Pipe Flow Module

Users Guide

VERSION 4.3
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Pipe Flow Module Users Guide

19982012 COMSOL
Protected by U.S. Patents 7,519,518; 7,596,474; and 7,623,991. Patents pending.
This Documentation and the Programs described herein are furnished under the COMSOL Software License
Agreement (www.comsol.com/sla) and may be used or copied only under the terms of the license agree-
ment.
COMSOL, COMSOL Desktop, COMSOL Multiphysics, and LiveLink are registered trademarks or trade-
marks of COMSOL AB. Other product or brand names are trademarks or registered trademarks of their
respective holders.
Version: May 2012 COMSOL 4.3

Contact Information
Visit www.comsol.com/contact for a searchable list of all COMSOL offices and local
representatives. From this web page, search the contacts and find a local sales
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If you need to contact Technical Support, an online request form is located at

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Other useful links include:

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Knowledge Base: www.comsol.com/support/knowledgebase

Part No. CM022801

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C o n t e n t s

Chapter 1: Introduction

About the Pipe Flow Module 8

What Can the Pipe Flow Module Do? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Pipe Flow Module Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Show More Physics Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Where Do I Access the Documentation and Model Library? . . . . . . 12
Typographical Conventions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

Overview of the Users Guide 17

Chapter 2: The Fluid Flow Branch

Mechanisms for Modeling Fluid Flow 20

Coupling to Other Physics Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

The Pipe Flow Interface 21

Edge, Boundary, Point, and Pair Features for the Pipe Flow Interface . . . 22
Pipe Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Initial Values. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Inlet. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Outlet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
No Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Bend . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Valve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Contraction / Expansion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

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Pump . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
T-Junction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

The Non-Isothermal Pipe Flow Interface 33

Edge, Boundary, Point, and Pair Features for the Non-Isothermal Pipe Flow
Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Fluid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Heat Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

The Water Hammer Interface 38

Edge, Boundary, Point, and Pair Features for the Water Hammer Interface . 39
Fluid Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Pipe Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Local Friction Loss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Closed. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Velocity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

Theory for the Pipe Flow Interface 44

Flow Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
References for the Pipe Flow Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52

Theory for the Water Hammer Interface 54

Flow Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
References for the Water Hammer interface . . . . . . . . . . . . 56

C h a p t e r 3 : T h e H e a t Tr a n s f e r B r a n c h

The Mechanisms for Heat Transfer 58

Coupling to Other Physics Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58

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The Heat Transfer in Pipes Interface 60

Edge, Boundary, Point, and Pair Features for the Heat Transfer in
Pipes Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Heat Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Heat Source. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Wall Heat Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Internal Film Resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
External Film Resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
Wall Layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
Initial Values. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
Heat Outflow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68

Theory for the Heat Transfer in Pipes Interface 69

The Heat Transfer Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Reference for the Heat Transfer in Pipes interface . . . . . . . . . . 76

C h a p t e r 4 : T h e C h e m i c a l S p e c i e s Tr a n s p o r t B r a n c h

The Transport of Diluted Species in Pipes Interface 78

Edge, Boundary, Point, and Pair Features for the Transport of Diluted
Species in Pipes Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Convection and Diffusion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
Initial Values. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
Reactions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
Wall Mass Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
Concentration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
Mass Outflow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83

The Reacting Pipe Flow Interface 84

Edge, Boundary, Point, and Pair Features for the Reacting Pipe Flow
Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Pipe Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
Initial Values. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
Fluid Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
Convection and Diffusion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89

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Fluid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90

Theory for the Transport of Diluted Species in Pipes Interface 91

Chapter 5: The Acoustics Branch

The Pipe Acoustics, Transient Interface 96

Edge, Boundary, Point, and Pair Features for the Pipe Acoustics,
Transient Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
Initial Values. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
Fluid Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
Pipe Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
Closed. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
Open . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
Velocity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102

Theory for the Pipe Acoustics, Transient Interface 104

Governing Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
Theory for the Pipe Acoustics, Transient Interface Boundary Conditions. 107
Solving Transient Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
References for the Pipe Acoustics, Transient Interface . . . . . . . . 109

Chapter 6: Materials

Material Library and Databases 112

About the Material Databases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
About Using Materials in COMSOL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
Opening the Material Browser . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
Using Material Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118

Liquids and Gases Materials Database 119

Liquids and Gases Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
References for the Liquids and Gases Material Database . . . . . . . 121

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Introduction

This guide describes the Pipe Flow Module, an optional add-on package for
COMSOL Multiphysics designed to model and simulate incompressible flow, heat
and mass transfer in pipes and channels with the Pipe Flow physics. Compressible
hydraulic transients and acoustics waves can also be modeled using the Water
Hammer physics and Pipe Acoustics physics, respectively. The Pipe Flow module
can address problems involving flow velocity, pressure, temperature and sound
waves in cooling systems, ventilation systems, pipe systems in the chemical
processing industry, and pipelines in the oil and gas industry.

This chapter introduces you to the capabilities of this module. A summary of the
physics interfaces and where you can find documentation and model examples is
also included. The last section is a brief overview with links to each chapter in this
guide.

In this chapter:

About the Pipe Flow Module

Overview of the Users Guide

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About the Pipe Flow Module

These topics are included in this section:

What Can the Pipe Flow Module Do?

Pipe Flow Module Interfaces
Show More Physics Options
Where Do I Access the Documentation and Model Library?
Typographical Conventions

What Can the Pipe Flow Module Do?

The Pipe Flow Module is intended for the modeling and simulation of flow of
incompressible fluids in pipe and channel systems, as well as compressible hydraulic
transients and acoustics waves. Typical simulations yield the velocity, pressure
variation, and temperature in systems of pipes and channels. Hydraulic transients
resulting from a valve that is closed rapidly in a pipe network is referred to water
hammer, which can be modeled too. The module can be used to design and optimize
complex cooling systems in turbines, ventilation systems in buildings, pipe systems in
chemical processes, and pipelines in the oil and gas industry.

In common for pipes and channels that can be modeled is that the pipe length is large
enough so that the flow inside can be considered fully developed. Piping components
such as bends, valves, T-junctions, contractions/expansions and pumps are also
available in the module.

The module includes these physics:

The Pipe Flow physics computes the pressure and velocity field in isothermal pipe
systems.
The Heat Transfer in Pipes physics computes the energy balance in pipe systems
but receives the flow field as a value or as a known solved field. Wall heat transfer to
the surroundings is included.
The Transport of Diluted Species in Pipes physics solves a mass balance equation
for pipes in order to compute the concentration distribution of a solute in a dilute
solution, considering diffusion, dispersion, convection, and chemical reactions.
The Non-Isothermal Pipe Flow physics is a multiphysics interface that solves the
flow, pressure, and temperature simultaneously and fully coupled.

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The Reacting Pipe Flow physics is a multiphysics interface that solves the flow,
pressure, temperature, and reacting species transport simultaneously and fully
coupled.
The Water Hammer physics solves rapid hydraulic transients in pipe systems, taking
the elastic properties of both the fluid and pipe wall into account.
The Pipe Acoustics, Transient physics models sound waves in flexible pipe systems.

The physics in the module define the conservation of momentum, energy, and mass of
an fluid inside a pipe or channel system. The flow, pressure, temperature, and
concentration fields across the pipe cross sections are modeled as cross-section
averaged quantities, which only vary along the length of the pipes and channels. The
pressure losses along the length of a pipe or in a pipe component are described using
friction factor expressions. A broad range of built-in expressions for Darcy friction
factors are used that cover the entire flow regime from laminar to turbulent flow,
Newtonian and non-Newtonian fluids, different cross-sectional geometries, and a wide
range of relative surface roughness values. In addition to the continuous frictional
pressure drop along pipe stretches, pressure drops due to momentum changes in
components such as bends, contractions, expansions, T-junctions and valves are
computed through an extensive library of industry standard loss coefficients. Pumps
are also available as components.

Pipe Flow Module Interfaces

INTERFACE ICON TAG SPACE PRESET STUDIES

DIMENSION

Acoustics

Acoustic-Structure Interaction

Pipe Acoustics, Transient patd 3D, 2D time dependent

Requires both the Pipe Flow
Module and Acoustics Module.
Chemical Species Transport

Reacting Pipe Flow rpfl 3D, 2D stationary; time

dependent
Transport of Diluted Species in dsp 3D, 2D stationary; time
Pipes dependent

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INTERFACE ICON TAG SPACE PRESET STUDIES

DIMENSION

Fluid Flow

Single-Phase Flow

Pipe Flow pfl 3D, 2D stationary; time

dependent
Reacting Pipe Flow rpfl 3D, 2D stationary; time
dependent
Water Hammer whtd 3D, 2D time dependent

Non-Isothermal Pipe Flow nipfl 3D, 2D stationary; time

dependent
Heat Transfer

Heat Transfer in Pipes htp 3D, 2D stationary; time

dependent

Show More Physics Options

There are several features available on many physics interfaces or individual nodes. This
section is a short overview of the options and includes links to the COMSOL
Multiphysics Users Guide or COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Guide where
additional information is available.

The links to the features described in the COMSOL Multiphysics Users

Guide and COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Guide do not work in the
Important PDF, only from within the online help.

To locate and search all the documentation for this information, in

COMSOL, select Help>Documentation from the main menu and either
enter a search term or look under a specific module in the documentation
Tip
tree.

To display additional features for the physics interfaces and feature nodes, click the
Show button ( ) on the Model Builder and then select the applicable option.

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After clicking the Show button ( ), some sections display on the settings window
when a node is clicked and other features are available from the context menu when a
node is right-clicked. For each, the additional sections that can be displayed include
Equation, Advanced Settings, Discretization, Consistent Stabilization, and Inconsistent
Stabilization.

You can also click the Expand Sections button ( ) in the Model Builder to always show
some sections or click the Show button ( ) and select Reset to Default to reset to
display only the Equation and Override and Contribution sections.

For most physics nodes, both the Equation and Override and Contribution sections are
always available. Click the Show button ( ) and then select Equation View to display
the Equation View node under all physics nodes in the Model Builder.

Availability of each feature, and whether it is described for a particular physics node, is
based on the individual physics selected. For example, the Discretization, Advanced
Settings, Consistent Stabilization, and Inconsistent Stabilization sections are often
described individually throughout the documentation as there are unique settings.

SECTION CROSS REFERENCE LOCATION IN

COMSOL
MULTIPHYSICS
USERS GUIDE OR
REFERENCE GUIDE

Show More Options and Showing and Expanding Advanced Users Guide
Expand Sections Physics Sections
The Model Builder Window
Discretization Show Discretization Users Guide
Element Types and Discretization
Finite Elements Reference Guide
Discretization of the Equations
Discretization - Splitting Compile Equations Reference Guide
of complex variables
Pair Selection Identity and Contact Pairs Users Guide
Specifying Boundary Conditions for
Identity Pairs
Consistent and Show Stabilization Users Guide
Inconsistent Stabilization
Stabilization Techniques Reference Guide
Numerical Stabilization

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SECTION CROSS REFERENCE LOCATION IN

COMSOL
MULTIPHYSICS
USERS GUIDE OR
REFERENCE GUIDE

Geometry Working with Geometry Users Guide

Constraint Settings Using Weak Constraints Users Guide

Where Do I Access the Documentation and Model Library?

A number of Internet resources provide more information about COMSOL
Multiphysics, including licensing and technical information. The electronic
documentation, Dynamic Help, and the Model Library are all accessed through the
COMSOL Desktop.

If you are reading the documentation as a PDF file on your computer, the
blue links do not work to open a model or content referenced in a
different users guide. However, if you are using the online help in
Important COMSOL Multiphysics, these links work to other modules, model
examples, and documentation sets.

THE DOCUMENTATION
The COMSOL Multiphysics Users Guide and COMSOL Multiphysics Reference
Guide describe all interfaces and functionality included with the basic COMSOL
Multiphysics license. These guides also have instructions about how to use COMSOL
Multiphysics and how to access the documentation electronically through the
COMSOL Multiphysics help desk.

To locate and search all the documentation, in COMSOL Multiphysics:

Press F1 for Dynamic Help,

Click the buttons on the toolbar, or
Select Help>Documentation ( ) or Help>Dynamic Help ( ) from the main menu

and then either enter a search term or look under a specific module in the
documentation tree.

THE MODEL LIBRARY

Each model comes with documentation that includes a theoretical background and
step-by-step instructions to create the model. The models are available in COMSOL

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as MPH-files that you can open for further investigation. You can use the step-by-step
instructions and the actual models as a template for your own modeling and
applications.

SI units are used to describe the relevant properties, parameters, and dimensions in
most examples, but other unit systems are available.

To open the Model Library, select View>Model Library ( ) from the main menu, and
then search by model name or browse under a module folder name. Click to highlight
any model of interest, and select Open Model and PDF to open both the model and the
documentation explaining how to build the model. Alternatively, click the Dynamic
Help button ( ) or select Help>Documentation in COMSOL to search by name or
browse by module.

The model libraries are updated on a regular basis by COMSOL in order to add new
models and to improve existing models. Choose View>Model Library Update ( ) to
update your model library to include the latest versions of the model examples.

If you have any feedback or suggestions for additional models for the library (including
those developed by you), feel free to contact us at [email protected].

CONTACTING COMSOL BY EMAIL

For general product information, contact COMSOL at [email protected].

To receive technical support from COMSOL for the COMSOL products, please
contact your local COMSOL representative or send your questions to
[email protected]. An automatic notification and case number is sent to you by
email.

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COMSOL WEB SITES

Main Corporate web site www.comsol.com

Worldwide contact information www.comsol.com/contact
Technical Support main page www.comsol.com/support
Support Knowledge Base www.comsol.com/support/knowledgebase
Product updates www.comsol.com/support/updates
COMSOL User Community www.comsol.com/community

Typographical Conventions
All COMSOL users guides use a set of consistent typographical conventions that make
it easier to follow the discussion, understand what you can expect to see on the
graphical user interface (GUI), and know which data must be entered into various
data-entry fields.

In particular, these conventions are used throughout the documentation:

CONVENTION EXAMPLE

text highlighted in blue Click text highlighted in blue to go to other information

in the PDF. When you are using the online help desk in
COMSOL Multiphysics, these links also work to other
modules, model examples, and documentation sets.
boldface font A boldface font indicates that the given word(s) appear
exactly that way on the COMSOL Desktop (or, for toolbar
buttons, in the corresponding tip). For example, the Model
Builder window ( ) is often referred to and this is the
window that contains the model tree. As another example,
the instructions might say to click the Zoom Extents button
( ), and this means that when you hover over the button
with your mouse, the same label displays on the COMSOL
Desktop.
Forward arrow symbol > The forward arrow symbol > is instructing you to select a
series of menu items in a specific order. For example,
Options>Preferences is equivalent to: From the Options
menu, choose Preferences.
Code (monospace) font A Code (monospace) font indicates you are to make a
keyboard entry in the user interface. You might see an
instruction such as Enter (or type) 1.25 in the Current
density field. The monospace font also is an indication of
programming code or a variable name.

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CONVENTION EXAMPLE

Italic Code (monospace) An italic Code (monospace) font indicates user inputs and
font parts of names that can vary or be defined by the user.
Arrow brackets <> The arrow brackets included in round brackets after either
following the Code a monospace Code or an italic Code font means that the
(monospace) or Code content in the string can be freely chosen or entered by the
(italic) fonts user, such as feature tags. For example,
model.geom(<tag>) where <tag> is the geometrys tag
(an identifier of your choice).
When the string is predefined by COMSOL, no bracket is
used and this indicates that this is a finite set, such as a
feature name.

KEY TO THE GRAPHICS

Throughout the documentation, additional icons are used to help navigate the
information. These categories are used to draw your attention to the information
based on the level of importance, although it is always recommended that you read
these text boxes.

ICON NAME DESCRIPTION

Caution A Caution icon is used to indicate that the user should proceed
carefully and consider the next steps. It might mean that an
action is required, or if the instructions are not followed, that
there will be problems with the model solution.
Important An Important icon is used to indicate that the information
provided is key to the model building, design, or solution. The
information is of higher importance than a note or tip, and the
user should endeavor to follow the instructions.
Note A Note icon is used to indicate that the information may be of
use to the user. It is recommended that the user read the text.
Tip A Tip icon is used to provide information, reminders, shortcuts,
suggestions of how to improve model design, and other
information that may or may not be useful to the user.
See Also The See Also icon indicates that other useful information is
located in the named section. If you are working on line, click
the hyperlink to go to the information directly. When the link is
outside of the current PDF document, the text indicates this,
for example See The Laminar Flow Interface in the
COMSOL Multiphysics Users Guide. Note that if you are in
COMSOL Multiphysics online help, the link will work.

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ICON NAME DESCRIPTION

Model The Model icon is used in the documentation as well as in

COMSOL Multiphysics from the View>Model Library menu. If
you are working online, click the link to go to the PDF version
of the step-by-step instructions. In some cases, a model is only
available if you have a license for a specific module. These
examples occur in the COMSOL Multiphysics Users Guide.
The Model Library path describes how to find the actual model
in COMSOL Multiphysics, for example
If you have the RF Module, see Radar Cross Section: Model
Library path RF_Module/Tutorial_Models/radar_cross_section
Space Dimension Another set of icons are also used in the Model Builderthe
model space dimension is indicated by 0D , 1D , 1D
axial symmetry , 2D , 2D axial symmetry , and 3D
icons. These icons are also used in the documentation to
clearly list the differences to an interface, feature node, or
theory section, which are based on space dimension.

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Overview of the Users Guide

The Pipe Flow Module Users Guide gets you started with modeling using COMSOL
Multiphysics. The information in this guide is specific to this module. Instructions how
to use COMSOL in general are included with the COMSOL Multiphysics Users
Guide.

As detailed in the section Where Do I Access the Documentation and

Model Library? this information is also searchable from the COMSOL
Tip Multiphysics software Help menu.

TA BL E O F C O N T E N T S A N D I N D EX
To help you navigate through this guide, see the Contents and Index.

THE ACOUSTICS BRANCH

The Acoustics Branch chapter describes the Pipe Acoustics, Transient interface and its
theory. This interface requires both the Acoustics Module and the Pipe Flow Module.

THE FLUID FLOW BRANCH

The The Fluid Flow Branch chapter describes the Pipe Flow interface and the
Non-Isothermal Pipe Flow interface including the underlying theory for these
interfaces.

T H E H E A T TR A N S F E R B R A N C H
The The Heat Transfer Branch chapter describes the Heat Transfer in Pipes interface
and the underlying theory for the interface.

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The Fluid Flow Branch

This chapter has information about the interfaces in the Pipe Flow Module
available under the Fluid Flow branch ( ) in the Model Wizard.

In this chapter:

Mechanisms for Modeling Fluid Flow

The Pipe Flow Interface
The Non-Isothermal Pipe Flow Interface
The Water Hammer Interface
Theory for the Pipe Flow Interface
Theory for the Water Hammer Interface

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Mechanisms for Modeling Fluid Flow

The Fluid Flow branch ( )has a number of subbranches to describe momentum
transport. The main focus of this physics area is to model fluids transported in pipe
networks in 2D and 3D space, calculating velocity, flow rate, and pressure drops. Pipe
flow including heat and mass transfer can also be modeled.

The Pipe Flow interface ( ), found under the Single-Phase Flow branch ( ) in the
Model Wizard, is used to model incompressible fluid flow in piping systems. The
equations that are solved are 1D equations that live on 2D boundary segments or 3D
edge segments. The Non-Isothermal Pipe Flow interface ( ), found under the
Non-Isothermal Flow branch ( ) in the Model Wizard, solves a temperature equation
together with the equations for incompressible flow. The Water Hammer
interface ( ), found under the Fluid Flow>Single-Phase Flow branch ( ) in the
Model Wizard, has the equations and boundary conditions for modeling rapid pressure
transients in a pipe systems.

Coupling to Other Physics Interfaces

It is often be relevant to couple flow and transport in pipes or pipe networks to physical
processes occurring outside the pipe network itself. For instance, liquid can be injected
into the surrounding by means of perforated pipes. The Pipe Flow interface can
calculate flow rates and pressure drops in a 1D representation in the injection system.
The equations can then be coupled to a Fluid Flow interface describing fluid flow in
2D or 3D geometries. Another important coupling that is prepared in the Pipe Flow
module is the Wall Heat Transfer feature that couples the temperature in a pipe to the
temperature in a 3D surrounding.

More advanced descriptions 2D and 3D continuum fluid flow, such as turbulent and
multiphase flow, can be found in the CFD Module. More extensive descriptions of heat
transfer, such as in turbulent flow or involving radiation, can be found in the Heat
Transfer Module. Furthermore, some applications involving the flow of liquids and
gases in porous media are better handled by the Chemical Reaction Engineering
Module.

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The Pipe Flow Interface

The Pipe Flow interface ( ), found under the Single-Phase Flow branch ( ) in the
Model Wizard, has the equations, boundary conditions, and volume forces for modeling
incompressible fluid flow in one dimension.

When this interface is added, these default nodes are also added to the Model Builder
Fluid Properties, Pipe Properties, Pressure, and Initial Values. Right-click the Pipe Flow
node to add other features that implement, for example, boundary conditions and
volume forces.

Discharging Tank: Model Library path

Pipe_Flow_Module/Tutorial_Models/discharging_tank

Model
Convective Flow in a Heat Exchanger Plate: Model Library path
Pipe_Flow_Module/Heat_Transfer/heat_exchanger_plate

The interface is available in 3D on edges and points, and in 2D on

2D
boundaries and points.

3D

INTERFACE IDENTIFIER
The interface identifier is a text string that can be used to reference the respective
physics interface if appropriate. Such situations could occur when coupling this
interface to another physics interface, or when trying to identify and use variables
defined by this physics interface, which is used to reach the fields and variables in
expressions, for example. It can be changed to any unique string in the Identifier field.

The default identifier (for the first interface in the model) is pfl.

EDGE OR BOUNDARY SELECTION

The default setting is to include All edges or All boundaries in the model. To choose
specific edges or boundaries, select Manual from the Selection list.

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DEPENDENT VARIABLES
This interface defines these dependent variables (fields). If required, edit the name, but
dependent variables must be unique within a model:

Pressure p (SI unit: Pa)

Tangential velocity u (SI unit: m/s)

For an explanation of the tangential velocity, see further in the section Theory for the
Pipe Flow Interface.

DISCRETIZATION
To display this section, click the Show button ( ) and select Discretization. It controls
the discretization (the element types used in the finite element formulation).

Select discretization options from the Pressure and Tangential velocity listsQuadratic
(the default), Linear, Cubic, or Quartic.

For each Dependent variable in the table under Value types when using splitting of
complex variables, choose either a Complex or Real Value type. Click the cell to select
from a drop-down list.

Show More Physics Options

Edge, Boundary, Point, and Pair Features for the Pipe Flow Interface
See Also
Theory for the Pipe Flow Interface

Edge, Boundary, Point, and Pair Features for the Pipe Flow Interface

The interface is available in 3D on edges and points, and in 2D on

2D
boundaries and points.

3D

The Pipe Flow Interface has these boundary, edge, point, and pair features available
and listed in alphabetical order:

Bend
Contraction / Expansion

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Initial Values
Inlet
No Flow
Outlet
Pipe Properties
Pressure
Pump
T-Junction
Valve

These features are described for the Laminar Flow interface in the COMSOL
Multiphysics Users Guide:

Fluid Properties
Volume Force

For this interface, apply the Fluid Properties and Volume Force node to
Edges (3D models) and Boundaries (2D models) instead of Domains.
Note

In the COMSOL Multiphysics Users Guide:

Continuity on Interior Boundaries

See Also Identity and Contact Pairs

Specifying Boundary Conditions for Identity Pairs

Pipe Properties
The Pipe Properties node is used to define the pipe shape, flow resistance, and surface
roughness.

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EDGE OR BOUNDARY SELECTION

For the default node no user selection is required. All boundaries or All
edges is automatically selected.
Note

When additional nodes are added, from the Selection list choose the boundaries or
edges to define the pipe properties.

PIPE SHAPE
Select a pipe shape from the listNot set (the default), Round, Square, Rectangular, or
User defined.

If Round is selected, enter a value or expression for the Inner diameter di (SI unit:
m). The default is 10 cm.
If Square is selected, enter a value or expression for the Inner width wi (SI unit: m).
The default is 5 cm.
If Rectangular is selected, enter a value or expression for the Inner width wi (SI
unit: m. The default is 5 cm) and Inner height hi (SI unit: m. The default is 10cm).
If User defined is selected, enter a value or expression for the Cross sectional area Ac
(SI unit: m2. The default is 0.01 m2) and Wetted perimeter Z (SI unit: m. The
default is 0.4 m).

FLOW RESISTANCE
Select a Friction model

Newtonian fluids
SelectChurchill (the default), Stokes, Wood, Haaland, Colebrook, Von Karman,
Swamee-Jain, or User defined.

If Churchill, Wood, Haaland, Von Karman, or Swamee-Jain is selected, go to the Surface

Roughness section to select from a list of predefined values. Alternatively, enter
values or expressions.
If User defined is selected, enter a value or expression for the Darcy friction factor fD
(unitless).

Non-Newtonian fluids
For Power-law and Bingham fluids in round tubes, the Irvine, Stokes, and Darby friction
models are available.

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For more information about the friction models, please refer to the theory section
Expressions for the Darcy Friction Factor.

SURFACE ROUGHNESS

This section is available if Churchill, Wood, Haaland, Von Karman, or

Swamee-Jain is selected as the Friction model.
Note

Select a Surface roughness from the listDrawn tubing (0.0015 mm) (the default), Glass
(0.0015 mm), Thermoplastics (0.0015 mm), Commercial steel (0.046 mm), Wrought iron
(0.046 mm), Steel welded seamless (0.061 mm), Asphalted cast iron (0.12 mm), Galvanized
iron (0.15 mm), Cast iron (0.26 mm), Wood stave (0.5 mm), Copper and brass (0.61 mm),
Concrete (1.5 mm), Riveted steel (4.5 mm), or User defined.

If User defined is selected, enter a value or expression for the Roughness (SI unit: m).

Initial Values
The Initial Values feature adds initial values for the pressure and tangential velocity that
can serve as an initial condition for a transient simulation or as an initial guess for a
nonlinear solver.

EDGE OR BOUNDARY SELECTION

From the Selection list, choose the edges or boundaries to define initial values.

IN IT IA L VA LUES
Enter values or expressions for the initial value of the Pressure p (SI unit: Pa) and the
Tangential Velocity u (SI unit: m/s).

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Inlet
Use the Inlet node to set the velocity, volumetric flow rate, or mass flow rate inlet
conditions that describe the fluid flow condition at an inlet.

In most cases the inlet boundary conditions appear, some of them slightly
modified, in the Outlet type as well. This means that there is nothing in
the mathematical formulations to prevent a fluid from leaving the domain
Tip
through boundaries where the Inlet type is specified.

POINT SELECTION
From the Selection list, choose the points that represent inlets.

INLET SPECIFICATION
Select a Specification for the inletMass flow rate (the default), Velocity, or Volumetric
flow rate.

If Mass flow rate is selected, enter a value or expression for the Mass flow rate qm,0
(SI unit: kg/s). The default is 0.
If Velocity is selected, enter a value or expression for the Velocity u0 (SI unit: m/s).
The default is 0.
If Volumetric flow rate is selected, enter a value or expression for the Volumetric flow
rate qv,0 (SI unit: m3/s). The default is 0.

Outlet
Use the Outlet node to set the velocity, volumetric flow rate, or mass flow rate point
conditions that describe the fluid flow condition at an outlet.

See Inlet for all settings.

Note

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All of the formulations for the Outlet type are also available, possibly
slightly modified, in other boundary types as well. This means that there
is nothing in the mathematical formulations to prevent a fluid from
Tip entering the domain through boundaries where the Outlet boundary type
is specified.

No Flow
Use the No Flow node to define plugged exits or inlets (no flow).

PO IN T S EL EC TIO N
From the Selection list, choose the points that represent no flow.

Pressure
Use the Pressure node to define the boundary pressure at points.

The pressure condition can only be applied to a point which is connected

to exactly one edge (inlet or outlet of a system).
Note

PO IN T S EL EC TIO N

For the default node no user selection is required. All points is

automatically selected.
Note

When additional nodes are added, from the Selection list choose the points that
represent the pressure.

BOUNDARY PRESSURE
Enter a value or expression for the Pressure p0 (SI unit: Pa). The default is 101325 Pa.

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CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show button ( ) and select Advanced Physics Options.
Select a Constraint typeBidirectional, symmetric or Unidirectional. If required, select
the Use weak constraints check box.

Bend
Use the Bend node to introduce a pressure drop in a point associated with a bend in
the pipe system.

The Bend can only be applied to a point which is connected to exactly two
edges.
Note

POINT SELECTION
From the Selection list, choose the points that represent the bend.

BEND SPECIFICATION
Select a Bend90 degrees standard elbow (K = 0.9) (the default), 45 degrees standard
elbow (K = 0.5), or User specified loss coefficient. If User specified loss coefficient is
selected, also enter a Loss coefficient Kf (unitless).

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show button ( ) and select Advanced Physics Options.
If required, select the Use weak constraints check box.

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Valve
Use the Valve node to introduce a pressure drop in a point associated with the position
of a valve in the pipe system. Select a predefined valve type or provide a user defined
loss coefficient.

The Valve can only be applied to a point which is connected to exactly two
edges.
Note

PO IN T S EL EC TIO N
From the Selection list, choose the points for the valve.

VA L VE S P E C I F I C AT I O N
Select a ValveGlobe valve (K = 10) (the default), Angle valve (K = 4.4), Gate valve (K =
0.2), Ball valve (K = 4.5), Butterfly valve (K = 0.6), Swing check (K = 2.5), or User specified
loss coefficient. For all selections, enter values or expressions for the First edge i and
Second edge j (unitless numbers). If User specified loss coefficient is selected, also enter
a Loss coefficient Kf (unitless).

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show button ( ) and select Advanced Physics Options.
If required, select the Use weak constraints check box.

Contraction / Expansion
Use the Contraction/Expansion node to introduce a pressure drop in a point associated
with the position of a contraction or expansion in the pipe system.

The Contraction/Expansion can only be applied to a point which is

connected to exactly two edges.
Note

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POINT SELECTION
From the Selection list, choose the points for the contraction.

CONTRACTION SPECIFICATION
Select an option from the Friction listSudden (the default), Gradual, or User specified
loss coefficient.

If Gradual is selected, also enter an Angle of convergence (SI unit: radians). The
default is 0.
If User specified loss coefficient is selected, also enter a Loss coefficient Kf (unitless).
The default is 0.

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show button ( ) and select Advanced Physics Options.
If required, select the Use weak constraints check box.

Pump
Use the Pump node to introduce a pressure jump in a point associated with the position
of a pump in the pipe system. Alternatively, specify a fixed mass flow rate for the pump.

The Pump can only be applied to a point which is connected to exactly

two edges.
Note

POINT SELECTION
From the Selection list, choose the points for the pump.

PUMP SPECIFICATION
Select a Pump direction (available options are based on space dimension)Positive X
direction (the default), Negative X direction, Positive Y direction, Negative Y direction,
Positive Z direction, or Negative Z direction.

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Select an option from the Type listFixed flow rate (the default), Downstream pressure,
or Pressure increase.

If Fixed flow rate is selected, also enter a value or expression for the Mass flow rate
mpump (SI unit: kg/s). The default is 0.
If Downstream pressure is selected, also enter a value or expression for the Pressure
pdown (SI unit: Pa). The default is 101 325 Pa.
If Pressure increase is selected, also enter a value or expression for the Pressure
increase p (SI unit: Pa). The default is 0.

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show button ( ) and select Advanced Physics Options.
If required, select the Use weak constraints check box.

T-Junction
Use the T-Junction node to specify the friction coefficients for a T-junction, which can
act as a split or a merger. The pressure drop is calculated according to Equation 2-9.
pjunction

pmain pmain

pside

Figure 2-1: A T-junction with local pressure indications.

The T-junction can only be applied to a point that is connected to exactly

two collinear main branches and one perpendicular side branch. The flow
can go in either direction through each of the main branches and the side
Note
branch. See Figure 2-1.

PO IN T S EL EC TIO N
From the Selection list, choose the points for the T-junction.

FRICTION SPECIFICATION
Enter a value or expression for the Loss coefficient main branch Kf,main for the loss
between main and junction pressure (the default is 0.1) and the Loss coefficient side

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branch Kf, sidefor the loss between the side pressure and junction pressure (the default
is 1.2). Both are unitless numbers. See Figure 2-1.

The respective pressure drops are calculated as

1 2
p main p junction = --- K f main u main (2-1)
2

1 2
p side p junction = --- K f side u side . (2-2)
2

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show button ( ) and select Advanced Physics Options.
If required, select the Use weak constraints check box.

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The Non-Isothermal Pipe Flow

Interface
The Non-Isothermal Pipe Flow interface ( ), found under the Non-Isothermal Flow
branch ( ) in the Model Wizard, has the equations, boundary conditions, and volume
forces for modeling incompressible fluid flow and heat transfer in pipes.

When this interface is added, these default nodes are also added to the Model Builder
Fluid, Pipe Properties, Pressure, Temperature, and Initial Values. Right-click the
Non-Isothermal Pipe Flow node to add other features that implement, for example,
boundary conditions and volume forces.

Insulation of a Pipeline Section: Model Library path

Pipe_Flow_Module/Heat_Transfer/pipeline_insulation
Geothermal Heating from a Pond Loop: Model Library path
Pipe_Flow_Module/Heat_Transfer/geothermal_heating
Model
Cooling of an Injection Mold: Model Library path
Pipe_Flow_Module/Heat_Transfer/mold_cooling

2D The interface is available in 3D on edges and 2D on boundaries.

3D

INTERFACE IDENTIFIER
The interface identifier is a text string that can be used to reference the respective
physics interface if appropriate. Such situations could occur when coupling this
interface to another physics interface, or when trying to identify and use variables
defined by this physics interface, which is used to reach the fields and variables in
expressions, for example. It can be changed to any unique string in the Identifier field.

The default identifier (for the first interface in the model) is nipfl.

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EDGE OR BOUNDARY SELECTION

The default setting is to include All edges or All boundaries in the model. To choose
specific edges or boundaries, select Manual from the Selection list.

FLUID MODEL
Select a Fluid modelNewtonian (the default), Power law, or Bingham.

DEPENDENT VARIABLES
This interface defines these dependent variables (fields). If required, edit the name, but
dependent variables must be unique within a model:

Pressure p (SI unit: Pa)

Tangential velocity u (SI unit: m/s)
Temperature T (SI unit: K)

For an explanation of the tangential velocity, see further in the section Theory for the
Pipe Flow Interface.

DISCRETIZATION
To display this section, click the Show button ( ) and select Discretization. It controls
the discretization (the element types used in the finite element formulation).

Select discretization options from the Pressure and Tangential velocity listsQuadratic
(the default), Linear, Cubic, or Quartic.

For each Dependent variable in the table under Value types when using splitting of
complex variables, choose either a Complex or Real Value type. Click the cell to select
from a drop-down list.

Show More Physics Options

Edge, Boundary, Point, and Pair Features for the Non-Isothermal Pipe
Flow Interface
See Also Theory for the Pipe Flow Interface
Theory for the Heat Transfer in Pipes Interface

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Edge, Boundary, Point, and Pair Features for the Non-Isothermal

Pipe Flow Interface

The interface is available in 3D on edges and points, and in 2D on

2D
boundaries and points.

3D

Because The Non-Isothermal Pipe Flow Interface is a multiphysics interface, it shares

many features with other interfaces. These boundary, edge, point, and pair features are
available as indicated (and listed in alphabetical order).

The Fluid node and Heat Transfer are described in this section.

These features are described for the Reacting Pipe Flow interface:

Fluid Properties
Pipe Properties

These features are described for the Heat Transfer in Pipes interface:

External Film Resistance

Internal Film Resistance
Wall Heat Transfer
Wall Layer

These features are described for the Heat Transfer interface in the COMSOL
Multiphysics Users Guide:

Heat Source
Outflow
Temperature

These features are described for the Pipe Flow interface (listed in alphabetical order):

Bend
Contraction / Expansion
Inlet

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No Flow
Outlet
Pressure
Pump
T-Junction
Valve

In the COMSOL Multiphysics Users Guide:

Volume Force is described for the Laminar Flow interface

Continuity on Interior Boundaries
See Also
Identity and Contact Pairs
Specifying Boundary Conditions for Identity Pairs

Fluid
Use the Fluid node to define the density, dynamic viscosity, and heat convection and
conduction properties.

EDGE OR BOUNDARY SELECTION

For the default node no user selection is required. All boundaries or All
edges is automatically selected.
Note

When additional nodes are added, from the Selection list choose the boundaries or
edges to define the fluid.

FLUID PROPERTIES
The default Density (SI unit: kg/m3) is User defined and is 1 x 103 kg/m3. Enter a
different value or expression as required.

Enter a value or expression for the Yield stress s (SI unit: Pa) and Plastic viscosity s
(SI unit: Pas). The defaults are 0.

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HEAT CONVECTION AND CONDUCTION

The default Heat capacity at constant pressure Cp (SI unit: J/(kgK)), Ratio of specific
heats (unitless), and Thermal conductivity k (SI unit: W/(mK)) all use values From
material. If User defined is selected, enter different values or expressions.

Heat Transfer
Use the Heat Transfer node to define the density, yield stress, plastic viscosity, and heat
convection and conduction properties.

EDGE OR BOUNDARY SELECTION

From the Selection list, choose the edges or boundaries to apply the heat transfer
properties.

MODEL INPUTS
This section contain fields and values that are inputs to expressions that define material
properties. If such user-defined material models are added, the model inputs appear
here. Initially, this section is empty.

FLUID PROPERTIES
The default Density (SI unit: kg/m3) is User defined and is 1 x 103 kg/m3. Enter a
different value or expression as required.

Enter a value or expression for the Yield stress s (SI unit: Pa) and Plastic viscosity s
(SI unit: Pas). The defaults are 0.

HEAT CONVECTION AND CONDUCTION

The default Heat capacity at constant pressure Cp (SI unit: J/(kgK)), Ratio of specific
heats (unitless), and Thermal conductivity k (SI unit: W/(mK)) all use values From
material. If User defined is selected, enter different values or expressions.

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T he Wa t e r H a m m er In t erface
The Water Hammer interface ( ), found under the Fluid Flow>Single-Phase Flow
branch ( ) in the Model Wizard, has the equations and boundary conditions for
modeling rapid pressure transients in a pipe systems.

When this interface is added, these default nodes are also added to the Model Builder
Fluid Properties, Pipe Properties, Closed, and Initial Values. Right-click the Water
Hammer node to add other features.

Water Hammer: Model Library path

Pipe_Flow_Module/Verification_Models/water_hammer_verification
Model

INTERFACE IDENTIFIER
The interface identifier is a text string that can be used to reference the respective
physics interface if appropriate. Such situations could occur when coupling this
interface to another physics interface, or when trying to identify and use variables
defined by this physics interface, which is used to reach the fields and variables in
expressions, for example. It can be changed to any unique string in the Identifier field.

The default identifier (for the first interface in the model) is whtd.

EDGE OR BOUNDARY SELECTION

The default setting is to include All edges or All boundaries in the model. To choose
specific edges or boundaries, select Manual from the Selection list.

DEPENDENT VARIABLES
This interface defines these dependent variables (fields). If required, edit the name, but
dependent variables must be unique within a model:

Pressure p (SI unit: Pa)

Tangential velocity u (SI unit: m/s)

DISCRETIZATION
To display this section, click the Show button ( ) and select Discretization. It controls
the discretization (the element types used in the finite element formulation).

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Select discretization options from the Pressure and Tangential velocity listsQuadratic
(the default), Linear, Cubic, or Quartic.

For each Dependent variable in the table under Value types when using splitting of
complex variables, choose either a Complex or Real Value type. Click the cell to select
from a drop-down list.

Show More Physics Options

Edge, Boundary, Point, and Pair Features for the Water Hammer
Interface
See Also
Theory for the Pipe Flow Interface

Edge, Boundary, Point, and Pair Features for the Water Hammer
Interface
The Water Hammer Interface has these edge, boundary, point, and pair features
available and listed in alphabetical order:

The interface is available in 3D on edges and points, and in 2D on

2D
boundaries and points.

3D

Closed
Fluid Properties
Local Friction Loss
Pipe Properties
Pressure
Velocity
The Initial Values node is described for the Pipe Flow interface.

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In the COMSOL Multiphysics Users Guide:

Volume Force is described for the Laminar Flow interface

Continuity on Interior Boundaries
See Also
Identity and Contact Pairs
Specifying Boundary Conditions for Identity Pairs

Fluid Properties
The Fluid Properties feature adds the momentum equations solved by the interface,
except for volume forces which are added by the Volume Force feature. The node also
provides an interface for defining the physical properties of the fluid.

Volume Force is described for the Laminar Flow interface in the COMSOL
Multiphysics Users Guide:
Note

EDGE OR BOUNDARY SELECTION

From the Selection list, choose the edges or boundaries to apply the fluid properties.

MODEL INPUTS
Edit input variables to the fluid-flow equations if required. For fluid flow, these are
typically introduced when a material requiring inputs has been applied.

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
Select a Fluid modelLinear elastic (the default).

The default Density (SI unit: kg/m3) uses the value From material. Select User defined
to enter a different value or expression.

The default Dynamic viscosity (SI unit: Pas) uses the value From material and
describes the relationship between the shear rate and the shear stresses in a fluid.
Intuitively, water and air have a low viscosity, and substances often described as thick
(such as oil) have a higher viscosity.

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The default Speed of sound cs (SI unit: m/s) uses the value From material. Select User
defined to enter a different value or expression.

Pipe Properties
The Pipe Properties node is used to define the pipe shape, pipe model, and flow
resistance.

EDGE OR BOUNDARY SELECTION

For the default node no user selection is required. All boundaries or All
edges is automatically selected.
Note

When additional nodes are added, from the Selection list choose the boundaries or
edges to define the pipe properties.

PIPE SHAPE

The Pipe Shape settings are the same as for the Pipe Properties node
described for the Pipe Flow interface.
Note

PIPE MODEL
Select a Pipe modelZero axial stress (the default), Anchored at one end, Anchored at
both ends, or Incompressible cross section.

If Zero axial stress is selected, select a Youngs modulus ENot set (the default) or
User defined. If User defined is selected, enter a value or expression.
If Anchored at one end or Anchored at both ends is selected, enter a value or
expression for the Youngs modulus E. Select a Poissons ratio vNot set (the default)
or User defined. If User defined is selected, enter a value or expression.

When Zero axial stress, Anchored at one end, or Anchored at both ends is selected, also
select a Wall thickness wNot set (the default) or User defined. If User defined is
selected, enter a value or expression.

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FLOW RESISTANCE

The Flow Resistance settings are the same as for the Pipe Properties node
described for the Pipe Flow interface.
Note

Local Friction Loss

Use the Local Friction Loss feature to add a lumped friction loss that depends on the
velocity according to Equation 2-9.

POINT SELECTION
From the Selection list, choose the local friction loss points.

FRICTION SPECIFICATION
Enter a Loss coefficient Kf (unitless). The default is 0.

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show button ( ) and select Advanced Physics Options.
Select a Constraint typeBidirectional, symmetric or Unidirectional. If required, select
the Use weak constraints check box.

Closed
Use the Closed feature to impose zero velocity.

POINT SELECTION
From the Selection list, choose the closed points.

Velocity
Use the Velocity feature to prescribe a velocity.

POINT SELECTION
From the Selection list, choose the velocity points.

VE L O C I T Y
Enter a value or expression for uin (SI unit: m/s). The default is 0.

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Pressure
Use the Pressure node to define the boundary pressure at points.

PO IN T S EL EC TIO N
From the Selection list, choose the pressure points.

PRESSURE
Enter a value or expression for the Pressure p (SI unit: Pa).

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show button ( ) and select Advanced Physics Options.
Select a Constraint typeBidirectional, symmetric or Unidirectional. If required, select
the Use weak constraints check box.

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Theory for the Pipe Flow Interface

The Pipe Flow Interface theory is described in this section:

Flow Equations
References for the Pipe Flow Interface

Flow Equations
The Pipe Flow interface calculates the pressure and velocity of an incompressible fluid
by solving the continuity and momentum equations outlined below.

A one dimensional pipe can be present on a boundary in a 2D geometry, or on an edge

in a 3D geometry.

MOMENTUM AND CONTINUITY EQUATIONS

The momentum and continuity equations for flow in a pipe are given by (Ref. 16):

u
------- = p f D ---------- u u + F (2-3)
t 2d h

and

A
----------- + Au = 0 (2-4)
t

The second term on the right hand side in Equation 2-3 represents the pressure drop
due to viscous shear. Here, u is the cross section averaged velocity (m/s), the density
(kg/m3), p pressure (Pa), fD (dimensionless) the Darcy friction factor (see Expressions
for the Darcy Friction Factor) and F is a volume force term (N/m3).

Furthermore, dh is the mean hydraulic diameter (m), given by:

4A
d h = ------- (2-5)
Z

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where A is the pipe cross section area (m2) available for flow, and Z is the wetted
perimeter (m).
et

Figure 2-2: Unit tangent vector to the pipe axis.

Let

e t = e t x e t y e t z

be the unit tangent vector to the pipe axis. Since all the velocity components normal
to the pipe axis is assumed to be 0, the momentum balance in Equation 2-3 can be
rewritten as

u
e t ------- = p f D ---------- u u + F (2-6)
t 2d h

and we can define the tangential velocity u as u = ue t . The Physics Pipe Flow in
COMSOL solves for the tangential velocity u. This is also the quantity the user
specifies in for example inflow boundary conditions.

The following assumptions apply:

The velocity profile is fully developed and does not change within a section.
The cross section area is allowed to change between pipe segments.
Empirical functions describe viscous losses
Shocks are neglected
The flow direction is in the direction of the pipe axis.

The Darcy friction factor in Equation 2-3 accounts for the continuous pressure drop
along a pipe segment due to viscous shear, and is expressed as a function of the
Reynolds number (Re) and the surface roughness divided by the hydraulic diameter
(e/dh).

f D = f D Re ------
e
(2-7)
dh

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where

ud h
Re = -------------- (2-8)

The physics interface automatically calculates fD from one of the predefined

expressions Equation 2-10 through Equation 2-16.

Additional Flow Resistances

Additional flow resistances can be added as point conditions between pipe segments
Bends, Valves, T-junctions, Contractions, and Expansions. These resistances give rise
to abrupt (lumped) pressure drops in the points where they are added. The pressure
drop is calculated as:

1 2
p = --- K f u (2-9)
2

Loss coefficients, Ki, for turbulent flow are available in the literature (Ref. 14) and the
set predefined in the Pipe Flow interface is reproduced in the table below:
TABLE 2-1: LOSS COEFFICIENTS

FEATURE DESCRIPTION LOSS COEFFICIENT K

Bends 90 standard elbow 0.9

45 standard elbow 0.5
Valves Globe, fully open 10
Angle, fully open 4.4
Gate, fully open 0.2
Ball, fully open 4.5
Butterfly, fully open 0.6
Swing check, fully open 2.5
T-junction T-junction split/merger 0.1 and 2.1 for side and main. See
Figure 2-1 for a description of flow
branches in a T-junction.
Contractions Sudden 2
0.5 1
Gradual, angle of 2
0.8 sin 1
convergence < 22
Gradual, angle of 2
0.5 sin( 1
convergence > 22
Expansions Sudden 2 2
1

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TABLE 2-1: LOSS COEFFICIENTS

FEATURE DESCRIPTION LOSS COEFFICIENT K

Gradual, angle of 2 2
convergence < 22 2.6 sin 1

Gradual, angle of 2 2
convergence > 22 1

Above, is the ratio of small to large cross-sectional area. The point friction losses
listed above apply for Newtonian fluids. Point losses applying to non-Newtonian flow
can be added as user defined expressions, for instance from (Ref. 15).

Expressions for the Darcy Friction Factor

Newtonian Fluids The Churchill equation (Ref. 1) for the Darcy friction factor can be
used for the full range of Re (laminar, transition and turbulent) and e/d:

8 12 1 12
f D = 8 ------ + A + B
-1.5
(2-10)
Re

where

0.9 16
A = -2.457ln ------ + 0.27 e d
7
(2-11)
Re

37530 16
B = ---------------- (2-12)
Re

In the laminar regime (Re < 2000), fD is independent of the surface roughness and is
given by the Stokes formula:

64
f D = ------ (2-13)
Re

The Wood equation (Ref. 2) gives the friction factor for 4000 < Re < 1107 and
110-5 < e/d < 0.04, according to

0.225 0.44 a
f D = 0.094 e d + 0.53 e d + 88 e d Re (2-14)

with

0.134
a = 1.62 e d (2-15)

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The Haaland equation (Ref. 3) for the Darcy friction factor is commonly used for oil
pipelines and wells. It can recover both small and large relative roughness limits for a
wide range of Reynolds numbers (4103 < Re < 1108)

e d- 1.11 6.9
1 = 1.8log ---------
----- 10 3.7 + -------- (2-16)
fD Re

It can be rewritten as

2
1 1.8
f D = -------------------------------------------------------------------
- (2-17)
log e--------- d- 1.11 6.9
2
+ --------
10 3.7 Re

For very low relative roughness e/d, the Haaland equation simplifies to Colebrooks
explicit formula (Ref. 4)

1 = 1.8 log 6.9

--------
----- 10 Re (2-18)
fD

For very large relative roughness e/d, the Haaland equation simplifies to the von
Karman formula (Ref. 5)

d- 1.11
1 = 1.8log e--------- ed
----- 10 3.7 = 2log 10 ---------- (2-19)
fD 3.7

An alternative to Haaland equation is the Swamee-Jain equation (Ref. 6)

0.25
f D = --------------------------------------------------------------------2- (2-20)
log --------- e d- -----------------
5.74 -
+
10 3.7 Re 0.9

The equation is valid for relative roughness 110-6 < e/d < 110-2 and for Reynolds
number in the range 5103 < Re < 1108.

All the above equations are selectable from a list of friction factor expressions. As
noted, only the Churchill equation covers both the laminar and turbulent flows, as well
as the transitional region in between these flow regimes. The equations by Wood,
Haaland, Colebrook, von Karman, or Swamee-Jain, intended for the turbulent regime,
are combined with the Stokes equation for laminar flow to cover all flow conditions.
When Re<1000, COMSOL selects Stokes equation if it predicts a friction factor
greater than equations for the turbulent regimes. This produces more accurate results
that using the turbulent frictions factors in the laminar regime, but it does not

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necessarily produce accurate estimates of the friction factor in the transition region.
Therefore, it is always advisable to check the Reynolds number for a give pipe flow
solution and change the friction model and recalculate, if necessary.

Non-Newtonian Power-law Fluids For Power-law fluids the apparent viscosity is related
to the shear rate as

n 1
= m ----- (2-21)
t

where m and n are two empirical curve fitting parameters known as the fluid
consistency coefficient and the flow behavior index, respectively. In the laminar regime
the friction factor for power law fluids can be calculated by the Stokes equation using
the modified Reynolds number proposed by Metzner and Reed (Ref. 7):

64
f D = -------------- (2-22)
Re MR

2 n n
u dh
Re MR = ------------------------------------------------n- (2-23)
n 1 3n + 1
8 m -----------------
4n

For the turbulent regime Irvine (Ref. 8) proposed the following expression for the
friction factor:

----------------
1
-
3n + 1
D n
fD = 4 -------------- (2-24)
Re MR

where

n + 4 2
4n - 3n
- ----------------
2
D n = ----------------
7n 3n + 1
(2-25)
7

Ryan and Johnson (Ref. 9) formulated a criterion for the transition between laminar
and turbulent flow, where

2
-------------
+n
6464n 1 + n
Re MR = -----------------------2- 2 + n (2-26)
3n + 1

predicts the critical Reynolds number.

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Non-Newtonian Bingham Plastic Model. The Bingham model describes viscoplastic

fluid with a yield stress:

= B + B ----- for B
t
(2-27)

----- =0 for B
t

The yield stress, B (Pa), and the plastic viscosity, B (Pas), are found by curve fitting
to experimental data.

The Swamee-Aggarwal equation (Ref. 10) gives the friction factor for a Bingham
plastic fluid in the laminar regime according to:

He 1.143
10.67 + 0.1414 ----------
Re B
- ---------
64 He-
f D, laminar = ---------- + ------------------------------------------------------------------- (2-28)
Re B 1.16 Re
1 + 0.149 ---------- Re
He B
Re B B

where

ud h
Re B = -------------- (2-29)
B

and

d h B
He = ----------------
2
(2-30)
B

is the Hedstrm number.

For turbulent flow Darby (Ref. 11) provided the equation:

a 0.193
f D, turbulent = 4 10 0 Re B (2-31)

with

5
a 0 = -1.47 1 + exp -2.9 10 He (2-32)

as well as an equation covering all flow regimes:

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1
---
b b b
fD = f D, laminar + f D, turbulent (2-33)

where

40000
b = 1.7 + ---------------- (2-34)
Re B

The non-Newtonian friction models outlined above do not include any

effects of wall roughness. As the laminar sub-layers tend to be thicker than
for Newtonian fluids, the effect of pipe roughness is likely to be smaller.
Note Friction models including the surface roughness can be used as
user-defined specifications and can be found in for example (Ref. 12).

The non-Newtonian friction models outlined above apply for pipes with circular
cross-section. The generalized Reynolds number needs to be modified to account for
other cross-sections.

Surface Roughness
Values of the absolute surface roughness found in the literature (Ref. 13 and Ref. 14)
are reproduced in the table below:
TABLE 2-2: SURFACE ROUGHNESS

TUBE MATERIAL SURFACE

ROUGHNESS (MM)

Drawn tubing 0.0015

Glass 0.0015
Thermoplastics 0.0015
Commercial steel 0.046
and wrought iron
Steel, welded 0.061
seamless
Asphalted cast 0.12
iron
Galvanized iron 0.15
Cast-iron 0.26
Wood stave 0.18-0.9

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TABLE 2-2: SURFACE ROUGHNESS

TUBE MATERIAL SURFACE

ROUGHNESS (MM)

Concrete 0.3-3
Riveted steel 0.9-9
Copper and brass 0.61

References for the Pipe Flow Interface

1. S.W. Churchill, Friction factor equations spans all fluid-flow regimes, Chem.
Eng., vol. 84. no. 24, pp. 9192, 1997.

2. D.J. Wood, An Explicit Friction Factor Relationship, Civil Engrs., ASCE 60,
1966.

3. S.E. Haaland, Simple and Explicit Formulas for the Friction Factor in Turbulent
Flow, Journal of Fluids Engineering (ASME), vol. 103, no. 5, pp. 8990, 1983.

4. C.F., Colebrook, Turbulent Flow in Pipes with Particular Reference to the

Transition Region Between the Smooth and Rough Pipe Laws, J. Inst. Civil
Engineers, London, vol. 11, pp. 133156, 1939.

5. R. J. Houghtalen, N.H.C. Hwang, and A.O. Akan, Fundamentals of Hydraulic

Engineering Systems, 4th ed., Prentice Hall, p. 63, 2009.

6. P.K Swamee and A.K. Jain, Explicit Equations for Pipe-flow Problems, Journal
of the Hydraulics Division (ASCE), vol 102, no. 5, pp. 657664, 1976.

7. A. B. Metzner and J.C. Reed, Flow of non-newtonian fluidscorrelation of the

laminar, transition, and turbulent-flow regions, AIChE Journal, vol. 1, no.4, pp.
434440, 1955.

8. T.F. Irvine, Chem Eng Commun, vol. 65, p. 39, 1988.

9. N.W. Ryan and M.M. Johnson, Transistion from laminar to turbulent flow in
pipes, AIChE Journal, vol. 5, no. 4, pp. 433435, 1959.

10. P.K. Swamee and N. Agarwal, Explicit equations for laminar flow of Bingham
plastic fluids, J Petroleum Science and Engineering, vol. 76, no. 34, pp. 178184,
2011.

11. R. Darby, R. Mun, and D.V. Boger, Predict friction loss in slurry pipes, Chem
Eng, vol. 99, p. 116, 1992.

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12. R. P. Chhabra and J. F. Richardson, Non-Newtonian Flow in the Process

Industries: Fundamentals and Engineering Applications, Butterworth Heinemann,
p. 111, 2004.

13. J.M. Coulson and J.F. Richardson, Chemical Engineering, Volume. 1, 4th ed.,
Pergamon Press, p. 56, 1990.

14. Engineering and Design Liquid Process Piping, Department of the Army, U.S.
Army Corps of Engineers, Engineering Manual No.1110-1-4008, 1999.

15. R. P. Chhabra and J. F. Richardson, Non-Newtonian Flow in the Process

Industries: Fundamentals and Engineering Applications, Butterworth Heinemann,
p. 111 and 140149, 2004.

16. C.L. Barnard, et. al., A Theory of Fluid Flow in Compliant Tubes, Biophysical
Journal, vol. 6, no. 6, pp. 717724, 1966.

17. F.P. Incropera and D.P. DeWitt, Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer, 4th
ed., John Wiley & Sons, 1996.

18. V. Gnielinski, New Equations for Heat and Mass Transfer in Turbulent Pipe and
Channel Flow, Int. Chem. Eng, vol. 16, pp. 359368, 1976.

19. S. W. Churchill and M. Bernstein, A Correlating Equation for Forced Convection

From Gases and Liquids to a Circular Cylinder in Crossflow, J Heat Transfer, vol.
99, no.2 , pp. 300307, 1977.

20. S.W. Churchill and H.H.S. Chu, Correlating equations for laminar and turbulent
free convection from a vertical plate, Int J Heat Mass Transfer, vol. 18, no. 11, p.
13231329, 1975.

21. G. Taylor, Dispersion of Soluble Matter in Solvent Flowing Slowly through a

Tube, Proc. Roy. Soc. A., vol. 219, pp. 186203, 1953.

22. G. Taylor, The dispersion of matter in turbulent flow through a pipe, Proc. Roy.
Soc. A., vol. 223, pp. 446468, 1954.

23. L.T. Fan and C. B. Wang, Dispersion of Mater in Non-Newtonian Laminar Flow
Trhough a Circular Tube, Proc. Roy. Soc. A., vol. 292, pp. 203208, 1966.

24. M. V. Lurie, Modeling of Oil Product and Gas Pipeline Transportation,

WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co., KGaA, Weinheim, 2008.

THEORY FOR THE PIPE FLOW INTERFACE | 53

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Theory for the Water Hammer

Interface
Flow Equations
The Water Hammer interface implements both the continuity equation and the
momentum equations for a compressible fluid travelling inside pipes of variable cross
section.

THE CONTINUITY EQUATION

The mass conservation for a fluid inside a pipe is given by:

A
----------- + Au = 0 (2-35)
t

where A (SI unit: m2) is the cross section area of the pipe, (SI unit: kg/m3) is the
fluid density, and u (SI unit: m/s) is the tangential fluid velocity.

For isothermal processes, the density and cross section area are function of the
pressure, so the continuity equation reads

A p p -
--------------------------- + A p p u = 0 (2-36)
t

In a first order approximation, this equals

1 p
A 0 0 ------- + ------- ------ + A 0 0 u = 0
1
(2-37)
K K A t

where K is the bulk modulus of the fluid (the inverse of its compressibility), and KA
is the effective bulk modulus of the cross section area. A0 and 0 are the reference area
and reference density at a given pressure p0.

The Water Hammer wave speed c (SI unit: m/s) is given by a combination of fluid and
structural material properties

= 0 ------- + -------
1- 1 1
---- (2-38)
c2 K K A

The effective bulk modulus for the cross sectional area KA (SI unit: Pa) is given by the
pipes material properties

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w th
K A = E ---------
dh

where E is the Youngs modulus, dh is the hydraulic diameter, and wth is the pipes
wall thickness. This is the so-called Korteweg formula (Ref. 1)

The Korteweg formula can also be extended to pipes suffering from axial stresses, in
this case, a more general formula would include the Poissons ration of the pipes
material

E w th
K A = ---- --------- (2-39)
dh

where = 1 for pipe with zero axial stress (this is Kortewegs original formula for a
pipe furbished with expansion joints), = 1 2 for a pipe anchored at one end,
2
and = 1 for a pipe anchored at both ends.

THE MOMENTUM EQUATION

The momentum equation is written as:

u
------- = p f D ---------- u u + F (2-40)
t 2d h

here, fD is the Darcy friction factor, normally a function of the Reynolds number, the
surface roughness and the hydraulic diameter, as described in Expressions for the
Darcy Friction Factor.

This set of equations are normally acknowledged as the Water Hammer equations, and
are they mainly written in the literature as (consider gravity forces, so F = g )

1 p
A ----2- ------ + Au = 0 (2-41)
c t

u
------- = p f D ---------- u u + g (2-42)
t 2d h

BOUNDARY CONDITIONS
The available boundary conditions are Closed, Pressure, Velocity, and Additional Flow
Resistances.

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References for the Water Hammer interface

1. M. Ghidaoui, et al., A Review of Water Hammer Theory and Practice, Appl. Mech.
Rev. 58, pp. 4976, 2005

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The Heat Transfer Branch

This physics, which is found under the Heat Transfer branch ( ) in the Model
Wizard, has functionality for simulating heat transfer in pipe networks, including
wall heat transfer to the surroundings.

In this chapter:

The Mechanisms for Heat Transfer

The Heat Transfer in Pipes Interface
Theory for the Heat Transfer in Pipes Interface

57
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The Mechanisms for Heat Transfer

The Heat Transfer branch ( ) includes a number of subbranches to describe energy
transport. One or more of them can be added from the Model Wizard.

The Heat Transfer in Solids, Heat Transfer in Fluids (general convection

and conduction, non-isothermal flow, and conjugate heat transfer), and
Joule Heating interfaces all belong to the COMSOL Multiphysics base
package. See The Heat Transfer Interface, The Joule Heating Interface
Note
and Theory for the Heat Transfer Interfaces in the COMSOL
Multiphysics Users Guide for more information.

The Heat Transfer in Pipes interface ( ), found under the Heat Transfer branch ( )
in the Model Wizard, solves a temperature equation for a fluid transported in a pipe. The
interface requires the fluid velocity as input, provided either by the user or by coupling
to the Pipe Flow interface. However, it is advisable to instead use The Non-Isothermal
Pipe Flow Interface which is a multiphysics interface that combines Pipe Flow and
Heat Transfer in Pipes to model the velocity, pressure and temperature fully coupled.

Insulation of a Pipeline Section: Model Library path Pipe_Flow_Module/

Heat_Transfer/pipeline_insulation
Geothermal Heating from a Pond Loop: Model Library path
Pipe_Flow_Module/Heat_Transfer/geothermal_heating
Model
Cooling of an Injection Mold: Model Library path Pipe_Flow_Module/
Heat_Transfer/mold_cooling

Coupling to Other Physics Interfaces

It is often relevant to couple heat transport in pipe networks to heat transfer in the
region surrounding the pipe network. Simulating the cooling of a mold is a good
example of such an application (see mold_cooling above). The Heat Transfer in Pipes
physics or the Non-Isothermal Pipe Flow interface can be used to model the removal
of heat in the cooling channels represented by 1D edges, and couple that heat loss to
a 3D model of the mold. The pipe heat model is automatically coupled to the 3D
surroundings.

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More extensive descriptions of heat transfer, such as 3D turbulent flow models or

problems involving surface-to-surface radiation, can be found in the Heat Transfer
Module. Furthermore, some cases that involve geothermal applications with
goundflow models for porous media are better handled by the Subsurface Flow
Module.

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T he H e a t T r a nsfer i n Pi p es In t erfac e
The Heat Transfer in Pipes interface ( ), found under the Heat Transfer branch ( )
in the Model Wizard, has the equations and boundary conditions for modeling heat
transfer for an incompressible fluid in one dimension.

The Heat Transfer in Pipes interface is available in 3D on edges and

2D
points, and in 2D on boundaries and points.

3D

When this interface is added, these default nodes are also added to the Model Builder
Heat Transfer, Pipe Properties, Temperature, and Initial Values. Right-click the Heat
Transfer in Pipes node to add other features.

INTERFACE IDENTIFIER
The interface identifier is a text string that can be used to reference the respective
physics interface if appropriate. Such situations could occur when coupling this
interface to another physics interface, or when trying to identify and use variables
defined by this physics interface, which is used to reach the fields and variables in
expressions, for example. It can be changed to any unique string in the Identifier field.

The default identifier (for the first interface in the model) is htp.

EDGE OR BOUNDARY SELECTION

The default setting is to include All edges or All boundaries in the model. To choose
specific edges or boundaries, select Manual from the Selection list.

DEPENDENT VARIABLES
This interface defines the Temperature T (SI unit: K) dependent variable (field). If
required, edit the name, but dependent variables must be unique within a model.

DISCRETIZATION
To display this section, click the Show button ( ) and select Discretization. It controls
the discretization (the element types used in the finite element formulation).

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Select an option from the Temperature listQuadratic (the default), Linear, Cubic, or
Quartic. Specify the Value type when using splitting of complex variablesReal or
Complex (the default).

Show More Physics Options

Edge, Boundary, Point, and Pair Features for the Heat Transfer in
Pipes Interface
See Also
Theory for the Heat Transfer in Pipes Interface

Edge, Boundary, Point, and Pair Features for the Heat Transfer in
Pipes Interface

This interface is available in 3D on edges and points, and in 2D on

2D
boundaries and points.

3D

The Heat Transfer in Pipes Interface has these boundary, edge, point, and pair features
available and listed in alphabetical order:

Heat Outflow
Heat Source
Heat Transfer
Initial Values
Pipe Properties (described for the Pipe Flow interface)
Temperature
Wall Heat Transfer

Heat Transfer
Use the Heat Transfer node to define the tangential velocity, density, dynamic viscosity,
and heat convection and conduction properties.

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EDGE OR BOUNDARY SELECTION

From the Selection list, choose the edges or boundaries to apply the heat transfer
properties.

MODEL INPUTS
This section contain fields and values that are inputs to expressions that define material
properties. If such user-defined material models are added, the model inputs appear
here. Initially, this section is empty.

FLUID PROPERTIES
The default Density (SI unit: kg/m3) uses the value From material. Select User defined
to enter a different value or expression.

The default Dynamic viscosity (SI unit: Pas) uses the value From material and
describes the relationship between the shear rate and the shear stresses in a fluid.
Intuitively, water and air have a low viscosity, and substances often described as thick
(such as oil) have a higher viscosity.

HEAT CONVECTION AND CONDUCTION

Select an option from the Tangential velocity listUser defined, Tangential velocity (nipfl/
nipfl), or Tangential velocity (pfl/pfl). If User defined is selected, enter a value for the
Tangential velocity u (SI unit: m/s).

The default Density (SI unit: kg/m3), Dynamic viscosity (SI unit: Pas), Heat capacity
at constant pressure Cp (SI unit: J/(kgK)), Ratio of specific heats (unitless), and
Thermal conductivity k (SI unit: W/(mK)) all use values From material. If User defined
is selected, enter different values or expressions.

Heat Source
The Heat Source describes heat generation within the domain. Express heating and
cooling with positive and negative values, respectively. Add one or more nodes as
requiredall heat sources within a domain contribute to the total heat source. Specify
the heat source as W/m in the domain, as linear heat source.

EDGE OR BOUNDARY SELECTION

From the Selection list, choose the edges or boundaries to add the heat source.

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HEAT SOURCE
Click the General source or Linear source button.

If General source is selected, enter a value for the distributed heat source Q
(SI unit: W/m3).
If Linear source (QqsT) is selected, enter the Linear heat source qs (SI unit: W/
(m3K)).

The advantage of writing the source in this form is that it can be stabilized
by the streamline diffusion. The theory covers qs that is independent of
the temperature, but some stability can be gained as long as qs is only
Tip
weakly dependent on the temperature.

Stabilization Techniques in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Guide

See Also

Wall Heat Transfer

Use the Wall Heat Transfer node to set up heat exchange across the pipe wall. Define
the external temperature and the nature of the heat transfer. Right-click to add Internal
Film Resistance, Wall Layer, and External Film Resistance sub features. These compute
heat transfer coefficients based on the section Theory for the Heat Transfer in Pipes
Interface.

You must add at least an Internal Film Resistance subnode. This

corresponds to a drilled channel in a solid. If a pipe wall exists, (pipe
embedded in a solid), add also Wall Layer. If the pipe wall has more than
one layer, add more Wall Layer features. If the pipe exchanges heat to a
Note
surroundings fluid by forced or natural convection, add also External
Film Resistance.

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Internal film External film

Wall layers

Figure 3-1: Internal and external films and the associated film coefficients (blue), and
wall layers (dark and light grey).

EDGE OR BOUNDARY SELECTION

From the Selection list, choose the edges or boundaries to apply the wall heat transfer
properties.

H E A T TR A N S F E R M O D E L
Select an option from the External temperature listUser defined, Temperature (nipfl/
nipfl), or Temperature (pfl/pfl). If User defined is selected, enter a value for the
Temperature Text (SI unit: K).

Enter a value or expression for the Heat transfer coefficient h (SI unit: W/(m2K). The
default is 0.

Internal Film Resistance

Right-click the Wall Heat Transfer node to add the Internal Film Resistance node and
define the film resistance.

Even if you do not expect a boundary layer to build up, the thermal film
theory works well for laminar flow profiles. In fact, there is an analytical
solution available to the Nusselt number for laminar flow in circular tubes
Note
(Nu = 3.66).

EDGE OR BOUNDARY SELECTION

From the Selection list, choose the edges or boundaries to define the internal film
resistance.

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FILM RESISTANCE
The default Internal film resistance model is Automatic and the Nusselt number is
computed as described in the section Theory for the Heat Transfer in Pipes Interface.
Select User defined to enter a user defined Nusselt number (unitless). The default is 3.66.

External Film Resistance

Right-click the Wall Heat Transfer node to add the External Film Resistance node and
define the external film resistance features including the material, thermal conductivity,
density, external velocity, and pressure of the external fluid. You can select between
forced and natural convection.

EDGE OR BOUNDARY SELECTION

From the Selection list, choose the edges or boundaries to define the external film
resistance.

SPECIFICATION
Select an External film heat transfer modelExternal forced convection (the default),
External natural convection, or User defined.

External Forced Convection and External Natural Convection

If External forced convection or External natural convection is selected, the External
material uses the Domain material by default.

Be careful to select the right material in the settings window for External
Film Resistance. Many times this should be another material than the
Caution Domain material which is the internal fluid.

The default Heat capacity at constant pressure Cp (SI unit: J/(kgK)), Thermal
conductivity k (SI unit: W/(mK)), Density (SI unit: kg/m3), and Dynamic viscosity
(SI unit: Pas), all use values From material. If User defined is selected, enter different
values or expressions than the default, which is 0 for all options.

The External velocity uext (SI unit: m/s) is User defined by default. This is the velocity
of the cooling or heating fluid outside the pipe.

For External natural convection only, also enter a value or expression for the External
pressure pext (SI unit: Pa). The default is 1 atm.

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The natural convection correlations (see External film resistance) require

a temperature dependent density, or else the coefficient of thermal
expansion evaluates to 0 (Equation 3-25), which may generate
unexpected results or even unstable models. Also, make sure that the
Note
density correlation (T) is smooth throughout the temperature interval
used, or else is discontinuous and may cause numerical instability.

Figure 3-2: Before you use the Natural Convection option, it is good practice to select
Density in the used material, and click Plot in the settings window. That way you can
inspect the behavior and make sure it is smooth within the temperature interval you plan
to use it.

User Defined
If User defined is selected:

Enter the Nusselt number (unitless). The default is 3.66.

The External material uses the Domain material by default
The Thermal conductivity k (SI unit: W/(mK)) takes its value From material. Select
User defined to enter a different value or expression. The default is 0.
Enter a value or expression for the External pressure pext (SI unit: Pa). The default
is 1 atm).

Wall Layer
Right-click the Wall Heat Transfer node to add the Wall Layer node and define the
thermal conductivity and wall thickness. You can add more layers.

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EDGE OR BOUNDARY SELECTION

From the Selection list, choose the edges or boundaries to define the wall layer.

SPECIFICATION
Select an option from the Thermal conductivity list k (SI unit: W/(mK))Not set (the
default), or select User defined to enter a different value or expression. The default is 0.

Select an option from the Wall thickness list w (SI unit: m)Not set (the default) or
User defined. If User defined is selected, enter a value or expression. The default is 0.

Initial Values
The Initial Values feature adds an initial value for the temperature that can serve as an
initial condition for a transient simulation or as an initial guess for a nonlinear solver.

EDGE OR BOUNDARY SELECTION

From the Selection list, choose the edges or boundaries to define initial values.

IN IT IA L VA LUES
Enter values or expressions for the initial value of the Temperature T (SI unit: K).

Temperature
Use the Temperature node to specify the temperature at an inlet of the pipe system.

PO IN T S EL EC TIO N
From the Selection list, choose the points to apply a temperature.

TE M P E R A T U R E
The equation for this condition is T = T0 where T0 is the prescribed temperature
(SI unit: K) on the boundary. Enter the value or expression for the Temperature Tin.
The default is 293.15 K.

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show button ( ) and select Advanced Physics Options.
If required, select the Use weak constraints check box.

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Heat Outflow
The Heat Outflow node provides a suitable boundary condition for
convection-dominated heat transfer at outlet boundaries. In a model with convective
heat transfer, this condition states that the only heat transfer over a boundary is by
convection. The temperature gradient in the normal direction is zero, and there is no
radiation. This is usually a good approximation of the conditions at an outlet boundary
in a heat transfer model with fluid flow.

POINT SELECTION
From the Selection list, choose the points to apply the heat outflow.

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Theory for the Heat Transfer in Pipes

Interface
The Heat Transfer in Pipes Interface theory is described in this section:

The Heat Transfer Equation

Reference for the Heat Transfer in Pipes interface

The Heat Transfer Equation

This interface solves an energy balance equation for 1D pipes, taking the flow velocity
as input.

HEAT BALANCE EQUATION

The energy equation for an incompressible fluid flowing in a pipe is (Ref. 24):

T A 3
AC p ------- + AC p u T = Ak T + f D ---------- u + Q + Q wall (3-1)
t 2d h

where is the fluid density (kg/m3), A is the pipe cross section area (m2) available for
flow, Cp (J/(kgK)) is the heat capacity at constant pressure, T (K) is the temperature.
u is a velocity field. For information about the tangential velocity in pipe flow, see
Theory for the Pipe Flow Interface. Further, k (W/(mK)) is the thermal conductivity.
The second term on the right hand side corresponds to friction heat dissipated due to
viscous shear. Q (W/m) represents a general heat source and Qwall (W/m) represents
external heat exchange through the pipe wall. Note that the Qwall term is detailed
below.

Wall Heat Transfer

The radial heat transfer from the surroundings into the pipe is given by

Q wall = hZ eff T ext T (W/m) (3-2)

In Equation 3-2, hZ eff is an effective value of the heat transfer coefficient

h (W/m2K) times the wall perimeter Z (m) of the pipe. Text (K) the external
temperature outside of the pipe. See Figure 3-3. Qwall appears as a source term in the
pipe heat transfer equation, Equation 3-1.

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The Wall Heat Transfer feature requires the external temperature and at least an
internal film resistance subnode added to it. The individual contributions of heat
transfer coefficients can be added by subfeatures to the Wall Heat Transfer feature. The
subfeatures are:

Internal Film Resistance

Wall Layer
External Film Resistance

Text in Equation 3-2 can be a constant, parameter, expression, or given by a

temperature field computed by another physics interface, typically a 3D heat transfer
physics interface. h is automatically calculated through film resistances and wall layers
that are added as subnodes, see Equation 3-16 an on.

If Text is given as the temperature field computed by another 3D heat transfer

interface, automatic heat transfer coupling is done to the 3D physics side as a line
source. The temperature coupling between the pipe and the surrounding domain is
implemented as a line heat source in the 3D domain. The source strength is
proportional to the temperature difference (Equation 3-2) between the pipe fluid and
the surrounding domain.

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The overall heat transfer coefficient including internal film resistance, wall resistance
and external film resistance can be deduced as follows, with reference to Figure 3-3.

Layered pipe wall

r1
r0
rN

dr wn

T
Fluid domain T1
T T0
T2 Tn
TN
Text
Wall number: 1 2 n N
r0 r

Figure 3-3: Temperature distribution across the pipe wall

rn (m) is the outer radius of wall n

w = r r0 (m) a wall coordinate, starting at the inner radius r0
w n = r n r n-1 (m) the wall thickness of wall n
Zn (m) is the outer perimeter of wall n
hint and hext are the film heat transfer coefficients on the inside and outside of the
tube, respectively (W/(m2, K)).
kn is the thermal conductivity (W/(m, K)) of wall n,

Shell balance In Figure 3-3, consider a short length section L of pipe, perpendicular
to the figure plane. The heat leaving the internal fluid of that segment into the wall is

Q 0 = h int A Q T T 0 (W) (3-3)

Here, A Q = L2r 0 (m2) is the area available for heat flux into the wall. For
stationary conditions that same amount of heat must travel through any cylindrical
shell at radius r in wall 1 (or any wall).

Q 1 = L2r k 1 --------
dT
(3-4)
dr

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Rearrange and integrate from r0 to r1.

T1 r0
Q1
= --------------------- --- dr
1
dT
L2k 1 r
(3-5)
T0 r0

Perform the integration

Q1 r1
T 1 T 0 = --------------------- ln ----- (3-6)
L2k 1 r0

and rearrange

L2k 1
Q 1 = --------------------- T 0 T 1 . (3-7)
r1
ln -----
r0

For the example of two wall layers, the heat flow is equal across any shell from the inner
bulk fluid to the surroundings, and we can set all Q n = Q .

Q = h int L2r 0 T T 0
L2k 1
Q = -------------------------- T 0 T 1
ln r 1 r 0
(3-8)
L2k 2
Q = -------------------------- T 1 T 2
ln r 2 r 1
Q = h ext L2r 2 T 2 T ext

Substituting

= L2 , (3-9)

and making a linear combination of the equations Equation 3-8 gives

Q = hA Q eff T T ext (3-10)

where hA Q eff is an effective conductance:

1
hA Q eff = ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- (3-11)
1 ln r 1 r 0 ln r 2 r 1 1 -
------------------- + -------------------------- + -------------------------- + -------------------
r 0 h int k1 k2 r 2 h ext

For the general case with N wall layers this reads

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1
hA Q eff = ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- (3-12)
rn
N ln ---------
1 r n-1
1
-------------------
r 0 h int
+
---------------------- + ---------------------
k n r N h ext
n = 1

Now let

hA Q eff
hZ eff = ---------------------- , (3-13)
L

where Z (m) is an average perimeter (circumference), of the pipe, taken over the
thickness of the pipe walls. Combine Equation 3-9 and Equation 3-13 such a that

hA Q eff = hZ eff 2

and insert in Equation 3-12:

2
hZ eff = ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (3-14)
rn
N ln ---------
1 1 r n-1

--------------- + ---------------- +
r 0 h int r N h ext ----------------------
kn
n = 1

For a circular pipe cross sections, this effective hZ in can now be used in Equation 3-2.
Note the reversed sign since Qwall is the heat added to the pipe from the surroundings.
The assumption in the deduction above is

equal temperature around the circumference of the pipe

the heat transfer through the wall is quasi-static. The latter means that the wall is
assumed to immediately assume the equilibrium temperature distribution
corresponding to T and Text. If this assumption would not be made, an auxiliary
PDE across the wall coordinate would be required.
For square and rectangular pipe shapes the average conductance can be approximated
by the simpler sum of resistances across a plane wall, which can be found in for example
(Ref. 13):

1
hZ eff = -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
N
- (3-15)
1 1 - w

---------------- + ----------------- n
+ -----------------------------------------------
Z 0 h int Z N h ext k n Z n + Z n-1 2
n=1

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The film resistances can be calculated from

k
h = Nu ------ (3-16)
dh

where k is the thermal conductivity of the material, and Nu is the Nusselt number. dh
is the hydraulic diameter, defined as

d h = 4A Z . (3-17)

The inner and outer film coefficients is evaluated at (T+T0)/2 and

(TN+Text)/2, respectively.
The thermal conductivity kn may be temperature dependent and is evaluated at
(Tn+Tn-1)/2
To compute dh in Equation 3-17 the local perimeter is calculated as Z = f(w) and
the cross section area as A = f(w) . Automatic calculations for circular tubes are
2
done by the interface as Z = 2r and A = r . For rectangular tubes it is
Z = 2 width + height and A = width height . For user-defined pipe shapes, the
user can enter arbitrary expressions.

The local temperatures in each radial position of the pipe wall (see Figure 3-3) are
computed considering the fact that Equation 3-2 also can be applied for each
individual wall layer:

Q wall = hZ eff T n+1 T n (3-18)

Combining Equation 3-2, Equation 3-18 and Equation 3-14 or Equation 3-15
(depending on pipe shape) for each wall layer explicitly gives each Tn.

Internal Film Resistance For Internal laminar forced convection in fully developed
pipe flow, the Nusselt number is a constant that depends on the pipe cross-section.
Values are listed in the table below (Ref. 1). The Pipe Flow interface interpolates to
find values for width/height ratios not listed. Default settings for film coefficient
calculations are Automatic, which means that laminar and turbulent correlations are
applied according to the Re number.
TABLE 3-1: NUSSELT NUMBERS FOR INTERNAL LAMINAR PIPE FLOW

CROSS SECTION WIDTH/HEIGHT NU

circular - 3.66
square 1 2.98
rectangular 1.43 3.08

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TABLE 3-1: NUSSELT NUMBERS FOR INTERNAL LAMINAR PIPE FLOW

CROSS SECTION WIDTH/HEIGHT NU

rectangular 2 3.39
rectangular 3 3.96
rectangular 4 4.44
rectangular 8 5.60
parallel plates infinity 7.54
For user-defined cross sections, Nu is suggested to 3.66 as a default.

For Internal turbulent forced convection (3000 < Re < 6106, 0.5 < Pr < 2000), the
Gnielinski equation (Ref. 18) applies:

f D 8 Re 1000 Pr
Nu int = ------------------------------------------------------------------------------
12 23
(3-19)
1 + 12.7 f D 8 Pr 1

Where Pr is the Prandtl number:

Cp
Pr = ----------- (3-20)
k

The film resistance due in the internal flow can be calculated using material properties
defined in the Heat Transfer feature and the calculated friction factor. Material
properties are evaluated at the mean internal film temperature (T+T0)/2 (see
Expressions for the Darcy Friction Factor).

The using the hydraulic diameter makes the equations applicable to non-circular pipe
cross sections.

External film resistance The material properties used should be those of the external
fluid. Do not set the material to Domain Material if you have a different fluid on the
inside and outside. Typically, the temperature and pressure are required to evaluate the
material functions. The external fluid velocity is required for the Forced Convection
option and is a user defined input.

For External forced convection around a pipe, valid for all Re and for Pr > 0.2, the
Churchill and Bernstein (Ref. 19) correlation is used:

12 13
0.62Re Pr 58 45
Nu ext = 0.3 + ------------------------------------------------------- 1 + Re 282000 . (3-21)
23 14
1 + 0.4 Pr

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For External natural convection around a pipe, the Churchill and Chu (Ref. 20)
correlation is used which is recommend for Ra < 1012:

16 2
0.387Ra
Nu ext = 0.60 + -------------------------------------------------------------------
8 27
(3-22)
9 16
1 + 0.559 Pr

where the Rayleigh number is given by:

Ra = PrGr (3-23)

and the Grashof number is:

3
g T N T ext d
Gr = ----------------------------------------
- (3-24)

2
---

Above d is the outside diameter of the pipe and, is the fluids coefficient of
volumetric thermal expansion:

1
= --- ------- (3-25)
T p

Material properties are evaluated at (TN+Text)/2.

STABILIZATION OF THE HEAT TRANSFER EQUATION

The transport equation in the Heat Transfer in Pipes physics is numerically stabilized.

Stabilization Techniques in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Guide

See Also

Reference for the Heat Transfer in Pipes interface

1. F.P. Incropera and D.P. DeWitt, Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer, 4th
ed., John Wiley & Sons, 1996.

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The Chemical Species Transport Branch

This chapter has information about the interfaces available under the Chemical
Species Transport branch ( ) in the Model Wizard.

In this chapter:

The Transport of Diluted Species in Pipes Interface

The Reacting Pipe Flow Interface
Theory for the Transport of Diluted Species in Pipes Interface

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The Transport of Diluted Species in

Pipes Interface
The Transport of Diluted Species in Pipes interface ( ), found under the Chemical
Species Transport branch ( ) in the Model Wizard, has the equations, boundary
conditions, and reactions order to compute the concentration distribution of a solute
in a dilute solution, considering diffusion, dispersion, convection, and chemical
reactions. Note that the Reaction Pipe Flow physics uses this interface and couples it
automatically to Pipe Flow and Heat Transfer in Pipes.

When this interface is added, these default nodes are also added to the Model Builder
Convection and Diffusion, Concentration, and Initial Values. Right-click the node to add
other features that implement, for example, boundary conditions and volume forces.

The interface is available in 3D on edges and points, and in 2D on

2D
boundaries and points.

3D

INTERFACE IDENTIFIER
The interface identifier is a text string that can be used to reference the respective
physics interface if appropriate. Such situations could occur when coupling this
interface to another physics interface, or when trying to identify and use variables
defined by this physics interface, which is used to reach the fields and variables in
expressions, for example. It can be changed to any unique string in the Identifier field.

The default identifier (for the first interface in the model) is dsp.

EDGE OR BOUNDARY SELECTION

The default setting is to include All edges or All boundaries in the model. To choose
specific edges or boundaries, select Manual from the Selection list.

FLUID MODEL
Select a Fluid modelNewtonian (the default), Power law, or Bingham.

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DEPENDENT VA RIA BLES

This interface defines these dependent variables (fields)Number of concentrations c
(SI unit: mol/m3) and Concentrations.

If required, edit the name, but dependent variables must be unique within a model:

To enable multiple species (more than one concentration), you need a

license of either the Batteries and Fuel Cells Module, CFD Module,
Chemical Reaction Engineering Module, Electrodeposition Module,
Note Microfluidics Module, Subsurface flow Module, or the Corrosion
Module.

DISCRETIZATION
To display this section, click the Show button ( ) and select Discretization. It controls
the discretization (the element types used in the finite element formulation).

Select discretization options from the Concentration listQuadratic (the default),

Linear, Cubic, or Quartic.

For each Dependent variable in the table under Value types when using splitting of
complex variables, choose either a Complex or Real Value type. Click the cell to select
from a drop-down list.

Show More Physics Options

Edge, Boundary, Point, and Pair Features for the Transport of Diluted
Species in Pipes Interface
See Also
Theory for the Transport of Diluted Species in Pipes Interface

Edge, Boundary, Point, and Pair Features for the Transport of

Diluted Species in Pipes Interface
The Transport of Diluted Species in Pipes Interface has these boundary, edge, point,
and pair features are described in this section:

Concentration
Convection and Diffusion
Initial Values
Mass Outflow

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Pipe Properties (described for the Pipe Flow interface)

Reactions
Wall Mass Transfer

In the COMSOL Multiphysics Users Guide:

Continuity on Interior Boundaries

See Also Identity and Contact Pairs

Specifying Boundary Conditions for Identity Pairs

Convection and Diffusion

Use the Convection and Diffusion node to define the fluid properties, velocity, diffusion
coefficient, and dispersion model. This node as present by default.

EDGE OR BOUNDARY SELECTION

For the default node no user selection is required. All boundaries or All
edges is automatically selected.
Note

MODEL INPUTS
This section contain fields and values that are inputs to expressions that define material
properties. If such user-defined material models are added, the model inputs appear
here. Initially, this section is empty.

FLUID PROPERTIES
The default Density (SI unit: kg/m3) uses the value From material. Select User defined
to enter a different value or expression.

The default Dynamic viscosity (SI unit: Pas) uses the value From material and
describes the relationship between the shear rate and the shear stresses in a fluid.
Intuitively, water and air have a low viscosity, and substances often described as thick,
such as oil, have a higher viscosity.

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VE L O C I T Y
Enter a value or expression for the Tangential velocity u (SI unit: m2/s). The default
is 0.

DIFFUSION COEFFICIENT
Enter a value or expression for the diffusion coefficient Dc (SI unit: m2/s). The default
is 1 x 10-9 m2/s.

DISPERSION
Select a Dispersion modelUser defined (the default), Taylor (laminar, round pipes), or
Taylor (turbulent, round pipes). If User defined is selected, enter a value or expression
for the Dispersion coefficient DD (SI unit: m2/s). The default is 0. Find more detail in
the theory section Dispersion.

Initial Values
The Initial Values feature adds an initial value for the concentration that can serve as an
initial condition for a transient simulation or as an initial guess for a nonlinear solver.

EDGE OR BOUNDARY SELECTION

For the default node no user selection is required. All boundaries or All
edges is automatically selected.
Note

When additional nodes are added, from the Selection list choose the boundaries or
edges to define the initial values.

IN IT IA L VA LUES
Enter values or expressions for the initial value of the Concentration c (SI unit:
mol/m3). The default is 0.

Reactions
Use the Reactions node to account for the consumption or production of species.
Define the reaction rate expression as required, which displays on the right-hand side
of the species transport equations in the Convection and Diffusion node.

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EDGE OR BOUNDARY SELECTION

From the Selection list, choose the edges or boundaries to define the reactions.

REACTIONS
Enter a Reaction rate Rc (SI unit: mol/(m3s)). The default is 0.

Wall Mass Transfer

Use the Wall Mass Transfer node to model species loss to the surroundings of the pipe.
This could be used if the diluted species is soluble in the pipe wall or if the pipe wall is
semipermeable. A mass transfer coefficient is used to model the loss rate, and external
bulk concentration i specified to define the driving force.

EDGE OR BOUNDARY SELECTION

From the Selection list, choose the edges or boundaries to define the wall mass transfer.

WA L L M A S S TR A N S F E R
For each species, enter a Mass transfer coefficient kwall,c (SI unit: m/s). The default is 0.

For each species, select an option from the list (when available) or define the Bulk
concentration cbulk (SI unit: mol/m3). The default is 0.

Concentration
The Concentration node adds a point condition for the species concentration. For
example, a c = c0 condition specifies the concentration of species c.

POINT SELECTION
From the Selection list, choose the points to define the concentration.

CONCENTRATION
Specify the Concentration cinc (SI unit: mol/(m3s)) for each species. Enter a value or
expression in the field for each species. The default is 0.

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show button ( ) and select Advanced Physics Options.
If required, select the Use weak constraints check box.

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Mass Outflow
Use the Mass Outflow feature to define species mass outflow. Mathematically this is
defined so that convection is the sole contribution to species mass transfer. Normally
this constitutes a well posed condition for all outflows.

PO IN T S EL EC TIO N
From the Selection list, choose the points to define the mass outflow.

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The Reacting Pipe Flow Interface

The Reacting Pipe Flow interface ( ), found under the Chemical Species Transport
branch ( ) in the Model Wizard, is a multiphysics interface that combines the three
interfaces Pipe Flow, Heat Transfer in Pipes, and Transport of Diluted Species in Pipes.
For the underlying theory, please refer to these respective sections in the
documentation.

When this interface is added, these default nodes are also added to the Model Builder
Fluid, Pipe Properties, Temperature, Pressure, Concentration, and Initial Values.
Right-click the node to add other features that implement, for example, boundary
conditions and volume forces.

The interface is available in 3D on edges and points, and in 2D on

2D
boundaries and points.

3D

INTERFACE IDENTIFIER
The interface identifier is a text string that can be used to reference the respective
physics interface if appropriate. Such situations could occur when coupling this
interface to another physics interface, or when trying to identify and use variables
defined by this physics interface, which is used to reach the fields and variables in
expressions, for example. It can be changed to any unique string in the Identifier field.

The default identifier (for the first interface in the model) is rpfl.

EDGE OR BOUNDARY SELECTION

The default setting is to include All edges or All boundaries in the model. To choose
specific edges or boundaries, select Manual from the Selection list.

FLUID MODEL
Select a Fluid modelNewtonian (the default), Power law, or Bingham.

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DEPENDENT VA RIA BLES

This interface defines these dependent variables (fields). If required, edit the name, but
dependent variables must be unique within a model:

Pressure p (SI unit: Pa)

Tangential velocity u (SI unit: m/s)
Temperature T (SI unit: K)
Concentration c (SI unit: mol/m3)

DISCRETIZATION
To display this section, click the Show button ( ) and select Discretization. It controls
the discretization (the element types used in the finite element formulation).

Select discretization options from the Pressure, Tangential velocity, Temperature, and
Concentration listsQuadratic (the default), Linear, Cubic, or Quartic.

For each Dependent variable in the table under Value types when using splitting of
complex variables, choose either a Complex or Real Value type. Click the cell to select
from a drop-down list.

Show More Physics Options

Edge, Boundary, Point, and Pair Features for the Reacting Pipe Flow
See Also Interface

Edge, Boundary, Point, and Pair Features for the Reacting Pipe Flow
Interface

The interface is available in 3D on edges and points, and in 2D on

2D
boundaries and points.

3D

Because the The Reacting Pipe Flow Interface is a multiphysics interface, many nodes
are described for other interfaces. These boundary, edge, point, and pair features are
described as indicated.

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These features are described in this section:

Initial Values
Convection and Diffusion
Fluid
Fluid Properties
Pipe Properties

These features are described for the Pipe Flow interface (listed in alphabetical order):

Bend
Contraction / Expansion
Inlet
No Flow
Outlet
Pressure
Pump
T-Junction
Valve

Volume Force is described for the Laminar Flow interface in the COMSOL
Multiphysics Users Guide:
Note

These features are described for the Heat Transfer in Pipes interface (listed in
alphabetical order):

External Film Resistance

Heat Outflow
Heat Source
Heat Transfer
Internal Film Resistance
Temperature
Wall Heat Transfer
Wall Layer

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These features are described for the Transport of Diluted Species in Pipes interface (listed
in alphabetical order):

Concentration
Mass Outflow
Reactions
Wall Mass Transfer

Pipe Properties
The Pipe Properties node is used to define the pipe shape and flow resistance.

EDGE OR BOUNDARY SELECTION

For the default node no user selection is required. All boundaries or All
edges is automatically selected.
Note

When additional nodes are added, from the Selection list choose the boundaries or
edges to define the pipe properties.

PIPE SHAPE

The Pipe Shape settings are the same as for the Pipe Properties node
described for the Pipe Flow interface.
Note

FLOW RESISTANCE
The Friction model is User defined by default. Enter a value or expression for the Darcy
friction factor fD (unitless). The default is 0.

Initial Values
The Initial Values feature adds initial values for the pressure, tangential velocity,
temperature, and concentration that can serve as an initial condition for a transient
simulation or as an initial guess for a nonlinear solver.

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EDGE OR BOUNDARY SELECTION

From the Selection list, choose the edges or boundaries to define initial values.

INITIAL VALUES
Enter values or expressions for the initial value of the:

Pressure p (SI unit: Pa). The default is 101325 Pa.

Tangential velocity u (SI unit: m/s). The default is 0 m/s.
Temperature T (SI unit: K). The default is 293.15 K.
Concentration c (SI unit: mol/m3). The default is 0 mol/m3.

Fluid Properties
The Fluid Properties feature adds the momentum equations solved by the interface,
except for volume forces which are added by the Volume Force feature. The node also
provides an interface for defining the fluid properties of the fluid.

Volume Force is described for the Laminar Flow interface in the COMSOL
Multiphysics Users Guide:
Note

EDGE OR BOUNDARY SELECTION

From the Selection list, choose the edges or boundaries to apply the fluid properties.

MODEL INPUTS
Edit input variables to the fluid-flow equations if required. For fluid flow, these are
typically introduced when a material requiring inputs has been applied.

FLUID PROPERTIES
The default Density (SI unit: kg/m3) is User defined and is 1 x 103 kg/m3. Enter a
different value or expression as required.

The the fluid model is selected as non-Newtonian, enter a value or expression for the
more parameters like Yield stress s (SI unit: Pa) and Plastic viscosity s (SI unit: Pas).

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Convection and Diffusion

Use the Convection and Diffusion node to define the fluid properties, velocity, diffusion
coefficient, and dispersion model. This node is present by default.

EDGE OR BOUNDARY SELECTION

From the Selection list, choose the edges or boundaries to define the convection and
diffusion properties.

MODEL INPUTS
This section contain fields and values that are inputs to expressions that define material
properties. If such user-defined material models are added, the model inputs appear
here. Initially, this section is empty.

FLUID PROPERTIES
The default Density (SI unit: kg/m3) is User defined and is 1 x 103 kg/m3. Enter a
different value or expression as required.

Enter a value or expression for the Yield stress s (SI unit: Pa) and Plastic viscosity s
(SI unit: Pas). The defaults are 0.

VE L O C I T Y

No user selection is required for the Tangential velocity u.

Note

DIFFUSION COEFFICIENT
Enter a value or expression for the diffusion coefficient Dc (SI unit: m2/s). The default
is 1 x 10-9 m2/s.

DISPERSION
Select a Dispersion modelUser defined (the default) or Fan (laminar, round pipes). If
User defined is selected, enter a value or expression for the Dispersion coefficient DD (SI
unit: m2/s). The default is 0. For detailed information about dispersion, see the theory
section Dispersion.

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Fluid
Use the Fluid node to define the density, dynamic viscosity, and heat convection and
conduction properties.

EDGE OR BOUNDARY SELECTION

For the default node no user selection is required. All boundaries or All
edges is automatically selected.
Note

When additional nodes are added, from the Selection list choose the boundaries or
edges to define the fluid.

FLUID PROPERTIES
The default Density (SI unit: kg/m3) uses the value From material. Select User defined
to enter a different value or expression.

The default Dynamic viscosity (SI unit: Pas) uses the value From material and
describes the relationship between the shear rate and the shear stresses in a fluid.
Intuitively, water and air have a low viscosity, and substances often described as thick,
such as oil, have a higher viscosity.

HEAT CONVECTION AND CONDUCTION

The default Heat capacity at constant pressure Cp (SI unit: J/(kgK)), Ratio of specific
heats (unitless), and Thermal conductivity k (SI unit: W/(mK)) all use values From
material. If User defined is selected, enter different values or expressions.

DISPERSION
Select a Dispersion modelUser defined (the default), Taylor (laminar, round pipes), or
Taylor (turbulent, round pipes). If User defined is selected, enter a value or expression
for the Dispersion coefficient DD (SI unit: m2/s). The default is 0. For detailed
information about dispersion, see the theory section Dispersion.

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T he o r y f o r t he Tran sp ort of D i l u t ed
Species in Pipes Interface
The Transport of Diluted Species in Pipes Interface theory is described in this section.

This interface solves a mass balance equation for pipes in order to compute the
concentration distribution of a solute in a dilute solution, taking the flow velocity as
input.

MASS CONSERVATION EQUATION

The mass transport equation for a diluted species i an incompressible fluid flowing in
a pipe is:

c i
A ------- + Au c i = A D i + D D i c i + A
t Rik + Rwall ik (4-1)
k k

where A (m2) is the cross section area available for flow, ci (mol/m3) is the diluted
species concentration, and u a velocity field. For information about tangential velocity
in pipe flow, see Theory for the Pipe Flow Interface. Further, Di (m2/s) is the species
diffusion coefficient and DD,i (m2/s) is the species dispersion coefficient. The second
term on the right hand side, Rik (mol/(m3s)), corresponds a source or sink due to
chemical reaction number k for species i. Finally, Rwall,ik (mol/(ms)), is a source term
due to mass transfer contribution k through the pipe wall:

Dispersion
The Transport of Diluted Species in Pipes interface can automatically calculate the axial
dispersion of species transported in a solvent stream.

For laminar flow in circular, straight pipes the, total dispersion is given by the sum of
molecular diffusion, Di (m2/s), and the effect of the velocity profile causing some
fractions of an initial plane of fluid in the pipe to move faster than others. COMSOL
uses the Taylor (Ref. 21) correlation for this second contribution, DD,i (m2/s):

2 2
u d
D D,i = ---------------- (4-2)
192D i

This expression is valid if:

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L
---- 0.04 ud
------- (4-3)
d Di

where d is the pipe diameter and L a characteristic pipe length. For turbulent
conditions Taylor (Ref. 22) suggested:

d fD
D D,i = 10.1 --- u ----- (4-4)
2 2

For non-Newtonian fluids in the laminar regime Fan (Ref. 23) extended the analysis
of Taylor:

2 2
u d
D D,i = k ------------- (4-5)
4D i

with k for Power-law fluids given by:

1
k = ---------------------------------------- (4-6)
2n + 3n + 5

and k for Bingham plastic fluids:

3 --- ------ + ------ + 0 ------ 0 --- 0 + --- 0 ------ 0 + --- 0 0 ln 0

44 16 2 4 28 5 3 6 8 7 29 8 1 10 8
8 35 0 15 0 15 5 5 56 5
k = -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
- (4-7)
2 2 4
2 3 + 2 0 + 0 1 0

The parameter 0 is

r0
0 = ----- (4-8)
R

where R is the pipe radius and r0 is the radius of the plug flow region in the plastic
flow, defined as

2L B
r 0 = -------------- (4-9)
p

This can be rewritten as

4 B
0 = -----------------
T
- (4-10)
d p

where the tangential pressure gradient is calculated by the Pipe Flow interface.

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STABILIZATION OF THE MASS TRANSFER EQUATION

The transport equation in the Transport of Diluted Species in pipes physics is
numerically stabilized.

Stabilization Techniques in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Guide

See Also

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The Acoustics Branch

This module has extra functionality for simulating acoustics in pipe networks,
which is found under the Acoustics>Acoustic-Structure Interaction branch ( ) in
the Model Wizard.

In this chapter:

The Pipe Acoustics, Transient Interface

Theory for the Pipe Acoustics, Transient Interface

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The Pipe Acoustics, Transient

Interface
This interface requires both the Pipe Flow Module and the Acoustics
Module.
Note

The interface is available in 3D on edges and points, and in 2D on

2D
boundaries and points.

3D

The Pipe Acoustics, Transient interface ( ), found under the

Acoustics>Acoustic-Structure Interaction branch ( ) in the Model Wizard, has the
equations and boundary conditions for modeling the propagation of transient sound
waves in flexible pipe systems. The equations are formulated in a general way to include
the possibility of a stationary background flow.

When this interface is added, these default nodes are also added to the Model Builder
Fluid Properties, Pipe Properties, Closed, and Initial Values. Right-click the Pipe Acoustics,
Transient node to add other features.

INTERFACE IDENTIFIER
The interface identifier is a text string that can be used to reference the respective
physics interface if appropriate. Such situations could occur when coupling this
interface to another physics interface, or when trying to identify and use variables
defined by this physics interface, which is used to reach the fields and variables in
expressions, for example. It can be changed to any unique string in the Identifier field.

The default identifier (for the first interface in the model) is patd.

EDGE OR BOUNDARY SELECTION

The default setting is to include All edges or All boundaries in the model. To choose
specific edges or boundaries, select Manual from the Selection list.

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DEPENDENT VA RIA BLES

This interface defines these dependent variables (fields). If required, edit the name, but
dependent variables must be unique within a model:

Pressure p (SI unit: Pa)

Tangential velocity u (SI unit: m/s)

DISCRETIZATION
To display this section, click the Show button ( ) and select Discretization. It controls
the discretization (the element types used in the finite element formulation).

Select discretization options from the Pressure and Tangential velocity listsLinear,
Quadratic, Cubic, or Quartic. The defaults is quadratic for the pressure and linear for the
tangential velocity.

For each Dependent variable in the table under Value types when using splitting of
complex variables, choose either a Complex or Real Value type. Click the cell to select
from a drop-down list.

Show More Physics Options

Edge, Boundary, Point, and Pair Features for the Pipe Acoustics,
Transient Interface
See Also
Theory for the Pipe Acoustics, Transient Interface

Edge, Boundary, Point, and Pair Features for the Pipe Acoustics,
Transient Interface
The Pipe Acoustics, Transient Interface has these edge, boundary, point, and pair
features available and listed in alphabetical order:

The interface is available in 3D on edges and points, and in 2D on

2D
boundaries and points.

3D

Closed

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Fluid Properties
Initial Values
Open
Pipe Properties
Pressure
Velocity

In the COMSOL Multiphysics Users Guide:

Volume Force is described for the Laminar Flow interface

Continuity on Interior Boundaries
See Also
Identity and Contact Pairs
Specifying Boundary Conditions for Identity Pairs

The links to the features described in the COMSOL Multiphysics Users

Guide do not work in the PDF, only from the online help in COMSOL
Important Multiphysics.

To locate and search all the documentation, in COMSOL, select

Help>Documentation from the main menu and either enter a search term
Tip or look under a specific module in the documentation tree.

Initial Values
The Initial Values feature adds initial values for the pressure and tangential velocity that
can serve as an initial condition for a transient simulation or as an initial guess for a
nonlinear solver.

EDGE OR BOUNDARY SELECTION

From the Selection list, choose the edges or boundaries to define initial values.

INITIAL VALUES
Enter values or expressions for the initial value of the Pressure p (SI unit: Pa) and the
Tangential Velocity u (SI unit: m/s).

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Fluid Properties
The Fluid Properties feature adds the momentum and continuity equations solved by
the interface, except for volume forces which are added by the Volume Force feature.
The node also provides an interface for defining the material properties of the fluid.

Volume Force is described for the Laminar Flow interface in the COMSOL
Multiphysics Users Guide:
Note

EDGE OR BOUNDARY SELECTION

For the default node no user selection is required. All boundaries or All
edges is automatically selected.
Note

When additional nodes are added, from the Selection list choose the boundaries or
edges to define the fluid properties.

MODEL INPUTS
Edit input variables to the fluid-flow equations if required. For fluid flow, these are
typically introduced when a material requiring inputs has been applied.

BACKGROUND PROPERTIES
Enter a value or expression for the Background velocity u0 (SI unit: m/s) and
Background pressure p0 (SI unit: Pa).

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
Select a Fluid modelLinear elastic (the default).

The default Density (SI unit: kg/m3) uses the value From material. Select User defined
to enter a different value or expression.

The default Speed of sound cs (SI unit: m/s) uses the value From material. Select User
defined to enter a different value or expression.

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Pipe Properties
The Pipe Properties node is used to define the pipe shape, pipe model, wall drag force,
and swirl correction.

EDGE OR BOUNDARY SELECTION

For the default node no user selection is required. All boundaries or All
edges is automatically selected.
Note

When additional nodes are added, from the Selection list choose the boundaries or
edges to define the pipe properties.

PIPE SHAPE
Select a pipe shape from the listNot set (the default), Round, Square, Rectangular, or
User defined.

If Round is selected, enter a value or expression for the Inner diameter di (SI unit:
m). The default is 10 cm.
If Square is selected, enter a value or expression for the Inner width wi (SI unit: m).
The default is 5 cm.
If Rectangular is selected, enter a value or expression for the Inner width wi (SI
unit: m. The default is 5 cm) and Inner height hi (SI unit: m. The default is 10cm).
If User defined is selected, enter a value or expression for the Cross sectional area Ac
(SI unit: m2. The default is 0.01 m2) and Wetted perimeter Z (SI unit: m. The
default is 0.4 m).

PIPE MODEL
Select a Pipe modelIncompressible cross section (the default), Zero axial stress,
Anchored at one end, or Anchored at both ends. When Zero axial stress, Anchored at one
end, or Anchored at both ends is selected, also select a Thickness wNot set (the
default) or User defined. If User defined is selected, enter a value or expression.

When Anchored at one end or Anchored at both ends is selected, also select a Poissons
ratio vNot set (the default) or User defined. If User defined is selected, enter a value
or expression.

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WAL L DR AG FORCE
Enter a value or expression for w (SI unit: N/m2). The default is 0.

SWIRL CORRECTION
Enter a value or expression for (unitless). The default is 1.

Closed
Use the Closed feature to impose zero velocity. This is the default condition added on
all end points.

Theory for the Pipe Acoustics, Transient Interface Boundary Conditions

See Also

PO IN T S EL EC TIO N
From the Selection list, choose the closed points.

Open
Use the Open feature to model an open pipe end where waves propagate out of the
system without any reflections. The boundary condition prescribes the velocity given
for plane waves moving in an infinitely long pipe of constant cross section area A. The
relation between the pressure p and tangential velocity u is given by

u 2
--- 1 u 0 + c 1 -----0- + 1 + A p 0
u 1- 1
--- = ----
p c
2 c

where u0 is the background tangential flow, c is the wave speed, is the fluid density,
Ais the cross sectional area compressibility, and is the swirl correction factor.

Theory for the Pipe Acoustics, Transient Interface Boundary Conditions

See Also

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POINT SELECTION
From the Selection list, choose the open points.

The wave speed c may be different from the speed of sound cs and
depends on the elastic properties of the pipe structure. It is defined in
Equation 5-3 in the Governing Equations section.
Note The wave speed may be evaluated as sqrt(1/patd.invc2) during the
analysis and results stage.

Pressure
Use the Pressure node to define the boundary pressure at the pipe ends.

Theory for the Pipe Acoustics, Transient Interface Boundary Conditions

See Also

POINT SELECTION
From the Selection list choose the points that represent the pressure.

PRESSURE
Enter a value or expression for the Pressure p (SI unit: Pa). The default is 0 Pa.

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show button ( ) and select Advanced Physics Options.
Select a Constraint typeBidirectional, symmetric or Unidirectional. If required, select
the Use weak constraints check box.

Velocity
Use the Velocity feature to prescribe a velocity at the pipe ends.

Theory for the Pipe Acoustics, Transient Interface Boundary Conditions

See Also

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PO IN T S EL EC TIO N
From the Selection list, choose the velocity points.

VE L O C I T Y
Enter a value or expression for uin (SI unit: m/s). The default is 0.

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Theory for the Pipe Acoustics,

Transient Interface
The equations governing the propagation of sound in pipes stem from considering
momentum, mass, and energy balances for a control volume of a piece of pipe. The
resulting equations are expressed in the cross-sectional averaged variables and reduces
the equations to a 1D model with scalar dependent variables. The present theory
assumes no thermal conduction and thus no losses due to thermal conduction
(isentropic sound propagation).

The Pipe Acoustics, Transient Interface theory is discussed in this section:

Governing Equations
Theory for the Pipe Acoustics, Transient Interface Boundary Conditions
Solving Transient Problems
References for the Pipe Acoustics, Transient Interface

The Pipe Acoustics, Transient interface requires both the Pipe Flow
Module and the Acoustics Module.
Note

Governing Equations
The continuity equation derived for a control volume is given by

---------------
A -
+ Au = 0 (5-1)
t

and the corresponding momentum balance equation is

-------------------
Au - 2
+ Au = Ap + f drag Z + AF (5-2)
t

where Z is the inner circumference of the pipe and A = A(x,p,...) is the inner wetted
cross sectional area. u is the area-averaged mean velocity, and it is also defined in the
tangential direction u = uet, p is the mean pressure along the pipe, fdrag is the drag
force, and F is a volume force. The gradient is taken in the tangential direction et. The

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term is a swirl-correction factor relating the mean of the squared total velocity to the
square of the mean velocity. Such that

= ---- u dA u
1 1 1 2

2
u = ---- u dA p = ---- p dA
A A A

where

p = p x and u = u x

are here the local parameters. Again p and u are the are the area-averaged dependent
variables.

LINEARIZATION
The governing equations are now linearized, that is, all variables are expanded to first
order assuming stationary zero (0th) order values (steady state background
properties). The acoustic variations of the dependent variables are assumed small and
on top of the background values. This is done according to the following scheme:

u x t = u 0 x + u 1 x t
p x t = p 0 x + p 1 x t
x t = 0 x + 1 x t
A x t = A 0 x + A 1 x t

where A0 is often only function of x, however A0 may be changed by external factors

such as heating or structural deformation, thus the time dependency. The 1st order
terms represent small perturbations on top of the background values (0th order). They
are valid for

2
1 0 p1 0 c 0 u1 c0 A1 A0

Moreover, the perturbations for the fluid density and cross section area are expanded
to first order in p0 in a Taylor series such that

1 = 0 = p p 0 ------
p s
0

A
A 1 = A A 0 = p p 0 -------
p s
0

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where the subscript s refers to constant entropy, that is, the processes are isentropic.
The relations for the fluid compressibility and the cross sectional area compressibility
are

1 1 1 1 1
0 = ------- = ------ = ------ ------ = ------ ----2-
K0 Ks 0 p s 0 c
0 s

1 A
A = ------- -------
A 0 p s
0

here, 0 is the fluid compressibility at the given reference pressure p0, the isentropic
bulk speed of sound is denoted cs, and 0 is the fluid density at the given reference
temperature and reference pressure. A is the effective compressibility of the pipes
cross section A0 due to changes in the inner fluid pressure.

Inserting the above expansions into the governing equations (Equation 5-1 and
Equation 5-2) and retaining only 1st order terms yield the pipe acoustics equations
including background flow. These are (after some manipulation and dropping the
suffix 1 on the acoustic variations):

1 p u0
A 0 ----2- ------ + A 0 0 u 1 + -----------2 p = 0
c t 0 c
2
u u 0 p u0
0 A 0 ------- + -----------2 ------ + A 0 ------ p + 2 0 A 0 u 0 u
t 0 c t c
2
(5-3)

+ A 0 p 1 + p 0 A + f drag Z = 0

1 0
----- = 0 0 + A = 0 ------- + ------- = ----- + -------
1 1 1
2 K 0 K A
cs KA
2
c

The bulk modulus for the cross sectional area KA is given by the pipe material
properties according to the so-called Korteweg formula (see Ref. 2).

Finally, using the fact that the velocity is taken along the tangential direction et the
governing equations are re-written in terms of the scalar values u and p, and projecting
onto the tangent. The 0 subscript is dropped on the density and area and the 1
subscript is also dropped on the dependent variables.

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1 p u0
A ----2- ------ + A u + --------2- p e t = 0
c t c
2
u u 0 p u0
A ------ + --------2- ------ + A -----2- p + 2Au 0 u e t
t c t c (5-4)

+ Ap 1 + p 0 A e t + w Z + A F e t = 0

= 0 + A = ------- + ------- = ----2- + -------
1-
----
1 1 1
2 K 0 K A K
c cs A

where w is the tangential wall drag force (SI unit: N/m2) and F is a volume force
(SI unit: N/m3).

Theory for the Pipe Acoustics, Transient Interface Boundary

Conditions
The simplest boundary conditions to specify are to prescribe the pressure or the
velocity at the pipe ends. These result in the Pressure condition

p = p in

and the Velocity condition

u = u in

and can be set independently of each other leaving the other dependent variable free.
A special subclass of the velocity condition is the Closed condition where

u = 0

this corresponds to the sound-hard wall condition in pressure acoustics.

The final condition to specify is the Open condition. In this case it is assumed that the
pipe continues with constant cross section A. This requires specifying as the acoustic
waves are, by design, always normal to the pipe ends, for example, the velocity as a
function of the pressure. In order to define this, the dispersion relation and the relation
between p and u for a plane wave needs to be determined.

To determine these relations insert the assumed plane wave form

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i t kx
p = Re p e
i t kx
u = Re u e

into the governing Equation 5-4 and solve for the desired relations. After some
manipulation this results in

---
---- u 0
u 1- 1
--- = ----
p c2 k

with the dispersion relation

u 2
---- = u 0 + c 1 -----0- + 1 + A p 0
k c

such that the relation

u 2
--- 1 u 0 + c 1 -----0- + 1 + A p 0
u 1- 1
--- = ----
p c 2 c

must hold at an open boundary.

Solving Transient Problems

When solving transient acoustic problems where the wave shape is not necessarily
harmonic it may be necessary to resolve its spatial variations with a fine mesh, say with
a minimal scale dx. Now, in order for the numerical solution of the temporal
development of the acoustic field to be good it is necessary to restrict the maximal time
steps dt taken by the solver The condition is known as the CFL condition. For
transient acoustic problems it is defined as

dx
CFL = ------------- = 0,2
c dt

This conditions restricts any acoustic disturbances to propagate more than 20 % of the
mesh size dx during one time step dt.

For an example of a model where the CFL condition is used see Water
Hammer: Model Library path Pipe_Flow_Module/Verification_Models/
Model water_hammer_verification.

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References for the Pipe Acoustics, Transient Interface

1. D. T. Blackstock, Fundamentals of Physical Acoustics, John Wiley & Sons, 2000.

2. M. S. Ghidaoui, M. Zhao, D. A. McInnis, and D. H. Axworthy, A Review of Water

Hammer Theory and Practice, Applied Mechanics Reviews, ASME, 2005.

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Materials

This chapter describes how to use the material databases.

In this chapter:

Material Library and Databases

Liquids and Gases Materials Database

111
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Material Library and Databases

The Pipe Flow Module includes the Liquids and Gases material database with
temperature-dependent fluid dynamic and thermal properties.

For detailed information about all the other material databases and the
separately purchased Material Library, see Materials in the COMSOL
Note Multiphysics Users Guide.

In this section:

About the Material Databases

About Using Materials in COMSOL
Opening the Material Browser
Using Material Properties

About the Material Databases

Material Browserselect predefined

materials in all applications. Recent MaterialsSelect from recent
materials added to the model.

Material LibraryPurchased
separately. Select from over 2500
predefined materials.

Built-In databaseAvailable to all

users and contains common materials.

Application specific material databases

available with specific modules.

User-defined material database library.

All COMSOL modules have predefined material data available to build models. The
most extensive material data is contained in the separately purchased Material Library,

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but all modules contain commonly used or module-specific materials. For example, the
Built-In database is available to all users but the MEMS database is included with the
MEMS Module and Structural Mechanics Module. Also create custom materials and
material libraries by researching and entering material properties.

All the material databases (including the Material Library) are accessed from the
Material Browser. These databases are briefly described below.

RECENT MATERIALS
From the Recent Materials folder ( ), select from a list of recently used materials, with
the most recent at the top. This folder is available after the first time a material is added
to a model.

MATERIAL LIBRARY
An optional add-on database, the Material Library ( ), contains data for over 2500
materials and 20,000 property functions.

BUILT-IN
Included with COMSOL Multiphysics, the Built-In database ( ) contains common
solid materials with electrical, structural, and thermal properties.

Predefined Built-In Materials for all COMSOL Modules in the COMSOL

Multiphysics Users Guide
See Also

AC/DC
Included in the AC/DC Module, the AC/DC database ( ) has electric properties for
some magnetic and conductive materials.

BATTERIES AND FUEL CELLS

Included in the Batteries & Fuel Cells Module, the Batteries and Fuel Cells
database ( ) includes properties for electrolytes and electrode reactions for certain
battery chemistries.

LIQUIDS AND GASES

Included in the Acoustics Module, CFD Module, Chemical Reaction Engineering
Module, Heat Transfer Module, MEMS Module, Pipe Flow Module, and Subsurface

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Flow Module, the Liquids and Gases database ( ) includes transport properties and
surface tension data for liquid/gas and liquid/liquid interfaces.

MEMS
Included in the MEMS Module and Structural Mechanics Module, the MEMS
database ( ) has properties for MEMS materialsmetals, semiconductors,
insulators, and polymers.

PIEZOELECTRIC
Included in the Acoustics Module, MEMS Module, and Structural Mechanics
Module, the Piezoelectric database ( ) has properties for piezoelectric materials.

PIEZORESISTIVITY
Included in the MEMS Module, the Piezoresistivity database ( ) has properties for
piezoresistive materials, including p-Silicon and n-Silicon materials.

USER-DEFINED LIBRARY
The User-Defined Library folder ( ) is where user-defined materials databases
(libraries) are created. When any new database is created, this also displays in the
Material Browser.

The materials databases shipped with COMSOL Multiphysics are

read-only. This includes the Material Library and any materials shipped
Important with the optional modules.

Creating Your Own User-Defined Libraries in the COMSOL

Multiphysics Users Guide
See Also

About Using Materials in COMSOL

USING THE MATERIALS IN THE PHYSICS SETTINGS

The physics set-up in a model is determined by a combination of settings in the
Materials and physics interface nodes. When the first material is added to a model,
COMSOL automatically assigns that material to the entire geometry. Different
geometric entities can have different materials. The following example uses the

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heat_sink.mph model file contained in the Heat Transfer Module and CFD Module
Model Libraries.

Figure 6-1: Assigning materials to a heat sink model. Air is assigned as the material to
the box surrounding the heat sink, and aluminum to the heat sink itself.

If a geometry consists of a heat sink in a container, Air can be assigned as the material
in the container surrounding the heat sink and Aluminum as the heat sink material itself
(see Figure 6-1). The Conjugate Heat Transfer interface, selected during model set-up,
has a Fluid flow model, defined in the box surrounding the heat sink, and a Heat
Transfer model, defined in both the aluminum heat sink and in the air box. The Heat
Transfer in Solids 1 settings use the material properties associated to the Aluminum
3003-H18 materials node, and the Fluid 1 settings define the flow using the Air material
properties. The other nodes under Conjugate Heat Transfer define the initial and
boundary conditions.

All physics interface properties automatically use the correct Materials properties when
the default From material setting is used. This means that one node can be used to
define the physics across several domains with different materials; COMSOL then uses
the material properties from the different materials to define the physics in each
domain. If material properties are missing, the Material Contents section on the

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Materials page displays a stop icon ( ) to warn about the missing properties and a
warning icon ( ) if the property exists but its value is undefined.

The Material Page in the COMSOL Multiphysics Users Guide

See Also

There are also some physics interface features where you can explicitly select a material
from which material properties are retrieved. The default setting is then always to use
the Domain material on each domain (that is, the materials defined on the same
domains as the physics interface). In addition to the Domain Material, you can select
any other material that is present in the model, regardless of its selection. The selected
materials properties are then applied to all domains in the features selection.

EVALUATING AND PLOTTING MATERIAL PROPERTIES

You can access the material properties for evaluation and plotting like other variables
in a model using the variable naming conventions and scoping mechanisms:

To access a material property throughout the model (across several materials) and
not just in a specific material, use the special material container root.material. For
example, root.material.rho is the density as defined by the materials in each
domain in the geometry. For plotting, you can type the expression material.rho
to create a plot that shows the density of all materials.

If you use a temperature-dependent material, each material contribution

asks for a special model input. For example, rho(T) in a material mat1
asks for root.mat1.def.T, and you need to define this variable (T)
Note manuallyif the temperature is not available as a dependent variableto
make the density variable work.

To access a material property from a specific material, you need to know the tags for
the material and the property group. Typically, for the first material (Material 1) the
tag is mat1 and most properties reside in the default Basic property group with the
tag def. The variable names appear in the Variable column in the table under Output
properties in the settings window for the property group; for example, Cp for the
heat capacity at constant pressure. The syntax for referencing the heat capacity at
constant pressure in Material 1 is then mat1.def.Cp. Some properties are
anisotropic tensors, and each of the components can be accessed, such as

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mat1.def.k11, mat1.def.k12, and so on, for the thermal conductivity. For

material properties that are functions, call these with input arguments such as
mat1.def.rho(pA,T) where pA and T are numerical values or variables
representing the absolute pressure and the temperature, respectively. The functions
can be plotted directly from the function nodes settings window by first specifying
suitable ranges for the input arguments.
Many physics interfaces also define variables for the material properties that they
use. For example, solid.rho is the density in the Solid Mechanics interface and is
equal to the density in a material when it is used in the domains where the Solid
Mechanics interface is active. If you define the density in the Solid Mechanics
interface using another value, solid.rho represents that value and not the density
of the material. If you use the density from the material everywhere in the model,
solid.rho and material.rho are identical.

Opening the Material Browser

When using the Material Browser, the words window and page are
interchangeable. For simplicity, the instructions refer only to the Material
Note Browser.

1 Open or create a model file.

2 From the View menu choose Material Browser or right-click the Materials node and
choose Open Material Browser.
The Material Browser opens by default in the same position as the settings window.
3 Under Material Selection, search or browse for materials.
- Enter a Search term to find a specific material by name, UNS number (Material
Library materials only), or DIN number (Material Library materials only). If the
search is successful, a list of filtered databases containing that material displays
under Material Selection.

To clear the search field and browse, delete the search term and click
Search to reload all the databases.
Tip

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- Click to open each database and browse for a specific material by class (for
example, in the Material Library) or physics module (for example, MEMS
Materials).

Always review the material properties to confirm they are applicable for
the model. For example, Air provides temperature-dependent properties
Important that are valid at pressures around 1 atm.

4 When the material is located, right-click to Add Material to Model.

A node with the material name is added to the Model Builder and the Material page
opens.

Using Material Properties

For detailed instructions, see Adding Predefined Materials and Material

Properties Reference in the COMSOL Multiphysics Users Guide.
See Also

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Liquids and Gases Materials Database

For an example of the Liquids and Gases materials database, see
Discharging Tank: Model Library path Pipe_Flow_Module/Tutorial_Models/
Model discharging_tank.

In this section:

Liquids and Gases Materials

References for the Liquids and Gases Material Database

Liquids and Gases Materials

The Liquids and Gases materials database contains thermal and fluid dynamic
properties for a set of common liquids. All properties are given as functions of
temperature and at atmospheric pressure, except the density, which for gases is also a
function of the local pressure. The database also contains surface and interface tensions

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for a selected set of liquid/gas and liquid/liquid systems. All functions are based on
data collected from scientific publications.
TABLE 6-1: LIQUIDS AND GASES MATERIALS

GROUP MATERIAL

Gases References 1, 2, 7, 8, 11, Air

and 12 Nitrogen
Oxygen
Carbon dioxide
Humid air
Hydrogen
Helium
Steam
Propane
Ethanol vapor
Diethyl ether vapor
Freon12 vapor
SiF4
Liquids References 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, Engine oil
9, and 10 Ethanol
Diethyl ether
Ethylene glycol
Gasoline
Glycerol
Heptane
Mercury
Toluene
Transformer oil
Water

DEFAULT GRAPHICS WINDOW APPEARANCE SETTINGS

The MEMS Materials database has data for these materials and a default
appearance for 3D models is applied to each material as indicated.
3D

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See Working on the Material Page in the COMSOL Multiphysics Users

Guide for more information about customizing the materials appearance
See Also in the Graphics window.

TABLE 6-2: MATERIALS 3D MODEL DEFAULT APPEARANCE SETTINGS

MATERIAL DEFAULT DEFAULT CUSTOM DEFAULT SETTINGS

FAMILY LIGHTING
MODEL

DIFFUSE AND AMBIENT

SPECULAR EXPONENT

SURFACE ROUGHNESS
NORMAL INCIDENCE
NOISE FREQUENCY

REFLECTANCE AT
NORMAL VECTOR

NORMAL VECTOR

COLOR OPACITY
NOISE SCALE

All gases Air Simple 0.08 3 0.1 - - -

All liquids Water Cook- 0.2 0.2 0.2 - 0.7 0.05
(except Engine Torrance
oil, Mercury, and
Transformer oil)
Engine oil Custom Cook- 0.2 0.2 0.2 - 0.7 0.05
Torrance
Mercury Custom Cook- 0 1 1 - 0.9 0.1
Torrance
Transformer oil Plastic Blinn-Phon 0 1 1 64 - -
g

References for the Liquids and Gases Material Database

1. ASHRAE Handbook of Fundamentals, American Society of Heating,
Refrigerating and Air Conditioning Engineers, 1993.

2. E. R. G. Eckert and M. Drake, Jr., Analysis of Heat and Mass Transfer,

Hemisphere Publishing, 1987.

3. H. Kashiwagi, T. Hashimoto, Y. Tanaka, H. Kubota, and T. Makita, Thermal

Conductivity and Density of Toluene in the Temperature Range 273-373K at
Pressures up to 250 MPa, Int. J. Thermophys., vol. 3, no. 3, pp. 201215, 1982.

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4. C. A. Nieto de Castro, S.F.Y. Li, A. Nagashima, R.D. Trengove, and W.A.

Wakeham, Standard Reference Data for the Thermal Conductivity of Liquids, J.
Phys. Chem. Ref. Data, vol. 15, no. 3, pp. 10731086, 1986.

5. B.E. Poling, J.M. Prausnitz, and J.P. OConnell, The Properties of Gases and
Liquids, 5th ed., McGraw-Hill, 2001.

6. C.F. Spencer and B.A. Adler, A Critical Review of Equations for Predicting
Saturated Liquid Density, J. Chem. Eng. Data, vol. 23, no. 1, pp. 8288, 1978.

7. N.B.Vargnaftik, Tables of Thermophysical Properties of Liquids and Gases, 2nd

ed., Hemisphere Publishing, 1975.

8. R.C.Weast (editor), CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, 69th ed., CRC
Press, 1988.

9. M. Zabransky and V. Ruzicka, Jr., Heat Capacity of Liquid n-Heptane Converted

to the International Temperature Scale of 1990, Phys. Chem. Ref. Data, vol. 23,
no. 1, pp. 5561, 1994.

10. M. Zabransky, V. Ruzicka, Jr., and E.S. Domalski, Heat Capacity of Liquids:
Critical Review and Recommended Values. Supplement I, J. Phys. Chem. Ref. Data,
vol. 30, no. 5, pp. 11991397, 2002.

11. W. Wagner, and H-J Kretzschmar, International Steam Tables, 2nd ed., Springer,
2008.

12. F.P. Incropera and D.P. DeWitt, Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer, Fifth
ed. John Wiley & Sons, 2002.

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I n d e x
A advanced settings 11 Prandtl 75

B bend (node) 28 Rayleigh 76

bend specification 28 Reynolds 46

bends 46 discretization settings 11

Bingham model 50 documentation, finding 12

boundary conditions domain material 116

heat transfer in pipes interface 61 E edge conditions

non-isothermal pipe flow interface 35 heat transfer in pipes interface 61
pipe acoustics, transient interface 97 non-isothermal pipe flow interface 35
pipe flow interface 22 pipe acoustics, transient interface 97
reacting pipe flow interface 85 pipe flow interface 22
transport of diluted species in pipes in- reacting pipe flow interface 85
terface 79 transport of diluted species in pipes in-
water hammer interface 39 terface 79
built-in materials database 113 water hammer interface 39
bulk modulus 106 emailing COMSOL 13

C closed (node) equation view 11

pipe acoustics, transient interface 101 expanding sections 11

water hammer interface 42 expansions 46

Colebrooks explicit formula 48 external film resistance 75

concentration (node) 82 external film resistance (node) 65

consistent stabilization settings 11 F flow resistance 24

constraint settings 12 fluid (node)
contraction/expansion (node) 29 non-isothermal pipe flow interface 36
contractions 46 reacting pipe flow interface 90
convection and diffusion (node) fluid properties (node) 99
reacting pipe flow interface 89 forced convection 75
transport of diluted species in pipes 80
G geometry, working with 12
D Darcy friction factor 44 Grashof number 76
expressions for 47
H Haaland equation 48
dimensionless numbers
heat outflow (node) 68
Grashof 76
heat source (node) 62
Hedstrm 50
heat transfer (node)
modified Reynolds 49
heat transfer in pipes interface 61
Nusselt 74
non-isothermal pipe flow interface 37

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heat transfer in pipes interface 60 pipe flow interface 21

theory 69 momentum and continuity equations 44
Hedstrm number 50 MPH-files 13
hide button 11
N no flow (node) 27
I inconsistent stabilization settings 11 non-isothermal pipe flow interface 33
initial values (node) theory 44, 69
heat transfer in pipes interface 67 Nusselt number 74
pipe acoustics, transient interface 98
O open (node) 101
pipe flow interfaces 25
outlet (node) 26
reacting pipe flow interface 87
override and contribution settings 11
transport of diluted species in pipes in-
P pair conditions
terface 81
heat transfer in pipes interface 61
inlet (node) 26
non-isothermal pipe flow interface 35
internal film resistance 74
pipe acoustics, transient interface 97
internal film resistance (node) 64
pipe flow interface 22
Internet resources 12
reacting pipe flow interface 85
K knowledge base, COMSOL 14
transport of diluted species in pipes in-
Korteweg formula 55, 106
terface 79
L liquids and gases materials 119 water hammer interface 39
local friction loss (node) 42 pair selection 11
loss coefficients 46 physics settings windows 11
pipe acoustics, transient interface 96
M mass outflow (node) 83
theory 104
Material Browser 117
pipe cross section area 69
Material Library 113
pipe flow interface 21
materials
theory 44
databases 113
pipe properties (node)
domain, default 116
pipe acoustics, transient interface 100
liquids and gases 119
pipe flow interface 23
properties, evaluating and plotting 116
reacting pipe flow interface 87
Model Builder settings 11
water hammer interface 41
Model Library 12
plotting, material properties 116
Model Library examples
point conditions
liquids and gases materials database
heat transfer in pipes interface 61
119
non-isothermal pipe flow interface 35
non-isothermal pipe flow interface 33,
pipe acoustics, transient interface 97
38, 58
pipe flow interface 22
pipe acoustics, transient interface 108

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reacting pipe flow interface 85 reacting pipe flow interface 69, 91

transport of diluted species in pipes in- transport of diluted species in pipes in-
terface 79 terface 91
water hammer interface 39 water hammer interface 54
Prandtl number 75 T-junctions 46
pressure (node) transport of diluted species in pipes in-
pipe acoustics, transient interface 102 terface 78
pipe flow interface 27 theory 91
water hammer interface 43 typographical conventions 14
pump (node) 30
U unit tangent vector 45
R Rayleigh number 76 user community, COMSOL 14
reacting pipe flow interface 84
V valve (node) 29
theory 69, 91
valves 46
reactions (node) 81
variables for material properties 116
Reynolds number 46
velocity (node)
Reynolds number, modified 49
pipe acoustics, transient interface 102
S shell balance 71 water hammer interface 42
show button 11 von Karman formula 48
stabilization 76
W wall heat transfer 69
stabilization settings 11
wall heat transfer (node) 63
Stokes formula 47
wall layer (node) 66
surface roughness 25
wall mass transfer (node) 82
values for 51
water hammer interface 38
Swamee-Aggarwal equation 50
theory 54
Swamee-Jain equation 48
weak constraint settings 12
swirl-correction factor 105
web sites, COMSOL 14
T T- junction (node) 31 Wood equation 47
tangential velocity 45
Taylor series 105
technical support, COMSOL 13
temperature (node) 67
theory
heat transfer in pipes interface 69
non-isothermal pipe flow interface 44,
69
pipe acoustics, transient interface 104
pipe flow interface 44

INDEX| 125
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126 | I N D E X