MUFFAKHAM JAH COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND

TECHNOLOGY
(Affiliated to Osmania University)
Banjara Hills, Hyderabad, Telangana State

INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT

BASIC ELECTRONICS LAB MANUAL

BASIC ELECTRONICS LAB

S.No. CONTENTS PAGE No.

1 Vision of the Institution I

2 Mission of the Institution I
3 Vision of the Department II
4 Mission of the Department II
5 PEOs II
6 POs III
7 PSOs IV
8 General Guidelines & Safety instructions IV
EXPERIMENTS
9 CRO-Applications 1
10 V-I Characteristics of Silicon & Germanium PN Junction diodes 13
11 V-I Characteristics of Zener Diode 21
12 Characteristics of BJT in Common Emitter Configuration 26
13 Characteristics of JFET in Common Source Configuration 34
14 Half Wave and Full Wave Rectifier Without Filter 41
15 Half Wave and Full Wave Rectifier with Filter 48
16 Common Emitter BJT Amplifier 54
17 Hartley & Colpitts Oscillator 60
18 Applications of Operational Amplifier 63
19 Logic Gates 66
20 Combinational Circuits 69
21 Sequential Circuits 72
22 Annexure-I: Assessment Rubrics 77
23 Annexure-II: Basic Electronics Lab-OU Syllabus 81

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1. VISION OF THE INSTITUTION

To be part of universal human quest for development and progress by contributing

high calibre, ethical and socially responsible engineers who meet the global challenge
of building modern society in harmony with nature.

2. MISSION OF THE INSTITUTION

To attain excellence in imparting technical education from the undergraduate through

doctorate levels by adopting coherent and judiciously coordinated curricular and co-
curricular programs
To foster partnership with industry and government agencies through collaborative
research and consultancy
To nurture and strengthen auxiliary soft skills for overall development and improved
employability in a multi-cultural work space
To develop scientific temper and spirit of enquiry in order to harness the latent
innovative talents
To develop constructive attitude in students towards the task of nation building and
empower them to become future leaders
To nourish the entrepreneurial instincts of the students and hone their business
acumen.
To involve the students and the faculty in solving local community problems through
economical and sustainable solutions.

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3. VISION OF THE DEPARTMENT

Fostering a bright technological future by enabling the students to function as leaders

in software industry and serve as means of transformation to empower society through
ITeS.

4. MISSION OF THE DEPARTMENT

To create an ambience of academic excellence through state of art infrastructure and

learner-centric pedagogy leading to employability in multi-disciplinary fields.

5. PROGRAM EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES

1. The Program Educational Objectives of Information Technology Program are as

follows:

2. Graduates will demonstrate technical competence and leadership in their chosen

fields of employment by identifying, formulating, analyzing and creating efficient IT
solutions.

3. Graduates will communicate effectively as individuals or team members and be

successful in varied working environment.

4. Graduates will demonstrate lifelong learning through continuing education and

professional development.

5. Graduates will be successful in providing viable and sustainable solutions within

societal, professional, environmental and ethical context.

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6. PROGRAM OUTCOMES

PO1: Engineering knowledge: Apply the knowledge of mathematics, science,

engineering fundamentals, and an engineering specialization to the solution of complex
engineering problems.
PO2: Problem analysis: Identify, formulate, research literature, and analyze complex
engineering problems reaching substantiated conclusions using first principles of
mathematics, natural sciences, and engineering sciences.
PO3: Design/development of solutions: Design solutions for complex engineering
problems and design system components or processes that meet the specified needs with
appropriate consideration for the public health and safety, and the cultural, societal, and
environmental considerations.
PO4: Conduct investigations of complex problems: Use research-based knowledge and
research methods including design of experiments, analysis and interpretation of data,
and synthesis of the information to provide valid conclusions.
PO5: Modern tool usage: Create, select, and apply appropriate techniques, resources,
and modern engineering and IT tools including prediction and modeling to complex
engineering activities with an understanding of the limitations.
PO6: The engineer and society: Apply reasoning informed by the contextual knowledge
to assess societal, health, safety, legal and cultural issues and the consequent
responsibilities relevant to the professional engineering practice.
PO7: Environment and sustainability: Understand the impact of the professional
engineering solutions in societal and environmental contexts, and demonstrate the
knowledge of, and need for sustainable development.
PO8: Ethics: Apply ethical principles and commit to professional ethics and
responsibilities and norms of the engineering practice.
PO9: Individual and team work: Function effectively as an individual, and as a
member or leader in diverse teams, and in multidisciplinary settings.
PO10: Communication: Communicate effectively on complex engineering activities
with the engineering community and with society at large, such as, being able to

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comprehend and write effective reports and design documentation, make effective
presentations, and give and receive clear instructions.
PO11: Project management and finance: Demonstrate knowledge and understanding
of the engineering and management principles and apply these to ones own work, as a
member and leader in a team, to manage projects and in multidisciplinary environments.
PO 12: Life-long learning: Recognize the need for, and have the preparation and ability
to engage in independent and life-long learning in the broadest context of technological
change.

7. PROGRAM SPECIFIC OUTCOMES

PSO1: Work as Software Engineers for providing solutions to real world problems using
Structured, Object Oriented Programming languages and open source software.
PSO2: Function as Systems Engineer, Software Analyst and Tester for IT and ITeS.

GENERAL GUIDELINES AND SAFETY INSTRUCTIONS

1. Sign in the log register as soon as you enter the lab and strictly observe your lab timings.
2. Strictly follow the written and verbal instructions given by the teacher / Lab Instructor. If
you do not understand the instructions, the handouts and the procedures, ask the
instructor or teacher.
3. Never work alone! You should be accompanied by your laboratory partner and / or the
instructors / teaching assistants all the time.
4. It is mandatory to come to lab in a formal dress and wear your ID cards.
5. Do not wear loose-fitting clothing or jewellery in the lab. Rings and necklaces are usual
excellent conductors of electricity.
6. Mobile phones should be switched off in the lab. Keep bags in the bag rack.
7. Keep the labs clean at all times, no food and drinks allowed inside the lab.
8. Intentional misconduct will lead to expulsion from the lab.

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9. Do not handle any equipment without reading the safety instructions. Read the handout
and procedures in the Lab Manual before starting the experiments.
10. Do your wiring, setup, and a careful circuit checkout before applying power. Do not
make circuit changes or perform any wiring when power is on.
11. Avoid contact with energized electrical circuits.
12. Do not insert connectors forcefully into the sockets.
13. NEVER try to experiment with the power from the wall plug.
14. Immediately report dangerous or exceptional conditions to the Lab instructor / teacher:
Equipment that is not working as expected, wires or connectors are broken, the
equipment that smells or smokes. If you are not sure what the problem is or what's
going on, switch off the Emergency shutdown.
15. Never use damaged instruments, wires or connectors. Hand over these parts to the Lab
instructor/Teacher.
16. Be sure of location of fire extinguishers and first aid kits in the laboratory.
17. After completion of Experiment, return the bread board, trainer kits, wires, CRO probes
and other components to lab staff. Do not take any item from the lab without permission.
18. Observation book and lab record should be carried to each lab. Readings of current lab
experiment are to be entered in Observation book and previous lab experiment should be
written in Lab record book. Both the books should be corrected by the faculty in each lab.
19. Handling of Semiconductor Components: Sensitive electronic circuits and electronic
components have to be handled with great care. The inappropriate handling of electronic
component can damage or destroy the devices. The devices can be destroyed by driving
to high currents through the device, by overheating the device, by mixing up the polarity,
or by electrostatic discharge (ESD). Therefore, always handle the electronic devices as
indicated by the handout, the specifications in the data sheet or other documentation.
20. Special Precautions during soldering practice
a. Hold the soldering iron away from your body. Don't point the iron towards you.
b. Don't use a spread solder on the board as it may cause short circuit.
c. Do not overheat the components as excess heat may damage the components/board.
d. In case of burn or injury seek first aid available in the lab or at the college dispensary.

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Experiment No: 1

Study of CRO & Measurement of Voltage Amplitude & Frequency

Aim:
1. Study of CRO and to find the Amplitude and Frequency using CRO.
2. To measure the Unknown Frequency & Phase difference using CRO.
Components and Equipments Required: Cathode-ray oscilloscope, Function Generator (2),
Decade Resistance Box (DRB), Capacitor, CRO Probes and Bread Board.
Theory:

An outline explanation of how an oscilloscope works can be given using the block
diagram shown below.

Fig. 1: Cathode Ray Oscilloscope

Like a television screen, the screen of an oscilloscope consists of a Cathode Ray Tube.
Although the size and shape are different, the operating principle is the same. Inside the tube is
a vacuum. The electron beam emitted by the heated cathode at the rear end of the tube is

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accelerated and focused by one or more anodes, and strikes the front of the tube, producing a
bright spot on the phosphorescent screen.

The electron beam is bent, or deflected, by voltages applied to two sets of plates fixed in
the tube. The horizontal deflection plates or X-plates produce side to side movement. As you
can see, they are linked to a system block called the time base. This produces a saw tooth
waveform. During the rising phase of the saw tooth, the spot is driven at a uniform rate from left
to right across the front of the screen. During the falling phase, the electron beam returns rapidly
from right ot left, but the spot is 'blanked out' so that nothing appears on the screen. In this way,
the time base generates the X-axis of the V/t graph.

The slope of the rising phase varies with the frequency of the saw tooth and can be
adjusted, using the TIME/DIV control, to change the scale of the X-axis. Dividing the
oscilloscope screen into squares allows the horizontal scale to be expressed in seconds,
milliseconds or microseconds per division (s/DIV, ms/DIV, s/DIV). Alternatively, if the
squares are 1 cm apart, the scale may be given as s/cm, ms/cm or s/cm.

The signal to be displayed is connected to the input. The AC/DC switch is usually kept
in the DC position (switch closed) so that there is a direct connection to the Y-amplifier. In the
AC position (switch open) a capacitor is placed in the signal path. The capacitor blocks DC
signals but allows AC signals to pass.

The Y-amplifier is linked in turn to a pair of Y-plates so that it provides the Y-axis of
the the V/t graph. The overall gain of the Y-amplifier can be adjusted, using the VOLTS/DIV
control, so that the resulting display is neither too small nor too large, but fits the screen and can
be seen clearly. The vertical scale is usually given in V/DIV or mV/DIV.

The trigger circuit is used to delay the time base waveform so that the same section of
the input signal is displayed on the screen each time the spot moves across. The effect of this is
to give a stable picture on the oscilloscope screen, making it easier to measure and interpret the
signal.

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Changing the scales of the X-axis and Y-axis allows many different signals to be
displayed. Sometimes, it is also useful to be able to change the positions of the axes. This is
possible using the X-POS and Y-POS controls. For example, with no signal applied, the normal
trace is a straight line across the centre of the screen. Adjusting Y-POS allows the zero level on
the Y-axis to be changed, moving the whole trace up or down on the screen to give an effective
display of signals like pulse waveforms which do not alternate between positive and negative
values.

Fig. 2: Front View of Oscilloscope

Screen: Usually displays a V/t graph, with voltage V on the vertical axis and time t on the
horizontal axis. The scales of both axes can be changed to display a huge variety of signals.

Fig. 3: Screen display of Oscilloscope

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On/Off Switch: Pushed in to switch the oscilloscope on. The green LED illuminates.
X-Y Control: Normally in the OUT position.
When the X-Y button is pressed IN, the oscilloscope does not display a V/t graph.
Instead, the vertical axis is controlled by the input signal to CH II. This allows the oscilloscope
to be used to display a V/V voltage/voltage graph.

The X-Y control is used when you want to display component characteristic curves, or
Lissajous figures. (Links to these topics will be added later.)

TV-Separation: Oscilloscopes are often used to investigate waveforms inside television

systems. This control allows the display to be synchronized with the television system so that
the signals from different points can be compared.

Time / Div: Allows the horizontal scale of the V/t graph to be changed.

Fig. 4: Time division, Intensity, focus, X-Y mode knobs

With more experience of using the oscilloscope, you will develop a clear understanding
of the functions of the important trigger controls and be able to use them effectively.

Intensity and Focus: Adjusting the INTENSITY control changes the brightness of the
oscilloscope display. The FOCUS should be set to produce a bright clear trace.

If required, TR can be adjusted using a small screwdriver so that the oscilloscope trace is
exactly horizontal when no signal is connected.

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X-POS: Allows the whole V/t graph to be moved from side to side on the oscilloscope screen.

This is useful when you want to use the grid in front of the screen to make
measurements, for example, to measure the period of a waveform.

Y-POS I and Y-POS II: These controls allow the corresponding trace to be moved up or
down, changing the position representing 0 V on the oscilloscope screen.

To investigate an alternating signal, you adjust Y-POS so that the 0 V level is close to
the centre of the screen. For a pulse waveform, it is more useful to have 0 V close to the bottom
of the screen. Y-POS I and Y-POS II allow the 0 V levels of the two traces to be adjusted
independently.

Invert: When the INVERT button is pressed IN, the corresponding signal is turned upside
down, or inverted, on the oscilloscope screen. This feature is sometimes useful when comparing
signals.

CH I And CH II Inputs: Signals are connected to the BNC input sockets using BNC
plugs.

Fig. 5: Voltage division, Channels, AC, DC and GND knobs

The smaller socket next to the BNC input socket provides an additional 0 V, GROUND
or EARTH connection.

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Volts / Div: Adjust the vertical scale of the V/t graph. The vertical scales for CH I and CH II
can be adjusted independently.

DC/AC/GND Slide Switches: In the DC position, the signal input is connected directly to
the Y-amplifier of the corresponding channel, CH I or CH II. In the AC position, a capacitor is
connected into the signal pathway so that DC voltages are blocked and only changing AC
signals are displayed.

In the GND position, the input of the Y-amplifier is connected to 0 V. This allows you to check
the position of 0 V on the oscilloscope screen. The DC position of these switches is correct for most
signals.

Trace Selection Switches: The settings of these switches control which traces appear on the
oscilloscope screen.

Measurement of Amplitude & Frequency:

Fig. 6: Measurement of Amplitude & Frequency

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Model waveforms:

Fig. 7: Sinusoidal waveform

A) Measurement of Amplitude:
Procedure:
1. Make the connections as per the diagram shown above.
2. Put the CRO on a single channel mode and bring the CRO into operation by adjusting
the trace of the beam to a normal brightness and into a thin line.
3. Now apply the sinusoidal wave of different amplitudes by using the LEVEL and
COARSE buttons of the function generator.
4. Note on the vertical scale the peak to peak amplitude (Vpp).

Observations:

S. No. No. of Vertical Voltage/ Division Vp-p=X*Y Vm=Vp-p/2

Divisions(X) (Y)

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B) Measurement of Frequency:
Procedure:
1. Make the connections as per the diagram shown above.
2. Put the CRO on a single channel mode and bring the CRO into operation by
adjusting the trace of the beam to a normal brightness and into a thin line.
3. Now apply the sinusoidal wave of different frequencies by using the LEVEL and
COARSE buttons of the function generator.
4. Note down the horizontal scale period (T) in second by observing difference
between the two successive peaks of the waveform.
Observations:

S. No. No. of Horizontal Time/Division T=X*Y f=1/T

(Y)
Divisions(X)

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C) Measurement of Unknown Frequency:

Fig. 8: Measurement of Unknown Frequency

Procedure:
1. Connect the unknown frequency to the vertical (Y) deflection plates (CH -1) and the
known frequency to the horizontal (X) deflection plates (Ch-2) from two function
generators as shown in the figure.
2. Press X- Y mode button on the CRO and obtain the LISSAJOUS PATTERN. The
lissajous pattern is obtained when two sinusoidal signals of different frequencies are
applied to the X and Y deflection plates of the CRO. If the two frequencies are equal, we
get a circle or ellipse.
3. Note down Nx (Number of touching points on X- axis), Ny ( Number of touching points
on Y axis), Fx ( Frequency of known signal).
4. If the LISSAJOUS pattern obtained is not clear to note the readings, Vary the known
frequency such that a clear lissajous pattern is obtained.
5. The unknown frequency Fy is given by Fy = (Nx * Fx) / (Ny)

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Observations:

S. No. Known frequency Nx Ny Unknown frequency

(fx) fy=( Nx. fx)/ Ny

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D) Measurement of Phase Difference:

Fig. 9: Measurement of Phase Difference

Procedure:
1. Connect the RC phase shift network as shown above in the circuit diagram.
2. Obtain a sinusoidal signal of 5V (Pk- Pk) at 1 KHz from the function generator.
3. Connect the signal from the function generator to the input of the RC phase shift
network and the same signal to the CH-1 of the CRO.
4. Connect the output of the Phase shift network to the CH-2 of the CRO.
5. Press X- Y mode button.
6. The pattern obtained on the screen will be an ellipse.
-1
7. The phase difference between the two signals () is given by = sin (B/A).
8. By varying the different values of the resistances from DRB, frequencies, note the
values of B and A and hence find .

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Observations:

S. No. f R C -1 B A -1
= tan (1/wRC) = sin (B/A)

Results:

1. Working of CRO is studied. Amplitude and Frequency a signal is found using CRO.
2. Unknown Frequency & Phase difference are measured using CRO.

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Experiment No: 2

V - I Characteristics of Si & Ge Diodes

Aim:

1. To plot V-I Characteristics of Silicon and Germanium P-N Junction Diodes.

2. To find cut-in voltage for Silicon and Germanium P-N Junction diodes.
3. To find static and dynamic resistances in both forward and reverse biased conditions.

Components:

Name Quantity
Diodes 1N4007(Si) 1
Diodes DR-25(Ge) 1
Resistor 1K 1

Equipment:

Name Range Quantity

Bread board 1
Regulated power supply 0-30V 1
Digital Ammeter 0-200A/200mA 1
Digital Voltmeter 0-20V 1
Connecting Wires

Specifications:

Silicon Diode 1N 4007: Germanium Diode DR 25:

Max Forward Current = 1A Max Forward Current = 250mA

Max Reverse Current = 5.0A Max Reverse Current = 200A

Max Forward Voltage = 0.8V Max Forward Voltage = 1V

Max Reverse Voltage = 1000V Max Reverse Voltage = 25V

Max Power Dissipation = 30mW Max Power Dissipation = 250mW

Temperature = -65 to 200 C Temperature = -55 to 75 C

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Theory:

Donor impurities (pentavalent) are introduced into one-side and acceptor impurities into
the other side of a single crystal of an intrinsic semiconductor to form a p-n diode with a
junction called depletion region (this region is depleted off the charge carriers). This region
gives rise to a potential barrier called Cut-in Voltage. This is the voltage across the diode at
which it starts conducting. The P-N junction can conduct beyond this potential.

The P-N junction supports uni-directional current flow. If +ve terminal of the input
supply is connected to anode (P-side) and ve terminal of the input supply is connected the
cathode. Then diode is said to be forward biased. In this condition the height of the potential
barrier at the junction is lowered by an amount equal to given forward biasing voltage. Both the
holes from p-side and electrons from n-side cross the junction simultaneously and constitute a
forward current from n-side (injected minority current due to holes crossing the junction and
entering P- side of the diode). Assuming current flowing through the diode to be very large, the
diode can be approximated as short- circuited switch.

If ve terminal of the input supply is connected to anode (p-side) and +ve terminal of the
input supply is connected to cathode (n-side) then the diode is said to be reverse biased. In this
condition an amount equal to reverse biasing voltage increases the height of the potential barrier
at the junction. Both the holes on P-side and electrons on N-side tend to move away from the
junction there by increasing the depleted region. However the process cannot continue
indefinitely, thus a small current called reverse saturation current continues to flow in the diode.
This current is negligible hence the diode can be approximated as an open circuited switch.

The volt-ampere characteristics of a diode explained by the following equations

VD
I = IO e VT 1

Where I = current flowing in the diode, I0 = reverse saturation current VD = Voltage applied to
the diode

VT = volt- equivalent of temperature = k T/q = T/ 11,600 = 26mV (@ room temp)

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= 1(for Ge) and 2 (for Si)

It is observed that Ge diodes has smaller cut-in-voltage when compared to Si diode. The
reverse saturation current in Ge diode is larger in magnitude when compared to silicon diode.

Theoretically the dynamic resistance of a diode is determined using the following

equation:

Dynamic Resistance:

=
I

Circuit Diagrams:

Fig. 1: Forward Bias Condition

Fig. 2: Reverse Bias Condition

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Procedure:

Forward Bias Condition:

1. Connect the components as shown in the Fig.1.

2. Vary the supply voltage such that the voltage across the Silicon diode varies from 0 to
0.6 V in steps of 0.1 V and in steps of 0.02 V from 0.6 to 0.76 V. In each step record the
current flowing through the diode as I.
3. Repeat the above steps for Germanium diode too but with the exception that the voltage
across the diode should be varied in steps of 0.01 V from 0.1 to 0.3 V in step-2.

Reverse Bias Condition:

1. Connect the diode in the reverse bias as shown in the Fig.2.

2. Vary the supply voltage such that the voltage across the diode varies from 0 to 10V in
steps of 1 V. Record the current flowing through the diode in each step.
3. Repeat the above steps for Germanium diode too and record the current in each step.
4. Now plot a graph between the voltage across the diode and the current flowing through
the diode in forward and reverse bias, for Silicon and Germanium diodes on separate
graph sheets. This graph is called the V-I characteristics of the diodes.
5. Calculate the static and dynamic resistance of each diode in forward and reverse bias
using the following formulae.

Static resistance, R = V/I

Dynamic resistance, r = V/I

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Observations:

(a) Forward & Reverse bias characteristics of Silicon diode

Forward Bias Condition: Reverse Bias Condition:

S. No. Forward Forward S. No. Reverse Reverse

Voltage Current Voltage Current
across the through the across the through the
diode diode diode diode

Vd (Volt) Id (mA) VR (Volt) IR (A)

(b) Forward & Reverse bias characteristics of Germanium diode

Forward Bias Condition: Reverse Bias Condition:
Condition:

S. No. Forward Forward S. No. Reverse Reverse

Voltage Current Voltage Current
across the through the across the through the
diode diode diode diode

Vd (Volt) Id (mA) Vr (Volt) IR (A)

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Graphs:

1. Take a graph sheet and divide it into 4 equal parts. Mark origin at the center of the graph
sheet.
2. Now mark +ve X-axis as Vf, -ve X-axis as VR, +ve Y-axis as If and ve Y-axis as IR.
3. Mark the readings tabulated for Si forward biased condition in first Quadrant and Si
reverse biased condition in third Quadrant.
4. Repeat the same procedure for plotting the Germanium characteristics.

Calculations from Graph:

Static forward Resistance Static Reverse Resistance

Dynamic Forward Resistance Dynamic Reverse Resistance

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Precautions:

1. While doing the experiment do not exceed the readings of the diode. This may lead to
damaging of the diode.
2. Connect voltmeter and ammeter in correct polarities as shown in the circuit diagram.
3. Do not switch ON the power supply unless you have checked the circuit connections as
per the circuit diagram.

Results:

Cut in voltage = ____ V

Static Forward Resistance = ______

Dynamic Forward Resistance = ______

Static Reverse Resistance = ______

Dynamic Reverse Resistance = ______

V-I Characteristics of Silicon & Germanium P-N Junction Diodes are studied.

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Viva Questions

1. What are trivalent and pentavalent impurities?

Ans: Doping is the process of adding impurity atoms to intrinsic silicon or germanium to
improve the conductivity of the semiconductor.
Commonly Used Doping Elements
Trivalent Impurities to make p-Type: Aluminum (Al), Gallium (Ga), Boron(B) and Indium (In).
Pentavalent Impurities to make n-type: Phosphorus (P), Arsenic (As), Antimony (Sb) and
Bismuth (Bi).

2. How PN junction diode does acts as a switch?

Ans: Apply voltage in one direction; it acts like an open circuit. Reverse the polarity of the
voltage and it acts like a short circuit.
3. Diode current equation?

Ans:

4. What is the value of Vt at room temperature?

Ans: 25mV

5. What is cut-in-voltage?

Ans: The forward voltage at which the current through the junction starts increasing rapidly is
called as the cut-in voltage. It is generally 0.7V for a Silicon diode and 0.3V for a germanium
diode.

6. Dynamic resistance expression?

Ans: =
I

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Experiment No.:3

Zener Diode Characteristics

Aim: To plot V-I Characteristics of Zener Diode.

Components:

Name Quantity
Zener Diodes 1N4735A/ FZ 5.1 1
Resistor 1K 1

Equipments:

Name Range Quantity

Bread board 1
Regulated power supply 0-30V 1
Digital Ammeter 200mA 1
Digital Voltmeter 0-20V 1
Connecting Wires

Specifications:

Breakdown Voltage = 5.1V

Power dissipation = 0.75W

Max Forward Current = 1A

Theory: Zener diode is a heavily doped Silicon diode. An ideal P-N junction diode does not
conduct in reverse biased condition. A Zener diode conducts excellently even in reverse biased
condition. These diodes operate at a precise value of voltage called break down voltage. A Zener
diode when forward biased behaves like an ordinary P-N junction diode. A Zener diode when
reverse biased can undergo avalanche break down or zener break down.

Avalanche Break down:

If both p-side and n-side of the diode are lightly doped, depletion region at the junction
widens. Application of a very large electric field at the junction increases the kinetic energy of
the charge carriers which collides with the adjacent atoms and generates charge carriers by

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breaking the bond, they in-turn collides with other atoms by creating new charge carriers, this
process is cumulative which results in the generation of large current resulting in Avalanche
Breakdown.

Zener Break down:

If both p-side and n-side of the diode are heavily doped, depletion region at the junction
reduces, it leads to the development of strong electric field and application of even a small
voltage at the junction may rupture covalent bond and generate large number of charge carriers.
Such sudden increase in the number of charge carriers results in Zener break down.

Circuit Diagram:

Fig. 1: Forward Bias Condition

Fig. 2: Reverse Bias Condition

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Procedure:

Forward Bias Condition:

1. Connect the circuit as shown in fig.1.

2. Vary VF gradually from 0 to 0.6 V in steps of 0.1 V and in steps of 0.02 V from 0.6 to
0.76 V. In each step record the current flowing through the diode as IF.
3. Tabulate different forward currents obtained for different forward voltages.

Reverse Bias Condition:

1. Connect the Zener diode in reverse bias as shown in the fig.2. Vary the voltage across the
diode in steps of 1V from 0 V to 6 V and in steps 0.1 V till its breakdown voltage is
reached. In each step note the current flowing through the diode
2. Plot a graph between V and I. This graph will be called the V-I characteristics of Zener
diode. From the graph find out the breakdown voltage for the diode.

Observations:

Forward Bias Condition: Reverse Bias Condition:

Forward Voltage Forward Current Reverse Voltage Reverse Current

S. No. across the diode through the diode S. No. across the diode through the diode
VF (volts) IF (mA) VR (volts) IR (mA)

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Graph:

1. Take a graph sheet and divide it into 4 equal parts. Mark origin at the center of the graph
sheet.
2. Now mark +ve X-axis as VF, -ve X-axis as VR, +ve Y-axis as IF and ve Y-axis as IR.
3. Mark the readings tabulated for forward biased condition in first Quadrant and reverse
biased condition in third Quadrant.

Fig. 3: V-I Characteristics of Zener Diode

Calculations from Graph:

Precautions:

1. While doing the experiment do not exceed the readings of the diode. This may lead to
damaging of the diode.
2. Connect voltmeter and ammeter in correct polarities as shown in the circuit diagram.
3. Do not switch ON the power supply unless you have checked the circuit connections as
per the circuit diagram.

Results:

1. The Zener Diode Characteristics have been studied.

2. The breakdown voltage of Zener diode in reverse bias was found to be = _____

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Viva Questions

1. What is the difference between p-n Junction diode and zener diode?

Ans: A zener is designed to operate stably in reverse breakdown, which is designed to be at a

low voltage, between 3 volts and 200 volts. The breakdown voltage is specified as a voltage with
a tolerance, such as 10 volts 5%, which means the breakdown voltage (or operating voltage)
will be between 9.5 volts and 10.5 volts. A signal diode or rectifier will have a high reverse
breakdown, from 50 to 2000 volts, and is NOT designed to operate in the breakdown region. So
exceeding the reverse voltage may result in the device being damaged. In addition, the
breakdown voltage is specified as a minimum only. Forward characteristics are similar to both,
although the zener's forward characteristics is usually not specified, as the zener will never be
used in that region. A signal diode or rectifier has the forward voltage specified as a max voltage
at one or more current levels.

2. What is break down voltage?

Ans: The breakdown voltage of a diode is the minimum reverse voltage to make the diode
conduct in reverse.

3. What are the applications of Zener diode?

Ans: Zener diodes are widely used as voltage references and as shunt regulators to regulate the
voltage across small circuits.

4. What is cut-in-voltage ?

Ans: The forward voltage at which the current through the junction starts increasing rapidly, is
called the knee voltage or cut-in voltage. It is generally 0.6v for a Silicon diode.

5. What is voltage regulator?

Ans: A voltage regulator is an electronic circuit that provides a stable dc voltage independent of
the load current, temperature and ac line voltage variations.

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Experiment No: 4

Characteristics of BJT in Common Emitter Configuration

Aim: To plot the Characteristics of a BJT in Common Emitter Configuration.

Components:

Name Quantity
Transistor BC 107 1
Resistor 1K 1

Equipment:

Name Range Quantity

Bread Board 1
Regulated power supply 0-30V 2
Digital Ammeter 0-200mA/0-200A 1
Digital Voltmeter 0-20V 2
Connecting Wires

Specifications:

For Transistor BC 107:

Max Collector Current= 0.1A

Vceo max= 50V
VEB0 = 6V
VCB0 = 50V
Collector power dissipation = 500mW
Temperature Range = -65 to +150 0C
hfe = 110 - 220

Theory:

A BJT is called as Bipolar Junction Transistor and it is a three terminal active device
which has emitter, base and collector as its terminals. It is called as a bipolar device because the
flow of current through it is due to two types of carriers i.e., majority and minority carriers.

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A transistor can be in any of the three configurations viz, Common base, Common
emitter and Common Collector.

The relation between , , of CB, CE, CC are

= = =+ =
+

In CE configuration base will be input node and collector will be the output node .Here
emitter of the transistor is common to both input and output and hence the name common emitter
configuration.

The collector current is given as

= + 1 +

Where is called as reverse saturation current

A transistor in CE configuration is used widely as an amplifier. While plotting the

characteristics of a transistor the input voltage and output current are expressed as a function of
input current and output voltage.

i.e, VBE = f ( IB, VCE ) and

IC = f ( IB, VCE )

Transistor characteristics are of two types.

Input characteristics:- Input characteristics are obtained between the input current and input
voltage at constant output voltage. It is plotted between VBE and IB at constant VCE in CE
configuration

Output characteristics:- Output characteristics are obtained between the output voltage and
output current at constant input current. It is plotted between VCE and IC at constant IB in CE
configuration

The different regions of operation of the BJT are

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Emitter Junction Collector Junction Region Application

RB RB CUTT OFF OFF SWITCH

FB FB SATURATION ON SWITCH

FB RB ACTIVE AMPLIFIER

RB FB REVERSE ACTIVE ATTENUATOR

Circuit Diagram:

Fig. 1: Input Characteristics

Fig. 2: Output Characteristics

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Pin assignment of Transistor:

Procedure:

Input Characteristics:

1) Connect the circuit as shown in fig.(1). Adjust all the knobs of the power supply to their
minimum positions before switching the supply on.
2) Adjust the VCE to 0 V by adjusting the supply VCC.
3) Vary the supply voltage VBB so that VBE varies in steps of 0.1 V from 0 to 0.5 V and then in
steps of 0.02 V from 0.5 to 0.7 V. In each step note the value of base current IB.
4) Adjust VCE to 1, 2V and repeat step-3 for each value of VCE.
5) Plot a graph between VBE and IB for different values of VCE. These curves are called input
characteristic

Output Characteristics:

1) Connect the circuit as shown in fig. (2). All the knobs of the power supply must be at the
minimum position before the supply is switched on.
2) Adjust the base current IB to 20 A by adjusting the supply VBB.
3) Vary the supply voltage VCC so that the voltage VCE varies in steps of 0.2 V from 0 to 2 V and
then in steps of 1 V from 2 to 10 V. In each step the base current should be adjusted to the present
value and the collector current IC should be recorded.
4) Adjust the base current at 40, 60 A and repeat step-3 for each value of IB.
5) Plot a graph between the output voltage VCE and output current IC for different values of the input
current IB. These curves are called the output characteristics.

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Observations:
Input Characteristics

VCE = 0V VCE = 2V

VBE(V) IB(A) VBE(V) IB(A)

Output Characteristics

IB = 20A IB = 40A IB = 60A

VCE(V) IC(mA) VCE(V) IC(mA) VCE(V) IC(mA)

Graph:

Fig. 3: Input Characteristics

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Fig. 4: Output Characteristics

Precautions:

1. While performing the experiment do not exceed the ratings of the transistor. This may
lead to damage the transistor.
2. Connect voltmeter and ammeter in correct polarities as shown in the circuit diagram.
3. Do not switch ON the power supply unless you have checked the circuit connections as
per the circuit diagram.
4. Make sure while selecting the emitter, base and collector terminals of the transistor.

Results:

Input and output Characteristics of a BJT in Common Emitter Configuration are studied.

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Viva Questions

1. What is transistor?

Ans: A transistor is a semiconductor device used to amplify and switch electronic signals and
electrical power. It is composed of semiconductor material with at least three terminals for
connection to an external circuit. The term transistor was coined by John R. Pierce as a
portmanteau of the term "transfer resistor".

2. Write the relation between , and ?

1
Ans: = = = 1+ =
1+ 1 1

3. What is the range of ?

Ans: The important parameter is the common-base current gain, . The common-base current
gain is approximately the gain of current from emitter to collector in the forward-active region.
This ratio usually has a value close to unity; between 0.98 and 0.998.

4. Why is is less than unity?

Ans: It is less than unity due to recombination of charge carriers as they cross the base region.

5. Input and output impedance equations for CB configuration?

Ans: hib=VEB/IE,1/hob=VCB/IC

6. Can we replace transistor by two back to back connected diodes?

Ans: No, because the doping levels of emitter (heavily doped), base(lightly doped) and
collector(doping level greater than base and less than emitter) terminals are different from p and
n terminals in diode.

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7. For amplification CE is preferred, why?

Ans: Because amplification factor beta is usually ranges from 20-500 hence this configuration
gives appreciable current gain as well as voltage gain at its output on the other hand in the
Common Collector configuration has very high input resistance(~750K ) & very low output
resistance(~25 ) so the voltage gain is always less than one & its most important application is
for impedance matching for driving from low impedance load to high impedance source

8. To operate a transistor as amplifier, emitter junction is forward biased and collector junction is
reverse biased, why?

Ans: Voltage is directly proportional to Resistance. Forward bias resistance is very less
compared to reverse bias. In amplifier input forward biased and output reverse biased so voltage
at output increases with reverse bias resistance.

9. Which transistor configuration provides a phase reversal between the input and output signals?

Ans: Common emitter configuration (180 DEG)

10. What is the range if ?

Ans: usually ranges from 20-500.

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Experiment No: 5

Characteristics of JFET in Common source Configuration

Aim:

1. To study Drain Characteristics and Transfer Characteristics of a Junction Field

Effect Transistor (JFET).
2. To measure drain resistance, trans-conductance and amplification factor.
Components:

Name Quantity
JFET BFW 11 1
Resistor 1M 1

Equipment:

Name Range Quantity

Bread Board 1
Regulated power supply 0-30V 1
Digital Ammeter 0-200mA 1
Digital Voltmeter 0-20V 2
Connecting Wires

Specifications:

For FET BFW11:

Gate Source Voltage VGS = -30V

Forward Gain Current IGF = 10mA

Maximum Power Dissipation PD = 300mW

Pin assignment of FET:

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Circuit Diagram:

Fig. 1: Characteristics of FET

Theory:

A JFET is called as Junction Field effect transistor. It is a unipolar device because the
flow of current through it is due to one type of carriers i.e., majority carriers where as a BJT is a
Bi - Polar device, It has 3 terminals Gate, Source and Drain. A JFET can be used in any of the
three configurations viz, Common Source, Common Gate and Common Drain. The input gate to
source junction should always be operated in reverse bias, hence input resistance Ri = , IG 0.

Pinch off voltage VP is defined as the gate to source reverse bias voltage at which the
output drain current becomes zero.

In CS configuration Gate is used as input node and Drain as the output node. A JFET in
CS configuration is used widely as an amplifier. A JFET amplifier is preferred over a BJT
amplifier when the demand is for smaller gain, high input resistance and low output resistance.
Any FET operation is governed by the following equation.

The drain current equation and trans-conductance is given as

2 2
= 1 , = =

Where is called as Drain to Source Saturation current & Vp is called as the Pinch off voltage

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Procedure:

Transfer Characteristics:

1) Connect the circuit as shown. All the knobs of the power supply must be at the minimum
position before the supply is switched on.
2) Adjust the output voltage VDS to 4V by adjusting the supply VDD.
3) Vary the supply voltage VGG so that the voltage VGS varies in steps of -0.25 V from 0 V
onwards. In each step note the drain current ID. This should be continued till ID becomes
zero.
4) Repeat above step for VDS = 8 V.
5) Plot a graph between the input voltage VGS and output current ID for output voltage VDS
in the second quadrant. This curve is called the transfer characteristics.
Drain Characteristics:

1) Connect the circuit as shown in figure. Adjust all the knobs of the power supply to their
minimum positions before switching the supply on.
2) Adjust the input voltage VGS to 0 V by adjusting the supply VGG.
3) Vary the supply voltage VDD so that VDS varies in steps of 0.5 V from 0 to 4 V and then
in steps of 1 V from 4 to 10 V. In each step note the value of drain current ID.
4) Adjust VGS to -1 and -2 V and repeat step-3 for each value of VGS.
5) Plot a graph between VDS and ID for different values of VGS. These curves are called drain
characteristics.
6) Mark the various regions in the drain characteristics graph and calculate the drain
resistance.

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Observations:

Transfer Characteristics

VDS = 4V VDS = 6V
VGS(V) ID(mA) VGS(V) ID(mA)

Drain Characteristics

VGS = 0V VGS = -1V VGS = -2V

VDS(V) ID(mA) VDS(V) ID(mA) VDS(V) ID(mA)

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Graph:

Drain Characteristics
Transfer Characteristics

1. Plot the drain characteristics by taking VDS on X-axis and ID on Y-axis at a constant VGS.
2. Plot the transfer characteristics by taking VGS on X-axis and taking ID on Y-axis at
constant VDS.

Calculations from Graph:

1. Drain Resistance (rd): It is given by the relation of small change in drain to source
voltage ( VDS) to the corresponding change in Drain Current ( ID) for a constant gate
to source voltage ( VGS), when the JFET is operating in pinch-off region.
2. Trans Conductance (gm): Ratio of small change in drain current ( ID) to the
corresponding change in gate to source voltage ( VGS) for a constant VDS.

gm at constant VDS (from transfer characteristics).

The value of gm is expressed in mhos ( ) or Siemens (s).

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3. Amplification factor (): It is given by the ratio of small change in drain to source
voltage ( VDS) to the corresponding change in gate to source voltage ( VGS) for a
constant drain current (ID).

Precautions:

1. While performing the experiment do not exceed the ratings of the FET. This may lead to
damage the FET.
2. Connect voltmeter and ammeter in correct polarities as shown in the circuit diagram.
3. Do not switch ON the power supply unless you have checked the circuit connections as
per the circuit diagram.
4. Make sure while selecting the Source, Drain and Gate terminals of the transistor.

Results:

1. Drain Characteristics and Transfer Characteristics of a Field Effect (FET) Transistor are studied.
2. Drain resistance, trans-conductance and amplification factor are measured.

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Viva Questions

1. Why FET is called a Unipolar device?

Ans: FETs are unipolar transistors as they involve single-carrier-type operation.

2. What are the advantages of FET?

Ans: The main advantage of the FET is its high input resistance, on the order of 100 M or
more. Thus, it is a voltage-controlled device, and shows a high degree of isolation between input
and output. It is a unipolar device, depending only upon majority current flow. It is less noisy.
and is thus found in FM tuners and in low-noise amplifiers for VHF and satellite receivers. It is
relatively immune to radiation. It exhibits no offset voltage at zero drain current and hence
makes an excellent signal chopper. It typically has better thermal stability than a bipolar junction
transistor (BJT)

3. What is trans-conductance?

Ans: Trans-conductance is an expression of the performance of a bipolar transistor or field-effect

transistor (FET). In general, the larger the trans-conductance figure for a device, the greater the
gain (amplification) it is capable of delivering, when all other factors are held constant. The
symbol for trans-conductance is gm. The unit is Siemens, the same unit that is used for direct-
current (DC) conductance.

4. What are the disadvantages of FET?

Ans: It has a relatively low gain-bandwidth product compared to a BJT. The MOSFET has a
drawback of being very susceptible to overload voltages, thus requiring special handling during
installation.The fragile insulating layer of the MOSFET between the gate and channel makes it
vulnerable to electrostatic damage during handling. This is not usually a problem after the device
has been installed in a properly designed circuit.

5. Relation between , gm and rd?

Ans: = gm * rd

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Experiment No: 6

Half Wave and Full Wave Rectifier without Filter

Aim: (i) To study the operation of Half wave and Full wave rectifier without filter

(ii) To find its:

1. Ripple Factor
2. Efficiency
3. Percentage Regulation

Components:

Name Quantity
Diodes 1N4007(Si) 2
Resistor 1K 1

Equipments:

Name Range Quantity

CRO (0-20)MHz 1
CRO probes 2
Digital Ammeter, Voltmeter [0-200A/200mA], [0-20V] 1
Transformer 220V/9V, 50Hz 1
Connecting Wires

Specifications:

Silicon Diode 1N4007:

Max. Forward Current = 1A

Max. Reverse Current = 5.0A

Max. Forward Voltage = 0.8V

Max. Reverse Voltage = 1000V

Max. Power Dissipation = 30mW

Temperature = -65 to 200 C

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Theory:

A rectifier is a circuit that converts a pure AC signal into a pulsating DC signal or a

signal that is a combination of AC and DC components.

A half wave rectifier makes use of single diode to carry out this conversion. It is named
so as the conversion occurs for half input signal cycle. During the positive half cycle, the diode is
forward biased and it conducts and hence a current flows through the load resistor. During the
negative half cycle, the diode is reverse biased and it is equivalent to an open circuit, hence the
current through the load resistance is zero. Thus the diode conducts only for one half cycle and
results in a half wave rectified output.

A full wave rectifier makes use of a two diodes to carry out this conversion. It is named
so as the conversion occurs for complete input signal cycle. The full-wave rectifier consists of a
center-tap transformer, which results in equal voltages above and below the center-tap. During
the positive half cycle, a positive voltage appears at the anode of D1 while a negative voltage
appears at the anode of D2. Due to this diode D1 is forward biased it results in a current Id1
through the load R. During the negative half cycle, a positive voltage appears at the anode of D2
and hence it is forward biased. Resulting in a current Id2 through the load at the same instant a
negative voltage appears at the anode of D1 thus reverse biasing it and hence it doesnt conduct.

Ripple Factor:

Ripple factor is defined as the ratio of the effective value of AC components to the
average DC value. It is denoted by the symbol .

= = 1.21 = = 0.48

Rectification Factor:

The ratio of output DC power to input AC power is defined as efficiency.

2
= = 40.6% = 81%
2

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Percentage of Regulation:

It is a measure of the variation of AC output voltage as a function of DC output voltage.

Percentage of regulation = %

VNL = Voltage across load resistance, when minimum current flows through it.

VFL = Voltage across load resistance, when maximum current flows through.

For an ideal rectifier, the percentage regulation is 0 percent. The percentage of regulation is very
small for a practical half wave and full wave rectifier.

Peak- Inverse Voltage (PIV):

It is the maximum voltage that has to be with stood by a diode when it is reverse biased

PIVHWR = Vm PIVFWR = 2Vm

Comparison of Half-wave and Full-wave rectifier

S. No. Particulars Type of Rectifier

Half-Wave Full-Wave
1. No. of diodes 1 2
2. Maximum Rectification 40.6% 81.2%
Efficiency
3. Vd.c (no load) 2

4. Ripple Factor 1.21 0.48
5. Peak Inverse Voltage Vm 2Vm
6. Output Frequency f 2f
7. Transformer Utilization Factor 0.287 0.693

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Circuit Diagram:

Half wave Rectifier (without filter):

Fig. 1: Circuit diagram of Half-wave rectifier

Full Wave Rectifier (without filter):

Fig. 2: Circuit diagram of Full wave rectifier

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Procedure:

PART-I: Half wave rectifier without filter

1. Connect the circuit as shown in the fig.1.

2. Connect the multimeter across the 1k load.
3. Measure the AC and DC voltages by setting multimeter to ac and dc mode respectively.
4. Now calculate the ripple factor using the following formula.
V AC
Ripple factor ( ) =
V DC

5. Connect the CRO channel-1 across input and channel-2 across output i.e load and
Observe the input and output Waveforms.
6. Now calculate the peak voltage of input and output waveforms and also the frequency.

PART-II: Full wave rectifier without filter

1. Connect the circuit as shown in the fig.2.

2. Repeat the above steps 2-6
3. Plot different graphs for wave forms and calculate ripple factor

Observations:

Half wave rectifier without Filter

Load VAC(V) VDC(V) Ripple Factor Input Signal Output Signal

Resistance
(RL) = Vm Frequency Vm Frequency
p-p(v) (Hz) p-p(v) (Hz)

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Full wave rectifier without Filter

Load VAC(V) VDC(V) Ripple Factor Input Signal Output Signal

Resistance

(RL) = Vm Frequency Vm Frequency
p-p(v) (Hz) p-p(v) (Hz)

Calculations:

1. Ripple Factor = =

2. Percentage Regulation = 100

Expected Waveforms:

Results:

1. Half Wave and Full Wave rectifier characteristics are studied.

2. Ripple factor of Half wave rectifier = -------------
3. Ripple factor of Full wave rectifier = -------------
4. Regulation of Half wave rectifier = -------------
5. Regulation of Full wave rectifier = -------------

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Viva Questions

1. What is a rectifier?

Ans: A rectifier is an electrical device that converts alternating current (AC), which periodically
reverses direction, to direct current (DC), which flows in only one direction. The process is
known as rectification.

2. What is a ripple factor?

Ans: Ripple factor can be defined as the variation of the amplitude of DC (Direct current) due to
improper filtering of AC power supply. it can be measured by RF = vrms / vdc

3. What is efficiency?

Ans: Rectifier efficiency is the ratio of the DC output power to the AC input power.

4. What is PIV?

Ans: The peak inverse voltage is either the specified maximum voltage that a diode rectifier can
block, or, alternatively, the maximum that a rectifier needs to block in a given application.

5. What are the applications of rectifier?

Ans: The primary application of rectifiers is to derive DC power from an AC supply. Virtually
all electronic devices require DC, so rectifiers are used inside the power supplies of virtually all
electronic equipment. Rectifiers are also used for detection of amplitude modulated radio signals.
rectifiers are used to supply polarized voltage for welding.

6. Give some rectifications technologies?

Ans: Synchronous rectifier, Vibrator, Motor-generator set, Electrolytic ,Mercury arc, and Argon
gas electron tube.

7. What is the efficiency of bridge rectifier?

Ans: 81 %

INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT, MJCET 47

BASIC ELECTRONICS LAB

Experiment No: 7

Half Wave and Full Wave Rectifier with Filter

Aim: (i) To study the operation of a Half wave and Full wave rectifier with filters
(ii) To find its:

1. Ripple Factor
2. Percentage Regulation

Components:

Name Quantity
Diodes 1N4007(Si) 2
Resistor 1K 1
Capacitor 100F 2
Inductor (35 mH), 1

Equipment:

Name Range Quantity

CRO (0-20)MHz 1
CRO probes 2
Digital Ammeter, Voltmeter [0-200A/200mA], [0-20V] 1
Transformer 220V/9V, 50Hz 1
Connecting Wires

Specifications:

Silicon Diode 1N4007:

Max Forward Current = 1A

Max Reverse Current = 5.0A

Max Forward Voltage = 0.8V

Max Reverse Voltage = 1000V

Max Power Dissipation = 30mW

Temperature = -65 to 200 C

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Theory:

A rectifier is a circuit that converts a pure AC signal into a pulsating DC signal or a

signal that is a combination of AC and DC components. In DC supplies, a rectifier is often
followed by a filter circuit which converts the pulsating DC signal into pure DC signal by
removing the AC component. An L-section filter consists of an inductor and a capacitor
connected in the form of an inverted L. A - section filter consists of two capacitors and one
induction in the form symbol pi.

Ripple Factor:

Ripple factor is defined as the ratio of the effective value of AC components to the
average DC value. It is denoted by the symbol .

1
= = 2 where = , =
2

1 2 1
= = 2 where = 2, =
2

Circuit Diagram:

Half Wave Rectifier (with L-section filter):

Fig. 1: Half wave rectifier with L-section Filter

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Full Wave Rectifier (with -section filter):

Fig. 2: Full wave rectifier with -section filter

Procedure:

PART-I: Half wave rectifier with L-section filter

1. Connect the circuit as shown in the fig.1.

2. Connect the multimeter across the 1k load.
3. Measure the AC and DC voltages by setting multimeter to ac and dc mode respectively.
4. Now calculate the ripple factor using the following formula.
V AC
Ripple factor ( ) =
V DC

5. Connect the CRO channel-1 across input and channel-2 across output i.e load and Observe
the input and output Waveforms.
6. Now calculate the peak voltage of input and output waveforms and also the frequency.

PART-II: Full wave rectifier with -section filter

1. Connect the circuit as shown in the fig.2.

2. Repeat the above steps 2-6
3. Plot different graphs for wave forms and calculate ripple factor

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Observations:
Half wave rectifier with L-section filter

Load VAC(V) VDC(V) Ripple Factor Input Signal Output Signal

Resistance

(RL) = Vm Frequency Vm Frequency
p-p(v) (Hz) p-p(v) (Hz)

Full wave rectifier with pi-Section filter

Load VAC(V) VDC(V) Ripple Factor Input Signal Output Signal

Resistance
(RL) = Vm Frequency Vm Frequency
p-p(v) (Hz) p-p(v) (Hz)

Calculations:

1. Ripple factor :

2. Percentage Regulation = 100 %

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Expected Waveforms:

Results:

Full Wave rectifier characteristics are studied.

1. Ripple factor of Half wave with L-section filter = -------------
2. Ripple factor of Full wave with -section filter = -------------
3. Regulation of Half wave with L-section filter = -------------
4. Regulation of Half wave with -section filter = -------------

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Viva Questions

1. What is filter?

Ans: Electronic filters are electronic circuits which perform signal processing functions,
specifically to remove unwanted frequency components from the signal.

2. PIV center tapped FWR?

Ans: 2Vm.

3. In filters capacitor is always connected in parallel, why?

Ans: Capacitor allows AC and blocks DC signal, in rectifier for converting AC to DC, capacitor
placed in parallel with output, where output is capacitor blocked voltage. If capacitance value
increases its capacity also increases which increases efficiency of rectifier.

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Experiment No: 8

Common Emitter BJT Amplifier

Aim:

1. To plot the frequency response of a Common Emitter BJT amplifier.

2. To find the cut off frequencies, Bandwidth and calculate its gain.

Components:

Name Quantity
Transistor BC547 1
Resistor 74K , 15K , 4.7K , 1K , 2.2K , 8.2K 1,1,1,1,1,1
Capacitor 10F,100F, 1 KPF 2, 1,1

Equipment:

Name Range Quantity

Bread Board 1
Dual DC power supply 0-30V 1
Function Generator (0-1)MHz 1
Digital Ammeter, Voltmeter [0-200A/200mA], [0- 1
20V]
CRO (0-20)MHz 1
CRO probes, Connecting
Wires

Specifications:

For Transistor BC 547:

Max Collector Current= 0.1A

Vceo max= 50V
VEB0 = 6V
VCB0 = 50V
Collector power dissipation = 500mW
Temperature Range = -65 to +150 0C
hfe = 110 - 220

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Theory:

An amplifier is an electronic circuit that can increase the strength of a weak input signal
without distorting its shape. The common emitter configuration is widely used as a basic
amplifier as it has both voltage and current amplification with 1800 phase shift.

The factor by which the input signal gets multiplied after passing through the amplifier
circuit is called the gain of the amplifier. It is given by the ratio of the output and input signals.
Gain = output signal / input signal

A self bias circuit is used in the amplifier circuit because it provides highest Q-point
stability among all the biasing circuits. Resistors R1 and R2 forms a voltage divider across the
base of the transistor. The function of this network is to provide necessary bias condition and
ensure that emitter-base junction is operating in the proper region.

In order to operate transistor as an amplifier, the biasing is done in such a way that the
operating point should be in the active region. For an amplifier the Q-point is placed so that the
load line is bisected. Therefore, in practical design it is always set to Vcc/2. This will confirm
that the Q-point always swings within the active region. Output is produced without any clipping
or distortion for the maximum input signal. If not reduce the input signal magnitude.

The Bypass Capacitor:

The emitter resistor is required to obtain the DC quiescent stability. However the
inclusion of it in the circuit causes a decrease in amplification. In order to avoid such a condition,
it is bypassed by capacitor so that it acts as a short circuit for AC and contributes stability for DC
quiescent condition. Hence capacitor is connected in parallel with emitter resistance which
increases the A.C gain.

The Coupling capacitor:

An amplifier amplifies the given AC signal. In order to have noiseless transmission of a

signal (without DC), it is necessary to block DC i.e. the direct current should not enter the

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amplifier or load. This is usually accomplished by inserting a coupling capacitor between two
stages.

Frequency response :

The plot of gain versus frequency is called as frequency response. The coupling and
bypass capacitors causes the gain to fall at low frequency region and internal parasitic
capacitance and shunt capacitor causes the gain to fall at high frequency region. In the mid
frequency range large capacitors are effectively short circuits and the stray capacitors are open
circuits, so that no capacitance appear in the mid frequency range. Hence the mid band frequency
gain is maximum. Hence we get a Band Pass frequency response

Characteristics of CE Amplifier:

Large current gain.

Large voltage gain.
Large power gain.
Current and voltage phase shift of 180.
Moderate output resistance.

Circuit Diagram:

Fig. 1: CE BJT Amplifier

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Procedure:

1. Connect the circuit as shown in fig.1, Set source voltage as 50mV P-P at 1 KHz
frequency using the function generator.
2. Keeping the input voltage as constant, vary the frequency from 50 Hz to 1 MHz in
regular steps and note down the corresponding output P-P voltage.
3. Plot the graph for gain in (dB) verses Frequency on a semi log graph sheet.
4. Calculate the bandwidth from the graph.

Observations:

Frequency Vs (Volts) Vo(Volts) Gain = Vo/Vs Gain(dB) = 20 log(Vo/Vs)

Graph:

In the usual application, mid band frequency range is defined as those frequencies at
which the response has fallen to 3dB below the maximum gain (|A| max). These are shown as f L,
fH and are called as the 3dB frequencies or simply the lower and higher cut off frequencies
respectively. The difference between the higher cut off and lower cut off frequency is referred to
as the bandwidth (fH - fL).

Fig. 2: Frequency Response Curve of RC coupled BJT CE Amplifier

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Calculations from Graph:

Precautions:

1. While performing the experiment do not exceed the ratings of the transistor. This may
lead to damage the transistor.
2. Connect signal generator in correct polarities as shown in the circuit diagram.
3. Do not switch ON the power supply unless you have checked the circuit connections as
per the circuit diagram.
4. Make sure while selecting the emitter, base and collector terminals of the transistor.

Results:

1. The BJT CE amplifier is studied

2. The frequency response curve of the BJT CE amplifier is plotted.
3. Lower cutoff frequency, fL = .
Higher cutoff frequency, fH =

Bandwidth = fH fL =

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Viva Questions

1. What is the equation for voltage gain?

Ans:

=

2. What is cut off frequency?

Ans: In electronics, cutoff frequency or corner frequency is the frequency either above or below
which the power output of a circuit, such as a line, amplifier, or electronic filter has fallen to a
given proportion of the power in the pass band. Most frequently this proportion is one half the
pass band power, also referred to as the 3 dB point since a fall of 3 dB corresponds
approximately to half power. As a voltage ratio this is a fall to of the pass band voltage

3. What are the applications of CE amplifier?

Ans: Low frequency voltage amplifier, radio frequency circuits and low-noise amplifiers

4. What is active region?

Ans: The active region of a transistor is when the transistor has sufficient base current to turn the
transistor on and for a larger current to flow from emitter to collector. This is the region where
the transistor is on and fully operating. In this region JE in forward bias and JC in reverse bias
and transistor works as an amplifier

5. What is Bandwidth?

Ans: Bandwidth is the difference between the upper and lower frequencies in a continuous set of
frequencies. It is typically measured in hertz, and may sometimes refer to pass band bandwidth,
sometimes to baseband bandwidth, depending on context. Pass band bandwidth is the difference
between the upper and lower cutoff frequencies of, for example, a band pass filter, a
communication channel, or a signal spectrum. In case of a low-pass filter or baseband signal, the
bandwidth is equal to its upper cutoff frequency.

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Experiment No: 9

Hartley & Colpitts Oscillators

Aim: To study the operation of Hartley & Colpitts oscillator circuits and to determine their
frequency of oscillations.

Components and Equipments required: HI-Q electronics Hartley oscillator trainer, HI-Q
electronics Colpitts oscillator trainer, CRO, CRO probe & connecting patch cords.

Theory: An Oscillator is an electronic circuit that provides an AC output without using an AC

input. All sinusoidal oscillator circuits use the concept of positive feedback to produce
oscillations.

An oscillator circuit must satisfy the Barkhausens criteria of unity loop gain to produce
oscillations. Oscillators are extensively used in radio & TV receivers to generate a high
frequency carrier signal in the tuning stages.

Frequency of oscillations is the frequency at which the phase of loop gain equals zero or
integral multiple of 2. Oscillations are sustained when the magnitude of loop gain equals unity.

Circuit Diagram:

Fig. 1: Hartley oscillator

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Fig. 2: Colpitts oscillator

Procedure:

Part-1: Hartley Oscillator

1) Complete the circuit as shown in Fig. 1, by connecting the capacitor C1 provided on

panel of the trainer.
2) Switch ON the power supply for trainer.
3) Connect the CRO to the output terminals & vary the Rc till the stable oscillations are
obtained on the CRO.
4) Now measure the frequency of oscillations practically.
5) Repeat the above steps for different values of capacitors C2, C3 & C4.
6) Draw the oscillations obtained on a graph sheet.

Part-2: Colpitts Oscillator

1) Complete the circuit as shown in Fig. 2, by connecting the capacitors C1 & C2 provided
on panel of the trainer.

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2) Switch ON the power supply for trainer.

3) Connect the CRO to the output terminals & measure the frequency of oscillations
practically.
4) Repeat the above steps by selecting another pair of capacitors C1 & C2.
5) Draw the oscillations obtained on a graph sheet.
Observations:

Hartley Oscillator

S. No. C L1 L2 T f = 1/T

Colpitts Oscillator

S. No. C1 C2 L T f = 1/T

Results: The operation of Hartley & Colpitts oscillator circuits is studied, & their frequency of
oscillations is verified with the theoretical values.

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Experiment No: 10

Applications of Operational Amplifier

Aim: To study the Operational amplifier as Adder, Subtractor, Comparator, Integrator &
Differentiator.

Components and Equipments required: IC741, Regulated DC power supply (2), Resistors (10
k (4), 1k (2)), Capacitors (0.01 F (2)), Multimeter, Signal generator, CRO, CRO probes,
Bread board and connecting wires.

Theory: The Operational amplifier (Op-amp) is a high gain, direct coupled, differential amplifier
with high input resistance & low output resistance. It is named so as it can be used to perform a
number of mathematical operations, like addition, subtraction, comparison, integration &
differentiation etc.

A circuit in which the output voltage is sum of the inputs is called an adder.
A circuit in which the output voltage is difference between the inputs is called a subtractor.
A circuit which compares an input with a reference voltage is called a comparator.
A circuit in which the output voltage is the integral of the input is called an integrator.
A circuit in which the output voltage is the derivative of the input is called a differentiator.
Part-1: Adder, Subtractor & Comparator

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Procedure:

1. Connect the circuits as shown in Fig. 1, Fig. 2, Fig. 3 & Fig. 4.

2. Apply the inputs from a regulated power supply.
3. Measure the output voltage using a multimeter.
4. Repeat the above steps for different values of inputs.
Observations:

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Part-2: Integrator & Differentiator

Procedure:

1. Connect the circuits as shown in Fig. 5 & Fig. 6.

2. Apply a square wave of 3 kHz frequency from Function generator, as input to the
Integrator. Observe the output waveform.
3. Apply a triangular wave of 3 kHz frequency from Function generator, as input to the
Differentiator. Observe the output waveform.
4. Draw the input & output waveforms for above circuits on a graph sheet.
Expected Waveforms:

Results: The Operational amplifier is studied as Adder, Subtractor, Comparator, Integrator &
Differentiator, and their outputs are verified.

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Experiment No: 11

Truth Table verification of Logic Gates

Aim: To verify the truth tables of various logic Gates.

Components and Equipments required: Digital IC trainer kit, ICs (7400, 7402, 7404, 7408,
7432 & 7486) & connecting wires.

Theory:

Digital circuits are implemented using logic gates. The basic logical operations are performed by
NOT, AND, OR gates.

NAND, NOR (the complements of AND, OR gates respectively) are the universal gates as any
logic can be implemented using only NAND or only NOR.

NOT .gate complements the input.

AND gate gives logic 1 as output only if all of its inputs are at logic 1.

OR gate gives logic 0 as output only if all of its inputs are at logic 0.

NAND gate gives logic 0 as output only if all of its inputs are at logic 1.

NOR gate gives logic 1 as output only if all of its inputs are at logic 0.

Ex-OR gate gives logic 1 output if the two inputs are dissimilar.

Truth Tables & IC Diagrams:

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Procedure:

1. Connect the ICs on the trainer kit.

2. Connect Vcc = 5V & GND to pin 14 & 7 respectively.
3. Apply inputs to the logic gates from switches block of the trainer kit.
4. Verify output of the logic gates at LED indicators of the trainer kit.
5. Repeat the steps 3 & 4 for all the gates present in the IC.

Results: The truth tables of various logic Gates are verified.

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Experiment No: 12

Combinational circuits

Aim: To verify the truth tables of Half Adder, Full Adder & 8X1 MUX.

Components and Equipments required: Digital IC trainer kit, ICs (7400 (3), & 74151) &
connecting wires.

Theory:

Half Adder is a combinational circuit which adds the two binary inputs (A & B) to produce sum
(S = A Ex-or B) & carry (cy = A.B).

Full Adder is a combinational circuit which adds the three binary inputs (A, B & C) to produce
sum (sum = A Ex-or B Ex-or C) & carry (cy = A.B+B.C+C.A).

Multiplexer is a combinational circuit in which an input data line is connected to the output
through select lines.

Truth Tables & Circuit Diagrams:

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Part-1: Half Adder, Full Adder.

Procedure:

1) Connect the 7400 ICs on the trainer kit.

2) Make the connections as per the circuit diagrams.
3) Connect Vcc = 5V & GND to pin 14 & 7 respectively.
4) Apply inputs from switches block of the trainer kit.
5) Verify output at LED indicators of the trainer kit.

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Part-2: 8X1 Multiplexer.

Procedure:

1) Connect the 74151 IC on the trainer kit.

2) Connect Vcc = 5V & GND to the respective pins.
3) Apply the select line inputs & the data lines from switches block of the trainer kit.
4) Verify output at LED indicators of the trainer kit.

Results: The truth tables of Half Adder, Full Adder & 8X1 MUX are verified.

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Experiment No: 13

Sequential Circuits
Aim:
i) To verify the truth tables of D Flip-flop & Decade Counter.
ii) To study the working of Shift registers.
Components and Equipments required:
i) Digital IC trainer kit, D flip flop (IC 7474), Decade Counter (IC 7490) & connecting wires.
ii) Shift register trainer kit & connecting wires.
Theory:
Sequential circuits are those in which the output depends on the present inputs & the past
outputs. Sequential circuits usually consist of Logic gates & memory devices like flip flops.

Delay Flip-flop is a special case of S-R Flip-flop or J-K Flip-flop, in which the output is
the present input. It is used to store 1 bit data.

A Decade counter is a sequential circuit which counts the decimal digits i.e; 0 to 9.

A Shift register is a sequential circuit which is generally used to convert data bits from
parallel to serial form (PISO) & vice versa (SIPO). It is also used to shift data either in right or
left directions.

Truth Tables & Circuit Diagrams:

D Flip-flop.

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Procedure:

1) Connect the 7474 IC on the trainer kit.

2) Connect Vcc = 5V & GND to the respective pins.
3) Apply logic 1 for preset & clear inputs of Flip-flop.
4) Apply the D input & the clk from respective blocks at the trainer kit.
5) Verify output at LED indicators of the trainer kit.
6) Repeat steps 3 to 5 for the second flip flop of the IC.
Decade Counter.

Procedure:

1) Connect the 7490 IC on the trainer kit.

2) Connect Vcc = 5V & GND to respective pins.
3) Apply the clk input and short the pins 1 & 12..
4) Connect the pins 8, 9, 11 & 12 of 7490 to the respective slots of 7 segment display at
the trainer kit.
5) Observe the output at LED indicators & the 7 segment display.

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Shift Registers using IC 7495

PIPO:

Circuit Diagram:

Procedure:

1) Connect the inputs A, B, C & D from switches block of the trainer kit.
2) Connect outputs QA, QB, QC & QD to LED indicators on the trainer kit.
3) Apply Logic 1 at MODE input of the IC.
4) Connect the clock from respective block on the trainer kit at clk2 input of the IC.
5) Now switch ON the trainer kit.
6) Apply different input values at A, B, C & D to verify the output at LED indicators.

Observations:

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SIPO (Shift Right):

Procedure:

1) Connect the serial input from switches block of the trainer kit at pin 1 of the IC.
2) Connect outputs QA, QB, QC & QD to LED indicators on the trainer kit.
3) Apply Logic 0 at MODE input of the IC.
4) Connect the clock from respective block on the trainer kit at clk1 input of the IC.
5) Now switch ON the trainer kit.
6) Apply a sequence of input 1000 at pin 1 & verify the output at LED indicators.

Observations:

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Procedure:

1) Connect the serial input at D from switches block of the trainer kit.
2) Also connect QD to C, QC to B & QB to A.
3) Connect outputs QA, QB, QC & QD to LED indicators on the trainer kit.
4) Apply Logic 1 at MODE input of the IC.
5) Connect the clock from respective block on the trainer kit at clk2 input of the IC.
6) Now switch ON the trainer kit.
7) Apply a sequence of input 1000 at D input & verify the output at LED indicators.

Observations:

Results:

i) The truth tables of D-Flip flop & Decade Counter are verified.
ii) Working of Shift Registers is verified.

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ANNEXURE-I
NON-PROGRAMMING LABORATORY COURSES

i. The number of experiments in each laboratory course shall be as per the curriculum in the
scheme of instructions provided by OU. Mostly the number of experiments is 10 in each
laboratory course under semester scheme and 18 under year wise scheme.

ii. The students will maintain a separate note book for observations in each laboratory
course.

iii. In each session the students will conduct the allotted experiment and enter the data in the
observation table.

iv. The students will then complete the calculations and obtain the results. The course
coordinator will certify the result in the same session.

v. The students will submit the record in the next class. The evaluation will be continuous
and not cycle-wise or at semester end.

vi. The internal marks of 25 are awarded in the following manner:

a. Laboratory record - Maximum Marks 15
b. Test and Viva Voce - Maximum Marks 10

vii. Laboratory Record: Each experimental record is evaluated for a score of 50. The rubric
parameters are as follows:
a. Write up format - Maximum Score 15
b. Experimentation Observations & Calculations - Maximum Score 20
c. Results and Graphs - Maximum Score 10
d. Discussion of results - Maximum Score 5

While (a), (c) and (d) are assessed at the time of record submission, (b) is assessed during
the session based on the observations and calculations. Hence if a student is absent for an
experiment but completes it in another session and subsequently submits the record, it
shall be evaluated for a score of 30 and not 50.

viii. The experiment evaluation rubric is therefore as follows:

Parameter Max Score Outstanding Accomplished Developing Beginner Points

Observations &
Calculations 20
Write up format 15
Results & graphs 10
Discussion of
Results 5

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LABORATORY EXPERIMENT EVALUATION RUBRIC

OUTSTANDING ACCOMPLISHED DEVELOPING BEGINNER

CATEGORY
(Up to 100%) (Up to 75%) (Up to 50%) (Up to 25%)
Write up format Aim, Apparatus, The write up follows The report follows The write up does
material requirement, the specified format the specified format not follow the
theoretical basis, but a couple of the but a few of the specified format
procedure of specified parameters formats are missing and the
experiment, sketch of are missing. and the experimental presentation is
the experimental setup sketch is not included shabby.
etc. is demarcated and in the report
presented in clearly
labeled and neatly
organized sections.

Observations The experimental The experimental The experimental The experimental

and Calculations observations and observations and observations and observations and
calculations are calculations are calculations are results are
recorded in neatly recorded in neatly recorded neatly but recorded
prepared table with prepared table with correct units and carelessly. Correct
correct units and correct units and significant figures are units significant
significant figures. significant figures but not used. Sample figures are not
One sample sample calculation is calculation is also not followed and
calculation is not shown shown sample
explained by calculations not
substitution of values shown

Results and Results obtained are Results obtained are Results obtained are Results obtained
Graphs correct within correct within correct within are not correct
reasonable limits. reasonable limits. reasonable limits. within reasonable
Graphs are drawn Graphs are drawn Graphs are not drawn limits. Graphs are
neatly with labeling of neatly with labeling of neatly and or labeling not drawn neatly
the axes. Relevant the axes. Relevant is not proper. No and or labeling is
calculations are calculations from the calculations are done not proper. No
performed from the graphs are incomplete from the graphs and calculations are
graphs. Equations are and equations are not equations are not done from the
obtained by regression obtained by regression obtained by graphs and
analysis or curve analysis or curve regression analysis or equations are not
fitting if relevant fitting curve fitting obtained by
regression
analysis or curve
fitting
Discussion of All relevant points of Results are discussed Discussion of results Neither relevant
results the result are discussed but no theoretical is incomplete and points of the
and justified in light of reference is divergent results are results are
theoretical mentioned. Divergent not identified. discussed nor
expectations. Reasons results are identified divergent results
for divergent results but no satisfactory identified
are identified and reasoning is given for
corrective measures the same.
discussed.

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ix. The first page of the record will contain the following title sheet:

MUFFAKHAM JAH COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGHY

LABORATORY EXPERIMENT ASSESSMENT SHEET
INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT
B.E. 2/4 I SEMESTER 2015-2016
BASIC ELECTRONICS -I LABORATORY

NAME: ROLL NO.

Date Observations Total

Results and Discussion
Exp. Date Submitted & Write up Score
Title of the Experiment Graphs of Results
No. conducted Calculations (Max 15) (Max
(Max 10) (Max 5)
(Max 20) 50)

10

11

12

TOTAL

Date: Signature of Course Coordinator

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x. The 15 marks of laboratory record will be scaled down from the TOTAL of the
assessment sheet.
xi. The test and viva voce will be scored for 10 marks as follows:
Internal Test - 6 marks
Viva Voce / Quiz - 4 marks

xii. Each laboratory course shall have 5 course outcomes.

The proposed course outcomes are as follows:

On successful completion of the course, the student will acquire the ability to:

1. Conduct experiments, take measurements and analyze the data through hands-on
experience in order to demonstrate understanding of the theoretical concepts of
_______________________, while working in small groups.

2. Demonstrate writing skills through clear laboratory reports.

3. Employ graphics packages for drawing of graphs and use computational software for
statistical analysis of data.

4. Compare the experimental results with those introduced in lecture, draw relevant
conclusions and substantiate them satisfactorily.

5. Transfer group experience to individual performance of experiments and demonstrate

effective oral communication skills.

xiii. The Course coordinators would prepare the assessment matrix in accordance with the
guidelines provided above for the five course outcomes. The scores to be entered against
each of the course outcome would be the sum of the following as obtained from the
assessment sheet in the record:

a. Course Outcome 1: Sum of the scores under Observations and Calculations.

b. Course Outcome 2: Sum of the scores under Write up.
c. Course Outcome 3: Sum of the scores under Results and Graphs.
d. Course Outcome 4: Sum of the scores under Discussion of Results.
e. Course Outcome 5: Marks for Internal Test and Viva voce.

xiv. Soft copy of the assessment matrix would be provided to the course coordinators.

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ANNEXURE-II
UNIVERSITY SYLLABUS

BIT 231
BASIC ELECTROINICS LABORATORY

Instruction 3 Periods Per week

Duration of University Examination 3 Hours
University Examination 50 Marks
Sessionals 25 Marks

Course Objectives:
1. To study the electronics components.
2. To study characteristics of semi-conductor devices and design rectifiers, filters and
amplifiers.
3. To study simple electronic circuits.

List of Experiments

ANALOG:

1. CRO and its applications: Measurement of amplitude, frequency. Obtaining

transfer characteristics and lissajous figures. Determination of unknown frequency
using CRO.

2. Characteristics of pn junction diode , zener diode, BJT and FET. Applications: Half-
wave and full-wave rectifiers, clipping and clamping circuits, BJT and FET as switches
3. Frequency response of Common Emitter amplifier
4. Hartley, colpitts and RC phase shift oscillators
5. Operational Amplifier as an adder, sub tractor, differentiator, integrator and
comparator

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DIGITAL:

6. Truth table verification of logic gates using TTL 74 series ICs. Transfer
characteristics of a TTL gate using CRO.
7. Half Adder, Full Adder, Decoder, MUX, implementation of Boolean logic using
decoders and MUXes.
8. Truth table verification of D flip flop, T flip-flop and JK flip-flop.
9. Counters.
10. Shift Registers.

SOFTWARE:

Any 3 experiments using PSPICE.

Note: All the experiments are compulsory

INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT, MJCET 82