Materials and Structures (2009) 42:12471260

DOI 10.1617/s11527-009-9538-3

ORIGINAL ARTICLE

High performance fiber reinforced concrete: progress

in knowledge and design codes
Joost C. Walraven

Received: 11 July 2007 / Accepted: 11 June 2009 / Published online: 6 October 2009
The Author(s) 2009. This article is published with open access at Springerlink.com

Abstract High performance fiber reinforced con- 1 High performance fiber reinforced concrete
crete is developing quickly to a modern structural on its way to structural application
material with a high potential. As for instance
testified by the recent symposium on HPFRC in Generally speaking, the definition high perfor-
Kassel, Germany (April 2008) the number of struc- mance is meant to distinguish structural materials
tural applications increases. At this moment studies from the conventional ones, as well as to optimize a
are carried out with the aim to come to an interna- combination of properties in terms of final applica-
tional recommendation for the design of structures tions related to civil engineering. The most interest-
with HPFRC. Research projects are being carried out ing properties are, for example, strength, ductility,
in order to supply missing information in relevant toughness, durability, stiffness, thermal resistance,
areas. Some examples of recent research at TU Delft even though it is necessary to take into account the
are given. For the preparation of an internationally final cost of the material and, above all, of the
acceptable design recommendation for HPFRC a produced structural members [11].
number of principles should be respected. The code In comparison with normal technical develop-
should as much as possible be in harmony with the ments, the step from high strength concrete to ultra-
code for conventional fiber concrete. Moreover it high strength concrete in general was a rather unusual
should be consistent with existing design recommen- one. The development from normal strength (plain)
dations for structural concrete. Second thoughts on concrete to high strength (plain) concrete with a
the introduction of such a new code are given. cylinder strength of about 100 N/mm2 took approx-
imately a decade. A concrete compressive strength of
Keywords High performance fibre concrete
100110 N/mm2 was regarded to be a practical
Applications
Research
Recommendations maximum, since the strength of the aggregate parti-
cles does not allow a further increase of the bearing
capacity of the concrete. Fiber reinforced concrete is
as well a material which has encountered limits in its
development due to reasons related to its composi-
tion. In this case it was the reduced workability of
concretes with increasing volumes of fibers which
J. C. Walraven (&)
impeded the step to becoming a real high perfor-
Delft University of Technology, Stevinweg 1,
Delft 2628 CN, The Netherlands mance material. As a reaction on this limitation due
e-mail: [email protected] to workability, interesting concepts were developed
1248 Materials and Structures (2009) 42:12471260

to increase the maximum volume of fibers and their was opened to the public in 2007 (Fig. 1). The bridge
efficiency. In the nineties the material SIFCON has a total length of 133 m and consists of an upper
(Slurry Infiltrated Fibre CONcrete) was developed, slab of a concrete with a strength of 185 N/mm2 and
the fibers of which are placed and compacted first, a thickness of 80120 mm. The slab is supported by a
after which the space between them was filled with a three dimensional steel truss. The high performance
cement-based slurry. In this way a fiber content of concrete deck is connected to the truss with a glued
1213 vol.% can be reached, which is about 10 times connection. This concept is promising: high perfor-
the maximum volume obtained in conventional fiber mance concrete and steel can be an excellent
concrete. Very large strain capacities (1015%) and combination, if the best properties of both materials
high strengths (120140 MPa) can be achieved in this are combined in an optimum way. Research on
way, see for instance Naaman [19]. A disadvantage of interface design solutions therefore deserves atten-
this material is that, during packing, the fibers get a tion. Substantial recent experience has been gained
non-homogeneous orientation (predominantly 2-D) with the use of HPFRC in various types of structures,
which is, in combination with the cost involved, a e.g. by French engineers [3, 22, 27]. These new
restriction to its application. Another concept was structures show that HPFRC is a material with which
SIMCON (Slurry Infiltrated Mat CONcrete). To light, slender and durable structures, which are
produce this concrete, a manufactured continuous simultaneously appealing from an esthetic point of
mat of interlocking discontinuous steel fibers is view and ecologically interesting by the possibility to
placed in a form, subsequently infiltrated with a minimize the use of materials, are possible.
flowable cement-based slurry [13]. An interesting discovery was that also the region
However, on the basis of advanced ideas with regard between the meanwhile conventional high strength
0
to the composition of fibre reinforced concrete mix- concrete (with fc B 110 N/mm2) and ultra high
0
tures, new types of fibre reinforced concretes with strength concrete (fc C 180 N/mm2) offers as well
compressive strengths up to 200 N/mm2 and fibre interesting chances for application. A good example of
contents up to 2.5 vol.% (175 kg/m3) became available. this is the repair of bridge decks with high performance
The new generation of ultra high strength concretes is fibre reinforced concrete. In the Netherlands many
characterized by a maximum particle diameter of about orthotropic steel bridges suffer from fatigue cracking
12 mm, a high particle packing density as a result of caused by the unforeseen development of traffic loads.
the smart use of combinations of fine particles of Repairing those cracks makes only sense if future
different origin, a low water cement ratioenabled by damage is avoided by adequate measures. The solution
the use of appropriate superplasticizers, that results in chosen was the application of a fiber concrete with an
a complete use of the water in the concrete during intermediate strength of 85115 N/mm2 and 70 kg/m3
hydration and fine steel fibers providing the hardened
concrete with excellent ductility.
From the moment that the potential of the new
generation of fiber reinforced concretes draw atten-
tion, for instance by realization of the high perfor-
mance concrete pedestrian bridge in Sherbrooke,
Canada [1], creative designers and structural engi-
neers came up with a wide scope of ideas. Until now
a number of pilot projects have been carried out, with
on the one hand the aim to demonstrate the potential
of the material for structural applications, and on the
other hand to verify expectations based on experi-
mental evidence. A recent example of such a pilot
project, partially aiming at convincing building
authorities of the reliability of the new material and
partially for research and development, was the Fig. 1 Gartnerplatzbridge in Kassel, Germany (2007), con-
Gartnerplatz bridge in Kassel Germany [7], which sisting of a high performance deck glued to a 3-D steel truss
Materials and Structures (2009) 42:12471260 1249

Fig. 3 Assembly of precast deck panels in reinforced ultra

high strength fiber reinforced concrete (Kaag Bridges, The
Netherlands)
Fig. 2 Fatigue test on a steel girder provided with an overly of
HPFRC [4]
steel can lead to a composite with high strength and
ductility. The concrete mixture for the Kaag Bridges
(0.9 vol.%) straight steel fibers (12.5/0.4 mm). The was a combination of CEM III 52.4, silicafume,
thickness of the overlay is about 5060 mm. The bauxite particles 01 and 58 mm, 200 kg/m3
overlay contains one or two layers of welded mild steel (2.5 vol.%) straight steel fibers 12.5/0.4 mm, appro-
reinforcement (bar diameter 8 mm at spacing 50 mm). priate superplasticizers and an air entraining agent.
The connection between the HPFRC overlay and the The water binder ratio was 0.18. The strength class
steel deck is achieved by at first applying an epoxy reached with this mixture was C180. After one day
layer (2 mm) at the steel surface, on which fine broken hardening the compressive strength was already
aggregate (46 mm) is sprayed in order to obtain an 90 N/mm2. The bridge decks shown in Fig. 3 have
interface layer with sufficient bonding capacity. a thickness of only 45 mm. They are reinforced with
Figure 2 shows a steel beam with such an overlay, 3 meshes 8 mm-40 mm, which results in a reinforc-
subjected to a fatigue test at TU Delft. The replace- ing ratio of 8%. Those three layers fit in a height of
ment of the asphalt layer by the high performance fibre about 26 mm. The concrete cover at the upper side is
concrete results in a reduction of the stresses in the 9 mm and at the lower side 10 mm. The length of a
steel girders, from 125 N/mm2 down to 25 N/mm2, by deck element is 7.3 m and the width is 3.0 m. The
virtue of added dead weight and the increased moment element is supported on beams at a distance of
of inertia of the cross section. The solution chosen is an 865 mm. The specific weight of the concrete is
optimum both with regard to structural behaviour and 2850 kg/m3. The weight of a panel per m2 is 170 kg.
service life. Tests have been carried out with regard to Although the cost of the material per m3 is high, the
the time-dependant behaviour of the concrete, the solution in total is competitive because of the small
adhesion capacity, the frost-thaw resistance in combi- volume of the material which is needed, the easy
nation with de-icing chemicals and chloride penetra- transport, the quick assembly and the long service
tion. These tests confirmed the durability of the life.
solution, see also Braam [4] and Buitelaar [6]. Also in Switzerland meanwhile extended experi-
Combining high performance fibre concrete with ence has been gained with regard to using high
traditional reinforcement gives as well a suitable performance fibre concrete for the rehabilitation of
option for many applications. Another interesting bridges [5].
application of HPFRC, combined with a high Also the combination of prestressing steel and
percentage of reinforcing steel in bridge decks is fibers is promising. This was demonstrated by the
the replacement of the old bridge decks of the Kaag- pilot production of high performance concrete sheet
Bridges in the Netherlands. Figure 3 shows the piles (Fig. 4).
assembly of the precast bridge decks in UHPFRC. The sheet piles had a thickness of 45 mm. The
It was already shown by Bache in 1991 [2] that a concrete had a strength of about 120 N/mm2 and
combination of fibers and conventional reinforcing contained 125 kg/m3 (1.6 vol.%) short steel fibers
1250 Materials and Structures (2009) 42:12471260

Fig. 4 HPFRC sheet piles

prestressed with
strands 3/800

(13/0.16). Compared with sheet piles in concrete C55 structures in HPFRC are for instance only possible if
the volume of concrete necessary to produce the pile reliable rules for control of fatigue loading are
was reduced to about one-third. The fibers were available. Other aspects of significance in design
especially useful in the end regions of the pile, where are crack width control and the possible use of steel
large spalling and splitting stresses occur in the fibers as shear reinforcement. However, it is not only
anchorage region of the prestressing strands. By important to have design rules for such phenomena,
virtue of the fibers these stresses are no problem, even but as well to have design rules which are as much as
with a sheet pile thickness as small as 45 mm. As a possible compatible with existing codes for structural
result of their low weight, the sheet piles can be concrete. This would be most advantageous for the
economically transported and vibrated into the bot- development of hybrid structures based on combina-
tom with light equipment. As a result of the fibers in tions of traditional reinforcement, prestressing steel
the end zones the elements are vibrated into the soil and fibers. This is expected to become a large field of
without damage. Since the time to place one sheet application. Moreover it would simplify the work of
pile is considerably reduced, a sheet pile wall can be the structural engineer if he could consist of a set of
placed much faster than a corresponding wall made design relations valid both for FRC and HPFRC
of traditional reinforced concrete sheet piles. As a which could be combined with the existing rules for
result of all those advantages, the product is compet- reinforced and prestressed structures. Therefore it
itive in price with traditional solutions. should be investigated if existing international code
rules, like e.g. the Eurocode on Concrete Structures,
could be extended to include the application of fibers.
2 Developing a basis for appropriate code Another important requirement in the development
recommendations of codes is the mutual consistency of design relations
for different types of fiber concretes. On the one hand
High performance fiber reinforced concrete is still a this refers to conventional fibre reinforced concretes,
material for which no internationally accepted design made on the basis of concrete compositions with
recommendations exist. Partially this is due to coarse aggregate particles and large steel fibres, and
insufficient information with regard to the properties on the other hand the modern types of high perfor-
of the material. An example of this is the durability of mance fibre concrete, with small aggregate particles
high performance concrete. Designing thin-walled and fillers, reinforced by fine, short fibers. As it was
structural elements applying reinforced or prestressed shown by the examples given before, there is as well
HPFRC allows slender and large span structures. If in an important area of application in between the
such structures large covers would be necessary, the conventional types of fibre reinforced concrete with
advantage of using HPFRC would significantly be moderate strength and the new types of ultra high
reduced. Research results on the durability of HPFRC strength fiber reinforced concrete. So, altogether there
are, however, very encouraging, see e.g. Schmidt [25] is a large spectrum of fibre reinforced concretes with
and Scheydt [24]. In comparison with existing codes different properties from which a choice can be made
for structural concrete new design aspects have to be for particular applications. However, if there would
added. Light, large span, elegant and material saving be conflicting design rules for different types of FRC
Materials and Structures (2009) 42:12471260 1251

this would lead to confusion, questions and lack of under the influence of the increasing external load
confidence by future users of FRC and HPFRC finally macrocracks occur, the long fibers are acti-
structures. It should therefore be investigated if a vated. Figure 5 shows the results of a number of
common basis for design with fiber concrete in bending tests on short beams made of hybrid fiber
general is possible. concrete. Here various combinations of long hooked-
Finally, a special point of attention is the variability end steel fibers (l = 40 or 60 mm) and short straight
of properties of FRC and HPFRC, due to differences in steel fibers (l = 13 mm) have been used. Very high
orientation of the fibers, influenced by the way of flexural strengths (up to 45 N/mm2) have been
producing the concrete. Scatter is a natural and logical measured. The compressive strength of this concrete
phenomenon for fiber concrete and design rules should was about 120 N/mm2. It turned out that there are
cope with it in an optimum way. considerable differences between concretes with only
one type of fiber and concretes with combinations of
fibers. Figure 5 shows for instance that a mixture
3 Results of recent research at TU Delft with 2 vol.% of fibers (155 kg/m3) with l = 13 mm
reached a flexural tensile strength of 25 N/mm2
3.1 Hybrid fiber concrete whereas a mixture with 1 vol.% short fibers
(13 mm) plus 1 vol.% long fibers (40 mm) reaches
There have been fundamental discussions on the role a flexural tensile strength of 40 N/mm2. It can as well
of the fibres in FRC. In conventional reinforced fibre be seen in the diagram that 1 vol.% of short fibers
concrete the fibers are relatively large in comparison combined with 0.5 vol.% of long fibers (40 mm)
with the aggregate particles. The fibers are activated offers the same flexural tensile strength as 2 vol.% of
as soon as a major crack in the concrete occurs: by short fibers. This shows that by combining different
bridging the crack, fibers more or less act in the same types of fibers optimization of mechanical properties
way as reinforcing steel. In HPFRC the fibers are can be achieved.
much finer: they are already activated when micro-
cracks occur in the concrete. It may therefore be 3.2 Fatigue
wondered whether those fine fibers act as reinforce-
ment, or whether they are an integral part of the One of the advantages of HPFRC is that the material
composite on a lower (micro) level. Markovic [17] allows light structures. A consequence is, however,
combined fine fibres with long fibres. The fine fibers that fatiguea criterion that hardly plays a role in
react immediately on microcracking in the concrete. massive concrete structures, can now become
The further growth of those microcracks is therefore decisive. Fatigue can occur for instance due to traffic
counteracted from their origin. Hence the concrete loads (bridges) or wind loads (off-shore wind
appears to stay longer in the elastic phase. When, turbines). At TU Delft a research project was carried

Fig. 5 Bending tensile 50

without fibres
strengths of various types of
hybrid fiber concrete [17] 1%(60)
40
flexural strength (MPa)

1%(13)+0.5%(60)

30 2%(13)

1%(13)+1%(40)

20 2%(6)+1%(60)

2%(13)+1%(60)
10
2%(6)+2%(13)

4%(6)+1%(40)
0
0 1 2 3 4 5
fibre quantity (vol.-%)
1252 Materials and Structures (2009) 42:12471260

35 1 HSFRC
Flexural tensile stress [MPa]

0.9 hybrid HSFRC

30 BSI/CERACEM
0.8 BSI/CERACEM
25
HSFRC 0.7
20 hybrid HSFRC 0.6
0.5

S
15
0.4
10
UHPC 0.3
5 0.2

0 0.1
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 0
Deflection [mm] 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
log N
Fig. 6 Relation between bending tensile stress and deflection
for three different types of HPFRC under static loading [14] Fig. 7 Results of fatigue tests for the same three mixtures as
shown in Fig. 6 [14]

out in which the behaviour of different types of HPFRC

under fatigue loading was investigated. The concrete workability leads to a smaller scatter in test results
with the highest strength was BSI/Ceracem. This under fatigue loading.
concrete had a relatively large maximum coarse aggre-
gate diameter (7 mm) with 2.5 vol.% (200 kg/m3) 3.3 Cracking behaviour of HPFRC
fibres 20/0.3 mm. The mean compressive strength in combination with reinforcing steel
was 220 MPa. Another mixture, denoted as HSFRC,
was developed at TU Delft [9]. This mixture was as The cost of high and ultra-high strength fiber concrete
well used for the production of the prestressed sheet is predominantly governed by the steel fibers. In this
piles shown in Fig. 4. The mixture contained 125 kg/ respect it is illustrating to analyze the relevance of
m3 (1.6 vol.%) fibers with a length of 13 mm and a 125 kg/m3 fibers 13/0.16 mm in an unconventional
width of 0.16 mm. The average compressive strength way. A simple calculation shows that 1 m3 concrete
was 145 N/mm2. The third mixture was a hybrid contains 60 millions of such fibers, altogether repre-
mixture, with 0.5 Vol% short fibers (l = 13 mm and senting a wire with a total length of 791 km. This
d = 0.2 mm) and 1 vol.% long fibers with hooked means as well that any cm3 contains 60 fibers. These
ends (l = 60 mm, d = 0.75 mm) according to Marko- fibers especially influence the behaviour on a micro
vic [17]. The compressive strength of this concrete was scale (counteracting the growth of microcracks).
about 120 N/mm2. With all mixtures beams 125 9 Previously, when treating hybrid fiber concrete, it
125 9 1000 mm were made, which were subjected to was demonstrated that long fibers can be a favourable
four point bending. Both static and fatigue tests have additional component, because they take over the role
been carried out. Figure 6 shows the results of the tests of the short fibers at macro cracking. Of course the
with static loading, represented by the relation between task of the long fibers can be adopted by traditional
calculated flexural stress at the bottom of the beam and reinforcing steel or prestressing steel as well. An
the deflection at mid-span. The hardening part of the interesting example of a combination of wire mesh
curves, which is a proof of a well-designed HPFRC is and steel fibers was given in Fig. 3, showing the
clearly visible in all curves. The results of the fatigue placement of a deck plate made of reinforced fiber
loading tests are represented in Fig. 7. The mixture concrete. The three meshes ds = 840 mm represent
HSFRC demonstrated the best behaviour: with an a reinforcing ratio of 8.4% which shows, in combi-
upper load of 70% of the average static failure load nation with the 200 kg/m3 straight steel fibers 12.5/
only one of the seven beams failed within 107 cycles. 04 mm, high strength, high ductility and durability.
For the mixtures BSI/CERACEM and the hybrid In spite of these excellent characteristics it is clear
mixture an equivalent behaviour was found at 60 that the material can be further optimized. On the one
65% of the static strength. Moreover the BSI/CERA- hand this refers to the production technology, on the
CEM, as used here, showed a higher scatter than the other hand the cracking behaviour under tension and
other mixtures. The research demonstrated, that better shrinkage. Moreover the question could be raised
Materials and Structures (2009) 42:12471260 1253

Fig. 9 Simplified stresscrack opening relation, based on tests

[26, 28]

basis of the tests the response curves were simplified

as shown in Fig. 9.
This aimed at describing the behaviour in such a
way that it represents the actual behaviour well and
Fig. 8 Crack pattern in axially loaded reinforced concrete simultaneously offers a relation which can be used in
prisms with fibre contents (from left to right) 0, 0.8 vol.% and
1.6 vol.%, for a concrete with fc % 130 N/mm2 [26] combination with existing code rules for reinforced
concrete. The relation shown in Fig. 9 consists of a
where one finds the optimum between mixture linear (elastic) part until first cracking and a plastic
composition and mechanical properties. In order to part immediately afterwards. The plastic post-crack-
give a contribution to the answer on this question at ing tensile strength is formulated as afct. At larger
TU Delft tests have been carried out on combinations crack opening a declining branch is added, which
of high and ultra high strength fiber concrete, however is often not relevant for design calculations.
provided with reinforcement in combination with The simplification according to Fig. 9 turns out to
various volumes and types of fibers. As a part of the be advantageous when calculating the crack width
research axial tension tests were conducted on and the crack distance. Because the fibers transmit
reinforced prismatic bars. The concrete used had stresses across a crack they reduce the length at both
compressive strengths of about 130 and 180 N/mm2 sides of the crack necessary to restore the undisturbed
respectively. The volume of fibers was 0 vol.%, situation. This means that the mean crack distance,
0.8 vol.% and 1.6 vol.%, which corresponds to 0, 60 and as a consequence the mean crack width, will be
and 120 kg/m3 steel fibers. Figure 8 shows the crack smaller as a result of the action of the fibers. Figure 9
patterns which were obtained by tensioning the gives both the tensile strength fct of the HPFRC
prismatic bars 50 9 50 mm, reinforced with a steel considered, and the stress which is transmitted across
bar ds = 6 mm in the centre of the cross section. the crack afct. With those data it is easy to derive an
The results show that the number of cracks expression for the crack width in reinforced HPFRC.
increases with increasing fiber volume. Another Starting from the expression for reinforced plain
important conclusion is that in the bar without fibres concrete in the Model Code 90 the expression
  
strain localization occurs in a number of cracks, fctm 1  ads N fctm
whereas in the elements with fibres localization only wmax  1  nq1  a
4sbm qEs As 2q
occurs in one crack. This is a result of the variation of
1
the concentration and orientation of fibers in the
different cross sections. Of course an important for the maximum crack width is obtained, where
question is whether the number of cracks and their a = rpf/fctm in which rpf = post cracking plastic
distance can be calculated with an extended version stress by fibre action, fctm = mean tensile strength of
of existing code rules. To this aim the behaviour of concrete, ds = diameter of reinforcing bar, sbm =
the fiber concrete in tension was tested with centri- mean bond strength, q = reinforcing ratio of reinforc-
cally loaded, so called dog bone specimens. On the ing bars, Es = modulus of elasticity of reinforcing
1254 Materials and Structures (2009) 42:12471260

steel, N = normal tensile force, As = area of bar cross 3.4 Shear capacity of HPFRC
section, n = Es/Ec.
Corresponding to this, the transmission length lt is At TU Delft in 2007 a series of shear tests was carried
out by Pansuk [20].
fctm 1  aU
lt 2 The research program contained a series of three
4sbm x
beams according to Fig. 10. The mean compressive
The mean crack spacing s is then strength of the concrete was 140 N/mm2. The con-
s 1:5 lt 3 crete contained 0, 0.8 vol.% and 1.6 vol.% of straight
steel fibers 13/0.16 mm. The beams were provided
From centric tests on dog-bone specimens for the with 2 bars ds = 25 mm as longitudinal reinforce-
concrete with a compressive strength of 130 N/mm2 a ment which was expected to be sufficient to avoid
centric tensile strength fctm = 5.5 N/mm2 and a post failure in bending. Figure 11 shows the beams in the
cracking reduction factor of a = 0.72 was found. failure state.
For the concrete with a compressive strength of It can be seen that the fibres are adding quite
180 N/mm2 a centric tensile strength fctm = 9.0 N/mm2 substantially to the shear capacity of the beams. Also
and a post cracking reduction factor of a = 0.88 was in this case existing code provisions can be used to
found. With those values the calculated crack dis- extend their validity of HPFRC. In Eurocode 2 the
tances given in Table 1 are obtained [28]. The method of the variable inclination strut model to
agreement between calculated and measured values determine the shear capacity has been adopted.
is seen to be good. According to this method a strut angle can be chosen
Other relevant fundamental research on the behav- between 1 B cot h B 2.5 and the stirrups crossed by
iour of concrete reinforced both with steel fibers and the inclined crack under the corresponding angle can
traditional reinforcement was recently published be regarded to contribute to the shear resistance with
[12, 15, 16, 21]. their yielding forces. The shear capacity is then

Table 1 Comparison
Strength Vf (%) Mean crack distance Mean crack
between measured and
measured (mm) distance calculated (mm)
calculated crack spacings
0
fc = 130 N/mm2 0 56 43
0.8 23 21
1.6 14 16
0
fc = 180 N/mm2 0 44 58
0.8 27 28
1.6 26 22

Fig. 10 Shear tests on

beams made of HPFRC [20]
Materials and Structures (2009) 42:12471260 1255

Fig. 11 Failure pattern of

beams made of HPFRC
with fibre volumes
percentages of 0, 0.8 vol.%
and 1.6 vol.% (from top to
bottom) [20]

Asw Table 2 Shear capacities from tests [20] in comparison with

Vu bw d cot # fy 4 calculated values according to Eq. 4, for coth = 3
t
where bw = web width, d = effective depth of cross Vf (%) rpf (MPa) Vu,calc (kN) Vu,test (kN)
section, h = strut inclination, Asw = cross sectional Mix 1 0.8 5.6 311 340
area of stirrup, t = stirrup distance and fy = yield Mix 2 1.6 9.0 500 531
strength of stirrup steel.
This expression can be modified to
4 Second thoughts on standard testing
Vu bw h cot # rpf 5
of FRC and HPFRC
where h = full depth of section, rpf = post cracking
plastic fiber strength (Fig. 9). For determining the mechanical properties of high
Here the full cross-sectional depth h is taken into performance fibre reinforced concrete (HPFRC), in
account, because also the fibres at the level below the order to be able to design structures, the material
tensile reinforcement are expected to contribute to the should be subjected to standard testing. In principle,
shear. Since the fibers are expected to add to the the behaviour of materials subjected to tension can
redistribution capacity (strut rotation) it is assumed best be obtained by conducting an axial tensile test.
that the limits of strut rotation can be widened to However, conducting an axial tensile test is inherent
1 B cot h B 3. Direct tensile tests on dog-bone to a number of difficulties. First, fracture at the glued
specimens provided values of rpf = 5.6 and 9.0 N/ end faces of the specimen should be avoided by
mm2 for fibre volumes of 0.8 and 1.6% respectively. appropriated measures, such as tapering the speci-
In combination with cot h = 3 the values shown in mens. Second, the result of the tests can be highly
Table 2 are obtained. influenced by eventual load eccentricities, which are
Of course these results can only be regarded as hard to avoid. The centric tensile test should therefore
provisional and further evidence is necessary. It preferably be carried out in a highly qualified
shows, however, that extending existing code rules to laboratory, and is not suitable for industrial use. For
HPFRC is a promising option to be further explored. fibre reinforced concrete other difficulties apply. In a
1256 Materials and Structures (2009) 42:12471260

small cylindrical specimen there is a considerable correspond to the weakest cross-section: therefore
boundary effect. The fibers tend to orient parallel to even higher strengths can be obtained by tests on
the wall of the mould and furthermore the fiber notched specimens than on un-notched specimens,
orientation is influenced by the way of casting. This where deformations always localize at the weakest
latter influencing factor does not only apply to cross-section.
cylinders cast in a mould, but as well to cylinders A very important other aspect to be noted when
sawn from a larger element like a slab. discussing the question how a representative stress
For practical reasons a bending test on a short beam strain relation for UHSFRC should be obtained is the
or a prism is an attractive alternative because of the phenomenon of fibre orientation. Figure 13 shows a
relatively easy way of conducting the test. Some collection of curves, obtained on test specimens all
researchers prefer beams with a notch at the tensile having the same dimensions, and all made with fibre
side. This allows easy measuring the crack opening reinforced concrete B35, with 40 kg/m3 hooked end
during loading and as such determining the stress fibres Dramix 80/60 [8]. Although the test specimens
crack opening relation. However, it should be noted and the concrete composition are exactly the same,
that the presence of a notch influences the behaviour of the scatter in results is enormous.
the beam quite substantially. Lappa [14] showed this Deriving a design stressstrain relation from such
by comparing the relation between the flexural stress a series of tests, based on the scatter observed, would
and the beam deflection, determined both for tests on inevitably lead to over-conservative design, since the
beams with and without a notch. All beams had scatter is typical for the standard test specimen and
dimensions 1000/125/125 mm and were tested with a not to the structural element considered. Variations in
span of 750 mm, whereas the loads were applied at the the way of filling the mould and mechanical
third points of the span. Some of the beams were compaction can lead to large differences in fibre
provided with a 20 mm deep notch at mid-span. The orientation and concentration. Recognizing this,
beams were made with the mixture denoted as HSFRC RILEM defined a standard test beam for conventional
in Figs. 6 and 7. The relations between the flexural fibre reinforced concrete with a notch and prescribed
tensile stress and the beam deflection are shown in exactly how to fill the mould, how to carry out
Fig. 12. The notch influences the structural behaviour mechanical compaction and how to measure the
by forcing the crack to form at a certain position. This loaddeflection relation and the load crack opening
weakening of the cross section stimulates deforma- relation. Finally it is described how stressstrain
tions to localize at an early stage of the test. Therefore relations can be derived, on the basis of reversed
the deflection hardening phase due to multiple analysis, from the test results. Figure 14 shows the
cracking is not very pronounced in case of notched test beam as prescribed by RILEM. Indeed the scatter
beams. The notch, however, does not necessarily of results, for the prescribed number of 6 tests, is

Fig. 12 Average stressdeflection curves of notched and un-

notched HSFRC beams, point A denoting crack initiation and Fig. 13 Variation in loaddeflection relations (grey area) for
point B the end of the multiple crack formation phase [14] 71 bending tests on FRC [8]
Materials and Structures (2009) 42:12471260 1257

150
25

500 150

600

Fig. 14 RILEM Standard test

a b

2 1 2

Fig. 16 X-ray photographys from the same tunnel lining

Fig. 15 a (left) Prescribed way of filling the mould for the element cast with self compacting fibre concrete [10]
RILEM test beam; b (right) Filling the mould with self
compacting fibre reinforced concrete

substantially decreased by the procedure described.

On the other hand it is not clear how representative
those results are for practical FRC structures, which
are not cast according to those accurately defined
rules. Moreover the manufacturing procedure, as
described in Fig. 15a, is suitable for relatively dry
concretes, but not for self compacting concretes, Fig. 17 Standard test for thin UHPFRC members [23]
which are gaining popularity. If a self-compacting
fibre concrete is concerned, it is not possible to fill the In the French regulations for UHPFRC [23] the
mould in the way prescribed. influence of fibre orientation in the standard test
Due to the effects described the loaddeflection specimens and the structural elements is recognized.
relations for concrete with the same strength and same The solution offered is based on the introduction of
vol.% of similar fibres but different consistency, can two different types of tests. Here thin and thick
differ by a factor 2 [10]. The differences are predom- elements are distinguished, in order to reflect as much
inantly due to the effect of fibre orientation, which is as possible the structural behaviour of thin and thick
strongly influenced by the method of casting and structural members in practice.
compacting. Figure 16 shows X-ray photographs (a) If the bending behaviour of a thin element is
taken from a tunnel lining element cast with self considered, the standard test should be carried out on
compacting fibre concrete. The pictures show large a specimen where the cross-sectional height is
deviations from homogeneity. It is clear that the smaller than 3 lf, where lf is the fibre length. By
stressstrain relations obtained by the standard test do choosing a standard bending test with such a small
not necessarily reflect the real behaviour in the thickness, Fig. 17, the stressstrain relation includes
structure, at least not in this case. It is therefore already somehow the effect of alignment by the
understandable, that there are still discussions on how boundary conditions, which is expected to occur in
to link the results of the standard test to the actual thin structural elements as well.
situation of a structural element, cast in situ or at a Anyhow, also this test is not considered as
precast concrete plant. absolutely representative, since it is advised to apply
1258 Materials and Structures (2009) 42:12471260

Fig. 18 Circular slab as a

standard test to determine
the basic mechanical
properties [18]

a correction factor 1/K to the results obtained from An interesting suggestion was made in [18]
specimens taken from the actual structural element, in (Fig. 18). It regards a circular slab as the standard
order to take account of differences in fibre tensile test specimen, which has a circular line support
orientation. at its edge. If the specimen is loaded by a load in the
(b) For the design of thicker structural elements centre, failure will occur by the formation of a number
(h C 3 lf) the following procedure is advised. A of yield lines. The bearing capacity at yielding follows
series of prisms is cast and notched and subjected to a from the relation. Pu = 2p R my where R is the radius
bending test. By inverse analysis the post-cracking of the circular slab and my is the yield moment per
stresscrack width relation (r - w) is obtained. unit length of the crack. Since many yield lines are
This relation is corrected with a factor 1/K repre- involved in the failure mechanism, the influence of
senting the difference between the bending test on a manufacturing is small. Indeed it was shown by tests,
cast prism and the actual behaviour of the structural that the scatter in results was very low (Fig 18, right).
member. To this aim prisms are sawn from a The same holds true for circular slabs supported on
prototype of a member to be produced. three supports, which gives rise to three dominating
An advantage of this method is that relations are cracks. The stressstrain relations for the fibre concrete
obtained which will be near to the behaviour of the should be obtained from inverse analysis of the load
fibre concrete in the structural member. The disad- deflection relation observed in the circular panel test.
vantage is that in both cases (thin and thick members) If the results obtained in this way are used as a basis
the standard test does not pretend to give a basic for practical design, also here conversion factors have
relation. The stresscrack opening curve is a general to be introduced to link the standard test result to the
reference in relation to more detailed tests on areas of application considered. This would mean that the
the structural element. For various types of structural design stressstrain or stresscrack width relation
elements advisory values for 1/K could be given: this would be a result of the mean relation obtained by the
needs further research. In fact this method comes very standard test and the expected scatter typical for
near to type testing of complete elements. the structural application considered. In this respect
It may be wondered if it would be possible to get a the volume of the decisive area of the element for
more reliable basic stressstrain relation which fulfils design is of importance. If, for instance, the bearing
the two most important demands: capacity of a member relies on a small area, the
possibility that in that particular section a low amount
it reflects the mean basic behaviour of the fibre of fibres with an unfavourable orientation applies
reinforced concrete considered should be regarded. In such a case a higher safety
the test displays a minimum scatter coefficient should apply than in the case that
Materials and Structures (2009) 42:12471260 1259

substantial redistribution would logically occur. In fact 2. Bache HH (1991) Densified cement/ultra fine particle
such an approach would ask for the use of the theory of based materials. In: Second international conference on
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