1.

CULTURE: AN INTRODUCTION
A human-made environment which includes all the
material and non- material products of group life that are
transmitted from one generation to the next,
Cult or cultus meaning tilling or cultivating or refining
and worship.
Three words came from this root Kri;
prakriti (basic matter or condition),
Sanskriti (refined matter or condition)
vikriti (modified or decayed matter or condition),
Now,
Civilization means having Culture refers to the inner
better ways of living and being, a refinement of head and
sometimes making nature heart.
bend to fulfill their needs.

Sources of Culture:
Many things from our ancestors,
We continue to add new thoughts, new ideas to those
already existent,
Give up some, which we dont consider useful,
 Some treasures of Indian Cultural heritage
BAUDHAYAN, ARYABHATTA, BHASKARACHARYA in the
field of Mathematics, Astronomy and Astrology;
KANAD and VARAHMIHIR in the field of Physics;
NAGARJUNA in the field of Chemistry,
SUSRUTA and CHARAK in the field of Medicines,
PATANJALI in the field of Yoga,

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF CULTURE,

Culture is learned and acquired
Culture is shared by a group of people
Culture is cumulative
Culture change
Culture is dynamic
Culture gives us a range of permissible behavior patterns
Culture is diverse separate but interdependent
Culture is ideational,

IMPORTANCE OF CULTURE IN HUMAN LIFE

It gives us meaning, a way of leading our lives. Human
beings are creators of culture and, at the same time,
culture is what makes us human.
 As the world is becoming more and more global and we
coexist on a more global level we cant just think theres
only one right way of living or that any one is valid.
The need for coexistence makes the coexistence of
cultures and beliefs necessary.
The best thing we can do is: Get to know other cultures,
while also getting to know our own.
The three eternal and universal values of Truth, Beauty
and Goodness are closely linked
The values of love, tolerance and peace.
2. INDIAN CULTURE

CHARACTERISTICS OF INDIAN CULTURE

The distinctive features with uniqueness,

Continuity
Despite major changes and upheavals significant threads
of continuity can be traced throughout
The pattern of a house in an Indian village is not very
different from that of a HARAPPAN house.
The worship of Mother Goddess and PASHUPATI
Vedic, Buddhist, Jain and many other traditions continue
to be followed even today.
It has kept on changing, whereas the basic spirit of our
culture continued.

Change
Jainism and Buddhism in sixth century BC
Religious and social awakening in the eighteenth and
nineteenth centuries
The thread of basic philosophy of Indian culture
continued and still persists.
Variety and Unity
Indian culture, over the last three millennia, has
successfully, but quietly, observed the best assimilable
parts from other religions and cultures, from time to time
and integrated them into itself.
People belonging to eight great religions of the world co-
exist here in a harmonious manner.
The vastness of the country and variation in its physical
and climatic features is an obvious reason for the variety.
The second important reason for the variety in our
culture is the intermingling among various ethnic groups.
Various ethnic groups like Iranians, Greeks, Kushanas,
Shakas, Hunas, Arabs, Turks, Mughals and Europeans also
came to India, settled here and intermixed with the local
population.

India through the ages has shown a remarkable capacity

for assimilation of ideas. This has contributed to the
variety and richness of our culture.
Exchange of culture within India
Travel from one part of the country to another for
trade or pilgrimage.
Joined together through conquests or by alliance.
 Military campaigns too took people from one place to
another.
Such contacts have led to the development of
commonness in Indian culture
Another unifying factor is climate: the system of
monsoons
Agriculture remains the main occupation
Differences in physical features have affected the food
habits, dress, houses and economic activities
The variety in physical features and climate of India
has thus led to the development of a variety of cultures
in different regions
People started practicing agriculture they settled
down.
This settled life led to community development and
growth of towns, which needed rules and regulations.
SABHAS and SAMITIS
Age of MAHAJANAPADAS
Emperors exercising absolute powers,
The British Empire
Today we are sovereign, socialist, secular and
democratic republic and a uniform system of
 government prevails over the length and breadth of the
country.

Secular Outlook
Right to freedom of religion
In the Western context development of secularism meant
complete separation of the church and the state. In India
secularism is taken as a more positive concept to cope with
the complex social structure in the country with a view to
protecting the interests of all, particularly the minorities.
But this has become problem too.

Universalism
It has protested against the formation of power blocks
in the world. In fact India became one of the founder
members of the non-aligned movement.
Against racialism and colonialism.
Committed to the development of other underdeveloped
nations.
The subcontinent of India has been one cultural unit
throughout the ages, cutting across political boundaries.

Materialistic and Spiritualistic

Known as land of spirituality
The living expression of the simplicity and profundity of
her people
CULTURAL IDENTITY, RELIGION, REGION AND
ETHNICITY
cultural identities are based on various factors such as
religion and region.
Regional identities are more real.
People of different religions and jatis may have common
regional cultural traits like language, food, dress, values
and also the worldview.

Ethnic culture is strong among the tribal groups.

CULTURAL INFLUENCES
Three significant influences
Westernization,
Adopted by the aristocracy and members of the civil
services.
Emergent national cultural style
During the struggle for freedom
Contributed to the unity of the country and provided
commonness to culture.
Popular culture.
Product of mass media
The impact of films
 Promoted issues that are of both traditional and public
interest.
Spirituality and value based life style is the core of Indian
culture but it has a scientific temperament too.
3. ANCIENT INDIA
It is important for you to be acquainted with the past to
understand better what is happening in the India of today.

ANCIENT INDIA
Neolithic habitation dating as far back as 7000 BC has
been found in Mehrgarh in Baluchistan.

2700 BC
Harappan civilization.
Most of the sites developed on the banks of Indus,
Ghaggar and its tributaries.
First known urban culture
Town planning, sanitation, drainage system and broad
well-laid roads
Double storied houses of burnt- bricks each one of
which had a bathroom, a kitchen and a well
Great Bath, Granaries and Assembly Halls
Agriculture was the main occupation
Internal and external trade with Mesopotamia
Excellent potters.
Technical knowledge of metals and the process of
alloying
 Bronze sculpture of a dancing girl
Lothal was a dockyard
Important Centre of sea trade
Important town Dhaulavira (Gujarat), Kalibangam
(Rajsthan)
Worshipped plants and animals and the forces of
nature
Knew how to write
Knew the art of spinning and weaving.
First people to cultivate cotton

VEDIC CULTURE
Spread across the Ganga-Yamuna plains.
Known as the Aryan culture.
Four Vedas
Rig Veda,
Sama Veda,
Yajur Veda
Atharva Veda
Erlier Vedic Period
Represented by the RigVeda
The later vedic period
 All other vedic literature including the Brahmanas,
Arnyakas and Upanishads
the Ramayana and the Mahabharata and the Puranas,
though compiled much later, represents this values.

Society and religion

Women were treated with dignity and honour.
Later Vedic period, society was divided into four VARNAS
Brahamanas,
Kshatriyas,
Vaishyas
Shudras.
system of chaturashrama
Brahmacharya (period of celibacy, education and
disciplined life in gurus ashram),
Grihastha (a period of family life),
Vanaprastha (a stage of gradual detachment)
Sanyasa (a life dedicated to spiritual pursuit away from
worldly life)
Women were respected by the society, enjoyed freedom,
had access to education and were often free to choose
their partners through swayamvara.
 Change in religious practices during the later Vedic
period
A new trinity of Gods where Brahma enjoyed the supreme
position, while Vishnu became the preserver and Shiva
completed the trinity.
Religion became extremely ritualistic

Material life and economy

Pastoral and agricultural people.
Domesticated animals like cows, horses, sheeps, goats
and dogs.
Food consisting of cereals, pulses, fruits, vegetables, milk
and various milk products.
Iron axes enabled them to clear forests leading to the
expansion of agriculture throughout the Gangetic plains.
Coins came into circulation.
By sixth century BC, there were some sixteen large
territorial states in North India and upper Deccan known
as Mahajanapadas. Important among them were Anga,
Magadha, Kosala, Kashi, Kuru, and Panchala.
POPULAR RELIGIOUS REFORMS
Emergence of Jainism and Buddhism
The Brahmins had developed a vested interest
demanding large charities at the end of the scarifies. As a
result, the sacrifices became very costly. Moreover, the
Brahmins considered themselves superior to the other
varnas and became arrogant. This led to the unpopularity
of Brahminism and a need for reforms was felt.
The reforms led by the Kshatriyas and aided by the
poorer masses who could not afford the high cost of
sacrifices, resulted in the emergence of Jainism and
Buddhism around sixth century BC.
Influenced the religious beliefs and several practices of
Hinduism.

Jainism
Founder of Jainism is believed to be Rishabhadeva,
The last tirthankara Mahavira developed and gave final
shape to the Jain doctrines.
Five vows
Not to tell lies;
Not to injure life;
Not to own property;
 Not to steal;
To maintain chastity (celibacy).
Three-fold path of Right belief, Right Conduct and Right
Knowledge.
Most of followers of Jainism belong to the trading
community.
Sthanakas

Buddhism
Gautama Buddha (563 - 483 BC),
Four Noble Truths.
Middle path.
The eightfold path comprises:
Rightunderstanding
Rightthought
Rightspeech
Rightaction
Rightlivelihood
Righteffort
Rightmindfulness
Rightconcentration
Viharas
Buddhism was also split in three parts
 The hinayana
The mahayana
Vajrayana
Spread of buddhism
sri lanka,
Myanmar,
Cambodia,
Vietnam,
China,
Japan,
Thailand,
Korea,
Mongolia
Afghanistan.
Hindu tradition even accepted the Buddha as one of the
incarnations (avatara) of Vishnu.

THE PERSIAN INVASION AND ITS IMPACT ON

INDIAN CULTURE
The Achaemenid rulers of Persia or Iran took advantage
of the political disunity of this region.
Cyrus, the founder of the Achaemenid dynasty, and his
successor Darius I annexed parts of Punjab and Sindh.
 Naval expedition of Skylax encouraged trade and
commerce between Persia and India
The administrative structure of the Mauryan empire was
influenced in some measure by that of the Achaemenid
rulers of Persia
The Persian scribes brought into India a new style of
writing. It is called kharoshthi

THE GREEK (MACEDONIAN) INVASION AND ITS

IMPACT ON INDIAN CULTURE
Fourth century BC, the Greeks and the Persians fought for
supremacy over West Asia. The Achaemenid empire was
finally destroyed by the Greeks under the leadership of
Alexander of Macedon. He conquered Asia Minor, Iraq
and Iran and then marched towards India because of her
fabulous wealth.
Alexanders invasion brought Europe, for the first time, in
close contact with India,
Chandragupta defeated one of Alexanders generals,
Seleucus Nikator and brought the whole of north western
India upto Afghanistan under his control.
Greek art is found in the development of Indian sculpture
as well.
 Learnt the art of making well-shaped and beautifully
designed gold and silver coins
Influence on Indian astrology as well.
Indian philosophy and religion which filtered into the
Roman empire flowed through the channel opened by
Alexander.

ASHOKA THE GREAT: REPRESENTING THE ACME OF

INDIAN CULTURE
His policies of universal peace, non-violence and religious
harmony find no parallel in the monarchs of the world.
Policies were oriented towards the welfare of his people.
Importance to respecting brahmins, and servants,
obedience to elders, abstention from killing living beings,
He states that in honouring of other sects lies the honour
of ones own sect.
By giving his empire a common Dhamma, a common
language, and practically one script (Brahmi) he brought
further political unification.
He sent ambassadors to the Greek kingdoms and the
West.
Thevarna system popularly known as the caste system
which had arisen in thevedic Age now became well
 established and gradually became the dominant form of
social organization throughout India.

ART AND ARCHITECTURE: MAURYAN BEGINNINGS

The best preserved of all Ashokan edicts stands at Lauriya
Nandangarh (Bihar)
The bull capital from Rampura - example of Mauryan
sculpture.
The most famous capital is the one at Sarnath, which
shows four lions and the Dharmachakra.
The language that has been used in nearly all the
inscriptions and Prakrit which appears to have become
the lingua franca of the country and in the Brahmi script
the earliest known Indian script.
The Lomash Rishi (with its impressive entrance) and the
Sudama caves are examples of rock cut caves
architecture.

POST - MAURYAN CULTURAL DEVELOPMENTS

the Greeks, Shakas, Parthians, and Kushanas were
foreigners, they were slowly absorbed into the local
population. Since they were warriors, the law givers
assigned them the status of Kshatriyas.
 Many foreign rulers adopted Vaishnavism.
200 BC to about 3rd century A.D.
profound changes took place in the economic and
political life and vital developments in different aspects
of cultural life of our country i.e. religion, art and
science as well as technology.
There was a significant advancement in foreign trade
both by land and by sea,
The Mahayana received royal patronage from Kanishka,
who convened the fourth Buddhist Council to finalise its
teachings.

Art and Sculpture

He also set up many stupas in memory of the Buddha.
Gandhara school of art. This school borrowed features
from both the Greek and Roman art forms.
Besides the images of Buddha, which were made in large
numbers, statues of Mahavira were also produced.

Deccan and South India

The Satavahanas in the Deccan held an important position
under the Mauryas.
 They extended their kingdom, cleared forests, made roads
and administered their State well. New towns came up
and trade was carried on with far off countries like Persia,
Iraq and Combodia.

Kharavela of Kalinga
Orissa and parts of Northern Andhra.
Graet administrator as well as a brave warrior.
He carried out works of piety and public utility, like
building roads and gardens.

South India
It was the region of the Cholas, Cheras and the Pandyas
who were constantly at war with each other.
South of the river Krishna and Tungabhadra

Sources
Sangam literature.
Ist century B.C. to the end of 2nd century A.D. called the
Sangam period

Cholas
Karikala was the most important ruler of this kingdom.

Many canals dug so that water from the river Cauvery could be
used for irrigation purposes.
Follower of the Vedic religion.

Credited with many welfare activities.

Pandays
Founded by a woman king.

Life and Culture

Simple life.
Music, dancing and poetry.
Drums, flutes, pipes, etc. were popular.

Society
The Greeks, Kushanas, Shakas and Parthians were called
Yavanas.
They soon merged with the Indian society and adopted
Indian names and inter-married.

The Age of Harshvardhana

An efficient government.
Subdue the petty warring rulers and bring them under his
domain.
Harshas religious activities
Bana wrote Harshas famous biography, Harshcharita
as well as the literary piece Kadambari.
Buddhism and Hindu Religion.
 Inclined towards Buddhism.

Kingdoms of the Deccan and the South:

Pulakesin was a powerful ruler of the Chalukya dynasty.
Capital city Vatapi
Trade relations with Arabia, Iran and the Red Sea port to
the west, as well as with South-East Asia.
Many of the sculptures of the Ellora caves were created at
this time under the patronage of the Chalukyas and the
Rashtrakutas.

CULTURAL DEVELOPMENT DURING THE GUPTA

PERIOD
last phase of ancient Indian history starts in early fourth
century A.D. and ends in about the 8th A.D.
During the Gupta period art became more creative and
Hindu gods and goddesses also came to be portrayed.
Gupta coins - king on one side on the reverse Lakshmi or
Sarswati
Adequate expression in monuments and sculptures.
Niches and corners of religious places with statues of
gods and goddesses.
 The most famous examples of Gupta art that still remain
are the numerous seated and standing images of Buddha
from Sarnath.
Bronze image of Buddha has been discovered at
Sultanganj
Famous Ellora Caves.

Architecture
rock cut caves (Ajanta) and temples, such as the
Dashavatara temple at Deogarh.

Painting
The wall frescoes at the Ajanta caves (Aurangabad) and
the one at Bagh caves (near Gwalior) bear evidence of
this.

THE PALLAVAS AND THE CHOLAS

Pallavas were great patrons ofart and architecture.
ratha at Mahabalipuram styleof temples
Structural temples like theKailashanath
andVaikunthperumal temples atKanchipuram.
Temple building activity flourished in India from the 5th
century AD onwards.
 North Indian temples were built in the Nagara style
consisted of the shikaras (spiral roofs), the garbhagriha
(sanctum) and the mandap (pillared hall),
South were built in the Dravida style completed with
vimana or shikhara, high walls and the gateway topped by
gopuram.
The village panchayat called sahha or ur had extensive
powers. It had control over finances too. This body
included several committees which looked after various
aspects of village administration.
The Dravida style of temple architecture
Rajarajeshwar or Brihadeshwara temple.
Great achievements in the field of sculpture.
Sanskrit also became the language of the courts
Tamil literatures also made great progress.
The ancient period of Indian history came to an end, India
had developed a culture which was marked by features
that have characterized it ever since.
TRANSFORMATION OF VEDIC BRAHMANISM INTO
PURANIC HINDUISM
By the fourth century AD there came into being a famous
Vaishnava work called Shrimadbhagavad-puranawhich
taught devotion to Lord Krishna.
The Gupta rulers especially provided filling to the
Bhagavata Sect of Hinduism.
Animals, plants, rivers and mountains were looked upon
with reverence and cities like Banaras and Prayag became
places of pilgrimage
Idol worship became popular.
Thus the prominent features of modern Hinduism took
shape during the Gupta period.

NALANDAS EMERGENCE AS A GREAT CENTRE OF

LEARNING
During Harshas reign
Grammar, logic, epistemology and sciences were taught
here.
Thus university continued to be the centre of intellectual
activity till the twelfth century.
CHRISTIANITY IN INDIA
Brought to India by Saint Thomas in the first century A.D.
It was most probably the frequent trade and movement
between India and the west which was responsible for
bringing this disciple of Lord Christ to India.
A large community of christians known as Syrian
Christians contine to reside in Kerala even today.
The Christian Church has two major divisions
The Roman Catholic church
The Protestant church.
The Bible contains two parts
The old Testament
The New Testament.
4. MEDIEVAL INDIA

LIFE OF PEOPLE UNDER DELHI SULTANATE

Society
Four major groups.
The aristocrats,
The priests,
The towns people
The peasants.
Aristocrats
The sultan and his relatives, nobility and the
landholders
The Hindu rajahs, chiefs, Hindu merchants and bankers
Concentrated all the wealth as well as the power
The sultan outmatched everyone in this
Coins were issued in his name
Even the nobility imitated his style and showed off
their wealth
The priests
Brahmans in hindus and ulemas in the muslims
Tax-free land for their maintenance
 Great influence on the muslim sultans and often
influenced their policies
Interested in worldly affairs.
The town people
Wealthy merchants, traders and artisans
Nobility, the officers and the soldiers
The administrative and military centers
The sufi and bhakti saints
Important temples and mosques had become pilgrim
centers.
The royal karkhanas or workshops
The peasants
Lived in the villages
Paid huge taxes to the state as land revenue
Very rigid caste system
Intercaste marriages and intercaste dining was totally
prohibited
Exchange of ideas and customs took place.
Like those concerning food, dress, clothing and music,
besides many others

Trade
Banias, Marwaris and Multanis made trade their special
vocation
 The banjaras traded in caravans
Delhi was the centre for the incoming as well as outgoing
goods.
Rice from the East, sugar from Kanauj, wheat from the
Doab and fine silks from the South.
Luxury goods like metalware, ivory, jewellery, cotton
textiles
Goods from outside India like East Africa, Arabia and
China also came to Delhi.
The silver tanka (coin) introduced by Iltutmish
The system of weights

Religious Condition
Hinduism was in vogue.
Uperstitious beliefs, rituals and sacrifices
Caste system was very rigid.
Islam was the opposite of what was in practise among the
Hindus.
Equality, brotherhood and oneness of God
No dogmas in Islam.
Simple doctrine and a democratic organisation
It challenged the social pattern of society
The emergence of the Bhakti movement and the Sufi
movement
RISE OF ISLAM AND SUFISM
First came to India in the eighth century AD
Entered into matrimonial alliances with the local people
and learned to live together in harmony
Exchange of ideas and customs.
Influenced each other equally in dress, speech, manners,
customs and intellectual pursuits.
Prophet Mohammad preached Islam in the seventh
century AD in Arabia.
He migrated to Madina from Mecca in AD 622 and this
marked the beginning of the Hijira Era
Quran is the message of Allah revealed to Mohammad
through his archangel Gabriel.
The five fundamental principles of Islam are:
Tauhid(belief in Allah)
Namaz(prayers, five times a day)
Roza(fasting in the month of Ramzan)
Zakat(giving of alms)
Haj(pilgrimage to Mecca)
Prophet Mohammads sayings are preserved in what is
called the Hadith or Hadees.
There were four pious Caliphs.
 Islam talked of equality, brotherhood, and the existence of
one God
This became cause of rise of both the Bhakti and the Sufi
movements

Rise of Sufism
Term used for Islamic mysticism
Liberal in their religious outlook
Believed in the essential unity of all religions
Preached spirituality through music and doctrines
Listened to poetry and music (sama) which were
originally in Persian, but later switched to Hindawi or
Hindustani
Originated in Iran and found a congenial atmosphere in
India under the Turkish rule
Sense of piety, tolerance, sympathy, concept of equality
and friendly attitude attracted many Hindus, mostly from
lower classes, to Islam.
Sufi saints such as Moinuddin Chisti, Nizamuddin Auliya,
Fariduddin Ganj-e-Shakar
Establishment of their khanqahs and dargahs.
Mazars (tombs) and Takias (resting places of Muslim
saints) became the centres for the propagation of Islamic
ideas.
 Patronized both by the aristocracy and the common
people.
Organised into religious orders or silsilahs.
These silsilahs were named after their founders such as
Chishti, Suhrawardi, Qadi. And Naqshbandis.
Fourteen silsilahs
Ajmer, Nagaur and Ajodhan or Pak Pattan (now in
Pakistan) developed as important centres of Sufism.
Hindu impact on Sufism also became visible in the form of
siddhas and yogic postures.

POLITICAL BACKGROUND
The rulers of Delhi during 1206 to 90 were Mamluk Turks
Followed by > Khiljis > Tughlaqs > Sayyids > Lodis till
1526.
rule over a territory on behalf of the Khalifa or Caliph,
the names of the Khalifa and the Sultan used to be read
in the khutha, (Friday prayers) by the local Imams.
In 1526 the Delhi Sultans were replaced by the Mughals
initially ruled from Agra and later from Delhi till 1707.
continued only nominally till 1857 when the dynasty
ended
Afghan ruler Sher Shah
kept Mughal Humayu away from throne for 15 years
(1540-55)
outstanding achievements.
construction of several roads
the most important being Sarak-i-Azam or Grand Trunk
Road extending from Sonargaon (now in Bangladesh) to
Attock (now in Pakistan) and run through Delhi and Agra a
distance of 1500 kos.
beautiful coins in gold, silver and copper

Mughal emperor Akbar

Ruled from 1556-1605
A sincere effort to foster harmony by discouraging racial,
religious and cultural biases
Develop friendly relations with the hindus
Entered into matrimonial alliances with the rajput
The political unification of the country and the establishment
of an all powerful central government with a uniform system
of administration
A great patron of art, architecture and learning.
Started a faith called din-i-illahi
Navratna
Mulla do pyaza
Hakin humam
 Abdur rahim khan e khanan
Abul tayal
Tansen,
Raja todar mal
Raja man singh
Faizi
Birbal
Debate on religious issues
Liberalism and tolerance was continued by his successors,
jahangir and shah jahan but abandoned by aurangzeb.

Disintegration of the Mughal empire

Endless wars in different parts of the country (especially
in South India)
The rise of the Marathas in the south
The invasions of Nadir Shah and Ahmad Shah Abdali
Unrest amongst the nobility in the court
The rise of the Sikhs in north- western India

Economically India was still the biggest exporter in the world

and had great wealth, but it was left far behind in the process of
modernisation.

CULTURAL DEVELOPMENT
Distinctive features of Indo-Islamic architecture
Dome
 Lofty towers or minarets
Arch
The vault
The famous Mughal gardens like the Shalimar Bagh and
the Nishat Bagh are important elements of our cultural
heritage.
The pietra dura or coloured stone inlay work on marble
became very popular in the days of Shah Jahan
Red Fort in Delhi and the Taj Mahal at Agra.
The structures within the Fatehpur Sikri complex, the
forts at Agra and Lahore and the Shahi mosques in Delhi
and Lahore
Mosques, tombs of kings and dargahs came to dominate
the landscape.

Coinage
Numismatics (the study of coins)
Major source of information for any period in history.
Their designs, calligraphy and mint marks give us plenty
of interesting information on this period.
From the royal titles, the name and place of minting we
can find out the extent of the monarchs kingdom as well
as his status.
 Muhammad Tughlaqs coins were minted at Delhi,
Daulatabad and several other provincial capitals and had
at least twenty-five different varieties.
Legends found on the coins
The warrior in the cause of God and he who obeys the
Sultan obeys the Compassionate, are a few examples.

BHAKTI MOVEMENT
Teachings were similar to those of the Sufis
Popular among the artisans, craftsmen and traders
Villages also flocked to listen
Belief was in the need to unite with God
Concept of guru
Stress on love or devotion as the basis of the relationship
with God.
Attacked the rigidity in religion and the objects of
worship.
Disregarded caste and encouraged women to join in their
religious gatherings.
Entire teaching in the local vernacular language to make
it comprehensible
Saints belonged mainly from the lower castes.
 Stressed the need for tolerance among humans and
religions.
Long known in the South.
Hymns and stories by the Alvars and the Nayannars of the
Tamil devotional cult

Guru Nanak
Khatri family in the villageof Talwandi (Now Nankana)
Left home for the company ofsaints and pirs.
Composed hymns and sang them tothe accompaniment
of the rabab, which is a musicalinstrument
Emphasised love and devotion for the one and only God
Denounsed idol worship, pilgrimages,sacrifices and
rituals
Demanded purity of character and conduct

Ramanuja
From the South
Taught in the langauge of the common people.
Disciple was Ramananda who took his Gurus message to
the northern parts of India.

Ramananda
Wanted to rid the Hindu religion of its evil customs and
practices.
 Born at Allahabad and educated at Varanasi.
All men were equal in the eyes of God
Followers
Kabir was a weaver
Sadhana was a butcher
Ravidasa was a cobbler
Sena was a barber.
Kabir
Criticised the existing social order
Called for hindu-muslim unity
The son of a muslim weaver,
Denounced idol worship
Emphasised the unity of god.

Chaitanya Mahaprabhu
From Bengal
Devotee of Lord Krishna.
Condemned the caste system
Emphasised on the equality of all
Trance singing devotional songs

Mirabai
Composed and sang songs in praise of Lord Krishna.
Namadeva

Marathi Tailor
Created Poetry

Popularity of the Bhakti Movement

Important reason
Hallenged the caste system and the superiority of
thebrahmanas.
Wanted a religion which could satisfy both their
rationality as well as emotions.
No longer satisfied with the old religion
In northern india
Two streams
1. Nirguna bhakti
Devotees of a formless god
Kabir and nanak
2. Saguna bhakti
Devotees of rama, the son of dasharatha, or krishna,
the son of devaki and vasudeva.
Tulsidas (ramcharita manas)
Surdas (sursagar)
Raskhan, a Muslim poet (devotee of Lord Krishna)
Important feature of bhakti movement
Oneness of god
Brotherhood
Against caste or gender
Surrender into god
Intense personal devotion to god
Chanting the name of god
Came the guru or spiritual teacher
Person who had realised god and hence was capable of
leading
System of pahul.
The sanctified water offered by a master to the pupil or
shishya as a token of his being accepted
The sikhs performed washing of the swords ceremony,
called khande ka pahul, evolving as the pir-muridi custom
(the saint-soldier concept).
Literary compositions, rendered into geet, qawali, etc
united the people,
Stimulated the development of regional languages.
DEVELOPMENT OF FOLK ARTS
Dance
Several occasions associated with agricultural operations
like the tilling of soil, sowing of saplings, picking of cotton,
pulling out the weeds and many other social functions
provided opportunities for singing and dancing
Advent of rains became occasions for dancing and
merry-making
Special pujas offered in the temples
Sing till late into the night
Peculiar dance form with a local flavour
Garba, Kalbella, Bhangra, Gddha, Bamboo dance, Lavani
The tamasha and the lavani forms of dance drama were
developed in Maharashtra;
The Pandavanis in central India
Merasis in northern India

Print Art
In Rajasthan, girls came up with beautiful designs on
odhanis, shirts and ghagras.
In Punjab, the girls created beautiful phulkaris.
In and around Lucknow, came up the chikan work on
shirts, salwars, odhanis and even sarees
 Other Types
The puppeteer, the bard and the mime moved from place
to place
The acrobat and the juggler
Martial arts were developed
Wrestling has been popular all over India

PAINTING
Influenced by Islamic culture
Humayun brought painters from Persia
Mir Sayid Ali and Abdus Samad who nurtured the
tradition of painting manuscript.
Dastan-e-Amir Hamza,
Flowering of portrait
Miniature paintings
Painters tried to paint the classical ragas, thereby giving
form and colour to such abstract conceptions as music.
Seasons or baramasa paintings were similarly given
artistic forms.
Mughal school of painting
Akbar as a liberal ruler extended Hindu painters like
Daswant and Basawan Lal
 A fusion of Persian and Indian styles (of painting)
during his period.
The European influence on Indian painting
Jahangir, a famous painter
Famous painters like Ustad and Abul Hasan
Mansur was famous for his miniature painting
The Rajput and the Pahari schools of painting also
received encouragement.
The upper classes in society started patronising painters.
As a result, the havelis (big mansions) of the rich and
temples were profusely embellished
The Mughal School of painting from the sixteenth to the
eighteenth century gave rise to the Indo-Persian school of
miniature art.
Signing on the miniatures
Important works as the Changeznama, Zafarnama and the
Ramayana.
Aurangzeb stopped patronising music and painting

Music
Tansen in court of akabar composed new ragas
 These musicians entertained the emperors at different
times of the day and in different seasons with appropriate
ragas.
Synthesis of indo iranian music during the turko-afghan
rule in india

In north
A distinct school known as the hindustani school of music
came into being and its speciality lay in producing sweet
and rapturous melodies to suit different moods of life.
The ragas and the raginis were personified accordingly.
Khayal, thumri and ghazal were also elaborated

In the south
Carnatic school of music developed.

Indo-Mughal Culture
The practice of jharokha darshan
Court practice of sijda
Concentrated religious and political power

RISE OF MODERN INDIAN LANGUAGES

Urdu
Originated around Delhi
 Developed as a camp language in the army of Allauddin
Khilji when they were stationed in the Deccan around
fourteenth century AD.
The states of Bijapur and the Golconda in the Deccan
became the cradles of Urdu literature
Developed its own grammar and became a distinct language.
Used by the elite as well
Amir Khusrau composed poetry in this language
Beautiful prose, short stories, novels and drama were written
in Urdu during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries
In the first half of the ninteenth century Urdu journalism
played a very important role during the struggle for
independence.

Nearly all other modern Indian languages like Bengali,

Assamese, Oriya, Khari Boli, Punjabi, gujarati, Marathi, Sindhi,
Kashmiri as well as the four South Indian languages -Tamil,
Telugu, Kannada and Malayalam came to acquire their
present form and developed during this period.

NEW FAITHS
Two new religious faiths flourished in India
Sikhism
Zoroastrianism.
Sikhism
Sikhs believe that God to Guru Nanak revealed their
religion, whose spirit entered the second and the
subsequent gurus till the tenth Guru.
The students of history and religion think that the seeds
for the birth and growth of this religion were present in
the Bhakti movement, in its nirguna branch.
Basically believe in a formless God, equality of all
mankind, need of a guru and the pahul tradition.
The fifth guru, Guru Arjun Dev, gave the Sikhs three
things.
The Adi Granth, which contains the sayings of five
gurus and other allied saints.
Standardised script for Gurmukhi in which the Adi
Granth was first written.
The site and the foundation of the Har Mandir sahib or
the Golden Temple and the Akal Takht at Amritsar, the
highest seat from where the dictats for the entire Sikh
community are issued.
The tenth guru, Guru Gobind Singh created the Khalsa,
which means the pure, in 1699.
He gives five vows
 Keeping of kesh (long hair and a beard),
Kangha (comb),
Kada (a metallic bangle),
Kirpan (a sword)
Kaccha (an underwear extending to a little above the
knees)
Consequently, these symbols became the distinguishing
marks of a Sikh.
He further added that after his death the Adi Granth will
be the guru of the Sikhs and they have to pay obeisance to
this holy book.
Music has always been an important feature of Sikhism
Zoroastrianism
founded by Zarathushtra or Zoroaster, in the eighth
century BC.
in the region now known as Persia.
worship of fire and the presence of good and bad in the
form of Ahura Mazda and Ahura Man.
ethical doctrine of kindness and charity.
doctrines are enshrined in the Zend Avesta.
spread over the whole of Persia and remained the
dominant religion till the eighth century AD
 when Muslims conquered this region. Most of the Parsis
migrated to different parts of the world. They also came
to India and settled at Navsari in Gujarat,
Famous Persons
Dadabhai Naoroji
the famous nationalist leader and a Parsi, who exposed the
hollowness of the British claim of civilizing India and not
exploiting it.
Jamshedji Tata

a pioneering Indian industrialist. He established an iron

and steel industry in India in the face of the toughest
competition posed by the British steel mills and yet
continued to prosper.
a large number of public charities
Zorastrianism is not a proselytising religion and no new
entrants are accepted into its fold under any
circumstances.

SOUTH INDIA
Between the ninth and eleventh centuries AD
Cholas was ruling the Cholamandalam region
Developed a strong army, besides a powerful navy
Developed democratic institutions at the village level
Buddhism and Jainism flourished in this region.
 Literature, fine arts, sculpture and metal castings

The fourteenth century

Rise of a new state Vijayanagara now called Karnataka.
To the north of this state across the Tungabhadra river
rose a new Islamic state, called the Bahamani, now known
as Andhra Pradesh.
In the Cholamandalam region, the Tamil language was
popular.
In Karnataka, Kannada, in Andhra, Telegu and in Kerala,
Malyalam flourished, all having different scripts.
Originally the entire region spoke Tamil, as it is a very old
language.
During the Chola period, Kanchi became a great seat of
learning.
Remains of Vijayanagara found in Hampi
MODERN INDIA
all those who came to India from outside such as the Turks,
the Afghans, and the Mughals made India their home. But
the British colonial rulers always remained foreigners to
this land.
they brought profound social, economic and political changes to
suit their interests and in the process left deep imprints on
many aspects of Indian culture.

RISE OF THE WEST AND ITS IMPACT ON INDIA

From 1450 onwards, three important developments had
changed the shape of Europe:
The invention of printing press,
The beginning and the spread of the Renaissance and
the Reformation movements
The discovery of new trade routes
Great progress in the fields of science, exploration and
gunnery
For trade in India: Portuguese > Dutch > French > British
For about two centuries India remained under her
domination where her entire human resources were
recklessly exploited and her wealth was drained away for
the benefit of the ruling nation
 British domination of India was built upon successive
phases.
The first phase consisted of taking hold of the Indian
trade.
In the second phase, the British took control of the
production activities in a manner that would suit their
export objectives
The third phase was an intensified phase of British
Imperialism and colonial exploitation
With the coming of the industrial revolution in Europe,
Indian handicrafts lost both the domestic as well as the
foreign market
1813, these British manufacturers succeeded in
abolishing the East India Companys monopoly of
Indian trade. With this India became an economic
colony of industrial England.
Foreign goods were given free entry
Indian handicrafts were taxed heavily
So the trade from India virtually came to a stop
India had become an excellent consumer of British
goods and a rich supplier of raw materials by the year
1813 A.D.
Introduced steam ships and railways
 Opened a vast market to the British
Facilitated export of Indian raw material abroad
The railways connected the raw material producing
areas with the exporting ports
The railways played an important role in the national
awakening of the country
1853 that Dalhousie opened the first telegraph line from
Calcutta to Agra and also introduced the postal service in
India

INDIA IN THE 18TH CENTURY: ECONOMY, SOCIETY

AND CULTURE
Agriculture was the main occupation
Foreign trade was flourishing under the mughals.
India imported pearls, raw silk, wool, dates, dried fruits
from the persian gulf region;
Coffee, gold, drugs and honey from arabia;
Tea, porcelain and silk came into india from china;
Luxury goods were also brought in from tibet,
singapore, indonesian islands, africa and europe.
Indian exported raw silk, silk fabrics, indigo, sugar,
pepper and many other things.
Indias cotton textiles were famous all over the world.
 In spite of such a favourable balance of trade, indias
economic condition could not improve
Because of constant warfare
There were revolts of the sikhs, jats,
Foreign invasions, like nadir shah (1739 a.d.) and
ahmad shah abdali (1761),
No unity of pattern in the social and cultural life
Caste rules were to be observed in matters of marriage,
diet, inter- dining as well as in choosing a profession
Any one found disobeying rules was to be thrown out of
the community.
In the field of science that india, which was so advanced,
had by now neglected her mathematics and sciences
Teacher were respected in society during those times
The students were taught reading and writing along
with arithmetic
Not patronised by the state, but by local rulers,
members of the aristocracy and benevolent
contributors

Hindu-Muslim Relations
Friendly relations
Religious tolerance
 An equal respect
Difficult to distinguish one from the other.

SOCIAL CONDITIONS
The condition of women
The birth of a girl child was considered to be
unfortunate
Married off in their childhood
Polygamy
No right to property or divorce
Perpetual widowhood
Presence was considered inauspicious
Inter-caste marriages were not allowed.
Muslim Women
Practice of purdah, polygamy, lack of education and
rights to property

SOCIAL AND RELIGIOUS REFORMERS

Christian priests came to India
Started opening schools
Started the printing press and magazines for
disseminating Christian precepts and literature
English education was introduced
 Though the purpose of introducing English education was
to fulfil British political and administrative needs, it
opened the windows for Indians to the West
New ideas of liberalism, rationalism, democracy, equality
and freedom
Acted as a cementing force

Ram Mohan Roy

Harbinger of the modern age in India
Role in reforming the Hindu society and the reawakening
of India
Raja Ram Mohan Roy cited extensively from the religious
texts to show that this was not true
Ritual of sati
Took up cudgels against it and ultimately got it banned
Founded the Brahmo Samaj
Opposed idol worship, polytheism and ritualism.
Debendra Nath Tagore (1817-1905) succeeded Raja Ram
Mohan Roy as the leader of the Brahmo Samaj
Keshab Chandra Sen (1838-1884) took over the
leadership from Tagore
Laid emphasis on individual freedom, national unity,
solidarity, democratization
Became the first organized vehicle
Prarthana Samaj and Ranade
By Dr. Atma Ram Pandurang in 1867
Reforms like inter-caste dining, inter-caste marriage,
widow remarriage and improvement of the lot of women
and depressed classes
According to Ranade, rigidity in religion would not permit
success in social, economic and political spheres

Ramakrishna Paramhansa
Ramakrishan mission
By swami vivekananda to regenerate indian society
Liberty, free thinking and equality
Promoted the vedanta philosophy

Theosophical Society and Annie Besant

promoted studies of ancient Indian religions,
philosophies and doctrine

Narayana Guru
Great saint of South India
Well versed in Malayalam, Sanskrit and Tamil
Decided to work to bring the Nayar and the Ezhava
communities together
 Improve the spiritual as well as the social life of the
people of Kerala

Muslim Reform Movement

Sir syed ahmad khan
Modern education
Denounced purdah, polygamy and easy divorce
Started the aligarh movement
Established the muhammadan anglo-oriental college at
aligarh
Centre for spreadng sciences and culture
Later grew into aligarh muslim university
It gave them a common langauge urdu

Unfortunately, in his later years Syed Ahmad Khan encouraged

the Indian Muslims not to join the National Movement. He felt
that they needed education and not politics. In a way he
encouraged the forces of communalism and separatism at this
stage

Social Reform
Two main objectives
Emancipation of women and giving them equality with
men,
Removal of caste rigidities, especially the abolition of
untouchability and the upliftment of the depressed
classes
 Emancipation of Women
Attempts have been made by the State and reformers
to do away with the practice of early marriage by
legislation
In 1930 the Sharda Act was passed fixing the minimum
age for marriage for boys at 18 and girls at 14
Maharishi Karve was awarded the Bharat Ratna for his
great work in the field
He started schools for girls, as well as working houses
for widows and destitutes
This movement gained momentum and many schools
and colleges were opened for women

Struggle against Caste System

By the Ramakrishn Mission and the Arya Samaj
Shuddhi Movement
Ambedkar opened many schools and colleges for their
benefit
Mahatma Gandhi, on the other hand, championed the
cause of untouchables whom he called Harijans
He asked for temples to be thrown open to them as well
as for equal treatment to them
 Constitution of Free India has given the legal and
constitutional support to this movement
Untouchability was declared a punishable offence

Swami Dayanand
Mastery over the Sanskrit language and the Vedas
In 1875, he founded the Arya Samaj
Aim was to propagate the true knowledge of the Vedas
Opposed untouchability
Polytheism, avataravada and ritualism
Slogan was go back to the Vedas
The Vedas were printed in India under his patronage
Most important work was Satyartha Prakasha (The Light
of Truth).
Followers started a Dayanand Anglo-Vedic (DAV) School
and College in Lahore
Now has over 750 institutions under one umbrella.
other equally well-known personalities and organizations
like Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar, Radhakanta Deb, the
Theosophical Society and the Arya Samaj

Jyotirao Govindrao Phule (1827-90)

According to him the only way to improve the lot of the
lower castes and women was through education
Started the Satya Shodhak Samaj in 1873
 Aim was to seek social justice
Elected to the Poona Municipality as a member.

Pandita Rama Bai (1858-1922)

Travel from place to place, giving discourses on the
Puranas
Scholar and religious speaker
The pundits of Kolkata also invited her to address the
people
She was drawn to the Prarthana Samaj
Started Sharda Sadan, a home for widows.
Mahadev Govid Ranade, R.G. Bhadarkar, Dadabhai Naoroji,
Behramji Malbari were other well known personalities,
who worked for social reforms in Western India.

PRESS AND THE GROWTH OF MODERN INDIAN

LANGUAGES AND LITERATURE
In 1798, lithography was invented
It used the specially prepared surface of a stone for
printing a script, a picture, or drawing
From about 1820 onwards, hundreds of pamphlets and
books were printed
 As a result, by the end of the nineteenth century, the press
had become a powerful tool for influencing public
opinion.
Printing presses were not costly
Encouraged a large number of writers to produce
literature in different Indian languages.
Enrich our cultural heritage
Awakening of the Indians.
Weeklies, fortnightly journals and daily newspapers were
published almost in every language.
Novels, essays and poems played a significant role in
generating nationalism
Bankim Chandras Anandamatha,
Dinabandhu Mitras Neeldarpan,
Bhartendu Harish Chandras Bharat Durdasha,
Lakshminath Bezbaruas works in Assamese,
Subramaniam Bhartis writing in Tamil
Altaf Hussains works in Urdu

Role of Newspapers
Become a powerful and an important instrument for
creating, spreading, influencing and sharpening public
opinion
 Helped in promoting a pan-indian consciousness and in
giving important political education to the people of India
Some important Newspapers
Bengal
The Hindoo Patriot (English)
The Amrita Bazar Patrika (English)
Bombay
Maharatha (English),
Kesari (Marathi)
Madras
The Hindu (English),
Swadeshmitran (Tamil)
Punjab
The Tribune (English)
Kohinoor, Akhbar Am (Urdu)

INDIA SINCE INDEPENDENCE

Major achievement
Secular and democratic republic
Parliamentary system of governance
Integration of the erstwhile princely states
Economic planning
 Commendable progress in the fields of science and
technology.
Heard with respect in international meetings
The issue of india becoming a permanent member of the
un security council is similarly gaining wide acceptance
today.

Nationalist MovementThe Beginning

British imperialistic colonialism
Chief cause of Indias backwardness in every sphere
Indians were now coming to realise this truth
Peasants and the workers were the worst vicitims
Industrialists and the capitalists were also not satisfied
By the 19th century all Indians were united in that, they
had all realised they had a common enemythe
Britishers
The Britishers did help in bringing about administrative
and economic unification of the country.
Communication systems of railway, telegraph and post
Roads and motor transport
Western thought and education
Modern ideas of democracy, humanism, nationalism
and sovereignty
Press and literature
 Revival of the ancient glory of India
The intensification of anti-British feelings due to
The racial arrogance and discrimination on the part of
the British rulers in India,
The agitation of the Britishers against the Ilbert Bill,
Lord Lyttons anti-India measures and the holding of
the lavish British Kings Durbar in India when many
Indians were dying due to famine
Indian National Congress, started by A.O. Hume in 1885
It did succeed in creating political awareness and a
feeling of unity.

The formation of the Muslim League is considered to be the first

fruit of the British master strategy of Divide and Rule. The
British were happy that they had succeeded in separating the 62
million Muslims from the Hindus. Thus arose the evil monster of
communalism in our country.

The Home Rule Movement

After first world war, two Home Rule Leagues were set up
One was started by Tilak at Poona
Other by Annie Besant at Madras.
Aimed at the achievement of Swaraj or self-government
Got definite goal to achieve.
Avoided violent or revolutionary methods.
 Worked as auxiliary units of the Congress.

1905-1918 Period
The Era of Extremists
Criticised the Modertates on these grounds
Failure to define Indias political goals,
Using mild and ineffective methods
Failure to make the movement a mass movement
Led by the trio popularly known as - Lal, Bal, Pal
Lala Laj Pat Rai,
Bal Gangadhar Tilak,
Bipin Chandra Pal
Bankim Chandra, Swami Vivekananda, Swami Dayananda
Saraswari and Aurobindo Ghosh inspired the extremist
philosophy
Curzons repressive policies
Divide and Rule became the immediate cause of
agitation
Boycott of foreign goods and adoption of Swadeshi or
indigeneously produced goods.
The British government used all kinds of violent
repressive measures to supress it.
1919-1934 Period
Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms with the Government of
Indian Act, 1919
The Rowlatt Act
To supress political violence.
Gandhi
Used the political weapon called Satyagraha
Champaran Satyagraha.
The Jallianwala Bagh Massacre took place in Amritsar on
April 13, 1919
The Khilafat Movement started
Aim was to pressurise the government to set right the
wrongs done to the Muslims on the issue of Turkey.
Khilafat Movement merged with the non co-operation
movement
Boycott of anything British including jobs, courts, schools,
colleges, functions and goods
Promotion of Swadeshi, removal of untouchability and
promotion of Hindu-Muslim unity
Revolutionary activities
Bhagat Singh, Chandra Shekhar Azad, Rajguru,
Sukhdev, Bismil, Ashfaqullah and many others
Simon Commission
 For reviewing the political situation.
No Indian was included

An outline of a constitution for India was drawn as Nehru

Report in 1928
The Lahore Session of the Congress in 1929, the slogan of
Purna Swaraj as the goal was adopted; 26th January, 1930
was celebrated as independence day.
Salt Satyagraha
Known as Dandi March, on 6th April, 1930
Gandhi took up the cause of the Depressed Classes and
the Untouchables
The Harijans Sewak Sangh was established.
The Civil Disobedience Movement
Round Table conference.

Achievement of Independence
In 1935, Government of India Act was passed.
Concept of All India Federation
Provincial Autonomy
Only 14 per cent of the population could vote
Separate electroates were provided for Muslims, Sikhs,
Indian Christians, Anglo-Indians and Europeans,
among others
Discouraged the emergence of national unity,
 Encouraged separation and communalism.
Elections were held in 1937.
Congress Ministers were formed in seven out of the
eleven provinces.
Socialist ideas grew
The British policy of divide and rule led to communalism.
They tried to stem the rising nationalism by appeasing
the Muslims and inducing them to ask for privileges as
minority rights.
As a result the two-nation theory was evolved in 1938
and clearly spelt out by Jinnah in 1940.
Dr. Hedgewar founded the Rashtriya Swayam Sewak
Sangh (RSS).
Aimed at awakening and organising the Hindu people
Shakha technique was evolved
The Cripps Mission, in 1942 offered Dominion Status to
India at the end of the war. The Congress rejected the
offer.
The Quit India Movement for complete independence was
launched by Gandhi and the Congress in August, 1942.
Movement under the leadership of Jai Prakash Narain
were also active
 Subhash Chandra Bose and Rash Behari Bose launched
the Indian Independence League and the Indian National
Army (INA), also called Azad Hind Fauj, at Singapore in
1943.
With the help of the Japanese, the INA reached the
Indian borders and captured Kohima.
Japan was defeated by the British Army.
After the end of the war, elections were held in India in
the beginning of 1946. The Congress won most of the
seats.
The Cabinet Mission Plan
Disagreement on the Plan between the Congress and
the Muslim League
Viceory invited the Congerss under Nehru to form an
Interim Government.
The Muslim League was furious and it resulted in
communal riots and a lot of bloodshed.
Stuck to their demand for a separate Muslim country
Pakistan.
British Prime Minister Attlee announced in February, the
Plan for the transfer of Power by June 1948.
Lord Moundbatten was sent as Viceroy to India in March
to make arrangements
 The Congress had to accept the partition of India due to
many pressures, especially because of the widespread
communal bloodshed and the uncompromising attitude
of the League and Jinnah.
India became free on 15th August, 1947 after partition. At
the stroke of midnight (14th-15th August) transfer of
power took place.

Source
NIOS books

By
Bharat Chaudhary