Heat Flux in Fire Tests
Javier O. Trevino
Sr. Project Engineer
Outline
Basics of Heat (Conductive, Convective, Radiation)
Convective Heat Transfer in Fire Tests
Fire Basics (Hc, Fuel Flow, Temperature, Heat Release Rate)
Burner Types (diffuse, pre-mix)
Examples (Bunsen, FT4, P1717, UL1709)
Flame Impingement vs Absorbed Heat
Heat Flux vs Heat Release Rate
Radiation Heat Transfer in Fire Tests
Furnaces Types (Open vs Enclosed)
Temperature Sensors (Open TCs, Closed TCs, Plate TCs, DFT
Heat Flux Sensors (Gardon, Schmidt Boelter, Water Calorimater, Slug,
DFT)
Flame Impingement or Radiation Impingement ??
Temperature and Heat Flux Relationship??
Basics of Heat Transfer
Conductive
Flow of Heat from Hot to Cold in Solids, Liquids
R-Value (Thermal Conductivity)
Convective
Flow of Heat from Fluid or Gas to Solid
Heat Transfer Coeff (Absorption of Heat)
Radiation
IR Radiation Absorption of Solids, Liquids
Emissivity (Absorption of Heat)
Convective Heat Transfer in Fires
Fire Basics
Hc (Heat of Combustion)
Gas Common Hydrocarbon Fuels about 50 MJ/kg BTU/lb
Fuel Flow Heat Flow
Fuel Flow (kg/sec lb/sec cfm LPM)
Temperature
Yellow Flame = 1400 F to 1800 F (65% Convective, 35% Radiative)
Blue Flame = 1900F to 2200 F (80% Convective, 20% Radiative)
Heat Release Rate (Watts, BTU/min)
Conversion (kg/sec MJ/sec kW BTU/min)
So. Gas Flow Rate = Heat Flow Rate
Convective Heat Transfer in Fires
Burner Types
Diffuse
Fuel mixes with outside air then ignites
Yellow Flame = 1400 F to 1800 F
Pre-Mix
Fuel mixes with air in mixing chamber then ignites
Blue Flame = 1900F to 2200 F
Convective Heat Transfer in Fires
Examples of Burners
Bunsen (Methane)
Pre-mix, 3 kW, 1400 to 2200 F (Air Intake Dependent)
FT4/Mod 1709
Pre-mix, 10 to 20 kW, 2000 F
P1717
Pre-mix, 50 to 80 kW, 2000 F
UL 1709 (Furnace Volume Dependent)
Pre-mix, 200 kW per burner x 12, 2000 F
Convective Heat Transfer in Fires
Flame Impingement vs Absorbed Heat
Fire Hits Specimen
% Absorbed (Convection, Radiation)
% Reflected (Emissivity, Heat Transfer Coeff, )
% Misses (Depends on Fire Size)
Burner VS Furnace (Cable Fire Test)
Both are 2000 F.
Large % of burner flame not absorbed
Cable ENGULFED in 2000 F Environment
Cable keeps absorbing until equilibrium
Convective Heat Transfer in Fires
Heat Flux (Convective)
vs Heat Release Rate (HRR)
Example: Sand Diffusion Burner
1 ft x 1 ft sand burner
100 kW Fuel Flow Rate
Convective Heat Flux = 100 kW/1/10 sq m = 1000 kW/sq m ???
Specify HRR rather than Heat Flux in burner tests.
Radiation Heat Transfer in Fires
Furnace Types
Open vs Enclosed Furnaces
UL 1709 Closed Furnace Large Volume No
direct Flame Impingement Radiation dominant mode
of heat transfer
Mod. UL 1709 (precursor to P1717) Open Furnace
Small Volume Direct Flame Impingement
Convective dominant mode of heat transfer
P1717 Semi-Closed Furnace Small Volume
Direct Flame Impingement 50/50
Convective/Radiation heat transfer mode
Radiation Heat Transfer in Fire
Tests
Temperature Sensors
Open Thermocouples: Bare Thermocouple Wire
Closed Thermocouples: Inconel or Steel Sheathed
Thermocouple Wire
Plate Thermometer: Thermocouple welded to thin stainless
plate
DFT (Directional Flame Thermometer): Two plate TCs
sandwiching a layer of Cerablanket Insulation
Radiation Heat Transfer in Fire
Tests
Heat Flux Sensors
Gardon Gauge: Electronic Plate Thermocouple (Plate-Wire Thermocouple).
Linear mV signal
Schmidt Boelter Gauge: Electronic Thermopile (Multiple TCs connected
together). Linear mV Signal
Water Calorimeter: Water Flowing through steel pipe or other shape. Calculated
based on water temperature, flow rate, absorption of steel
Slug Calorimeter: Chunk of steel with TCs inside. Calculated based on steel
properties and rate of temperature rise.
DFT: Reverse Code Calculation
Radiation Heat Transfer in Fire
Tests
Flame Impingement
or
Radiation Impingement ??
In UL 1709 Furnace
1st few minutes
Burners fill Furnace with Hot Exhaust
Flame Dominated Volume
After 5 minutes
2000 F Hot Gas Becomes Transparent,
Walls of Furnace Glow Red Hot
Radiation Dominated Volume
Radiation Heat Transfer in Fire
Tests
Temperature and Heat Flux Relationship??
In UL 1709 Furnace Determined by Calibration
Calibration of OPL's Horizontal Furnace
i.a.w. MIL-PRF-32161
2300
2200
Flux VS Temp
Linear (Flux VS Temp)
2100
y = 3.4996x + 1286.3
2000 2 o
188 kW/m = 1944 F
204 kW/m = 2000oF
2
220 kW/m2 = 2056oF
1900
1800
1700
140 150 160 170 180 190 200 210 220 230 240 250 260 270
2
Furnace Heat Flux (kW/m )
Radiation Heat Transfer in Fire
Tests
Temperature and Heat Flux Relationship??
.Followed by Proof Test
Verification of OPL's Horizontal Furnace
i.a.w. MIL-PRF-32161
Test Conducted on 6/14/05
3000 250
2500
200
2000
Heat Flux (kW/m2)
150
Furnace Temp
1500
Furnace Flux
Upper Heat Flux Limit
100
Lower Heat Flux Limit
1000
50
500
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min)
Radiation Heat Transfer in Fire
Tests
Temperature and Heat Flux Relationship??
In P1717 Furnace Determined by Calibration
Heat Flux VS Temperature
Calib 250/9 mV
250
200
150
Flux (kW/sq m)
Flux w 10mV Calib (kW/sq m)
100
50
0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500
Temperature (deg F)
