309.2R-98 Identification and Control of Visible Effects of Consolidation On Formed Concrete Surfaces
309.2R-98 Identification and Control of Visible Effects of Consolidation On Formed Concrete Surfaces
309.2R-98 Identification and Control of Visible Effects of Consolidation On Formed Concrete Surfaces
2R-98
(Reapproved 2005)
Revising Committee:
Jerome H. Ford
Chair
Dan Bonikowsky Gary R. Mass Steven A. Ragan
Neil A. Cumming Bryant Mather Donald L. Schlegel
Timothy P. Dolen Richard E. Miller Brad K. Violetta
Steven H. Gebler H. Celik Ozyildirim
This report provides guidelines for identifying and controlling visible whenever they occur. Some surfaces can tolerate them to some or any
effects of consolidation on precast or cast-in-place formed concrete sur- degree; other surfaces cannot. It is the responsibility of the specifier to
faces. It includes a summary of direct and indirect causes of such imperfec- indicate in the contract documents what constitutes acceptable and unac-
tions. An outline to assist in the reporting on surfaces and photographs to ceptable blemishes for the various surfaces to be produced under the terms
illustrate typical concrete surface blemishes are also included. of a given contract. Terms used in this report are as defined in ACI 116R.
Surface blemishes in concrete may be minimized by proper planning dur-
ing the design and specification stages. Of equal importance is the employ- Keywords: aggregates; bugholes; concretes; consistency; consolidation;
ment of properly trained and motivated supervisory and non-supervisory construction joints; discoloration; formwork (construction); mix propor-
construction personnel to achieve the intended concrete finishes and sur- tioning; placing; preplaced-aggregate concrete; quality control; surface
face textures. defects; temperature; vibration; voids; workability.
The report emphasizes significant consolidation factors that minimize
undesirable surface effects. The reader is cautioned that other potential
causes of such effects may exist beyond those listed in this report. There are
CONTENTS
documents in which a feature designated as a defect is one that must be
Chapter 1General, p. 309.2R-2
prevented, avoided, corrected, remmediated or otherwise dealt with. The
term defect, as formerly used in this report, covers blemishes and depar- Chapter 2Factors causing effects, p. 309.2R-2
tures from perfection that are not features, and must be avoided or repaired 2.1Design of structural members
2.2Specifications
2.3Forms
ACI Committee Reports, Guides, Standard Practices, and
Commentaries are intended for guidance in planning, de- 2.4Properties of fresh concrete
signing, executing, and inspecting construction. This docu- 2.5Placement
ment is intended for the use of individuals who are 2.6Consolidation
competent to evaluate the significance and limitations 2.7Special construction conditions
of its content and recommendations and who will accept
responsibility for the application of the material it con- Chapter 3Surface blemishes, 309.2R-6
tains. The American Concrete Institute disclaims any and 3.1Honeycomb
all responsibility for the stated principles. The Institute shall 3.2 Air voids in formed surfaces
not be liable for any loss or damage arising therefrom.
Reference to this document shall not be made in contract ACI 309.2R-98 became effective August 19, 1998. This document supersedes ACI
documents. If items found in this document are desired by 309.2R-90.
Copyright 1998, American Concrete Institute.
the Architect/Engineer to be a part of the contract docu- All rights reserved including rights of reproduction and use in any form or by any
means, including the making of copies by any photo process, or by electronic or
ments, they shall be restated in mandatory language for in- mechanical device, printed, written, or oral, or recording for sound or visual reproduction
corporation by the Architect/Engineer. or for use in any knowledge or retrieval system or device, unless permission in writing
is obtained from the copyright proprietors.
309.2R-1
309.2R-2 ACI COMMITTEE REPORT
Vibrator too
Highly Excessive free small,
congested Premature Insufficient fall, excessive frequency and
reinforcement, setting fines, low work- lift of concrete amplitude
Stony zone with narrow section, reinforcement ability, early in forms, drop inappropriate,
air voids; lack- internal interfer- Leaking at too close to stiffening, chute omitted, too short immer-
Honeycomb ing in fines. Due 1 ence, reinforce- joints, severe forms, lack of excessive or insufficient sion time, exces-
to ment splices, grout loss access for vibra- mixing, too length, too small sive spacing
segregation restricted access tion, large aggregate a tremie, segre- between immer-
for vibration, congestion due for placing con- gation due to sions, inade-
high monolithic to splices ditions horizontal quate penetration
lifts movement insufficient num-
ber of vibrators
Low FM of fine
Form face aggregate, lean, Too large an
fine aggregate amplitude,
Small individual impermeable,
poor wetting Excessive with a high FM, Too slow, external
Air surface holes, irregular, Battered or low workability, caused by inade- vibration
ranging up to 1 2 interfering con- characteristics, release agent,
voids formwork too high tempera- excessive cement quate pumping inadequate,
in. (25 mm) in struction or pozzolan, rate, undersized head of
diameter flexible, use of ture of concrete.
improper form particle degrada- bucket vibrator
release agent tion, excessive partially
sand, high air immersed
content
Fine aggregate or
coarse aggregate Leaking at
textured areas joints, tie holes, Usually caused Improper Excessive
Form- lacking cement, caused by loose by horizontal Excess water or timing between amplitude or
streaking 3
usually associ- hardware or concrete high slump placing and frequency for
ated with dark oversized tie movement vibrating form design
color on adjacent holes
surface
Low fine-aggre-
Dark or light gate content,
areas of gap-graded Excessive
similar size and Too flexible, aggregate dry or external
Aggregate shape to that of 4 high-density porous aggre- vibration; over-
transparency the coarse aggre- surface finish gate, excessive vibration of
coarse aggre- lightweight
gate, mottled
appearance gate, excessive concrete
slump with light-
weight concrete
Non-uniform color
Variations in Variation in absorp- of materials, incon-
color of the sur- tive capacity of sur- sistent grading, vari-
face, Heavy face, reaction with ation in proportions,
Color
visible within a 6 reinforcement form face, chemical incomplete mixing. Segregation Vibrator too close to
slump too form, vibration next
variation reaction with release Calcium chloride
few hours after close to forms high to forms variable
removing the agents, leakage of can cause darker
formwork forms at joints and color. Too high a
tie holes slump. Over-manip-
ulation
Form leakage.
Variation in Lean over-sanded
Excess water at bot- Low tempera- Excessive vibration.
color or shade tom of form forced mixtures and harsh, Too rapid for Excessive ampli-
Sand streaking due to separa- 7 up along form face ture, wet mix- wet type of tude. Over-
tion of fine parti- tures mixtures mixture
by hydraulic manipulation
cles pressure deficient in fines
Voids, honey-
comb and color Poor planning
or insufficient
variations along Failure to vibrate
boundaries of Insufficient backup equip- Delayed
Cold joints 9 space to insert Too dry, early stiff- into lower lift.
lifts, top layer of ment, ening, slump loss delivery, lifts Insufficient
vibrator substrate too thick
concrete not ade- vibration
quately bonded concrete has
to substrate set
Excessive amplitude,
Abrupt to grad- Construction Poor form
Form offsets ual surface irreg- 10 joint at change Inadequate form-
work design for rate anchorage and Excessive retarda-
tion of time of set-
non-uniform spacing
Rate too high of immersion hori-
in direction of inadequate
ularities of placement ting of concrete zontal movement of
formwork bulkheads concrete
2.3Forms conditions occurs, the concrete surface may peel during form
Some surface blemishes are caused by inadequacies of the removal.
formwork. Examples are leakage at joints, inadequate facing The finish should be observed as the form is stripped so
material, excessive overload on previously placed concrete that appropriate corrective measures, if needed, can be im-
(ACI 303R), inadequate anchorage, poorly braced and ex- plemented promptly. Inward sloping forms have a tendency
cessively flexible forms, improper use of release agents, and to trap or restrict the movement of entrapped air and bleed
oversized and unsealed tie holes. Surface blemishes also re- water to the surface, and increase the occurrence of surface
sult from overuse of forms, poor storage practices, inade- effects. Form strength, design, and other form requirements
quate cleaning, and improper patching and repair of the are covered in ACI 347R.
forms.
The number of visible surface voids (bug holes) may be re- 2.4Properties of fresh concrete
duced by using absorptive forms; however, smooth forms in The composition, consistency, workability, and tempera-
combination with the correct selection of a form release- ture of fresh concrete has a significant bearing on the ease
agent allow air voids at formed surfaces to move upward with which a concrete mixture may be placed and consoli-
more freely. ACI 303R discusses the use of release agents. dated. For critical surface finishes, the effect of each ingre-
Some dry resin-based release agents used on steel forms dient of the mixture may require special consideration.
will greatly increase the number of bug holes. An excessive Placing conditions should also be considered during mixture
amount of release agent collecting in the bottom of the form proportioning.
may result in discoloration of the concrete and may create Mixture adjustments should be made to the proportions to
weak areas. Inadequately cleaned forms, or those which have maintain workability when materials and field conditions
been reused too many times, can contribute significantly to change, provided that critical properties, such as durability
the formation of surface blemishes. When any of these and strength, are maintained.
CONSOLIDATION-RELATED SURFACE EFFECTS 309.2R-5
A review by the designer is essential to ensure that increase in lift thickness from 0.6 to 1.2 m (2 to 4 ft) reduced
strength levels, nominal maximum aggregate size, and bug holes by 50 percent when an air content of 5 percent was
slump requirements for different structural elements are met. specified.
Concrete ingredients should be evaluated and proportions
should be selected well in advance of the concreting opera- 2.6Consolidation
tion to achieve the desired properties for the fresh concrete. Concrete consists of coarse aggregate particles in a matrix
Sticky mixtures may occur if the fine aggregate grading in of mortar, and irregularly distributed pockets of entrapped
the 1.18 mm to 300 m (No. 16 to 50) size range approaches air. If the concrete is air entrained, an additional evenly dis-
the upper limits specified by ASTM C 33, or if high cement tributed system of entrained air bubbles is present. The vol-
contents are used. Some pozzolans also may cause mixtures ume of entrapped air in unconsolidated concrete may vary
to be more cohesive. Thus, the passage of entrapped air may from about 5 to 20 percent depending on the workability of
be restricted and air voids may be trapped at the interface be- the mixture, size and shape of the form, amount of reinforc-
tween the concrete and the form. If fine aggregate contains ing steel, and method of depositing the concrete. The pur-
the proper amount of materials in the 600 to 300 m (No. 30 pose of consolidation is to remove as much of this entrapped
to 50) size range, little bleeding will occur in the resulting air as practical.
concrete. As a result, placement and consolidation of the Vibration is the most common method of consolidation. It
concrete will be facilitated, thereby minimizing surface causes very rapid movement of the concrete mixture parti-
effects. cles and briefly liquefies the mixture, thus reducing the inter-
Soft aggregates may degrade and produce additional fines. nal friction. When vibrated, concrete becomes fluid and
In some instances, the fines may make the mixture more co- through the action of gravity seeks a lower level and denser
hesive and increase the difficulty of removing entrapped air. condition as entrapped air rises to the surface and is expelled.
This is particularly true at high cementitious materials con- It compacts laterally against the form and around the rein-
tents. In other instances, the additional fines can significantly forcing steel. In practice, vibration is normally continued un-
increase the water demand, resulting in lower strength, in- til the entire placement acquires a uniform appearance and
creased shrinkage, and crazing of smooth formed surfaces. its surface just starts to glisten or large bubbles cease to ap-
Experience indicates that a concrete at a given consistency pear. A film of cement paste should be discernible between
will generally flow more easily at lower temperatures than at the concrete and the forms. These visual indicators are not
higher temperatures. necessarily an accurate indication of good consolidation.
When chemical and especially mineral admixtures are ACI 309R provides guidance on judging the adequacy of
used, their effect on placement and consolidation should be vibration.
evaluated when mixture proportions are being established. Undervibration is far more common than overvibration,
All of the factors discussed above need to be considered to and may be caused by the following:
obtain a concrete mixture with the desired composition, 1. Use of an undersized, underpowered, or poorly main-
consistency, and workability to facilitate its placement and tained vibrator;
consolidation. 2. Excessive or haphazard spacing of vibrator insertions;
3. Inadequate vibration during each insertion;
2.5Placement 4. Failure of the vibrator to penetrate into the preceding
Concrete should be placed as quickly as possible with a layer; and/or
minimum amount of segregation and spattering on the 5. Vibrator in the wrong position relative to the form.
forms. Once the coarse aggregate is separated from the mor- Common imperfections resulting from under-vibration are
tar by poor handling and placement practice, it is virtually honeycomb, excessive entrapped air voids, and layer lines.
impossible to work the mortar back into the voids and restore Overvibration can occur if vibration is continued for a pro-
a dense mass by vibration. Segregation and separation cause longed time (several times the recommended time period).
honeycomb. Spattered mortar on the form produces color Overvibration is generally the result of using oversized
variations and poor surface texture. Placing concrete too equipment, improper procedures, high slump, or improperly
slowly may allow workability to be lost and can produce lay- proportioned mixtures. It may result in segregation, exces-
er lines or cold joints due to improper consolidation. The rate sive form deflection, sand streaking, and form damage.
of placement and vibration factors (intensity and spacing) Backstrom et al. (1958) found that air content of concrete is
should be selected to minimize entrapped air in the concrete. decreased by increasing periods of vibration, but little ef-
If concrete is deposited in thick layers of more than 300 mm fect is noted on spacing factor of air-entrained concrete. In
(12 in.), more air may be trapped than if it is placed in a thin- concrete of nominal 6.5 percent air the air content dropped
ner, even layer since the air has to travel farther to escape. from 6.7 to 1.2 after 2, 6, 12, 20, 30, and 60 sec of vibration,
Where mixtures of dry or stiff consistencies are required, the but the spacing factor was unchanged as was the number of
placement rate should be slower to permit adequate consolida- cycles to 25 percent loss in mass.
tion so as to avoid bug holes and honeycombing. However, in The consequences of overvibration will be minimized if a
the case of a sanitary treatment structure with steel forms, an well-proportioned mixture with a proper slump is used. The
309.2R-6 ACI COMMITTEE REPORT
3.1Honeycomb
Honeycomb (Fig. 1) is a condition of irregular voids due
to failure of the mortar to effectively fill the spaces between
coarse aggregate particles. Where bridging of the coarse ag-
gregate particles or stiffness of the mixture is a cause of hon-
eycomb, vibration may assist in overcoming the bridging by
increasing the flowability of the concrete. Factors that may
contribute to honeycombing are: congested reinforcement,
segregation resulting in insufficient paste content, and im-
proper fine aggregate to total aggregate ratio, improper plac-
ing techniques, rapid stiffening of hot concrete, difficult
Fig. 1Honeycomb. construction conditions, and insufficient consolidation ef-
fort. Changes in construction practices and in mixture pro-
behavior of fresh concrete during vibration is discussed in portions to improve workability and the use of water-
ACI 309.1R. reducing admixtures to increase slump may assist in reduc-
ing or preventing honeycombing.
2.7Special construction conditions
No matter how carefully a concrete finish is specified, the 3.2Air voids in formed surfaces
resultant quality depends on careful construction site organi- Bug holes (Fig. 2) are small regular or irregular cavities,
zation and the use of well-trained and skilled workmen. ranging from nearly invisible to 25 mm (1 in.) but usually not
Competent supervision is essential to assure that the con- exceeding 15 mm (9/16 in.) in diameter, that result from en-
struction forces properly handle and assemble the forms and trapment of air bubbles in the surface of formed concrete
methodically place and consolidate the concrete. Supervisors during placement and consolidation. Bug holes on vertical
must be alert to unfavorable conditions during the installa- faces are more likely to occur in sticky or stiff concrete mix-
tion of forms and reinforcement and immediately bring these tures of low workability that may have an excessive fine ag-
conditions to the attention of the designer. The designer gregate content or entrapped air content, or both. Also, the
should also locate horizontal construction joints at points of use of vibrators with too high of an amplitude or the lack of
maximum access for placement and consolidation exists. complete insertion of the vibrator head may result in an in-
Combining lifts may restrict access for proper consolidation creased quantity of air-voids. Air voids vary in size from mi-
and increase the likelihood of surface effects. croscopic to about 25 mm (1 in.). Excess water normally
Formed concrete surfaces under box outs and battered manifests itself in other textural effects such as bleeding
forms require special considerations for placement. The mix- channels or sand streaks on vertical formed surfaces. Bleed
ture may have to be adjusted to produce a readily flowable water voids can form at the top of a column and on battered
concrete that is capable of completely filling the formed area. formed surfaces. Surface voids can be minimized by the pro-
For large surface areas, it may be necessary to cut holes in a cedures discussed in Section 4.
battered form to provide access for vibrating the concrete.
With thin layers and careful vibration, the air bubbles can be 3.3Form streaking
drawn up the side of the form. Experience shows that sloped Form streaking (Fig. 3) is caused by mortar leaking through
concrete steeper than about 20 deg from horizontal should be form joints and tie holes and may be aggravated by overvibra-
formed and the concrete thoroughly vibrated to minimize tion from vibrators that are too powerful, or by using forms
surface voids. Sloping forms at angles of about 45 deg from that vibrate excessively during consolidation.
CONSOLIDATION-RELATED SURFACE EFFECTS 309.2R-7
Placing excessively wet or high-slump concrete mixtures er during the design phase and by using low-slump concrete
will result in more mortar washing out through tie holes and that is well-consolidated.
loose fitting forms. Special care is sometimes required when
high-range water-reducing admixtures are used, as they tend 3.6Color variation
to increase leakage at form joints. Color variation (Fig. 6) may occur within a placement if
the concrete is not uniform or is incompletely mixed.
3.4Aggregate transparency Vibrators inserted too close to the form can cause color
Aggregate transparency (Fig. 4) is a condition character- variation by marring the form surface. External vibration
ized by a mottled appearance on the surface that results from used haphazardly may also cause color variation. Further-
deficiencies in the mortar. It may occur when concrete mix- more, color variations may result from nonuniform absorp-
tures have low fine aggregate content, dry or porous aggre- tion, nonuniform application of the release agent, or both.
gates, or high slump with some lightweight and normal-
weight aggregates. Also, high density or glossy form surfac- 3.7Sand streaking
es may cause aggregate transparency. Sand streaking (Fig. 7) is a streak of exposed fine aggre-
gate in the surface of the formed concrete caused by heavy
3.5Subsidence cracking bleeding along the form.
Subsidence cracking (Fig. 5) results from the development It frequently results from the use of harsh, wet mixtures,
of tension when the concrete settles closed to after time of particularly those deficient in the 300 to 150 m (No. 50 to
initial setting. Cracks are caused because the upper concrete No. 100) and smaller sizes. Streaking tendencies increase
bridges between the forms while the lower concrete settles. when the ratio of fine aggregate to cementitious materials in-
These cracks may occur when there is an insufficient inter- creases, such as in lean mixtures. Although the characteris-
val between placing the concrete in the columns and placing tics of Portland cement and pozzolans, if used, have some
the concrete for the slabs or beams. They may also occur ad- influence on bleeding, the grading of the fine aggregate is of
jacent to block-outs or over reinforcing bars with shallow greater importance. Sand streaking is controlled by the use of
cover. tight forms, proper mixture proportioning, and using well-
To prevent subsidence cracking, the concrete can be revi- graded fine aggregate to minimize bleeding. Streaking can
brated. Revibration is most effective when done at the latest be aggravated by excessive vibration, overmanipulation of
time at which the vibrator head will readily penetrate the the vibrator, the use of a vibrator with excessive amplitude;
concrete under its own weight. Subsidence cracking over re- or excess water at the bottom of the form forced up along the
inforcing bars can be controlled by increasing concrete cov- form face by hydraulic pressure.
309.2R-8 ACI COMMITTEE REPORT
should also be considered as methods of minimizing surface proportioning, placement, consolidation, or workmanship.
effects, provided that design requirements are met. These Frequently, the services of a specialist in concrete and con-
measures have often been successful, particularly when try- crete construction can be used to assist in obtaining concrete
ing to consolidate concrete in congested areas. Further guid- surfaces conforming to the higher standards. The execution
ance can be obtained from ACI 309R. of the work by well-trained work crews under competent su-
pervision will ensure a concrete surface meeting the require-
CHAPTER 5CONSOLIDATION OF PREPLACED- ments of the owner or designer.
AGGREGATE CONCRETE
The causes and cures of blemishes in concrete produced CHAPTER 7SURFACE CONDITION OUTLINE
by the preplaced-aggregate (PA) concrete method (ACI The following is an outline of items that should be consid-
304.1R, Chapter 7) are different from conventionally mixed ered by designers and constructors when reporting on the
and placed concrete in certain aspects. condition of a concrete surface and the possible causes of ef-
The rate of grout rise in preplaced aggregate should be fects. By following this checklist and referring to earlier
about 0.3 m/min (1 ft/min) with a maximum of 0.6 m/min chapters in this document, the designer or constructor should
(2 ft/min). If the supply is too rapid, the grout will rise fast- then be in a position to identify the cause and correct most
er through the large voids and cascade into the smaller types of surface effects.
ones, trapping air. The result is spotty honeycombing. To 1Description of structure
avoid the occurrence of layer lines, the lower ends of the 1.1Name, location, type, and size
grout injection ports should always be maintained at least 0.3 1.2Owner, project engineer, contractor
to 0.6 m (1 to 2 ft) below the grout surface. 1.3Design
Grout will not penetrate pockets of fine aggregate; fines 1.3.1Architect and/or engineer
that collect against side or bottom forms will produce honey- 1.4Photographs
combing. Also, care should be taken to ensure that coarse ag- 1.4.1General view
gregate fills the space between the reinforcement and forms, 2Description of wall, beam, or column showing blemishes
and that no large voids are left that will be subsequently filled 2.1Location, size
with grout. Large surface areas of grout not subdivided by 2.2Type of concrete
coarse aggregate may show crazing from drying shrinkage. 2.2.1Architectural
Coarse aggregate should be saturated when placed and at 2.2.2Structural
the time it is grouted. If rewetting in the forms is required, a 3Effect
fog spray may be applied sparingly to dampen the upper 0.3 3.1Name
m (1 ft) or so. If the entire mass of aggregate needs re-wet- 3.1.1Description
ting, the forms should be inundated with water from the bot- 3.1.2Photographs
tom, then drained off slowly. Large quantities of water 4Causes
applied to the top of the aggregate will wash fines to the bot- 4.1Design of member
tom, resulting in a poor surface or honeycomb. 4.1.1Reinforcement (spacing and size)
Light vibration of forms with external vibrators permit the 4.1.2Width, depth
grout to cover the points of coarse aggregate in contact with 4.1.3Configuration
the form. Overvibration of the form should be avoided, how- 4.2Forms
ever, as it will induce bleeding that may result in sand streak- 4.2.1Method
ing. Some trial and error may be required to determine the 4.2.2Shape
optimum amount of form vibration. Form design must be in 4.2.3Anchorage
conformance with increased pressure. Bolted connections in 4.2.4Insulation
formwork require lock washers or double nutting. Formwork 4.2.5Material type, new or used
under external vibration requires positive attachment to foot- 4.2.6Form coatings
ing or previous placement. 4.2.7Texture and finish
Where the appearance of formed surfaces is important, a 4.2.8Tightness
test section of comparable height should be produced, the 4.2.9Structural adequacy
surface examined, and adjustments made to grading, placing, 4.3Construction conditions
and consolidation procedures adjusted to obtain an accept- 4.3.1Temperature
able result. 4.3.2Wind
4.3.3Humidity
CHAPTER 6CONCLUSION 4.3.4Precipitation
Faulty design and construction practices can result in 4.3.5Placing accessibility
blemishes in formed concrete surfaces. To keep these effects 4.3.6Precautions, covered in 4.5
within tolerable limits, an awareness of their causes and their 4.4Properties of fresh concrete
cures is essential. The causes of these effects may lie in 4.4.1Proportions
initial design concepts, specification, materials selection, 4.4.2Workability
CONSOLIDATION-RELATED SURFACE EFFECTS 309.2R-11