Chuquicamata, the worlds greatest copper orebody

Daniela Focke, TU Bergakademie Freiberg, Department of Economic Geology and Petrology, In-
stitution of Mineralogy, Brennhausgasse 14, 09599 Freiberg
Supervisor: PD Dr. Th. Seifert

Abstract
Chuquicamata, in northern Chile, is the worlds greatest orebody. It was mainly controlled by ini-
tial intrusions (probably at 36 to 33 Ma) through mineralization (last major hydrothermal event at
31 Ma) to postmineral brecciation and offset by the West Fault system. The Chuquicamata Por-
phyry Complex consists of the East Porphyry, West Porphyry, Banco Porphyry and Fine Texture
Porphyry. Potassic alteration, the early stage of alteration, affects all porphyries. Veins of quartz-
molybdenite, up to 5 m wide and cutting all porphyries, were emplaced between the early and the
main stages. Main-stage veins occupy many of the same structures of the early stage and may in-
volve massive remobilization of earlier mineralization. The late stage formed digenite with rela-
tively coarse grained covellite from deep in the sericitic zone. A leached capping and oxide copper
ore, replacing an upper chalcocite blanket, overlie a high-grade supergene chalcocite body that ex-
tends up to 800 m in depth.

Introduction
Chuquicamata lies in the Atacama Desert at about 2800 m elevation in northern Chile, approxi-
mately 15 km north of Calama and 240 km northeast of Antofagasta. It belongs to the Chuqui-
camata district comprising of Radomiro Tomic, MM, Mina Sur and Chuquicamata itself. At the
beginning, outcropping copper oxide was worked out by the Incas and Spanish explorers. Later
English and Chilean companies try to win the ore. In 1915, open-pit mining was initiated on dis-
seminated oxide ore by Chile Exploration Co. Anaconda Copper Mining Co. purchased the prop-
erty in 1923 and managed 48 yr of continually expanding operation. Within the years production
increases and shifted from dominantly oxide to dominantly sulfide ores in the 1950s as the pit
deepened. In 1957 Extica (now Mina Sur) deposit was discovered. In 1970, the mine was nation-
alized and management and operation were taken over by the Corporacin Nacional del Cobre-
Chile (CODELCO). Furthermore, geologic models, ore reserve calculations grade control and
mine planning were accomplished. By 1993 it was clear, that the geologic model, which was used,
was long overdue. So major effort was initiated and over 2300 drill holes were relogged and/or re-
interpreted. The results of these efforts were the focus of a day-long symposium sponsored by the
Society of Economic Geologists at the Eighth Chilean Geological Congress in 1997. After the
standings of this congress two thousand and thirty-five million metric tons (2,035 Mt) of ore, aver-
aging 1.54 % Cu has been mined from the Chuquicamata orebody, plus 120 Mt of 1.25 % Cu from
the South mine. A resource of some 6,450 Mt at 0.55 % Cu remains in the main orebody, plus 190
Mt of 1.12 % Cu in the South mine. In 1997, the combined production from the Chuquicamata and
Extica orebodies was 644,000 t of fine copper (Ossandn and Zentilli 1997). In 2006, the produc-
tion rate rises to 940,613 t of fine copper and 17,781 t of molybdenite (http://www.codelco.cl).

Geologic Setting
Chuquicamata lies in the Precordillera of northern Chile, which is parallel and west of the volca-
noes that form the modern continental arc of the Andean Cordillera. It is closely related to Eocene,
early Oligocene porphyritic intrusions that occur within the middle to late Cenozoic, north-south
striking Domeyko Fault system.
Pre-Oligocene rocks
The oldest rocks in the Chuquicamata district occur in a north-northeast trending belt of Paleozoic
metasedimentary and metaplutonic rocks, which are exposed within the South mine pit and within
a kilometer east of the Chuquicamata pit (Fig. 1). After Tomlinson (1999) these rocks include
gneissic granite, metadiorite, quartz diorite, and minor tonalite recrystallized in varying degrees to
amphibolite. The widespread pervasive chlorite-epidote-calcite alteration in the metadioritic rocks
was interpreted by Ambrus (1979) as retrograde regional metamorphism rather than propylitic al-
teration related to the orebodies. Dioritic rocks intrude the Mesa Granite. It is a pink microcline
granite with locally developed weak to moderate gneissic fabric. In Sierra Limn Verde, south of
Calama, this granite is also recognized and dated at late Carboniferous (Marinovic and Lahsen,
1984). At the west edge of the metaplutonic complex East Granodiorite intrudes and extends at
least 9 km northnortheast from the southeast edge of Chuquicamata pit along the crest of the Chu-
2 Daniela Focke

quicamata hills. It is medium to coarse equigranular texture, with plagioclase, microperthitic K-

feldspar, quartz, biotite, and hornblende. Zircon dating with U-Pb shows a Middle Triassic age
(Tomlinson, 1999). After Ambrus (1979) local alteration to albite-chlorite-magnetite and sericite-
clay is attributed to the influence of the Chuquicamata porphyries.
In the Sierra Limn Verde, these crystalline rocks are unconformable overlain by a volcanic and
sedimentary sequence of Mesozoic age. At its base this sequence consists of continental facies
conglomerate, sandstone, and andesitic and dacitic lava, breccia, and tuff of presumed Late Trias-
sic age (Lira, 1989; Mpodozis et al., 1993). A transgressive marine sequence of Jurassic shale,
sandstone, and limestone overlay this sequenz gradationally. Equivalent Mesozoic rocks in the
Chuquicamata Hills are often in fault contact with the basement rocks (Tomlinson, 1999). Here
andesitic volcanic rocks are the dominant Mesozoic lithology, but continental sandstone units crop
out on the north flank of the Chuquicamata Hills.
Along the Mesabi Fault occur marine limestone and calcareous shale as fault slivers from the north
end of the hills to the east edge of the pit. The sedimentary units in the pit consist of calcareous,
fine-grained sedimentary rocks that are intruded and contact metamorphosed by East Porphyry of
the Chuquicamata Porphyry Complex (Lindsay, 1998).

Fig: 1: The Chuquicamata district, showing major geologic units and location of mines. Geology is modified from G.
Chong and R. Pardo, unpublished map (1997). The Chuquicamata mine is at 22o17.5' S, 68o54.5' W (UTM E510350,
N7535600). Reference: Ossandonet al. 2001, Geology of the Chuquicamata Mine: A progress report: Economic Geology,
v. 96, p. 249270.
 Chuquicamata, the worlds greatest copper orebody 3

Eocene-Oligocene intrusions
The porphyritic rocks in the Chuquicamata pit, with the dominantly barren Fortuna Complex to the
west and the intensely mineralized Chupui Porphyry Complex to the east, are separated by the ma-
jor postmineral West Fault. Rocks with textures essentially identical to those of the Chuqui Por-
phyry Complex extend northward at least 9 km through the Radomiro Tomic mine (Cuadra et al.,
1997; Cuadra and Rojas, 2001).
Structure
The West Fault, separating the two halves of the Chuquicamata pit, is a major strand of the West
Fault system, as the part of the Domeyko Fault system north of Calama is now called. This struc-
ture zone extends several hundred kilometres in northern Chile. It is interpreted as a Cenozoic age,
arc-parallel set of transcurrent and reversal faults. North of the Chuquicamata pit, from the Terera
Fault on the west to the Mesabi Fault on the east, the zone is 5 km wide. Dilles et al. (1997) and
Tomlinson and Blanco (1997) describe the evolution of the West Fault system. It has been active
prior to intrusion of the Chuquicamata Porphyry Complex until after 1 Ma, changing sense of
movement at least twice. Furthermore it has had a critical control on the emplacement of the host
intrusions, formation of mineralized structures, and postmineral displacement of the orebodies.

Rock Types
Fortuna Intrusive Complex
The Fortuna Intrusive Complex borders to the open pit and contains only low-grade mineraliza-
tion. It has been structurally juxtaposed against the intensely mineralized Chuquicamata Porphyry
Complex by large-scale, postmineral movement on the Wets Fault, which is documented by Dilles
et al. (1997), Tomlinson and Blanco (1997), and previous workers. The Fiesta Granodiorite phase
of the Complex is volumetrically dominant and is intruded by small irregular bodies of San
Lorenzo Granodioritic Porphyry and minor Tetera Aplite Porphyry. Fiesta Granodiorite is weakly
mineralized with copper oxides in the uppermost northwestern benches of the pit. Sulfides occur
only near contacts of the San Lorenzo porphyries.
Pre-Chuqui porphyry intrusions
The Elena and East Granodiorites are exposed on the eastern margin of the pit. They intrude meta-
sedimentary rocks that were originally shale and sandstone with minor limestone. Whereas Elena
Granodiorite is mineralogically and texturally similar to the East Porphyry, the East Granodiorite
is texturally distinctive and clearly older. A radiometric dating of the Elena Granodiorite indicates
a Jurassic (dating of zircon) to Early Cretaceous age (dating of biotite), published by Ambrus
(1979). All of these rocks at the east edge of the pit are essentially poor of mineralization.
Chuqui Porphyry Complex
Practically the entire Chuquicamata orebody is hosted by the Chuqui Porphyry Complex, made up
of East, West, Fine Texture, and Banco porphyries. Their textures vary widely, and most expo-
sures are affected by some degree of hydrothermal alteration and pervasive cataclastic deforma-
tion. The probably oldest and largest intrusion is the East Porphyry with hypidiomorphic-granular
texture. The West Porphyry is finer grained and with quartz eyes in an aplitic groundmass. Locally
both porphyries are weakly foliated. Banco Porphyry is more porphyritic and finer grained than
East Porphyry, which it intrudes. From West Porphyry it differs in having an abundance of small
plagioclase crystals in the aplitic mass. The Fine Texture Porphyry is distinctly finer grained than
normal East Porphyry but has also a hypidiomorphic-granular texture. Contacts with East Por-
phyry may be abrupt but usually faulted. Because of the overprinting of most dikes by quartz-
sericite alteration, their identification is very difficult. Furthermore is seems, that Banco and Fine
Texture porphyries have been affected by all of the same stage of alteration and mineralization as
the East Porphyry.

Structural Controls
The dynamic setting within the West Fault system, described by Tomlinson and Blanco (1997),
has been a critical control on events at Chuquicamata, from initial emplacement of the porphyries
to metal distribution and slope stability in the present-day pit. During an early period of dextral
shear developed between the Mesabi Fault on the east and a western fault, that has probably been
displaced by or evolved into the younger West Fault, various vein systems were formed. Follow-
ing reversal of movement to sinistral shear produced the postmineral offset on the West Fault. The
evolution of the shear system from ductile to brittle and its control on mineralization in the deposit
have been described by Lindsay et al. (1995), Rojas and Lindsay (1997), and Lindsay (1998).
4 Daniela Focke

A large part of the copper at Chuquicamata occurs in veins and veinlets filling faults and fault-
related shatter zones. In the main orebody practically all of these fractures have been opened and
mineralized more than once. Early-stage veinlets of quartz and quartz-K feldspar contain no or
only very minor sulfide. They are cut by more continuous quartz veins, to 5 cm wide, containing
minor molybdenite and traces of chalcopyrite. Large banded quartz veins, known as blue veins, are
typically 1 m or more in width. They contain abundant molybdenite and truncate the previous
veins. Furthermore, they are commonly surrounded by sericitic alteration, but this is due to super-
position of younger pyritic veins following the same structures. Veins and veinlets of the main
stage contain pyrite, chalcopyrite, bornite, and digenite, decreasing amounts of quartz and increas-
ingly well developed sericitic alteration halos. Locally, the earliest of these veins appear to contain
pyrite without Cu sulfide (Lindsay et al., 1995). Relatively late main stage veins contain enargite
pyrite and minor sphalerite. Later on, veinlets and fractures are filled with relatively coarse grained
covellite (to 1 mm) and digenite with and without pyrite.
Because of the abundance and complexity of crosscutting and offset faulting, veins and faults have
hardly any continuity. In general, early north-south to northeast striking fault veins show pre- to
synmineral, dextral movement, with superimposed sinistral reactivation, and contain all stages of
mineralization. Northwest-striking structures are younger, show sinistral movement, and are
largely barren, except for minor enargite-sphalerite and covellite-digenite mineralization.

Hypogene Alteration and Mineralization

The gross patterns of alteration and sulfide mineralization within the orebody, as exposed in the pit
at the end of 1995, are shown in Figure 2A and B.
Just like El Salvador and many other porphyry copper deposits, vein relationships lead to the defi-
nition of an early stage defined by K feldspar stable alteration and early quartz veinlets, a transi-
tional stage defined by quartz-molybdenite veining, and a main-stage defined by pyrite-bearing
veins with sericitic halos. A more unusual and controversial late stage is defined by coarse-grained
covellite-digenite veinlets without pyrite and possibly hypogene sphalerite rims on other sulfides
(Frraut, et al., 1997).

Early-stage alteration and mineralization
The earliest events after consolidation of the porphyries are the formation of potassic alteration
and more local quartz and K feldspar-quartz veinlets. Characteristic for the potassic zone is the re-
placing of hornblende phenocrysts by biotite, whereas quartz veinlets and secondary K feldspar are
more restricted. A component of potassic alteration assamblages and of all other subsequent stages
of hypogene alteration and mineralization is anhydrite, variably hydrated to gypsum and leached
from much of the orebody by supergene solutions. Early-stage quartz and quartz-K feldspar veins
carry practically no sulfide.
All of the rocks within the Chuqui Porphyry Complex are affected by potassic alteration and are
cut by at least some early-stage veins. Furthermore all porphyries have been subjected to pervasive
cataclastic deformation.
Quartz-K feldspar alteration, which is interpreted as a distinct alteration type, occurs in a band of
hard white to grey rock with obliterated texture. Quartz-K feldspar differs from normal potassic al-
teration in that biotite is completely replaced by K feldspar and quartz. Furthermore, the texture is
further obliterated by pervasive cataclastic deformation and streaking with fine-granular quartz-K
feldspar and added silica occurs as a fine granular replacement with K feldspar rather than as
quartz veinlets. Any residual plagioclase in the rock is albite. Cataclastic deformation indicates
that albitization preceded quartz-K feldspar alteration.
A second zone of silicification and lacking original biotite trends north-northest at the north end of
the pit (Hunt, 1962). In contrast to the main quartz-K feldspar zone, this zone has much less in-
tense cataclastic deformation and texture obliteration. Further on, some quartz-molybdenite veins
are segmented and intensely recrystallized. Whether this deformation of the veins is related to
quartz-K feldspar alteration is not clear. Assumed is that quartz-K feldspar alteration is a separate
and later stage of alteration from normal potassic alteration. Alternatively, quartz-K feldspar could
be simply an extreme and continuous development of potassic alteration.
The dominant background sulfide association in the potassic zone is chalcopyrite-bornite without
pyrite, whereas bornite is subordinated. In the quartz-K feldspar zone bornite-digenite-chalcopyrite
association is dominant. Digenite is commonly accompanied by coarse-grained covellite and most
sulfides are in fractures and brecciated zones.
 Chuquicamata, the worlds greatest copper orebody 5

Fig. 2: A. Dominant alteration type and major structures exposed in open pit as of 1995, in area of orebody; from 1:2000
mapping by Rojas and Lindsay (1997). Oxidized rock lies above the top of sulfide but is not necessarily leached.
Megascopic silicification is partly equivalent to quartz-K feldspar alteration. B. Dominant copper sulfide exposed in open
pit as of 1995; pyrite is ubiquitous, mostly associated with main-stage veins, which are most abundant in quartz-sericite and
sericite over potassic alteration zones. Bottom bench is 2,437 m, top mapped bench is 2,697 m. Reference: Ossandon et al.
2001, Geology of the Chuquicamata Mine: A progress report: Economic Geology, v. 96, p. 249270.

Quartz-molybdenite stage
At Chuquicamata molybdenite is conspicuous, almost all of it carried by quartz veins as dissemi-
nated crystals and as smears in cracks. These quartz-molybdenite veins are clearly cut by main-
6 Daniela Focke

stage veins, which are characterized by pyritic assemblages and sericitic alteration. Ubiquitous is
the reopening of earlier formed veins and overprinting of younger sulfide and alteration halo as-
semblages. There is also a strong correlation between the abundance of quartz veins and molyb-
denite. The distribution of molybdenite exposed in the pit is illustrated in Figure 3B.
In the quartz-sericite alteration zone very high Mo values of 0.07 to 0.25 wt. % are concentrated.
The pattern is asymmetrical, with an abrupt western edge of moderate Mo values (> 0.01 wt. %)
and quartz veins, and a more gradational decrease of quartz veins and Mo values to the east.

Fig 3: A-D. Distribution of copper, molybdenum, arsenic, and zinc in 3600N section, from diamond drill hole and blast
holes. Reference: Ossandon et al. 2001, Geology of the Chuquicamata Mine: A progress report: Economic Geology, v. 96,
p. 249270.

Main-stage
In the western side of the orebody adjacent to the West Fault all traces of earlier assemblages were
obliterated by pyritic veins and quartz-sericite alteration of the main-stage of mineralization (Fig.
3). Copper emplaced during the main-stage, plus supergene enrichment of largely main-stage as-
semblages, accounts for most of the metal production to date and a large part of future reserves, al-
though this part is impossible to quantify. Sulfide veins of this stage are defined by sericitic altera-
tion halos and assemblages of pyrite with varying content of quartz, Cu-Fe sulfides, enargite,
tennantite, and sphalerite. Quartz-molybdenite veins were cut by these veins. The quartz-sericite
zone represents merging of sericitic halos of this stage of mineralization. Upward and eastward,
the zone of quartz-sericite and sericite over potassic alteration encroach on the potassic zone, ac-
companying pyrite with chalcocite and covellite.
Principal vein assemblages in the main-stage are pyrite-chalcopyrite-bornite, pyrite-bornite-
digenite enargite, and pyrite-digenite-covellite enargite. In the earlier formed main-stage veins
quartz is abundant, but it could also be inherited from an earlier quartz-molybdenite vein with only
minor molybdenite. Pyrite, the only sulfide in some veinlets, is very abundant (> 3.5 wt. %) in the
high enargite part of the quartz-sericite zone. Within much of the quartz-sericite zone enargite-
pyrite in veins are dominant.
The dominant sulfides in the western part of the orebody are chalcocite, digenite, and covellite,
along with pyrite and enargite (Fig. 2B). Digenite is largely hopogene. Chalcocite is clearly super-
 Chuquicamata, the worlds greatest copper orebody 7

gene at higher elevations, commonly sooty, occurring as thick rims on pyrite and other sulfides. It
extends to great depth where the alteration is least reactive. Fine-grained covellite increases rela-
tively to chalcocite downward within the flat west-dipping enrichment blanket. It is of supergene
origin and rims chalcopyrite and other primary sulfides. At depth, relatively coarse-grained covel-
lite (0.5 to 2 mm) is clearly hypogene (e.g., Lewis, 1996). Further, chalcocite may be intergrown
with coarse-grained covellite or bornite and may lack rimming textures suggestive of supergene
origin. In fact it is very difficult to distinguish hypogene from supergene chalcocite and covellite.
Although sericite-quartz is the alteration typically associated with main-stage veins, alunite also
occurs locally with pyrite-enargite mineralization. Normally one would expect to find pyrophyllite
and/or dickite occurring with alunite in high-sulfidation assemblages of pyrite, enargite, covellite
and digenite. But after Ossandn et al. (2001) only traces of pyrophyllite and dickite have been de-
tected locally.
Sphalerite, with 0-5 wt % Fe (Zentilli and Graves, 1993), is usual in many veins with enargite, in-
cluding veinlets which contain little or no pyrite but may contain covellite-digenite. These younger
veinlets occupy late-formed northwest structures. Minor tennantite occurs with pyrite-chalcopyrite
in veins and veinlets within the potassic zone and contains up to 8 wt. % Zn (Zentilli and Graves,
1993).

Late-stage
In contrast to the covellite-digenite-pyrite veinlets at the main-stage, the veinlets of the late-stage
are without quartz, pyrite or other sulfides. But most of them contain red hematite and locally an-
hydrite.
An impressively feature is a zone of moderate to high Zn values (0.02 to > 0.08 wt. %; Fig. 3D),
largely due to rims of sphalerite on chalcopyrite and other copper sulfides. Moderate to high Zn
values furthermore extends to depth along with high As and correlates with the presence of coarse-
grained sphalerite in the enargite veins. Below the Zn zone in the east are low Zn values which are
contained in traces of sphalerite and Zn-bearing tennantite within pyrite-bearing veinlets. Beneath
the top of Zn sphalerite rims are continuous in a band about 100 to 200 m wide. They extend from
the anomalous Zn zone in potassic and chloritic  alteration in the east across the quartz-sericite
zone in the west. Because of this distribution and their textures it is supposed that they are formed
as a lower zone to the supergene chalcocite blanket (Aracena et al., 1997). Anymore the sphalerite
rims occurrence of inner rims of covellite and/or digenite and it seams that they are coeval with the
late-stage covellite-digenite veining. They appear also within anhydrite-saturated rock, which
would confirm their hydrothermal origin. The iron content of rim sphalerite is up to 1.2 wt %,
highest where rims are on chalcopyrite.

Supergene Mineralization and Alteration

After Taylor (1935) and Jarrell (1944) the rich oxide copper orebody has been largely mined out,
but considerable resources of lower grade material remain in the north end of the pit and beyond
(North zone, Fig. 1; Cuadra et al., 1997; Ossandn and Zentilli, 1997). Oxide ores contain a large
variety of minerals but in chief antlerite, brochantite, atacamite, chrysocolla, and copper pitch.
Also residuals of chalcocite are implied. The ore was overlain by leached capping and was an
eastward and upward extension of the chalcocite zone, indicating it was a supergene chalcocite en-
richment blanket oxidized in situ. It is the upper of two chalcocite blankets with a leached horizon
in between. A lower enrichment zone has more reactive alteration assemblages and contains de-
creasing chalcocite and/or covellite proportions downward. In the central zone of intense breccia-
tion, the two enrichment blankets (copper leaching and chalcocite enrichment) merge and reach
their maximum depth.
So this is the largest enriched orebody in the world. Clearly a large thickness of leached capping
above the premine surface was necessary to produce the copper. The leached rock in the north is
largely goethite with jarosite, what one would expect from oxidation of moderately pyritic protore
(Anderson, 1982). Copper has also been leached out of Fe-rich, steep structural zones within the
copper oxide horizon. Here the limonite is hematitic, as one would expect from oxidation of chal-
cocite-enriched pyritic vein zones, and consistent with the interpretation of two stages of oxidation
and sulfide enrichment related to a changing water table. A component of each of the hypogene al-
teration assemblages is anhydrite, variably hydrated to gypsum. It saturates all porosity in rocks in
which it occurs. Before any supergene leaching or enrichment of sulfide could appear, it had to be
leached by supergene solutions. This sulfate zone rock in continuous intervals was only found in
8 Daniela Focke

drill holes in more than 800 m below the premine surface (Hunt, 1969; Gustafson and Hunt, 1975).
At 1200 m anhydrite has been hydrated and leached from most fault zones, and what was once a
continuous sulfate zone has been reduced to isolated residuals of gypsum and rarer anhydrite di-
minishing upward between structural zones.
In fact very important quantities of copper were leached from the oxidized capping and probably
from the chalcocite blanket and moved laterally. Originally over 300 Mt of exotic copper ore was
deposited in gravels south of the pit to form the Extic orebody.

Geochronology
Because the dating of significant events at Chuquicamata has proven to be an extraordinary diffi-
cult problem, there are many different published efforts at dating events.
Ballard (2000) has applied eximer laser ablation inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry
(ELA-ICP-MS) dating of zircon from the intrusive units and got ages of 34.8 0.3 Ma for East
Porphyry, 33.3 0.3 Ma for West Porphyry, and 33.4 0.4 Ma for Banco Porphyry. East Por-
phyry was also dated by Larry Heaman and Marcos Zentilli by the use of U-Pb single grain and
multigrain ages in zircon. They obtained ages for zircon crystallization of 35 to 36 Ma and for the
inherited grains 37 to 38 Ma. The 40Ar/39Ar dating of sericite formed during the main-stage of
mineralization gives an age of 31.1 0.2 Ma. Feldspar and biotite in the potassic alteration zones
relatively distant from major sericitic veins and at higher elevation show 40Ar/39Ar ages of 35 to 34
Ma. Closer to zones of sericite alteration and from deep below the pit they yield in contrast ages of
31 to 32 Ma (Reynolds et al., 1998).
By using the Re-Os technique Joaquin Ruiz (1998) has obtained an age of molybdenite, collected
from typical blue quartz vein, of 34.9 0.17 Ma. Ages of 30 Ma were dated at fission track in apa-
tite within the deposit by Maksaey (1990). This indicates fast cooling of the system to ca. 100 C
soon after the main stage of mineralization. Sillitoe and McKee (1996) has used K-Ar dating of
alunite from supergene enrichment and alteration and estimated an age of 15 to19 Ma.
Based on all analyses it can conclude that East Porphyry is probably significantly older than West
and Banco porphyries, and that all were emplaced before 33 Ma. After Ossandn et al. (2001)

potassic alteration and subsequent quartz-molybdenite veining was probably closely associated
with the emplacement and cooling of West, Fine Texture, and/or Banco porphyries. At least 2 m.y.
later main-stage hydrothermal activity followed as a separate event. An intrusion related to this
event has certainly not been identified.

Discussion
Premain stages: Between East Porphyry to Banco Porphyry is a clear succession of intrusion fol-
lowed by potassic alteration (biotite formed and texture largely preserved), and early-stage quartz-
K feldspar veining, and quartz-K feldspar alteration (biotite and texture destroyed) with extreme
cataclastic deformation afterward. It is not clear where West Porphyry and Fine Texture Porphyry
fit in, but both are cut by early-stage quartz vein and potassic alteration. Before or at the beginning
of quartz-K feldspar alteration, and linked to the cataclastic deformation, there was local albitiza-
tion, which may or may not be relate to potassic alteration. Furthermore not clear is the timing of
quartz-K feldspar development relative to formation of quartz-molybdenite veins.
Early stage quartz veins contain outside of clearly younger fractures little more than trace sulfide.
The quartz is completely recrystallized by younger events, which released any fluids trapped in
early fluid inclusions and could have remobilized any original sulfide. Even though the quartz-K
feldspar zone is the locus of the bornite-digenite center of the premain hydrothermal stage sulfide
zoning pattern, most of the sulfide fills brittle fractures. These are clearly younger than the quartz-
K feldspar alteration itself. Such fractures lacking in quartz-K feldspar rock and disseminated sul-
fide is sparse. Furthermore, this central sulfide assemblage often includes coarse-grained covellite
with digenite. Thos association characterizes the late-stage assemblage here but is not reported in
deep central zones of other porphyry copper deposits. Nevertheless typical of standard porphyry
copper zoning are the gradational decrease of Cu-Fe in the background sulfides eastward (and
westward prior to the main stage), with pyrite appearing outside of sericitic veins and halos only
after bornite disappears, and the disseminated to veinlet textures.
Main stage: The complexity of superimposed events, complicated by supergene effects, makes it
difficult to differ between the individual evolutionary events and estimate how much of the copper
was actually contained in each.
 Chuquicamata, the worlds greatest copper orebody 9

The pervasive deformation and recrystallization of early quartz veins, along with the low sulfide
content of these veins and most potassic altered rock, suggests that much of the early-formed min-
eralization may have been remobilized. This copper could have been reprecipitated in main-stage
veins. Therefore a magmatic source of heat and sulphur vapour has been required.
Late stage: The upward and eastward flaring of coarse-grained covellite was formed probably dur-
ing main and late stage. The pattern correlates with increased sericitic overprinting of potassic al-
teration and represents an upward zonation, which is here less structurally focused than in the
quartz-sericite zone. Anhydrite in the late coarse-grained covellite veinlets confirms their forma-
tion above the temperature stability limit of gypsum, at least 55C (Holland and Malinin, 1979).
However, the association with apparently amorphous hematite argues against a much higher tem-
perature. Furthermore, supergene sphalerite has never been reported in porphyry copper deposits.
This indicates that very unusual conditions would have prevailed at Chuquicamata. Normally Zn is
soluble in supergene solutions that it is completely lost from oxidized orebodies unless precipitated
as carbonates or sulfates. Here an extraordinary sulphur activity was present to produce covellite.

Further not clear is the question how much of the orebody was displaced by the West Fault and
where it has gone. The north-northeast elongate pattern of early potassic alteration does appear at
depth to be truncated over more than 2 km, suggesting that much of the early-stage mineralization
was lost by faulting, possibly displaced initially to the north. The much younger patterns of As and
Zn (Fig. 3C and D) appear to be closing as they get near the West Fault. They, too, have formed at
least partly under the influence of this structure. After Ossandn et al. (2001) this suggests there
has been much less displacement of later main-stage mineralization and supergene enrichment
than of early stages.

Conclusions
Chuquicamata is both the worlds greatest copper orebody and the most unusual of all porphyry
copper deposits. We can not understand all its phenomena and much more work has to be done.
The greatest challenges for geology at Chuquicamata is to document the discovery of all oxide and

sulfide ore, which is still lying hidden in the district, and to define accurately the distribution,
grade, rock mechanical and metallurgical characteristics of ore. As a result planning, mining, and
metallurgical operations can be optimized.

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