Karnaugh maps, understand the concept of
redundancy in logic circuits, and simplify logic circuits,
understand and apply De Morgan's theorem,
understand what is meant by 'fuzzy' logic.
15.2 Logic signal levels

In the world of logical algebra, every question has a definite answer, so that
every problem provides either a 'yes' or true solution or a 'no' or false
solution.* That is, we are dealing with a binary or two-level system.
Digital electronic circuits operate within specific bands of voltage levels
and, typically, a voltage in the range + 3 V to + 5 V may be a 'true' or logic
'1' signal, and a voltage in the range zero to about + 0.5 V may be a 'false' or
logic '0' signal. The voltage level used depends, of course, on the type of
electronic circuit in use. If the 'true' voltage level is higher (more positive)
than the 'false' voltage level, then we say we are using positive logic. If the
reverse is the case, then we are using negative logic.
* There is a version of logic known as fuzzy logic, in which the answer can be any one of three
types, namely yes, no or maybe. This, of course, is much closer to real life, and is introduced in
section 15.12.
311
15.3 The AND gate

A logic gate is one which a given combination of 'input' signals will open it
to the flow of information, and which another combination will 'close'.
G
I
[a
I
I I
_L
D-
Y I V V
= =
I
output
~
1: 0
f
f=A.B
(a) (b)
Figure 15.1 A simple relay two-input AND gate
One of the simplest forms of electronic gate is the AND gate, a simple
2-input relay AND gate being illustrated in Figure 15.l(a). The gate
comprises two relays, having normally-open contacts which are connected
in series. When either relay coil is energised, we say that a logic '1' signal is
applied to it (this is an 'input' signal), and when it is de-energised we say that
a logic '0' signal is applied to it.
That is, signal A may either be '1' or '0', and signal B may either be '1' or
'0'. Similarly the output,/, from the gate may either be '1' or '0'. Using the
concept of' 1' and '0', we avoid the necessity of referring to specific voltage
levels.
If there are n input signals which may be applied to a gate, there are 2n
possible combinations of these inputs; in the case of a 2-input gate (n = 2),
there are 22 = 4 possible combinations of the inputs, which are as follows
A= 0, B= 0
A= 0, B = 1
A= 1, B = 0
A= 1, B = 1
For each input combination which can be applied to a gate, there is a
specific output, f, from the gate. A table showing all the possible
combinations of input and output signals is known as the truth table of
the gate. For a 2-input AND gate, this is shown in Table 15.1.
TABLE 15.1 Truth table for a two-input AND gate
Inputs Output
A B f=A.B
0 0 0
0 I 0
1 0 0
I 1 1
Boolean algebra and logic circuits 313
In Table 15.1 we list the four combinations of input signals in the 'input'
columns of the table (which, it should be noted, are the first four pure binary
values). Next we look at the circuit to decide what signal should appear in
the 'output' column.
We can see that if any input is energised by a logic '0' signal, the
appropriate relay is de-energised and the relay contact is open. That is, the
output from the gate is '0' if any input signal is '0'; this occurs in the first three
rows of the truth table. Only when A = 1 and B = I are both relays
energised, and both contacts closed, when the output is 'I'.
The truth table of an AND gate (any type of AND gate) may be
summarised as follows
The output from an AND gate is logic '1' when ALL inputs are logic '1',
otherwise the output is '0'.
We can represent the output from the gate in the form
f= A AND B= A.B
The 'dot' (.) symbol is used by engineers to represent the logic AND
operation; mathematicians use the 'set' theory symbol n (the 'cap' symbol),
so that we can say
f=AnB
The AND function is sometimes known as the logical product function, since
it appears from the truth table thatfis the 'product' of the values in the A
and B input columns. However, the reader should be very cautious about
thinking that there is a simple relationship between logical algebra and
conventional mathematical algebra.
Many and varied circuit symbols have been used to represent the AND
gate, the most popular being the 'D' symbol in Figure 15.1(b), with the
input signals entering the 'flat' side of the gate.
15.4 The OR gate
A typical 2-input relay OR gate is shown in Figure 15.2(a), together with its
international symbol in diagram (b). The relay gate comprises two sets of
relay contacts connected in parallel with one another, and the output from
the gate is given by
f=A ORB=A+B
where the 'plus' ( +) symbol is used by engineers as the OR connective.
Mathematicians use the 'cup' (U) symbol for the same purpose, so that
f= A UB.
It is seen that when either relay has a logic 'I' applied to its input, the
associated relay contacts are closed, and the output from the gate is logic' I'.
[!
I
1 (a)
J
(b)
Figure 15.2 A two-input OR gate, (a) a relay logic circuit and (b) its
international symbol
Also, when both relays are energised simultaneously (i.e., both sets of
contacts are closed), the output is logic '1'. Only when both relays are de-
energised (A = 0 and B = 0) is the output logic '0'. The corresponding truth
table for the OR gate is given in Table 15.2. The truth table can be
summarised as follows
The output from an OR gate is logic '1' when ANY input is logic '1',
otherwise the output is logic '0'.
TABLE 15.2 Truth table for a two-input OR gate
Inputs Output
A B f=A+B
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1
Since there are only two inputs to the gate in Figure 15.2 there are, once
again, 22 = 4 possible input signal combinations to the gate (see Table 15.2).
The final combination of inputs are of interest, because we are saying,
logically, that
A+B=l+l=l
which should be read as follows.
'1' OR '1' is equal to '1'
The logical OR function is sometimes described as the logical sum function,
which should not be confused with the arithmetic sum.
15.5 Truth table for a gate with more than two input signals
If a gate has n input signals, there are 2n possible combinations of the input
signals; for example, if n = 3, there are 23 = 8 possible combinations, if
n = 4 there are 24 = 16 possible combinations, etc.
TABLE 15.3 Truth table for three-input AND and OR gates
Inputs Output
A B c AND OR
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 I 0 I
0 I 0 0 I
0 I I 0 I
I 0 0 0 I
I 0 I 0 I
I I 0 0 I
I I I I I
Consider the case of an AND and an OR gate with three inputs. The truth
table for both gates is drawn up in Table 15.3. Initially we write down all the
combinations of the input signals in the INPUT columns; these are the first
23 = 8 combinations in the pure binary numbering system. Next we write
down the output for each gate in the appropriate OUTPUT column.
Since we are dealing with basic gates, we use the rules already laid down
earlier for each gate. Namely, the only '1' in the AND gate output column
occurs when A AND B AND C are all ls, and the only '0' in the OR gate
output column occurs when all three inputs are logic '0'.
The logical equation of an n-input AND gate may therefore be written
f = A.B.C.... L.M.N
and for an n-input OR gate is
f=A+B+C ... L+M+N
15.6 The NOT gate

The circuit of a simple relay NOT gate is shown in Figure 15.3(a), the output
from the gate being taken across the relay contacts. It is important to note
that the NOT gate has only one input signal. The corresponding international
logic symbol is shown in diagram (b); the triangular symbol represents a
non-inverting 'buffer', and the circle represents the NOT function itself.
When A = 0, the relay is de-energised and the contacts are open, so that a
voltage appears between the output terminals, that is f = 1.
When A = 1, the relay is energised, and the output terminals are short-
circuited, and f = 0. The corresponding truth table for the gate is given in
(b)
Truth table
input A output f = A
(a) 0 1
1 0
(c)
Figure 15.3 The NOT gate, (a) relay logic circuit, (b) international symbol
and (c) its truth table
Figure 15.3(c). We see that, for both input signals, the output has the
opposite logic level, that is
/=NOT A =A
The NOT function is symbolised by writing a 'bar' above the variable.
In the circuit in Figure 15.3(a), resistor R simply acts as a current limiting
resistor when the output terminals are short-circuited, which occurs when
A= I.
The NOT function is known as logical inversion or logical negation, which
has no real counterpart in arithmetic.
Worked Example 15.1 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,
Design a logic system for a drink vending machine in which the cost of
a drink is 50 p. The machine accepts either a 50 p coin or a 1 coin, and
must dispense 50 p change from a 'change' coin stack if a 1 coin is
inserted. If the 'change' coin stack is empty, the machine must display a
'USE CORRECT CHANGE ONLY' sign.
Solution
We will design the electronics of the vending machine in a step-by-step

manner and will, initially, consider how a signal is sent to the vending
mechanism when either a 50 p or a 1 coin is inserted.
This part of the circuit is shown in Figure 15.4(a), and uses a simple
2-input OR gate. Input F represents a 50 p piece being inserted, and P
represents a 1 piece being inserted. Putting either coin into the
machine produces a logic '1' at output V, which is used to actuate the
vending mechanism, that is
V=FORP=F+P
s-; f=D
F
V=F+P
signal to vending machine
@~ (a)
t 'Use correct
50p change only'
'change'
stack
@
c[D
v
~ X=P.C
actuating signal to coin 'change'
release mechanism
(c)
E
@~ C=F+P
@ X=P.C
(d)
Figure 15.4 Block diagram for a simple vending machine
Next we look at the way in which the machine monitors the number of
coins in the 'change' stack inside the machi~e. Figure 15.4(b) shows
how a NOT gate monitors the bottom coin in the stack. If a coin is
present (C = 1), the output from the gate is '0' (C = 0) which prevents
the 'USE CORRECT CHANGE ONLY' lamp from being illuminated.
However, if there are no coins in the 'change' stack, then C = 0 and
E = 1, causing the sign to be illuminated.
In Figure 15.4(c) we see one method of actuating the coin 'change'
release mechanism via a 2-input AND gate. Provided that we put a 1
coin into the machine AND there is a 50 p coin in the coin stack, then
output X (= P.C) from the AND gate causes the coin release
mechanism to be activated.
Finally, in Figure 15.4(d) we combine the sections of the circuit. This
diagram is known as a logic block diagram, which shows each gate as a
simple logical block, together with the wires which make up the
interconnections between the gates (but not the power supplies).
Worked Example 15.2 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,
ABCDEFGH I J K
n o o o o
IE IE IE IE .IE IE IE IE IE IE IE 1
'1'
X signal
'0' ~n )o t
Y signal
'1' -
'0' - n(a)
n )o t
G3
G2
(b)
The waveforms at X and Yin Figure 15.5(a) are applied to the logic
circuit in Figure 15.5(b). Deduce the truth table for output Z, and draw
the waveform at output Z. Also write down a logical expression for
output Z, and state what type of gate may be used to replace the
complete circuit.
Solution
Since there are only two inputs (X and Y) to the combination of gates
in the figure, we can check the output corresponding to the 22 = 4
possible input states from the waveforms for X and Y.
TABLE 15.4 Input conditions: Solution to Worked Example 15.2
Input conditions Period when it occurs

X y
0 0 H,J
0 1 B,D,F
1 0 A, E, G, I
1 C,K
For example, during period A we have X= 1 and Y = 0 and, during

period B, X= 0 and Y = 1, etc. Table 15.4 lists when each input
combination occurs, and from this we see that it is only necessary to
look in detail at the combination in the periods A, B, C and H, since all
the events in other periods are duplicated.
We see from the circuit in Figure 15.5(b) that, since signals X and Y
are applied to AND gate G2, its output is X AND Y = X. Y; this signal
together with signal X are simultaneously applied to OR gate G3. The
final output from G3 is therefore
Z= X.YOR X= X.Y+X
TABLE 15.5 Logical combination for Figure 15.5(b): Solution to Worked

Example 15.2
Input Intermediate Output

combinations combinations
X y x X.Y Z=X+X.Y
0 0 I 0 0
0 I 1 1 1
1 0 0 0 1
1 1 0 0 1
Let us use the input combinations in Table 15.4 to decide what the
truth table for the complete circuit looks like, which is given in Table
15.5. To determine what the truth table looks like we must, initially,
invert the state of the X column to give us an X column (column 3 in
Table 15.5), after which we AND this with the Y column (column 2) to
give a X. Y column (column 4). Bearing in mind that a logic '1' can only
appear in the latter column when both X= 1 AND Y = 1, we see that
there is a '1' in the second row of the X. Y column.
Finally, the output from the logic circuit is given by Z =X+ X. Y,
corresponding to column 1 being ORed with column 4 of Table 15.5. In
this case a '1' appears in the Z output column when a' 1' appears either
in the X column OR in the X. Y column. If we compare the input and
output columns of Table 15.5 with that of the 2-input OR gate in Table
15.2, we see that the somewhat complicated circuit in Figure 15.5(b)
can be replaced by a single 2-input OR gate!
This brings us to the concept of redundancy in logic circuits. Using
special techniques (see later in the chapter for some methods), we can
predict whether we can simplify the block diagram to make it more
effective. In this case, the circuit is highly redundant, since two of the
three gates can be eliminated without affecting the operation of the
circuit.
The input signals at X and Yare combined in Figure 15.6 to show
the output waveform at Z.
rn
A B C D E F G H I J K
n n n n n
IE Ill Ill IE Ill IE IE IE IE IE Ill 1
,.. t
n n
inputs
y
I ,.. t
outputs z n n ,.. t
Figure 15.6 Input and output waveforms for the logic circuit in Figure
15.5(b)
15.7 Boolean algebra or the algebra of logic

The Reverend George Boole, an English mathematician, showed how
algebraic formulae can be used to express logical relations and, even now,
we use this method to write down logical equations. In fact, we have already
introduced the basic Boolean concepts of AND, OR and NOT.
There are many laws of logical algebra which are in common with
conventional algebra, and there are others which are significantly different.
We have already highlighted one of these differences in connection with the
OR gate, namely '1' OR 'I' = 'I'. The basic laws of logic are as follows.
Commutative law
A+B=B+A
A.B=B.A
This law states that the result of an operation does not depend on the order
of the elements.
Associative law
(A +B) + C = A + (B + C)
(A.B).C = A.(B.C)
This states that the result of a given combination does not depend on how
pairs of elements are grouped. The reader should note that great care must
be taken when bracketing terms together, otherwise mistakes can easily be
made.
Distributive law
A.(B +C)= A.B + A.C

A+ (B.C) =(A+ B).(A +C)
The first expression gives the sum of products form, and the second the
product of sums.
The second statement of the distributive law does not apply to
conventional algebra, and both statements are best understood from the
use of the Karnaugh map (see section 15.9).
Sum rules
A+O=A
A+ 1 = 1 (a null law)
A+A=A
A+A=I
These rules are explained in section 15.7(a).
Product rules
A.O = 0 (a null law)
A.l =A
A.A =A
A.A. =0
These rules are explained in section 15.7(a).
Absorbtion laws
A+ A.B = A.(l +B)= A.l =A
A.(A +B)= A
A+A.B=A+B
These rules are best understood using the Karnaugh map (see section 15.9).
Double Inversion rule
A=A
This is explained in section 15.7(a).
(a) Explanation of some of the rules of Boolean algebra

The sum rules can be explained by thinking of applying the signals involved
to a two-input OR gate. We must bear in mind that the variable A can either
have the value '1' or '0', so that if we look at the rule A + 0 = A we get,
when A= 1
1+0=1
and when A = 0, we get
0+0=0
That is A+ 0 =A. Using this concept, all the sum rules can be understood.
The product rules can be explained by thinking in terms of applying the
appropriate inputs to a two-input AND gate. Consider for the moment the
rule A.O = 0; if A= I, we get
1 AND 0 = 1.0 = 0
and when A = 0 we get
0 AND 0 = 0.0 = 0
That is A.O = 0. All the product rules can be understood on this basis.
TABLE 15.6 Double inversion rule
0 1 0
1 0 1
The double-inversion rule can be understood from Table 15.6. When the
value of A is '0' then A = 1; if A is applied to the input of a ~econd NOT
gate, then its output is NOT(NOT A) = NOT 1 = 0. That is A = A.
Worked Example 15.3 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,
Logic signals from sensors A, B and C in a security system give an

indication of the presence of an intruder when the following logical
conditions are satisfied
f= A.B.C+A.B.C+A.B.C
The output,[, from the system is logic '1' when an intruder is detected.
Simplify the expression for f
Solution
We see that the term A.B appears in the first and third groups of the
expression, and we group these together as follows
f = A.B.C + A.B.C + A.B.C (commutative law)

= A.B.( C + C) + A.B.C (distributive law)
=A.B. I+ A.B.C (sum rules)
=A.B+A.B.C (product rules)
= A.(B+B.C) (distributive law)
This is only one possible form of the solution. Other possibilities
include the following
!= A.(C+B.C)
and
f= A.(B+ C)
The reader will find it an interesting exercise to verify both of the
alternative solutions.
15.8 De Morgan's theorem

Augustus De Morgan, an English mathematician, proposed the following
useful laws in 1847. He stated that the complement of a logic function is
obtained if we
1. logically invert each term in the expression, and
2. interchange the 'dots' (AND) with the 'plusses' (OR) and vice versa.
For example
A.B.C=A+B+C
and
A + B + C = A.B.C
WorJ,ced Example 15.4 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,
Using De Morgan's theorem, show that (a) A.B.C =A+ B + C,

(b) C.(A +B) = C + A.B
Solution
(a) In this case we apply De Morgan's rules directly as follows

A.B.C = A + B + (; = A+ B + c
(b) If we let (A+ B) = Z, the expression can be written in the form
C.Z = (; + .Z = (; + A + B
Next we apply De Morgan's laws to the second of these

expressions as follows
A+B= A.B = A.B
Therefore
C(A +B) = C + A.B
15.9 Karnaugh maps

John Venn introduced the Venn diagram in 1881 to diagramatically
represent the relationship between logical variables, and comprised a series
of overlapping circles. It was not until 1953 that M. Karnaugh introduced
the more systematic Karnaugh map, which proved to be very useful in the
analysis and design of logic circuits.
Karnaugh maps have the advantage over the conventional logic laws and
theorems described earlier, in that they provide a pictorial method of
representing a Boolean equation. By this method we can quickly and easily
simplify a logical equation, and eliminate redundant terms in the expression.
(a) Karnaugh map for two variables
As mentioned earlier, a 2-variable logic problem has 22 = 4 possible

combinations of the input variables and range from A.ii, through A.B, A.B
to A.B. These can be arranged in a Karnaugh map in planar or flat form as
shown in Figure 15.7(a). The map is divided into four cells, each cell
representing the union or intersection of the two variables.
Initially, the map is divided into two columns representing the two
conditions associated with the variable A, namely that A does not exist, i.e.,
A = 0 or A, and that A does exist, i.e., A = I. Similarly, the map is divided
into two rows representing Band B, respectively. Consequently, the top left-
hand cell in Figure 15.7(a) represents the intersection of A AND B, the cell
to its right represents the intersection of A AND B, etc. The corresponding
intersections are listed in the cells in the Karnaugh map in Figure 15.7(a).
TABLE 15.7 Truth table for/= A.B
Inputs Output
A B f
0 0 0
0 1 1=A.B
1 0 0
1 1 0
A.B A.B 0 0
A.B A.B B 1 0 B
/Y
cell A.B
Figure 15.7 Karnaugh map for two variables
If we wish to represent the truth table in Table 15.7 on a Karnaugh map,

we simply write the value in the output column in Table 15.7 in the
appropriate cell in Figure 15.7(b). That is we write a '1' in the lower left-
hand cell in the Karnaugh map (corresponding to the intersection of A.B,
and Os in the other cells.
If we have a have a more complex statement such as
f=A.B+A.B+A.B
we simply write a '1' in each cell included in the function, and a '0' in the
remaining cell, as shown in Figure 15.8.
B 0
ceiiA.B ~
A A
Figure 15.8 Karnaugh map for f = A .B + A.B + A .B
(b) Karnaugh map for three variables
If a logical problem contains three variables A, B and C, there are 23 = 8

possible combinations of the signals. We can show these on the Karnaugh
map in Figure 15.9(a), in which the map is divided vertically between the
variables A and B, each taking up one-half of the map. The reader will note
that area B overlaps with both A and NOT A, and area A overlaps with
both B and NOT B.
A.B.t A.B.t A.B.t A.B.t

(a)
A.B.C A.B.C A.B.C A.B.C c
A
cell A.B.C B
cell A.B.t cell A.B.C

0
(b)
cell A.B.C
cell A.B.C A
Figure 15.9 Karnaugh map for three variables
It therefore follows that the part which is NOT A also takes up one-half
of the map, and the part which is NOT B also takes up one-half of the map.
Once again, the reader can see that the part which is NOT A overlaps with B
and with NOT B, and the part which is NOT B overlaps with the part that
is A and the part that is NOT A.
The map is also divided up horizontally to give areas which define C and
NOT C. This gives us a map which defines all eight intersections of A, Band
C, ranging from A.B.C through to A.B.C (see Figure 15.9(a)).
Using this type of map we can represent the logical equation
f = A..B.c + A.B.C + A.B.C + A.B.C + A.B.C + A.B.C
as shown in Figure 15.9(b), in which each of the cells on the right-hand side
of the expression contain a '1 ', and the remaining cells contain a '0'.
In fact, it can be shown that the Karnaugh maps in Figures 15.8 and 15.9
are identical because variable C is completely redundant! This is one aspect
of Karnaugh maps which is of particular interest to engineers, because we
can quickly decide if any term in an expression is redundant. We look at this
aspect in section 15.10.
15.10 Simplification of Karnaugh maps
Cells which are adjacent on the Karnaugh map and which contain a logic '1'
can be grouped together to form a logical block. Additionally, the cells must
cell A.B cell A.B 8
8
,--- ---, r- - - - - - I
1 block 0 0
I
~--
- ~ ~~ r- f1 = 8 I 1
I
1 I
I
{
I I
I I
B 0 0 I 1 1 I 0 0
'---
i-""
'----y-----' I
A block f2 =A A
(a) (b)
{ combined block
'3 = B+A
0
(c)
Figure 15.10 Adjacent cells in the Karnaugh map
form a binary grouping, i.e., the cells are in groups of 2 cells, 4 cells, 8 cells,
etc.
Where two cells are adjacent, as shown grouped in broken line in Figure
15.10(a), we can say that the grouped cells represent the logical expression
A.B OR A.B. We can manipulate this using Boolean algebra as follows
!1 = A.B + A.B = B.(A +A) = B.I = B
Boolean algebra shows, after some manipulation, that the two adjacent cells
on the Karnaugh map represent the NOT B, i.e.,/1 = NOT B. However, the
Karnaugh map tells us much more quickly that this is the case because, if we
look at the area on the map which is grouped together (the top half), we can
'see' that the two adjacent cells represent NOT B. This enables us to simplify
the logical expression without the use of Boolean algebra.
In Figure 15.10(b), four adjacent cells are grouped together
! 2 = A.B.C+A.B.C+A.B.C+A.B.C
= A.B.(C +C)+ A.B.(C +C)= A.B. I+ A.B.I
= A.B + A.B = A.(B +B)= A. I= A
The above procedure requires us to make the correct selections from our
logical algebraic knowledge in order to get the correct solution. However,
when we look at the Karnaugh map, we can 'see' that the four adjacent cells
cover the area of the map represented by /2 = A.
The Karnaugh maps we have looked at so far contain cells which are
grouped in binary combinations. The three cells in Figure 15.1 0(c) do not
represent a binary grouping, so that we cannot write down a simple logical
expression which represents the map. However, we can group the cells into
two pairs, having one cell in common to the two groups. Using Boolean
algebra, we can represent the three cells as follows.
/3 = A..B + A.B + A.B = A..B + (A.B + A.B) + A.B
The centre bracketed term A.B = (A.B + A.B) can be seen to be correct
from the 'Sum rules' in section 15.7. It follows that
/3 = (A..B + A.B) + (A.B + A.B)
= B.(A +A) +A.(B+B) = B.1 + A.l = B+ A
Clearly, simplifying the expression by Boolean algebra is not straightfor-
ward, and we will see how to do it from the Karnaugh map below.
When we look at the Karnaugh map in Figure 15.1 0(c), we see that the
two cells grouped horizontally represent B, and the two cells grouped
vertically represent A. That is, the three adjacent cells in Figure 15.10(c)
represent the function
!J=B+A
{ 0
,- -
I
I
I
1
"""
1<11!f--
I
I
I
block X
1--, I I
y I 1 I 1 I
I
-~-' ---
cell X.Y
- I '---r---'
X
Figure 15.11 Karnaugh map, Worked Example 15.2
If we draw the Karnaugh map for the expression Z =X. Y +X (see Worked
Example 15.2), we get the map in Figure 15.11. We can say, by observation,
that
Z=X+Y
which agrees with the solution in the example, thereby reducing the amount
of labour involved in its solution.
When the Karnaugh map for three variables was defined, we quite
arbitrarily decided to position variable A in the right-hand half of the map,
and Bin the centre (see Figure 15.9). There is, in fact, no reason to do this,
and we could reverse their positions.
Figure l5.l2(a) shows the positions of A and B interchanged when
compared with Figure 15.9, and in Figure 15.12(a) we show the group of
A
\
I 1
I
I
--- r---..,
1 I
I
0 0
(a) I
I
I
I
I 1 1 0 0
I
'--- ---
8 B
A
--- 1 - - - f--
I
1 I 0 0 I 1
I I
(b)
I I
1 I 0 0 I 1
---) l---'-
I
Figure 15.12 End-to-end adjacency on a three-variable Karnaugh map
four cells representing the expression!= B. Suppose, in Figure 15.12(b) we

change the relative positions of A and B again, but we still show all the B
cells marked with a '1 '. Since both maps represent the function f = B, it
follows that the cells at the ends of the rows are also adjacent to one another.
That is, we can think of a three-variable Karnaugh map as being a
continuous loop which, arbitrarily, has been cut along a 'seam' and opened
flat for our convenience. Therefore cells containing Is at the end of rows are
adjacent to one another.
--"'
r- - - ---
---
I
I 1 I 1 I 0 1
I I I
I
c{
I
I I
I I
I I
A7
I 1 I
I 1 0 I 1
_"'::.... __ !_ I_J ---
~"pA /_
group B - - - - -
~
Figure 15.13 Cells on the Karnaugh map in Figure 15.9(b) redrawn and
grouped together
Let us repeat the Karnaugh map in Figure I5.9(b) again in Figure I5.I3.
Here we see that two pairs of cells at the end of the Karnaugh map are
adjacent to one another and the total area marked with Is is defined by the
expression
f=A+B
That is, variable Cis completely redundant! This agrees with the comment
in the section I5.9(b).
Worked Example 15.5 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,

Design a minimal logic network which satisfies truth table I5.8. Draw
the corresponding logic block diagram.
TABLE 15.8 Truth table for Worked Example 15.5
Inputs Output Comment

A B c f
0 0 0 0
0 0 I I A.B.C
0 I 0 0
0 I I 0
I 0 0 I A.B.C
I 0 I I A.B.C
I I 0 0
I I I 0
Solution
The truth table for the system shows that it must provide an output of
logic 'I' for three conditions, namely
!= A.B.C+A.B.C+A.B.C
Although it is possible to minimise this by Boolean algebra, it is rather
tricky, and the reader may try many solutions before a minimal
solution is obtained. In fact, the reader should use this example as a
means of getting experience in the solution of a logic network using
Boolean algebra. We will use the Karnaugh map method here.
The Karnaugh map corresponding to Table I5.8 is drawn in Figure
I5.I4, and we see that there are three Is on the map, which can be
grouped into two adjacent pairs of Is, which are enclosed in broken
lines.
One pair, representing the grouping A.B, is at the right-hand end of
the map and the other group, representing B.C, is grouped by the end-
to-end adjacent cells in the bottom row. That is, the truth table is
represented by the equation
f = A.B + B.C = B.(A +C)
8
group A.B
0 0 0
~-~
I 1 I
. .v
I I
I
I
--, !-r
11
-
1 I 0 0 11 ~_I
I ---
--- I
I.
Figure 15.14 Karnaugh map, Solution to Worked Example 15.5
The corresponding logic block diagram is shown in Figure 15.15.
f = B.(A+ C)
Figure 15.15 Logic block diagram, Solution to Worked Example 15.5
15.11 Design of an electronic adding circuit

One of the basic building blocks of electronic circuits is the electronic adder.
The basic circuit described here is the half-adder, first mentioned in section
2.10(a), where we discussed binary addition. If two binary variables, A and
B, are to be added together (without a 'carry' from a previous addition), the
truth table showing the two variables together with the sum and carry
produced by the addition is given in Table 15.9.
TABLE 15.9 Truth table for a half-adder circuit
Inputs Outputs
A B SUM CARRY
0 0 0 0
0 1 1 0
1 0 1 0
1 1 0 1
The truth table shows that there are two input variables (A and B), and
two outputs (SUM and CARRY). Each output can be separately related to
the inputs (it is left as an exercise for the reaaer to verify the relationships),
and are as follows
SUM = A.B + A.B

CARRY=A.B
Fortunately we can combine the circuits for the SUM and CARRY into one
complete logic circuit, as shown in Figure l5.I6.
sum = A.B + A.B
Figure 15.16 Half-adder circuit
The SUM section of the half-adder is also known as a NOT-

EQUIVALENT circuit, because SUM = 1 when
(A = 0 AND B = I) OR (A = I AND B = 0)
that is SUM = I when A IS NOT EQUIVALENT TO B.

The NOT-EQUIVALENT circuit is important in circuits used to
compare two values, such as comparing the length of a manufactured
item with that of a test piece. If the length of the item is equal to the length
of the test piece, the NOT-EQUIVALENT circuit gives an output of logic
'0'; if the two lengths are not equivalent to one another, the circuit gives an
output of logic 'I'. This circuit can be used as a simple ACCEPT OR
REJECT process on a production line.
A full-adder circuit is one having three input signals, namely an addend
signal, and augend signal and a CARRY-IN signal from the previous stage
of addition (see also Chapter 2). It has two outputs, namely a SUM and a
CARRY -OUT. The design of such a circuit is outside the scope of the book,
but will prove to be a worthy project for the reader to solve.
15.12 An introduction to fuzzy logic
As we have already seen, logic circuits require precise information in order

to produce a precise result.
Fuzzy logic or continuous logic is a process by which results can be
obtained from imprecise data. Some of the logic statements involved differ
from the standard Boolean expressions we are used to. Fuzzy logic uses the
standard Boolean expression such as AND and OR, but it also uses such
expressions as IF and THEN (see below).
Since the inputs from practical systems are imprecise, we assign values
such as VERY LOW, LOW, OKAY, HIGH and VERY HIGH. The system
responses are mathematical proportions of the 'normal' output (for
example, it may be a 'per cent' value).
Consider the production of, say, cement in a kiln. To operate the plant we
need measurements of such things as the kiln temperature and oxygen (0 2)
level (these are the input signals). To control the quality of the cement, we
can control the feed rate of the material into the kiln and the amount of fuel
we use. Typical fuzzy logic statements which control the plant may be:
IF temperature OK AND 0 2 OK THEN 0% feed and 0% fuel

IF temperature OK AND 0 2 LOW THEN -3% feed and 0% fuel
IF temperature OK AND 0 2 HIGH THEN + 3% feed and + 3% fuel
IF temperature LOW AND 0 2 HIGH THEN 0% feed and + 6% fuel
Clearly, fuzzy logic provides excellent quality control, but the circuit
designer needs to know a great deal about the precise requirements of the
control system.
15.1 The voltages measured at the inputs and output of a gate are
shown below
Inputs Output
A B f
-2V -2V -2V
6V 6V 6V
6V -2V -2V
-2V 6V -2V
Give the name of the logic function generated if (a) positive

logic is used, (b) negative logic is used.
15.2 Draw up the truth table for a 4-input logic system whose output
is given by f = A.(B + C.D +D). Can the expression be
minimised?
15.3 What Boolean expression represents the data given below?
Inputs Output
A B f
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 0
Draw the corresponding logic block diagram.

15.4 Use truth tables to verify that
+C)
(a) A+ B.C = (A+ B).(A
(b) A.(B+ C+ D)= A.B + A.C + A.D
15.5 Use truth tables to verify the following De Morgan's statements
(a) A.B= A+B
(b) A+B= A.B
15.6 Show that
A.B.C + B.C + B.C = B + A.C
15.7 Prove by means of Boolean algebra
A.C + B + C.B = A+ B + C
15.8 Show that
A.B.(C.(A +B)+ A.B.C) = A.B.C

15.9 Prove that
(B.C + D).(A + B).(A.D) = A.D

15.10 Which term is redundant in the following expression?
f = A.C + A.B + B.C + A.C
15.11 Which of the following is equal to logic '0'?
(a) A+ 1, (b) A.A, (c) A+ A.A, (d) A+ 1,
(e) (A+ B).B.(A + A.B).
15.12 Show that
A.B.C.D + A.B.C + A.C.D + A.C.D + C.D = C.(D +A)
A logic gate is a circuit which may either be opened or closed to the flow of
data by suitable logic input signals. A truth table is a table showing all
combinations of input signals, together with the output signal(s) of a gate or
system. A gate which has n inputs has 2n combinations of the input signals.
Boolean algebra is the algebra oflogic, and obeys the laws given in section
15.7.
An AND gate gives an output of logic '1' only when all inputs to the gate
are logic '1 '. The AND function is represented by a 'dot' (.) or the cap (n)
symbol. That is
f= A.B.C ... M.N= A nBn C .. . MnN
An OR gate gives an output of logic '1' when any input to the gate is logic
'1'. The OR function is represented by a 'plus'(+) or a cup (U) symbol.
That is
f=A +B+C ... M+N=AUBUC ... MUN
The NOT gate logically inverts the input signal, so that if the input is A, then
the output is NOT A. The NOT function is represented by writing a 'bar'
over the function, i.e.,
Boolean algebraic functions can be represented graphically either on a Venn

diagram or on a Karnaugh map the latter being, from an engineering
viewpoint, more systematic.
Logical expressions can be simplified either by Boolean algebra or by a
Karnaugh map.
~Computer solution of electric
~circuits
16.1 Introduction
The teaching of the mathematics of electronic and electrical engineering has
been revolutionised by the use of computer software.
A wide range of software packages exist for the analysis of electrical and
electronic circuits, and the attention of the reader is directed to one of the
most popular, namely SPICE or the Simulation Program with Integrated
Circuit Emphasis, developed at the University of California, Berkeley.
There are many versions of SPICE including PSpice, ALLSPICE,
IS_SPICE, Z/SPICE, etc.; a low-cost version of PSpice available from the
address given in section 16.11 and through many Shareware Magazines and
suppliers. All the problems in the chapter have been checked using this
package.
Although the SPICE package was originally designed to solve integrated
circuit design problems, it is so versatile that it can be used to solve almost
any type of problem ranging from a simple d.c. circuit up to the most
complex research problem.
A range of introductory circuits examples are discussed in this chapter
ranging from d.c. series and parallel circuits, through electronic amplifiers,
transients and a.c. circuits, up to the use of subcircuits (or subroutines).
appreciate the use of a popular programming language such as SPICE,
write programs for the solution of electronic and electrical circuits using
the SPICE language,
use some of the specialist aspects of the SPICE language,
deal with a.c. circuits, basic semiconductor circuits, transient analysis of
circuits, and use subcircuits.
16.2 A simple series circuit

In this first example we will discuss the basic principles of SPICE software
so that, in later examples, we can build on the knowledge gained.
The circuit to be analysed is described using a text editor, which allows the
user to create an input file, using one program line per circuit element. For
example, the following line can be used to describe the circuit position and
the value of a resistor
336
Computer solution of electric circuits 337
RI 2 3 10
which tells us that RI is connected between nodes 2 and 3, and has a value of
I 0 Q. The letter 'R' at the beginning of the line tells SPICE that it is dealing
with a resistor (see also Table 16.3), and it assumes that the value given
(= 10) is in ohms (see Table 16.2 for SPICE multiples). A more detailed
description is given later.
In most cases, the way in which we tell SPICE the resistor is connected
does not matter, because it can usually be connected either way. That is we
could write
RI 3 2 10
However, there are some situations where we need to be specific about the
way in which the resistor is connected into the circuit, but this does not
affect us here.
In the following we will look at a simple series circuit and its input file.
When preparing a circuit for SPICE analysis we must follow certain rules,
which are
I. Draw the circuit diagram, and give it a title name which can be used in
the title line of the input file.
2. Label every element in the circuit. You will use this label every time you
refer to the element.
3. Number every node in the circuit, the reference node or zero-voltage node
MUST be node zero (0); take great care to use the number zero and not
capital 0. You do not have to number the nodes sequentially (although
it is usual to do so), and the nodes can be numbered in any order.
4. Decide what type of analysis is to be performed on the circuit. In some
cases (as in the case of the series circuit) we do not need to specify any
form of analysis. In this case SPICE performs a small signal bias
analysis, which causes it to calculate the d.c. voltage at every node in the
circuit, together with the current flowing into the positive terminal of each
voltage source. The latter may seem a little unusual, bearing in mind that
current usually flows out of the positive terminal of a voltage source,
but there are good reasons for the use of this method.
Next, we write the SPICE file for the circuit as follows
A. Write the title name in the first line (the title line). The purpose of this
line is to give a simple explanation of the purpose of the file; it DOES
NOT CONTAIN ANY PROGRAM DATA, and if you do not want to
enter a title line, then the line must be left blank.
B. Write down a series of element lines, comment lines, blank (empty) lines
and control lines in any order, with the exception that the final line of
the file (see item C below), which is a control line. The purpose of each
type of line is explained in the examples.
C. Terminate the input file with a '.END' line (pronounced 'dot' END);
the '.' before the 'END' is important, and must be included.
,..___
Vam
Figure 16.1 Analysis of a simple series circuit: Worked Example 16.1
TABLE 16.1 SPICE input file for Worked Example 16.1
Worked Example 16.1 - Simple series circuit

*name of source NOTE: THE '*' INDICATES A 'COMMENT' LINE
*I(+) node
*I I (-)node
*I I Ioptional data
*I I I I value
*I I I I I optional data
*I I I I I I
VI 1 0 DC lOOV
*Circuit elements
*resistor name
*I (+)node
*I I (-)node
*I I I value
*I I I optional data
*I I I I
Rl 2 3 2ohms
R2 3 4 10
SPICE suffix
* 'in-line' comment
* I
I I
*R3 4 5 0.008K ; 8 ohms
R4 5 0 20000M ; 20 ohms
*Vam is used as an ammeter

*Source name
*l(+)node
*I I (-)node
*I I I value
*I I I I
Vam l 2 0 ; current flows from (+)node to(-) node
.OPTIONS NOPAGE ; This option limits the amount of paper printed
.END ; END of program

The circuit to be analysed is shown in Figure 16.1, and the associated input
file is in Table 16.1. Each element in the circuit diagram has been labelled
with a 'name', e.g., VI, Rl, R2, etc., its value written down, and the circuit
nodes are numbered. Also, a potential arrow points towards the most
positive node of each voltage source.
The circuit is excited by voltage Vl, which is a lOOV d.c. source connected
between node 1 (the positive pole) and node 0 (the negative pole). Also
shown is a voltage source Vam, whose voltage is zero; the reason for this
source is described below. As mentioned above, node 0 is the reference node,
and the voltage of each node is evaluated with respect to it. From Ohm's
law, we would expect the current in the circuit to be
I= Vl/(Rl + R2 + R3 + R4)
= 100/(2 + 10 + 8 + 20) = 2.5A
and the power consumed to be
p = VI X I= 100 X 2.5 = 250W
The first line of the input file - the title line - is simply
Worked Example 16.1- Simple series circuit
As explained above, this simply states the purpose of the file and is not part
of the circuit description. In effect, it is a special form of comment line.
The next line is left blank simply for the purpose of improving the
presentation of the input file. This is followed by seven comment lines, which
give information about the first element line, which describes the
connections and value of Vl. Each comment line commences with a '*',
and contains information which makes the file more readable; in this case,
each comment line refers to the reason for a section of the element line
describing Vl. An independent voltage source commences with a 'V' and
contains the following data:
V < name > < ( +) node > < (-) node > < DC> <value >
The 'name' is usually a number, i.e., 1, 2, 3, etc., so that we could have Vl,
V2, V3, etc., in our circuit. The '( +) node' and the '(-) node' are the nodes
to which the positive and negative terminals, respectively, of VI are
connected. The 'DC' term is optional information which can either be
provided or omitted (see Vam in Table 16.1 and also below); if it is omitted,
SPICE assumes that it is dealing with a d.c. source. The final item of data in
the line is the value or magnitude of the voltage. In our case we have shown
the dimensions as V. If a unit size is not given, SPICE assumes that it is
dealing with a voltage in volts. That is, Vl could be specified as
VI 0 100
When we need to use a multiplier or scale suffix for any unit, it must be
selected from Table 16.2. If a suffix which is not in Table 16.2 is used,
TABLE 16.2 SPICE scale suffixes
Scale SPICE suffix metric prefix

1012 T tera-
109 G giga-
106 MEG mega-
103 K kilo-
10-3 M milli-
10-6 u micro-
10-9 N nano-
10-12 p pico-
10-1s F femto-
SPICE will ignore it. Thus, when we enter lOOV as the value and dimension
of Vl, SPICE ignores the 'V' suffix in the lOOV. We can, if we wish, describe
Vl as follows
Vl 0 O.lKV
or
Vl 0 O.lK
SPICE accepts the 'K' as representing 103, so that O.lKV is equal to lOOV.
At this point, the reader should carefully note that, in SPICE files, M means
milli- (10- 3) and MEG means mega- (106).
TABLE 16.3 Some important circuit elements
First letter Element

in element line
c capacitor
D diode
E voltage-controlled voltage source
F current-controlled current source
G voltage-controlled current source
H current-controlled voltage source
I independent current source
J junction-gate PET
L inductor
M MOSFET
Q bipolar junction transistor (BJT)
R resistor
v independent voltage source
X subcircuit call
Next we leave a blank line, after which the resistive elements in the circuit
are entered. At this point the reader should refer to the list of element letters
in Table 16.3, which shows some of the more important circuit elements.
The list is not comprehensive, and other letters can be used to describe
various types of magnetically coupled circuits (transformers), transmission
lines, switches and digital devices such as logic gates. Each line used to
define a resistor in the input file for Worked Example 16.1 is written as
follows:
R <(+)node> <(-)node>
Optionally, we can put the dimension of 'ohms' or 'ohm' after the value of
the resistor because, since the letter 'o' does not appear as a SPICE suffix in
Table 16.2, SPICE will ignore it. The input file therefore tells us that R1 is
connected between nodes 2 and 3, and has a value of 2 Q; R2 is connected
between nodes 3 and 4, and has a value of 10 (SPICE assumes a default
dimension of ohms). The value of R3 is 0.008K = 8 (ohm), and R4 has a
value of 20000M = 20000 x I0- 3 = 20 (ohm).
The reader will note that we have included a comment at the end of the
R3 and R4 lines, and this is described as an 'in-line' comment; the comment
is separated from the data in the line by a ';' separator.
SPICE does not have an ammeter as a circuit element (see also Table
16.3), and a simple technique used to overcome this is to insert a zero-
voltage V-source, or a null voltage source, which we call Vam (see Figure
16.1 and Table 16.1). SPICE evaluates the current flowing into the positive
node of this source and will report it; since this is the case, we merely connect
Vam so that the current enters its '+' node; that is the current enters the
first node in the program line listing. Since the current in the circuit flows
from node 1 to node 2, we define Vam as
Vam 2 0
SPICE also allows us to use a number of programming options, and one of

them is the 'NOPAGE' option. This is an option which suppresses 'paging',
and prevents the printer from ejecting a sheet of paper until it is full of data.
This prevents waste of paper, and is used in all input files in this chapter. A
wide range of options is available and, when used, each is included in the
'.OPTIONS' control line.
Finally, the program is terminated with a '.END' line. As mentioned
earlier, the'.' must be included at the beginning of every control line.
When the input file is complete, it is sent to a software analyser (which is
an integral part of the SPICE package), which checks the file for errors; if
none exist, it performs the required analysis and supplies the results. There
are many forms of analysis which can be performed and several are listed
below.
.AC - 'small-signal' a.c. analysis of the circuit (see sections 16.7 and
16.8) .
.DC - determination of the 'd.c.' operating point of the circuit (see
section 16.6) .
.OP - SPICE solves for the d.c. operating point of the circuit.
.TRAN- transient analysis of the circuit (see section 16.9) .
.TF - 'small-signal' d.c. Transfer Function analysis of the circuit (see
section 16.8) .
.TEMP- strictly speaking this is not a form of analysis, and is merely used
to tell SPICE what temperature(s) to simulate (see section 16.5)
In Table 16.1 we have not asked for any of the above analyses to be
performed and, by default, SPICE will perform the small signal bias solution
of the circuit, which calculates the d.c. potential of each node together with
the current flowing into the positive node of each V-source. Any reader
having access to a copy of SPICE should try inserting a '.OP' line into the
file, and see if it makes any difference to the results.
TABLE 16.4 Small signal bias solution: output file for Worked Example 16.1
*** SMALL SIGNAL BIAS SOLUTION TEMPERATURE= 27.000 DEG C

NODE VOLTAGE NODE VOLTAGE NODE VOLTAGE NODE VOLTAGE
1) 100.0000 ( 2) 100.0000 3) 95.0000 4) 70.0000
5) 50.0000
VOLT AGE SOURCE CURRENTS
NAME CURRENT
VI -2.500E + 00
Yam 2.500E+OO
TOTAL POWER DISSIPATION 2.50E+02 WATTS
JOB CONCLUDED
TOTAL JOB TIME 7.96
The relevant part of the output file from the computer is given in Table
16.4. The first line tells us that it has performed the SMALL SIGNAL BIAS
SOLUTION, i.e., the d.c. operating point solution at 27C. This is the
default temperature at which all calculations are performed, but which can
be altered in the manner outlined in section 16.5. The solution includes the
voltage at each node (relative to node 0), and the current entering the positive
node of each voltage source.
The reader will note that a 'negative' current enters the supply source
voltage VI; this is in agreement with common sense because we know that a
'positive' current leaves the terminal of VI. We also see that a 'positive'
current is indicated by the 'ammeter' Vam. This analysis also determines the
d.c. power dissipated by the circuit.
16.3 Analysis of a series-parallel circuit

Vam2
+----
0 OV
Figure 16.2 A simple series-parallel circuit: Worked Example 16.2
TABLE 16.5 Input file for the analysis of a series-parallel circuit
Worked Example 16.2- Simple series-parallel circuit
* Supply source
VI I 0 IOV
*Ammeter I
Varni I 2 OV
.OPTIONS NOPAGE ; The command lines (except .END)

; can be placed at any point.
* Circuit elements
Rl 2 3 20 ; The dimensions are in ohms.
R3 3 5 40 ; The resistors are in any order.
R2 3 4 60
* Other ammeters (in any order)

Vam3 5 0 0 ; The dimensions are in volts.
Vam2 4 0 0
.END
Next, in Worked Example 16.2, we look at the series-parallel circuit in

Figure 16.2, for which the input file is in Table 16.5. The presentation of the
file generally follows that for the series circuit in Table 16.1, but with a few
variations.
Firstly, we have introduced the '.OPTIONS' line at an early point to
illustrate that the position of a control line (except '.END') can be inserted
at any point in the file. We have also inserted SPICE 'ammeters' Vam1,
Vam2 and Vam3 at different points in the file, and resistors R1, R2 and R3
have been introduced in a random fashion. Since no specific analysis has

been requested, SPICE performs the SMALL SIGNAL BIAS SOLUTION,
shown in Table 16.6; the reader can check the results using a calculator.
Since the 'ammeters' are ideal, they have no resistance and have no voltage
drop across them.
TABLE 16.6 Small signal bias solution for Worked Example 16.2
*** SMALL SIGNAL BIAS SOLUTION TEMPERATURE = 27.000 DEG C
I) IO.OOOO 2) IO.OOOO 3) 5.4545 4) 0.0000

5) 0.0000
VOLTAGE SOURCE CURRENTS

NAME CURRENT
VI -2.273E-OI
Varni 2.273E-OI
Vam3 l.364E-OI
Vam2 9.09IE-02
TOTAL POWER DISSIPATION 2.27E + 00 WATTS
16.4 An electrical network

Vam3
~
Vam1~
Figure 16.3 Analysis of an electrical network: Worked Example 16.3

The two-mesh electrical network in Figure 16.3 will be solved by SPICE (as
Worked Example I6.3), and the reader should verify the solution using one
of the methods outlined in Chapter 5.
Each branch contains an e.m.f., a resistor and a SPICE 'ammeter'. At this
stage we do not know the direction of the current in the branches, and it has
been assumed that the current in Varni flows from node 0 to node I, that it
flows from node 4 to node 5 in Vam2, and from node 10 to node 6 in Vam3.
Another point to note is that we have used random numbers for the nodes;
SPICE accepts this quite happily.
TABLE 16.7 Electrical network for Worked Example 16.3: input file
Worked Example 16.3- An electrical network

*Sources
VI 2 I 20V
V2 5 0 25V
V3 IS 6 I8V ; some nodes can be omitted
*Ammeters
Varni 0 I OV ; current is assumed to enter from node 0
Vam2 4 5 OV ; current is assumed to enter from node 4
Vam3 IO 6 OV ; current is assumed to enter from node I 0
*Resistors
R1 2 10 8ohm
R2 10 4 10ohm
R3 18 0 15ohm
.OPTIONS NOPAGE
.END
TABLE 16.8 Electrical network for Worked Example 16.3: output file
* * * SMALL SIGNAL BIAS SOLUTION TEMPERATURE = 27.000 DEG C

( 1) 0.0000 ( 2) 20.0000 ( 4) 25.0000 ( 5) 25.0000
( 6) 13.0290 ( 10) 13.0290 ( 18) 31.0290
NAME CURRENT
Vl -8.714E-Ol
V2 -l.l97E+OO
V3 -2.069E+OO
Varni 8.714E-OI
Vam2 -l.l97E+ 00
Vam3 2.069E+OO
TOTAL POWER DISSIPATION 8.46E+Ol WATTS
The input file is given in Table 16.7, and the appropriate section of the
output file in Table 16.8. From Table 16.8 we see that the current flow in
each branch is as follows
0.8714 A flows in Varni

-l.l97 flows in Vam2
2.069 flows in Vam3
That is, we have correctly chosen the direction of current in Varni and
Vam3, but the direction of flow of current was incorrect in Vam2. Clearly,
the current in Varni and Vam2 flows towards node IO, and the <;urrent in
Vam3 is the sum of the magnitude of Varni and Vam2 as follows
Varni+ Vam2 = 0.8714 + l.l97 = 2.0684
which generally agrees with the value of current predicted for Vam3 by
SPICE. The reader should use these values to verify that the voltage at node
IO (V(IO)) with respect to node 0 is l3.029V (see also Table I6.8).
16.5 The use of '.TNOM' and '.TEMP'

So far, all analyses have assumed that the circuit operates at 2rC; in
practice this does not happen, and the circuit elements can operate at almost
any temperature. Here (as Worked Example I6.4) we consider a resistor
having a resistance of 1000 Q at a temperature of 0C, and having a linear
resistance-temperature coefficient of ex= 0.004 per oc. Using this data,
SPICE will determine its resistance at 20C; clearly, it will then become
possible to solve any circuit, no matter how complex, at any operating
temperature with any resistance-temperature coefficient (or with a mixture
of coefficients).
The circuit is shown in Figure I6.4, and the corresponding input file is in
Table I6.9. The nominal operating temperature is established by the
'.TNOM' option in the '.OPTIONS' line as OC (the 'C' being optional,
Vam
+----
1000!1 at ooc
Figure 16.4 The effect of temperature on resistance: Worked Example 16.4

TABLE 16.9 Worked Example 16.4: input file
Worked Example 16.4- Effect of temperature coefficient of resistance
*Supply
Vl 1 0 lOV
*Ammeter
Vam 1 2 OV
* Nominal temperature = 0 deg. C

I
.OPTIONS NOPAGE TNOM = OC ; 'C' optional
*TEMPerature analysis
*I Analysis at two specified temperatures
*I I I
.TEMP OC 20C ; 'C' is optional
*Resistor specification
* Resistance at TNOM (0 C)
* I Linear coefficient of resistance
* I I
R1 2 0 lOOOohms TC = 0.004
.END
and can be omitted). In the input file we have asked for a '.TEMP' analysis
to be performed, which sets up the temperatures (in oq at which the circuit
is to be analysed. Since '.TNOM' is 0C, it assumes that the value of R1 is
given at this temperature. If '.TNOM' is not included in the '.OPTIONS'
line, SPICE assumes that the nominal temperature is the default value of
27C.
Next, the connecting nodes, the value, and the linear temperature
coefficient of resistance are specified in the Rl element line. The statement
TC = 0.004 in that line tells SPICE that \1. = 0.004 per C. The correspond-
ing section of the output file is given in Table 16.1 0.
Initially, the table shows the SMALL SIGNAL BIAS SOLUTION at ooc
(when R1 = 10000), after which it 'adjusts' the temperature to 20C and
calculates the resistance and current. The reader should verify the accuracy
of these results.
In fact, SPICE can easily deal with a resistance given by the expression
where Ro is the resistance at 0C, \1. is the linear resistance-temperature

coefficient referred to 0C, and ~ is the quadratic resistance-temperature
coefficient.
TABLE 16.10 Worked Example 16.4: output file

I) 10.0000 2) IO.OOOO
NAME CURRENT
VI -l.OOOE-02
Vam l.OOOE-02
TOTAL POWER DISSIPATION l.OOE-OI WATTS
**TEMPERATURE-ADJUSTED VALUES TEMPERATURE= 20.000 DEG C

* * * RESISTORS
NAME VALUE
RI 1.080E + 03

I) 10.0000 2) IO.OOOO
NAME CURRENT
VI -9.259E-03
Vam 9.259E-03
TOTAL POWER DISSIPATION 9.26E-02 WATTS
16.6 The use of '.DC' and '.PRINT'

So far we have not specified either the type of analysis that SPICE should
perform, or the way in which the results should be formatted. We can
specify the way in which the output can be formatted in a '.PRINT' control
line, allowing any of the following to be printed:
1. a node voltage, e.g., V(4) or
2. the voltage between a pair of nodes, e.g., V( 4, 8) or
3. the voltage across a two-terminal device, e.g., V(Rl)
The second of the above lines asks for the voltage of node 4 with respect to
node 8 to be given. Some versions of SPICE, e.g., PSpice, allow us to print
the current flowing through a two-terminal device, e.g., the current in R2 is
given by I(R2).
An essential feature of a SPICE '.PRINT' line is that the type of analysis

must be specified. For example, we may have
.PRINT DC V(2) V(5,7)
or
.PRINT AC V(6) V(8,12)
We will return to '.PRINT' when we discuss a.c. circuits (see sections 16.7
and 16.8).
At this stage, we are dealing with d.c. circuits, and we look here at a
typical '.DC' analysis (Worked Example 16.5). This type of analysis
evaluates the d.c. voltage at the nodes in the circuit for various values of
source voltage. The values of source voltage are specified in the '.DC' line.
This voltage is altered between a starting value and an end value in specified
increments of voltage. Consider the circuit in Figure 16.5, in which we need
to analyse the circuit when V1 has values of 10 V, 15 V and 20 V. The
corresponding input file for the circuit is shown in Table 16.11.
......__
Vam
sn
150
Figure 16.5 The use of '.DC' and '.PRINT': Worked Example 16.5
An interesting point about Table 16.11 is that, although we have specified

V1 as having a value of zero volts, this value is overridden by a value in the
'.DC' line. The latter specifies Vl as having an initial value of 10V, which is
altered in 5 V steps up to 20 V.
In the '.PRINT' line we must specify not only the type of analysis being
performed (which means that we must have a '.DC' or a '.AC' line at some
other point in the file), but also the variables to be printed. In our case we
have specified
PRINT DC I(Vam) V(2,3) V(3)

Worked Example 16.5- Use of '.DC' analysis and '.PRINT' command
*Source
* Value overridden by the '.DC' analysis (see below)
* I
Vl 0 OV
*'.DC' analysis
* I Swept variable name
*I I Start value
*I I I End value
*I I I I Increment
*I I I I I
.DC Vl lOV 20V SV
*Series circuit description

Rl 2 3 Sohm
R2 3 0 l5ohm
*Ammeter
Vam 1 2 ov
*'.PRINT' command
* I Analysis type
*I I Value of variables to be printed
.PRINT DC I(Vam) V(2,3) V(3)
.OPTIONS NOPAGE
.END
that is, we have asked for the current through Vam, i.e., I(Vam), the voltage
of node 2 with respect to node 3, i.e., V(2,3), and the voltage at node 3, i.e.,
V(3). These will be printed in that order for each value of Vl, i.e., 10 V, 15 V
and 20 V. The corresponding section of the output file is given in Table
16.12; the reader should verify these results using a calculator.
* * * DC TRANSFER CURVES TEMPERATURE= 27.000 DEG C
Vl I(Vam) V(2,3) V(3)
l.OOOE+Ol 5.000E-Ol 2.500E+OO 7.500E+OO

l.SOOE+Ol 7.500E-Ol 3.750E+OO 1.125E + 01
2.000E+Ol l.OOOE+OO S.OOOE+OO l.SOOE+Ol
16.7 A '.AC' analysis

In this case (Worked Example 16.6) we investigate the R-L a.c. circuit in
Figure 16.6. The '.AC' analysis not only performs the d.c. SMALL
SIGNAL BIAS SOLUTION of the circuit, but also analyses the circuit at
several specified frequencies (in Hz).
...___
Vam
Figure 16.6 Analysis of an a.c. circuit: Worked Example 16.6
An input file for the circuit is given in Table 16.13, and the reader will
note that we must state in the Vs line that we are dealing with an AC source;
once SPICE knows this fact, it will look for a '.AC' control line.
The inductance of L is given as 30 MH or 30 millihenry; the 'H' is
optional, so that the line may, alternatively, be given as
L 3 0 30M
or as
L 3 0 0.03
In the '.AC' control line, we state that we are taking three LINear frequency
steps from 25Hz to 75Hz (the Hz is optional, and can be omitted). That is,
we will solve the circuit at frequencies at 25Hz, 50 Hz and 75Hz. It is
possible to take other frequency steps than LINear steps, but these are
beyond the scope of this book.
Next, we look at the '.PRINT' control line. Once again, we must specify
the type of analysis being performed, namely an AC analysis, and we must
specify the variables to be PRINTed on the computer screen (and, if needed,
on a printer). For a.c. analysis, PRINTing V or I can be modified with a
suffix as follows
Worked Example 16.6- Use of '.AC' analysis
*Supply source
'AC' must be stated at this point
*
* I
Vs 0 AC 2V
Vam 2 ov ; Vam is a 'SPICE' ammeter
*Circuit elements
R 2 3 lOohms
L 3 0 30MH ; 30 millihenry inductor
*'.AC' analysis
* I LINear frequency sweep
*I I Number of points in the sweep
*I I I Start frequency
*I I I I End frequency
*I I I I I
.AC LIN 3 25Hz 75Hz
*'.PRINT' command
* I Analysis type
*I I Current Magnitude
*I I I Current Phase (deg.)
*I I I I Real part of V(2,3)
*I I I I I Imaginary part of V(2,3)
*I I I I I I
.PRINT AC IM(Vam) IP(Vam) VR(2,3) VI(2,3)
.OPTIONS NOPAGE
.END
VM or IM prints the magnitude of the quantity

VP or IP prints the phase angle (in degrees) of the quantity
VR or IR prints the 'real part' of the quantity
VI or II prints the 'imaginary part' of the quantity
The reader should refer to Chapter 11 for details of complex numbers as
applied to electrical and electronic circuit theory. The following '.PRINT'
line is in the input file
.PRINT AC IM(Vam) IP(Vam) VR(2,3) VI(2,3)
which prints the following results:
IM(Vam) = magnitude of the current in Yam
IP(Vam) = phase angle of the current in Yam
VR(2,3) = 'real part' of the voltage of node 2 with respect to node 3

VI(2,3) = 'imaginary part' of the voltage of node 2 with respect to node 3.
That is, we have asked for the polar form of I(Vam), and the rectangular
form of V(2,3) (see Chapter 11 for a full explanation of these terms).
*** SMALL SIGNAL BIAS SOLUTION TEMPERATURE = 27.000 DEG C
1) 0.0000 2) 0.0000 3) 0.0000

NAME CURRENT
Vs O.OOOE+OO
Vam O.OOOE+OO
TOTAL POWER DISSIPATION O.OOE+OO WATTS
* ** AC ANALYSIS TEMPERATURE= 27.000 DEG C
FREQ IM(Vam) IP(Vam) VR(2,3) VI(2,3)
2.500E+01 1.809E-01 -2.523E+01 1.637E+OO -7.712E-01

5.000E + 01 1.455E-01 -4.330E + 01 1.059E+OO -9.982E-01
7.500E + 01 1.155E-01 -5.473E + 01 6.670E-01 -9.429E-01
The output file is presented in Table 16.14, and the reader will note that,
since Vs is a true alternating wave, the SMALL SIGNAL BIAS
SOLUTION (corresponding to the d.c. conditions in the circuit) gives a
set of zero results. The AC ANALYSIS provides the value of the first four
variables in the '.PRINT' line at frequencies of 25, 50 and 75Hz,
respectively. Let us look at the 50 Hz results, which are as follows. The
current in Vam, expressed in polar complex form, is
I= 0.1455L- 43.3 A
and the voltage of node 2 relative to node 3, expressed in rectangular
complex form is
VR = 1.059-}0.9982 v
The reader will find it an interesting exercise to convert VR into its polar
form (which is 1.455L- 43.3) and, using Ohm's law (I= V j R) show that
the current, I, has the same value as that determined by SPICE.
16.8 Small signal analysis of a common-emitter amplifier
j Vee
i
R load
1 k.Q
Vin
(a)
-
Vam1
-
Vam2
A load
1 kQ
L-----------..J
simplified small signal
equivalent circuit of
(b) transistor Q
Figure 16.7 (a) Simple common-emitter amplifier, (b) its simplified

equivalent circuit: Worked Example 16.7
As Worked Example 16.7, a simple common-emitter transistor amplifier

circuit is shown in Figure 16.7(a). In a practical circuit, the reactance of
capacitors Cl and C2 are sufficiently low that they can be thought of as
representing no impedance to current flow and, for the purpose of analysis,
can be replaced by a short-circuit. Resistor Rb is a 'bias' resistor whose
purpose is to 'bias' the transistor Q to its working point; the value of Rb is
generally very high and, once more, has little effect on simple calculations of
the kind we are doing here.
The transistor itself can be replaced by the simplified 'hybrid parameter'
equivalent circuit enclosed in broken line in Figure 16.7(b). This comprises
the 'h-parameter' input resistance h;e (= 1.5 kO) and the h-parameter
forward current gain parameter hfe (= 150). The current gain parameter is
the ratio of the collector current (/c) to the base current (h), or lc/h. For the
purpose of simple analysis, we may replace the amplifier circuit in Figure
16.7(a) by the simplified equivalent circuit in Figure 16.7(b). The
corresponding input file for the circuit is shown in Table 16.15.
Worked Example 16.7 -Analysis of a common-emitter amplifier
* Input a.c. signal

Vin 1 0 AC IMV ; lmV a.c. input signal
* Input current measurement

Varni 1 2 OV ; current flows from node 1 to node 2
* Transistor specification
Rie 2 0 1.5Kohrn ; transistor parameter hie
* Current-controlled current source

* I ( +) output node
* I I (-) output node
* I I I Controlling current source
* I I I I Current gain
* I I I I I
Fhfe 3 0 Varni 150
* Output current measurement

Vam2 4 3 OV ; load current flows from node 4 to node 3
Rc 3 0 5Kohrn
Rload 4 0 lKohrn ; load resistance
.AC LIN 1KHz 1Khz ; calculate at one frequency only
.PRINT AC IM(Varnl) IM(Vam2) V(l) V(4)

.PRINT AC IP(Varnl) IP(Varn2) VP(l) VP(4)
*Transfer Function analysis

* I Output variable/
* I I Input source
*I I I
.TF V(4) Vin
.OPTIONS NOPAGE
.END
Points to note about this file include the fact that Varni and Vam2 are
used, respectively, to measure the base current and the current in the I kQ
load. The transistor input resistance parameter hie has been replaced by Rie
because SPICE needs an 'R' line in order to accept a resistance value.
Additionally, the transistor current gain parameter hJe has been replaced by
a SPICE controlled source or dependent source, described below.
A controlled source is one in which the output from the source (which
may be a voltage or a current) is controlled by another signal (which may be
a voltage or a current) in some other part of the circuit. SPICE can handle
four types of controlled sources, which are
type 'E' - a voltage-controlled voltage source
type 'F' - a current-controlled current source
type 'G' - a voltage-controlled current source
type 'H' - a current-controlled voltage source
Typical applications of these are

type 'E' -an operational amplifier
type 'F' -a bipolar junction transistor
type 'G' - a field-effect transistor
type 'H' - a separately-excited generator
Since we are dealing with a bipolar junction transistor amplifier, we use a

type 'F' dependent source. When defining this type of source we simply need
to specify the direction in which the current flows through the controlled
source (i.e., the collector current which flows from the collector (node 3) to
the emitter (node 0)), the direction of the controlling current (which is the
base current, and flows into node 2), and the current gain(= I50) between
the controlling current and the controlled current.
A requirement of SPICE is that the controlling current must flow through
an independent voltage source, or a V-source. Since we measure the transistor
base current using Varni, we can use the current in Varni as the controlling
current source. We will define the current-controlled current source in the
input file as Fhfe (see Table I6.I5), because the parameter hfe is the one we
are replacing by the dependent current source.
The '.AC' line is interesting because it says that we are calculating values
at only one frequency between a minimum frequency of I kHz and a
maximum frequency of I kHz; that is, we solve the circuit at 1 kHz.
We use two '.PRINT' lines in the file; the first of these gives the
magnitude of the base current (IM(Vami)) and of the load current
(IM(Vam2)) together with the magnitude of the input voltage (V(l)) and of
the output voltage (V(4)). From these values we can determine the current
gain and voltage gain of the amplifier. The reader will note that V(l) is
equivalent to VM(l), and V(4) is equivalent to VM(4).
The second of the two '.PRINT' lines gives the phase angle not only of the
base current, but also of the load (output) current, the base voltage and the
output voltage. This information will enable us to determine the phase shift
through the amplifier.
Finally, using a '.TF' line, we ask for a Transfer Function analysis. This
type of analysis evaluates the relationship between a specified output and a
specified input. In this case we have specified the output voltage (Y(4)) and
the input voltage (Yin), so that the voltage gain (V(4)/Yin) will be evaluated.
In addition, the '.TF' line also determines the input resistance as 'seen' by
Yin, and the output resistance as 'seen' at the output terminals.
*** SMALL-SIGNAL CHARACTERISTICS
Y(4)/Yin = -8.333E + 01
INPUT RESISTANCE AT Yin = 1.500E + 03
OUTPUT RESISTANCE AT Y(4) = 8.333E+02
*** AC ANALYSIS TEMPERATURE= 27.000 DEG C
FREQ IM(Yaml) IM(Vam2) Y(l) Y(4)
l.OOOE + 03 6.667E-07 8.333E-05 l.OOOE-03 8.333E-02
*** AC ANALYSIS TEMPERATURE= 27.000 DEG C
FREQ IP(Vaml) IP(Vam2) YP(l) YP(4)
l.OOOE+03 O.OOOE+OO O.OOOE+OO O.OOOE+OO 1.800E+02
The relevant results are given in Table 16.16, and it is left as an exercise
for the reader to verify them using conventional circuit theory. From the
'.TF' analysis (see SMALL SIGNAL CHARACTERISTICS), the voltage
gain is given as -83.33, that is it has a magnitude of 83.33, and the output
voltage is phase inverted when compared with Yin. We can see that this
agrees with the '.AC' analysis because
Y(l) =Yin= 0.001 Y and Y(4) = 0.0833Y
so that the magnitude of the voltage gain is
voltage gain= 0.08333/0.001 = 83.33
Also the phase shift involved is
YP(l) = oo and YP(4) = 180
so that the phase shift through the amplifier is 180, hence the overall voltage
gain is
83.33L180 = -83.33
Moreover, we see that the base current is
Ib = I(Vaml) = 0.6667J.1A at an angle (/P(Vaml)) ofOo
and the output current is
l1oad = I(Vam2) = 83.33 J.lA at an angle (IP(Vam2)) of 0
That is, the base current and the collector current are in phase with one
another, and the current gain between the base current and the load current
is
l1oad IM(Vam2) 83.33 x w-6 ~ 125
Ib IM(Vaml) 6.667 X I0- 7
16.9 Transients and '.PLOT'
(a)
Q)
~
15 ~
>
o.av
I I
7s 13s time
,-/ I
delay.J Pulse width= 6s
Pulse period = 13s

(b)
Figure 16.8 (a) An R-L series circuit, (b) the pulse applied to the circuit:
Worked Example 16.8
Using SPICE we can determine the transient analysis of circuits using

special types of excitation signal (Worked Example 16.8). We consider here
the use of a PULSE signal, which applies a repetitive pulse to a circuit. The
circuit we shall be analysing is shown in Figure 16.8 (a), and the signal
applied to it is shown in Figure 16.8(b).
We are using an R-L circuit with R = I Q and L = I H, so that the time
constant of the circuit is 't = L/ R = 1/1 = 1 s; we must therefore expect the
transients to have died away in 5't = 5 s. The input file for the circuit is
shown in Table 16.17.
Worked Example 16.8 -Transient analysis of an R-L circuit

*The R-L circuit has a time constant of L/R = 1 H/1 ohm = 1 s,
* i.e., the transients will have decayed in about 5 s.
*Name of source
*I Type of signal
*I I Initial value
*I I I Pulsed value
*I I I I Time delay
*I I I I I Rise time
*I I I I I I Fall time
*I I I I I I I Pulse width
*I I I I I I I I Period
*I I I I I I I I I
Vs 0 PULSE(OV 0.8V 0.999s IUs IUs 6s 13s)
*Circuit description
Vam 1 2 OV; ammeter
R 2 3 lohm
L 3 0 lH
*TRANsient analysis
*I Step time
*I I End of TRANsient analysis
*I I I
.TRAN O.Ss 13s
* Type of result to be printed
* I Results to be PRINTed
* I I I I
.PRINT TRAN V(3) I(Vam) V(2,3)
*'.PLOT' command
*.PLOT TRAN V(3) I(Vam)
.OPTIONS NOPAGE
.END
In this case SPICE produces a table of values not only for the voltage
across the inductor (V(3)), but also the current in the circuit (I(Vam)), and
the voltage across the resistor (V(2,3}), together with a 'text-type' PLOT or
graph of the voltage across the inductor and the current in the circuit (we
will explain the meaning of 'text-type' a little later).
Since we are dealing with transients in the circuit, we need to specify the
applied voltage as a time-varying voltage which, in our case, is a PULSE
voltage. The PULSE used here has the waveform in Figure 16.8(b), and is
described as Vs in Table 16.17. The first two values in the Vs line are the
nodes between which Vs is connected (positive first), then we tell SPICE that
we are applying a PULSE wave between the terminals. The definition of the
PULSE is given within the brackets as follows.
The 'Initial value' is the value of the pulse at t = 0; this is zero volts. The
'Pulsed value' is the maximum value the pulse reaches, which is 0.8 V. The
'Time delay' at which the pulsed value is applied is 0.999 s (say 1 s) - see
Figure 16.8(b). The wave must be a 'practical' rather than a 'theoretical'
wave, and it takes a finite time for the applied voltage to change from zero
to 0.8 V (and back again some time later); the 'Rise time' is the time taken
for the wave to reach 0.8 V, and is 1 ~s. The 'Fall time' of 1 ~s is the time
taken for the wave to fall from 0.8 V to zero. The 'Pulse width' is the time
during which the pulsed value remains at 0.8 V, and the 'Period' of the pulse
is the repetition period between the start of one pulse and the start of the
next pulse.
The time delay of about 1 s has been introduced so that we can 'see' the
effect of applying the pulse to the circuit. Clearly, it takes another 5t for
transients associated with the rise in voltage to have decayed, i.e., in a time
of 1 s + 5 s = 6s, and another 5t for the transients to have decayed when the
voltage is reduced to zero, i.e., by a time of 6 s + 5t = 6 s + 5 s = 11 s.
To perform a TRANSient analysis on the circuit, we must include a
'.TRAN' line in the input file, and in this line we must give the 'Step time' or
increments at which the transient results are PRINTed or PLOTted, and the
'End of TRANsient analysis' or the total time needed to look at the transient
results. We have specified a step time of0.5 sand an overall calculation time
of 13 s. Since we have given a PULSE delay time of 1 s, the transient
calculations at t = 0 and t = 0.5 s will give zero results.
In the '.PRINT' line we must first tell SPICE that the results are from a
TRANsient analysis and, after this, we say that the results for V(3), I(Vam)
and V(2, 3) are required. The results of the computation are given in Table
16.18 and, as an exercise, the reader should check a selection of these using
his calculator.
Next we look at the '.PLOT' line in the input file. This is generally similar
to a '.PRINT' line in that we must specify the type of analysis used to derive
the results, followed by a list of results to be PLOTted. The 'graph' is
PLOTted on a printer in the form of a series of'*' or '+' characters. The
advantage of this form of output is that any printer can be used to PLOT the
results, but has the disadvantage that the graph is relatively crude, and the
TABLE 16.18 Worked Example 16.8: ouput file
* * * TRANSIENT ANALYSIS TEMPERATURE= 27.000 DEG C
TIME V(3) I(Vam) V(2,3)
O.OOOE+OO O.OOOE+OO O.OOOE+OO O.OOOE+OO

S.OOOE-01 O.OOOE+OO O.OOOE+OO O.OOOE+OO
l.OOOE+OO 7.992E-Ol 8.142E-04 8.142E-04
1.500E+00 4.879E-01 3.121E-Ol 3.121E-Ol
2.000E+00 2.949E-01 5.051E-Ol 5.051E-Ol
2.500E+00 1.781E-Ol 6.219E-Ol 6.219E-Ol
3.000E+00 1.076E-Ol 6.924E-01 6.924E-Ol
3.500E+00 6.494E-02 7.351E-01 7.351E-Ol
4.000E+00 3.919E-02 7.608E-Ol 7.608E-Ol
4.500E+00 2.364E-02 7.764E-Ol 7.764E-Ol
5.000E+00 1.425E-02 7.857E-01 7.857E-Ol
5.500E+00 8.593E-03 7.914E-Ol 7.914E-Ol
6.000E+00 5.198E-03 7.948E-Ol 7.948E-Ol
6.500E+00 3.147E-03 7.969E-Ol 7.969E-Ol
7.000E+00 -7.973E-Ol 7.973E-Ol 7.973E-Ol
7.500E+00 -4.867E-Ol 4.867E-01 4.867E-Ol
8.000E+00 -2.942E-Ol 2.942E-Ol 2.942E-Ol
8.500E+00 -1.777E-01 1.777E-Ol 1.777E-Ol
9.000E+00 -1.073E-Ol 1.073E-Ol 1.073E-Ol
9.500E+00 -6.479E-02 6.479E-02 6.479E-02
l.OOOE+Ol -3.910E-02 3.910E-02 3.910E-02
1.050E+01 -2.358E-02 2.358E-02 2.358E-02
l.lOOE+Ol -1.422E-02 1.422E-02 1.422E-02
1.150E+01 -8.573E-03 8.573E-03 8.573E-03
1.200E+01 -5.186E-03 5.186E-03 5.186E-03
1.250E+01 -3.140E-03 3.140E-03 3.140E-03
1.300E+Ol -1.890E-03 1.890E-03 1.890E-03
points may not lie on a smooth curve. The results of the '.PLOT' line are
displayed in Table 16.19. The voltage across the inductor (V(3)) is plotted by
a series of'*' characters, and the current in the circuit (I(Vam)) is plotted
using a series of ' + ' characters; the scaling of the graphs is selected
automatically by SPICE.
The two columns of results to the left of Table 16.19 are, firstly, a series of
time intervals of 0.5 s and, secondly, the value of the first named variable in
the '.PLOT' line (V(3)) at that time (see also Table 16.18).
An alternative and better method of plotting the results is to use a plotter
or printer which can be used in a graphics mode. PSpice has an optional
graphics post-processor called PROBE, which enables the system to be used
as a software oscilloscope. The 'graphs' in Table 16.19 are plotted using
PROBE on a 24-pin dot matrix printer in Figure 16.9, and the improvement
in quality is quite marked.
TABLE 16.19 Worked Example 16.8: results of the '.PLOT' line
* * * TRANSIENT ANALYSIS TEMPERATURE= 27.000 DEG C
LEGEND:
*: V(3)
+: I(Vam)
TIME V(3)
(*)---------- -l.OOOOE+OO -S.OOOOE-01 O.OOOOE+OO S.OOOOE-01 l.OOOOE+OO
( +) - - - - - - - - - - O.OOOOE+OO 2.0000E-01 4.0000E-01 6.0000E-01 S.OOOOE-01
O.OOOE+OO O.OOOE+OO + *
S.OOOE-01 O.OOOE+OO + *
l.OOOE+OO 7.992E-01 +
1.500E+OO 4.879E-01 +
*
*
2.000E+OO 2.949E-01 +*
2.500E+00 1.781E-01 * +
3.000E+00 1.076E-01 * +
3.500E+00 6.494E-02 . * +
4.000E+00 3.919E-02 * + .
4.500E+00 2.364E-02 * + .
5.000E+00 1.425E-02 * +
5.500E+00 8.593E-03 * +
6.000E+00 5.198E-03 * +
6.500E+00 3.147E-03 * +
7.000E+OO -7.973E-01
-4.867E-01
*
7.500E+OO * +
8.000E+OO -2.942E-01 *+
8.500E+OO -1.777E-01 +. *
9.000E+OO -1.073E-01 + *
9.500E+OO -6.479E-02 + *
l.OOOE+01 -3.910E-02 + *.
1.050E+01 -2.358E-02 .+ *
1.100E+01 -1.422E-02 .+ *
1.150E+01 -8.573E-03 .+ *
1.200E+01 -5.186E-03 + *
1.250E+01 -3.140E-03 + *
1.300E+01 -1.890E-03 + *
16.10 The use of subcircuits
Many circuits are made from 'building blocks', such as operational

amplifiers, logic gates, etc., which can be connected together without us
having to know too much about the way in which the elements are built. In
fact, SPICE packages have a comprehensive library of subcircuits which we
can draw on. In this section we look a the construction of a simple
subcircuit, and how it can be used in a SPICE file.
1\v-
Temperature: 27.0
BOOm
I-"
If~ '
400m
~
v
~ 1--
Om
r-
-400m
'
-BOOm
Os 2s 4s 6s
v
as 10s 12s 14s
c v(3) I (Vam) Time
Figure 16.9 'PROBE' graph of the results in Table 16.19:

Worked Example 16.8
Suppose (as Worked Example 16.9) that a circuit comprises three series-
connected subcircuits of the kind in Figure 16.10(a), the complete circuit
being shown in Figure 16.10(b); the final subcircuit has a 100 Q load
connected to it.
(a)
A load
100!1
0
(b)
Figure 16.10 The use of subcircuits: Worked Example 16.9

Worked Example 16.9- Use of subcircuits
*Subcircuit definition
* I SUBCKT name
* I I
* 1 I Nodes to be transferred to main circuit
* I I I I
.SUBCKT Network 100 300 ; start of SUBCirKiT
*Nodes within the subcircuit
* I I
Rl 100 0 lOOohm ; subcircuit element
R2 100 200 lOOohm ; subcircuit element
R3 200 0 l50ohm ; subcircuit element
R4 200 300 80ohm ; subcircuit element
* END of Subcircuit
*I Name of subcircuit (optional)
*I I
.ENDS Network ; END of Subcircuit definition
* Illustration of use of cascaded subcircuits

* Nodes used in the actual circuit
* I I
XI I 2 Network ; Subcircuit calling routine
X2 2 3 Network ; Subcircuit calling routine
X3 3 4 Network ; Subcircuit calling routine
* Input signal
VI I 0 DC IOOV
* Load resistance
Rload 4 0 lOOohm
.OPTION NOPAGE
.END
The input file for the circuit is given in Table 16.20 in which, initially, we
define the subcircuit. The definition commences with a '.SUBCKT' line, and
ends with a '.ENDS' line. The first statement in the '.SUBCKT' line gives
the name of the subcircuit, together with a list of node numbers which are to
be transferred to the main circuit. When the subcircuit is called by the main
circuit, the number of nodes in the '.SUBCKT' line must be equal to the
number of nodes in the subcircuit calling line (also see later). The four
resistors Rl, R2, R3 and R4 in the subcircuit are defined in the usual way
using the nodes in Figure l6.10(a).
Next, the main circuit calls the subcircuit three times, using an 'X' line. In
this case, the calling routine contains the appropriate nodes used in the main
circuit, to which the nodes listed in the '.SUBCKT' are transferred. That is,
in the X 1 line, node 100 is transferred to node 1, and node 300 is transferred
to node 2; in the X2 line, node 100 is transferred to node 2, and node 300 is
transferred to node 3, etc. It is important to note that node 0 must not be
included in the list of nodes transferred to the main circuit, since this is
reserved for the global 'ground' node.
*** SMALL SIGNAL BIAS SOLUTION TEMPERATURE=27.000 DEG C

( 1) 100.0000 ( 2) 18.7120 ( 3) 3.5418 ( 4) .8854
(X1.200) 42.3050 (X2.200) 7.9336 (X3.200) 1.5938

NAME CURRENT
VI -1.577E + 00
TOTAL POWER DISSIPATION 1.58E+02 WATTS
Since we have not called for any specific type of analysis to be performed
in this case, SPICE merely performs a SMALL SIGNAL BIAS
SOLUTION on the circuit, which is listed in Table 16.21. This solution
presents not only the voltage at each node in the main circuit, but also the
voltage at each node within the subcircuit when it is connected in the main
circuit. That is, the voltage at node 200 within Xl is given as the voltage at
node (X1.200), the voltage at node 200 within X2 is given as the voltage at
node (X2.200), etc.
16.11 Sources of SPICE-based software
SPICE-based software is available for all types of computer, ranging from

portable computers to main-frame computers. The author uses an
evaluation version of PSpice, which is more than adequate for most
applications.
Versions for microcomputers usually have on-disc documentation and are
available from the address below and through the pages of magazines
dealing with computer shareware.
ARS Microsystems,
Herriard Business Centre,
Alton Road,
Basingstoke RG25 2PN
Full documentation and more comprehensive versions of PSpice are
available from the above address.
16.1 Write a SPICE input file for the following circuit. A 5.5 V battery
is connected between node 0 and node I of a circuit (positive to
node 0), in which a resistor of 6 n is connected between node I
and node 2, a resistor of 8 n is connected between node 2 and
node 0, a battery of 8 V is connected between node 3 and node 0
(node 3 to positive pole), and a resistor of IOQ is connected
between node 3 and node 2. Determine the voltage of node 2
with respect to node 0, and the magnitude of the current in the
8 n resistor.
16.2 A series-connected R-C circuit containing a I kQ resistor and a
I JlF capacitor, is suddenly connected to a 10 V d.c. supply. Write
down a SPICE input file which will print out the voltage across
C and the current in the circuit when (a) t = 1 ms, (b) t = 3 ms
after the supply is connected.
16.3 A series a.c. circuit contains a I 0 n resistor and a 16 JlF
capacitor, which is supplied at 100 V at a frequency of I kHz.
Write down a SPICE input file which will print the magnitude,
the phase angle, the real part and the imaginary part of the
voltage across the capacitance, and the magnitude and phase
angle of the current.

A range of software packages is available for the solution of electrical and
electronic circuits, perhaps the most useful being SPICE (Simulation
Program with Integrated Circuit Emphasis) or one of its derivatives.
Each circuit is described in an input file in terms of the circuit elements,
the supply sources, etc., which is analysed by a software analyser, which
checks the input file for errors. If no error exists, the circuit is solved, and
the solution displayed on the computer screen and, if needed, printed out.
Many versions of SPICE have a graphics post-processor, which converts
the system into a software oscilloscope, so that waveshapes can be displayed.
The software also contains a library of subcircuits which can be called into
use, allowing the design of complex systems to be simplified.
Qsolutlons
Chapter 1
1.1 (a) 2,2,3,3,3,3; (b) 5,7,7,11; (c) 2,5,9,13.
1.2 2100
1.3 10
1.4 (aH; (b) k; (c) f6
1.5 (a) 1!; (b) 1 ~; (c) 6~
1.6 (a) --k; (b)~; (c) -o
1.7 46A
1.8 2.44mA
1.9
1.10
1.11
(a)
i;
(a)~; (b) (c)~; (d)
it; (b) ~; (c)m;
rs
(d) *
(a) 1.0101 X 105 ; (b) 1.0101 X 10- 3 ; (c) 1.0101 X 102
1.12 (a) 2.56M; (b) 0.67T; (c) 1.03m; (d) 79p
1.13 (a) 1.414 x 102 ; (b) 2.857
Chapter 2
2.1 (a) 5798; (b) 1500; (c) 105; (d) 111; (e) 2396; (f) 1806.36; (g) 11.25;
(h) 115.9375
2.2 (a) 1010010010100; (b) 10111.11; (c) 0.000000110011
2.3 (a) 1494; (b) 17.c; (c) 0.03
2.4 (a) 0.0001; (b) 0.111; (c) 0.101010 ... ; (d) 0.10001
2.5 (a) 1735; (b) 3220; (c) 12001; (d) 1021112
2.6 (a) 3124; (b) 464; (c) 2022
2.7 111011111100
2.8 (a) 1011; (b) 100100; (c) 11110.01; (d) 111.1011; (e) 10010.101
2.9 (a) 11; (b) 1010; (c) 1111 (to 4 bits); (d) 10; (e) 1.11
2.10 (a) 10010; (b) 100011; (c) 11100.001; (d) 1.0001; (e) 11110100 (to 8 bits)
2.11 (a) 10; (b) 11; (c) 0.0011; (d) 110.1
Chapter 3
3.1 (a) 0.7574; (b) 1.8675; (c) 2.9587; (d) 1.7574 or -0.2426; (e) 3.0899 or -2.9101
3.2 (a) 6.1518; (b) 28.58; (c) 2 089 300; (d) 0.0575
3.3 (a) 1.744; (b) 4.3; (c) 6.8126; (d) 1.4414 or -0.5516; (e) 7.2993 or -6.7007
3.4 (a) 2.2034; (b) 10.591; (c) 0.194; (d) 330.3; (e) 0.3012
3.5 (a) 1.6132; (b) 0.1484; (c) 2.1383; (d) -1.5339 or 2.4661, (e) 0.7468
367
368 Solutions
3.6 (a) 50.34V; (b) 63.31 V; 80.47s

3.7 (a) 0.069s; (b) 0.19s
3.8 (a) 38.06dB; (b) 4.382N
3.9 (a) 1.1133; (b) -1.161 or 2.839; (c) 0.6309
Chapter 4
4.1 (a) 17x+ y; (b) 18a; (c) -3x+ 16b
4.2 (a) (x + y) 2 ; (b) (a- b)(a2 + 3ab + b2 )
4.3 (a) (2/y)- (3/x) + 5; (b) y[x2 + y 2 (2- w) + 4wx]jw; (c) a+ 2b
4.4 (a) HL/N; (b) Illo/(2nB); (c) ,j(2110 Fja); (d) reL"I~; (e) (3IR 2 - IR- a2[y)ja;
(t) -tln(Ri/E); (g) l/(Lw 0 2 - (1/CI))
4.5 (a) 2(x- 2.5)(x + 3); (b) (2x + 6)(x- 1)
4.6 1 [ 1 1 ]
2x + 6 X- 2.5 +X+ 1
4.7 (a) x = 1 or -1; (b) x = 3 or -1.5; (c) x = -2
4.8 (a) -1.55 or -6.45; (b) -1.84 or -8.16; (c) -0.342 or -3.658
4.9 1OI2 + 40I- 120 = 0; 2 A or -6 A (the latter is not allowable because the
power consumed is greater than 120 W!)
4.10 8 n and 12 n (the other possibility is 3 n and 17 n, which does not give the
correct parallel resistance)
Chapter 5
5.1 X= -0.357; y = 2.143
5.2 X = 1.992; y = -0.338
5.3 The equations depend on the loops chosen, and the following are typical
- 10 = 3I]- 2h
- 10 = -2II + 5h
Current in 1 = 6.36A; current in 2 = 1.81 A; current in 3 = 4.55A;
V40 = 106.4V
5.4 95.9V
5.5 X= 1.1; y = -2; Z = 3
5.6 Current in 1 = 3.36 A; Current in 2 = 6.46 A; Current in 3 = 9.82 A
(charging)
5.7 I 1 = 0.647 A; h = 4.764A; In= 5.411 A
Chapter 6
6.1 (a) 0.7145; (b) 0.637; (c) -0.62; (d) -0.7738; (e) 0.509; (t) 0.4921; (g) -0.9763;
(h) -0.9367; (i) -4.1022
6.2 (a) 60 or 120; (b) 80 or -80; (c) 10 or 190 or -170; (d) -12 or 192 or
-168
6.3 (a) 20ms, 50Hz, 2.1 V; (b) 10.5ms, 95.5Hz, 2.71 A
Solutions 369
6.4 (a) v2 leads v1 by 2n/3 rad or 120; (b) i2 leads i 1 by 40;

(c) v2 lags v1 by 3n/4 rad or 135; (d) v1 lags i 1 by n/3 rad or 60
6.5 203.6 or -156.4; -0.9164; 0.4369
6.6 94.59 and 265.41 o
6.7 (a) 0; (b) 0.2588
Chapter 7
7.1 (a) a= 4.88, LB = 57.47, LC = 62.53; (b) LA= 71.6, LB = 48.4, a= 24.1;
(c) b = 5.59, c = 7.88, LC = 56; (d) c = 40.92, LA= 65.3, LB = 36.7;
(e) b = 24.7, LA= 72.53, LC = 47.47
7.2 (a) 0.866; (b) -0.342; (c) 0.5; (d) 0.94; (e) 1.732; (f) -0.364
7.4 (a) 10sin(cot+53.1o); (b) 7.21sin(oot+ 146.3); (c) 51.6sin(oot+54S)
7.5 0.39; 0.199
7. 7 60' 120' 240' 300
Chapter 8
8.1 3v'3w
8.2 8.84 revjs
8.3 3.41 revjs
8.4 79.54m 2
8.5 2.6cm 2
8.6 cylinder:sphere:cone = 3:2:1
8.7 (a) ll47cm 2 ; (b) 2396cm3
8.8 60.67; 6.067
8.9 15.83A
8.10 62.5Hz; 104.25A
Chapter 9
9.1 y=2x
9.2 y=x+3,3;y=x-1,-1
9.3 (a) m = 0.2, c = 0.6; (b) m = 0.25, c = -1.75
9.4 N= 5V; (a) 6.67revjs; (b) 20.83rev/s
9.5 E=10V;R=0.1!1
9.6 X= 9, y = 24
9.7 (a) x = 0.667 or -2.5; (b) x = 2 or -0.6; (c) x = -3 or 8;
(d) x = 2.59 or -0.26
9.8 x = -2.4, y = 6 and x = 6.3, y = 41
9.10 y = 6x- 2; x values are 1.5 and 5, y values are -8, -2 and 16
9.11 100; 0.75
9.12 k1 = 0.1; kz = 0.005
9.13 C = 520; n = 1.4
9.14 40mA
9.15 (a) 7s; (b) lOs; (c) 30s
370 Solutions
Chapter 10
10.1 (a) horizontal force= -2.14kN, vertical (downwards) force= 10.68kN;
(b) 10.89 kN at an angle of -101.3
10.2 33.92 kN at -72.2
10.3 35.36sin139.6t; (a) 22.73A; (b) 30.62A; (c) -12.09A; (d) -22.73A
10.4 8.33 Hz; 0.12 s
10.5 12.1sin(rot- 0.096rad)
10.6 109V; 23.5"
10.7 43.77sin(rot- 1.107rad)
10.8 72.73 sin( I001tt + 9.9)
10.9 13.33 sin(rot + 36.9); 7.07 A, 3.54 A, 5.66 A, 9.43 A
10.10 150sin(rot-60)V
Chapter 11
11.2 (a) 10.63L- 131.2; (b) 8.06L29.74o; (c) 8.06L- 60.26; (d) 5L143.1 o
11.3 (a) -6.13- }5.14; (b) -3 + }5.2; (c) 0.623- }2.93; (d) 0.544 + }6.48
11.4 (a) 5 + j 13, 13.92L68.96o; (b) -0.05 + j 10.95, 10.95L90.26o; (c) 8.49- }0.29,
8.49L- 1.98
l1.5 (a) -1-}3, 3.16L-108.4o; (b) -9.95+}1.05, IOL174o; (c) 17.5+}15.3,
23.23L41.17o
11.6 (a) 300L65.84, 122.8+}273.7; (b) 29.57L-9.11, 29.2-}4.68;
(c) 39.05L- 76.67, 9- }38
11.7 (a) 0.333L- 25.84, 0.3- }0.15; (b) 0.44L12l.7, -0.23 + }0.374;
(c) 0.64L- 177, -0.639- }0.03
11.8 2.75L- 70.6 A, 0.92- }2.6 A
11.9 (a) 50L45o V; (b) l4.142L- 45o il; (c) 3.536L90o A
11.10 (a) 15.22L14.93o il; (b) 7.09L30.07o A; (c) Vt = 47.55L93SV,
V2 = 28.36L30.07V, V3 = 58.46L16.03V
Chapter 12
12.2 (a) 5; (b) 24t3 + 3t2 ; (c) 8t- 3; (d) -2jx3
12.3 (a) 12r - 6; (b) 2.5/ Jx; (c) 20m 3 + 12m-3; (d) l2.32xl. 2 - 8x- 2 - 2.5/ Jx;
(e) 1.44xl.4
12.4 Two stationary points; a minimum point occurs at x = 2, and a maximum
occurs at x = 3
12.5 Xt,Yl = 2, 128; (b) X2,Y2 = 6,0
12.6 The curve has a maximum at x,y = 2.5, -0.75;
(a) gradient= 2, y = -1.75; (b) gradient= 0, y = -0.75; (c) gradient= -2,
y = -1.75
12.7 Oor-1
12.8 (a) 4xcos x + 4 sinx; (b) 2e-x -e-x lnx2 ; (c) cos 2x
Solutions 371
Chapter 13
13.1 (a) -2x 3 + x 2 - 3x + K; (b) 2x 3 - !x2 - 2x + K; (c) -1/(3x 3 ) + K;
(d) -(16/x)- 40 1nx + 25x + K; (e) 2x712 /7 + K;
(f) m 3 x 4 /4 + km 2 x 3 + 3k2 mx2 /2 + k 3x + K; (g) e4x /4 + K;
(h) r -eX + e3X/3 + K; (i) 3(x + [sin 2x]/2) + K
13.2 (a) 16; (b) ab/2; (c) 36; (d) 25.33; (e) 1t + 2
13.3 (a) 56nj3; (b) 625n; (c) 416n/3; (d) 14n; (e) 3n2 /2
13.4 Vav = 33.3 V; Verr = 57.7V
13.5 2.89V
13.6 Vav=31.8V;Verr=50V
Chapter 14
14.1 23s
14.2 (a) 6.93 s; (b) 10 s; (c) 29.9 s
14.3 73.5ms
14.4 (a) 0.75 s; (b) 133.3 Vjs; (c) 86.46 V; (d) 0.01 A; (e) 1.04 s
14.5 126.38V
14.6 0.135/M
14.7 38.8A
14.8 (a) 400Ajs; (b) 147 Ajs; (c) lOA
14.9 (a) l.04kV; (b) son
Chapter 15
15.1 (a) AND; (b) OR
15.2 A logic '1' appears for A.B.C.i5, A.B.C.D, A.fJ.C.i5, A.B.C.D, A.B.C.i5,
A.B.C.D, A.B.C.i5 and A.B.C.D; the expression can be minimised to f =A
15.3 f = A.JJ + A.B
Solution to self-test question 15.3
15.10 Both A.B and B.C

15.11 (b)
372 Solutions
Chapter 16
16.1 Note: an 'ammeter' has been connected in series with the 8 Q resistor (node 4
has been inserted)
V1 0 1 de 5.5V
V2 3 0 de 8V
R1 1 2 6ohm
R2 4 0 8ohm
R3 2 3 lOohm
Vam 2 4 ov
.OPTIONS NOPAGE
.END
-0.2979V; 37.23mA
16.2
Vs 1 0 PULSE(OV lOV OS 1Ns 1Ns 1s l.ls)
Vam 1 2 ov
R 2 3 1Kohm
c 3 0 lUF
.TRAN 1Ms 10Ms
.PRINT TRAN V(3) I(Vam)
.OPTIONS NOPAGE
.END
6.316V, 3.684mA; 9.506V, 0.494mA
16.3
Vs 1 0 AC 100V
Vam 1 2 OV
R 2 3 lOohm
C 3 0 16UF
, .AC LIN 1 1KHz 1KHz
.PRINT AC VM(3) VP(3) VR(3) VI(3)
.PRINT AC IM(Vam) IP(Vam)
.OPTIONS NOPAGE
.END
70.52L- 45.15V = 49.74- j50V; 7.09L44.85o A.

Qlndex
A
abscissa 155 one's complement form of 32
a.c. circuit solution by complex positive 32
numbers 226 signed 32
addend 29 subtraction of 33
algebra 58-79 true complement of 32
algebraic expression 58 two's complement of 32
addition of 59 unsigned 32
division of 61 binary point 23
Jaws of 64 binary system 22, 24
multiplication of 60 bit 23
subtraction of 59 Boolean algebra 320--4
algebra of logic see Boolean Algebra boundary conditions 263
amplitude of wave 116 branch in a circuit 80
AND gate 312 byte 25
angle 103
angular frequency 116 c
antilogarithm 44 calculus
arbitrary constant of integration 263, differential 233
264 integral 262
area 143, 147 capacitor charging transient 286
area under curve 268 initial conditions in 291
Argand diagram 215 capacitor discharge transient 292
arithmetic mean 149 carry 29
associative Jaw 64 carry-in 30
asymptote 166 carry-out 30
attenuate 49 cartesian coordinates 154
augend 29 characteristic of logarithm 42
average value 149, 275 coefficient, in equation, 59
common denominator 8
B common logarithm 42
base of numbering system 11, 12 commutative law 64
BASIC program for simultaneous complementary angles 104
equation 98-100 completing the square 74
Bel 39 complex impedance, of circuit 219
binary-decimal codes 22, 28 complex number 213-32
binary number 24, 27 a.c. circuit solution by 226
addition of 30 addition of 220
conversion of 27 argument of 216
division of 36 conjugate of 224
multiplication of 35 division of 225
negative 32 imaginary operator in 214, 215
373
374 Index
complex number (cont.) differentiation 233-61

imaginary part of 214 function of a function 249
modulus of 216 from first principles 237
multiplication of 222 maxima and minima 245
polar form of 216 product rule 251
rationalisation of 226 quotient rule 252
real part of 214 table of standard 256
rectangular form of 214 direct proportionality 7, 165
subtraction of 220 discriminant 77
complex plane 216 distributive law 64
compound angle formulae 136-8 dividend 36
computer solution of simultaneous divisor 36
equations 99, 100 double angle formulae 139
computer solution of electrical double-energy circuit 283
circuits see SPICE
constant of integration 263, 264 E
continuous logic 333 effective value of a wave 277
coordinates electric circuit analysis using complex
polar 216 numbers 226
rectangular 154, 214 ellipse 143
cosecant 205 equation
cosine ratio 120, 121 cubic 58
graph of 121 quadratic 58
cosine rule 13 3, 134 simultaneous 58
cotangent 105 equivalent fractions 3
cubic equation 174 exponent 11, 17
graph of 174 exponential curve 182 189
cube root 16 fall-time of 185, 186
current gain of transistor 5 rise-time of 188, 189
settling-time of 184, 189
D steady-state period of 185
decay of current in inductive circuit 301 transient period of 185
decibel 48-51 exponential function 182
decimal fraction 4 extrapolation 160
decimal point 4, 23
decimal number 25, 26 F
decimal system 22, 24 factor
definite integral 268 factorisation 1, 59
De Morgan's theorem 323 factorising 70
degree 104 false (binary) 311
denary system 22 fifth root 16
denominator 3 first derivative 236
dependent variable 154 first-order circuit 283
determinant 94-100 fourth root 16
difference 33 fraction I, 3
differential coefficient 236 addition of 8
differential equation 284 division of 10
general solution of 284 multiplication of 10
particular solution of 284 subtraction of 8
variables separable 284 fractional power 15
Index 375
frequency 116 inverse proportion 7

full-adder 30, 332 irrational number 16
function 233
function of a function 249 J
function of a function rule 249 j operator 213
fuzzy logic 311, 333
K
G Karnaugh map 324
gate, logic 312 simplification of 326
AND 312 Kirchhoffs voltage law (KVL) 81
NOT 315
NOT-EQUIVALENT 332 L
OR 313 least significant bit 23
gradient 156, 235 least significant digit 23
graph 154 logarithm 39
gradient of 156, 235 characteristic of 42
quadratic equation solution by 170 common 42
simultaneous equation solution division using 45
by 163, 171 mantissa of 42
stationary point on 244 multiplication using 44
straight line 156 Naperian 52
turning point on 245 natural 52
graph of Ax" 175, 180 powers using 47
log-log graph paper 178
H logic block diagram 317
half-adder 30, 331 logic circuit design 316
heptagon 142 logic gate 312
hexadecimal number 22, 24 AND 312
hexagon 142 NOT 315
highest common factor 2 NOT-EQUIVALENT 332
hyperbolic logarithm 52 OR 313
logic signal level 311
I logic theory 311
identity, trigonometric 135 lowest common denominator 8
improper fraction 3 lowest common multiple l
indefinite integral 263
independent variable 154 M
index, of number ll manipulation of formulae 65
index laws 64 mantissa 17
index notation ll logarithm 42
indices 64 maximum point on graph 245, 246
inductive reactance 257 maximum power transfer theorem 255
initial conditions 263 mean value 149, 275
integer l mensuration 142
integral 263 mesh, in a circuit 81
constant of integration of 263, 264 method of least squares 161
definite 268 mid-ordinate 147
indefinite 263 mid-ordinate rule 147
table of standard 264 minimum point on graph 245, 246
integration 262-82 minuend 33
376 Index
mixed number 3 positive logic 311

most significant bit 23 power 11, 13
most significant digit 23 fractional 15
multiple I power, laws of 64
multiplicand 35 practical switch, in L-R
circuit 301 306, 307
N prime number 1
naturaJ logarithm 52 product 35
Naperian logarithm 52 cosines 138
negative angle 107 sines 138
negative logic 311 proper fraction 3
Neper 54 proportionality 7
node, in a circuit 80 direct 165
NOT gate 315 inverse 165
NOT-EQUIVALENT gate 332
number, prime 1 Q
number system 22-38 quadrant 106
numerator 3 quadratic equation 72
numerical integration 147 graphical solution of 170
graph of 167
0 solution of 72-78
octagon 142 quadrilateral 142
octal number 22, 24 quotient 36
odd function 116
Ohm's law 7 R
one's complement 32 radian 104
operator j 213 radix 22
ordinate 155 radix point 23
OR gate 313 ratio 5
reciprocal 7
p rectangle 142
parabola 167 rectangular coordinate 154
paraboloid of revolution 167 rectangular hyperbola 166
parallelogram 143 redundancy, in logic circuit 319
path, in a circuit 80 reference direction 107, 196
peak value of wave 117 register, in computer 35, 36
peak-to-peak value of wave 117 repetitive wave 115
pentagon 142 resolved components 196
per cent 5 right angle 104
periodic function 115 right-angled triangle 105
periodic time 116 rise of current in inductive circuit 297
per unit 5 rise-time of exponential wave 188, 189
phase angle of.wave 116 r.m.s. value of a wave 277
phasor 195, 201-5 roots of equation 58
addition of 206-11 rule of Sarrus 96
subtraction of 206-11
phasor diagram 205, 206 s
planimeter 14 7 scalar quantity 195
polygon 142 scientific numbering notation 17
polynomial 23 secant 105
Index 377
second derivative 243 subtrahend 33

second-order circuit 283 sum 29
sector 143 supplementary angle 104
set theory 311 surface area 145
settling-time of transient 184
signed binary number 32 T
sign bit 32 tangent 124, 125
simplification of fraction 4 graph of 126
Simpson's rule 148 time constant ofelectrical circuit 182,
simultaneous equation 80-102 184, 287, 288, 298, 300
deducing a 80 transient in electrical circuit 184,
graphical solution of 163, 171 283-310
solution of 83-100 transient period 185, 288, 299, 300
SI multipliers 18 transposition of formulae 65
sine ratio 108-16 trapezium 143
graph of 114 triangle 142
sine rule 131, 132 trigonometric function 105
single energy circuit 283 inverse 106
solid of revolution 273 trigonometric identity 135
sphere 145 trigonometric ratio 105
spark quench resistor 307 trigonometry 103-41
SPICE solution of electrical true (binary) 311
circuits 336-66 truth table 312
circuit element in 340 turning point on graph 245
controlled source in 356 true complement 32
dependent source in 356 two's complement 32
input file in 336
scale suffixes in 340
software analyser in 341 u
software oscilloscope in 361 unsigned binary number 32
sources of 365
subcircuits in 362 v
text editor in 336 variables separable differential
square, of number 142 equation 284
square root 15 vector 195
squared number 15 addition of 195-9
standard derivatives 256 subtraction of 199-201
standard form of number 17 Venn diagram 324
standard index form 17 vertical intercept 156
standard derivative, table of 256 volume 145
standard integrals, table of 264 volume of revolution 273
stationary point 244 volume of rotation 273
steady-state period 185, 288, 299, 300
straight-line graph 156 w
'best fit' equation of 161 weighted binary code 25
equation of 157 word length 25

Mastering Mathematics For Electronic Engineering

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Mastering Mathematics For Electronic Engineering

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Mastering

Mathematics for Electrical and

No paragraph of this publication may be reproduced, copied or

Any person who does any unauthorised act in relation to

First published 1994 by

ISBN 978-0-333-59359-2 ISBN 978-1-349-13193-8 (eBook)

Copy-edited and typeset by Povey-Edmondson

1 Fractions, roots and powers 1

2 Numbers and numbering systems 22

3 Logarithms, the decibel and the Neper 39

7 Further trigonometric skills 131

9.4 Predicting the 'best fit' straight-line graph 161

10 Vectors and phasors 195

11 Complex numbers 213

14 Transients in electrical circuits 283

14.7 The rise of current in an inductive circuit 297

15 Boolean algebra and logic circuits 311

16 Computer solution of electric circuits 336

Solutions to self-test questions 367

3.1 Graph showing the value of the common logarithm of a

8.4 Surface area and volume of some solids 145

10.7 Solution of Worked Example 10.5 207

14.13 Self-test question 14.9 309

1.1 SI multiplier values 18

4.1 Simple tabular method of determining the roots of the

16.16 Worked Example 16.7: output file 357

Mathematics is an essential tool in the armoury of electrical and

Mathematics forms the backbone of Electrical and Electronic Engineer-

1.2 Integers, prime numbers, factors and multiples

Worked Example 1.1 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,

To determine the prime factors of an integer, we divide the number by

Worked Example 1.2 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - .

One of the simplest methods of determining the LCM of the numbers is

Worked Example 1.3 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,

Worked Example 1.4 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,

132 225 130

Where possible, we should cancel terms in the numerator and

1.4 Ratios, per cent and per unit values

A per unit (p.u.) value is simply a fraction of the whole, that is

A transformer with an efficiency of 92% also has a 0.92 p.u. efficiency.

Worked Example 1.5 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,

number of d.c. motors 12 6

That is, the percentage of d.c. motors is

Worked Example 1.6 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,

If a generator requires 110 kW of mechanical power to drive it, and the

. _ electrical output power

Worked Example 1.7 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - . ,

(a) The output power from the motor is

1.5 Direct proportion, inverse proportion and reciprocal

1.6 Addition and subtraction of fractions

Worked Example 1.8 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,

Add the following fractions.

(a) To determine the LCM of the denominators (the LCD), we break

Worked Example 1.9 -----------------~

(a) Since both denominators are prime numbers, the LCD is

To multiply fractions we multiply the numerators together to give a resultant

Worked Example 1.10 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,

(b) _!2_ X 4 ~ = _!..?._ X ~= ~= 2?

1.8 Division of fractions