Unit II Vector Differential Calculus

Vector Differential Calculus

2.1 Vector Valued Functions

In this section we consider functions whose domain consists of real numbers and
whose range consists of vectors.

Definition 2.1 A vector valued function consists of two

parts; a domain, which
is a collection of numbers and a rule which assigns
to each number in the
domain one and only one vector.

The numbers in the domain of the vector valued function are usually denoted by
t. The set of all vectors assigned by a vector valued function to members of its
domain is called the range of the function.
Example 1 Let F (t ) 1 t i 1 t j k . Determine the domain of F.
Solution 1 t 0 and 1 t 0 1 t 1.
Therefore, domain of F = 1, 1 .
Note that: We refer any function whose domain and range are sets of real
numbers as a real valued
function.
A vector valued function F can be written as
F (t ) f1 (t ) i f 2 (t ) j f 3 (t ) k
f1 , f 2 and f 3 are real valued functions called the component functions of F.
For the function given in example 1,
f1 (t ) = 1 t , f 2 (t ) = 1 t and f 3 (t ) = 1
are the component functions of F.

Graphs of Vector Valued Functions

We usually show a vector valued function F pictorially by drawing only its range.
If we think F (t) as a point in space, then as t increases, F (t) traces out a curve in
space.

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z
curve C

F(t)

y
x

If F (t ) f1 (t ) i f 2 (t ) j f 3 (t ) k , then the parametric equations of the curve C

are:
x f1 (t ) , y f 2 (t ) and z f 3 (t ) .
Example 2 Let F (t ) ( 2t 1) i (1 t ) j 3t k . Sketch the curve traced out
by F.
Solution If we let (x, y, z) be a point on the curve traced out by F (t), then
x 2t 1 , y 1 t and z = 3t.
But these are the parametric equations of the line containing ( 1, 1, 0) and
parallel to the vector 2 i j 3 k .
z

( 1, 1, 0)

2i j 3k y

x
Example 3 Let F (t ) cos t i sin t j. Then
F (t ) cos t sin t = 1 for all t .
2 2

Thus, F (t) traces out all points in the xy plane that are at a distance of one unit
from the origin.
Moreover; as t increases, the vector F (t) moves around the circle in a
counterclockwise direction.
Example 4 Let F (t ) 2 cos t i 2 sin t j 2 cos t k . Then sketch the curve
traced out by F.
Solution Let (x, y, z) be a point on the curve traced out by F (t), then
x 2 cos t , y 2 sin t and z 2 cos t

Thus, x 2 y 2 z 2 = 2 cos 2 t 4 sin 2 t 2 cos 2 t = 4 and x = z.

Therefore, the curve traces out by F (t) is the intersection of the sphere
x 2 y 2 z 2 = 4 and the plane x = z.

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Sphere = 4
plane x = z

y F (t ) 2 cos t i 2 sin t j 2 cos t k

Combinations of Vector Valued Functions

Definition 2.2 Le F and G be vector valued functions and let f and g

be real valued functions.
Then the functions F G , F G , f F , F G ,
F G and F g

are defined as follows:

i) ( F G ) (t ) = F (t ) G (t ) ii) ( f F ) (t ) =
f (t ) F (t )

iii) ( F G ) (t ) = F (t ) G (t ) iv) ( F G ) (t ) =
F (t ) G (t )

v) ( F g ) (t ) = F ( g (t ))

Example 5 Let F (t ) 2t i (1 t ) j 3t k and

G (t ) (1 t ) i (3t 2) j t k . If g (t) = cos t,
then find
i) ( F G ) (t ) ii) ( F G ) (t ) iii) ( F g ) (t )
Solution From the above definition we have
i) ( F G ) (t ) = F (t ) G (t ) = ( 2t ,1 t , 3t ) (1 t , 3t 2, t )

= 2t (1 t ) (1 t ) (3t 2) 3t (t ) =

2t 2 3t 2 .

Therefore, ( F G ) (t ) = 2t 2 3t 2 .

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ii) ( F G ) (t ) = F (t ) G (t ) = ( 2t ,1 t , 3t ) (1 t , 3t 2, t )
=

5t ( 2t 1) i t (5t 3) j (5t 2 6t 1) k

(10t 2 5t ) i (5t 2 3t ) j (5t 2 6t 1) k

Therefore, ( F G ) (t ) = (10t 2 5t ) i (5t 2 3t ) j (5t 2 6t 1) k

iii) ( F g ) (t ) = F ( g (t )) = F (cos t ) = 2 cos t i (1 cos t ) j 3 cos t k .
Therefore, ( F g ) (t ) = 2 cos t i (1 cos t ) j 3 cos t k .
Example 6 Let H (t ) cos t i sin t j t k . Then sketch the curve traced out by
H.
Solution Let F (t ) cos t i sin t j and z
G (t ) t k .
Then H (t) = F (t) + G (t). H(t)

The curve traced out by F (t) is a unit circle

with center at the y

origin. Thus the point corresponding to H (t) x

lies t units Circular Helix

above or below the points corresponding to F

(t).
Therefore, the curved traced out by H (t) is a
circular Helix.
Note that: If H (t ) cos t i sin t j t k , then we get a circular helix oriented
clockwise as t increases
Example 7 Cycloid
A cycloid is a curve traced out by a point on the circumference of a circle as the
circle rolls along a straight line. Suppose a circle of radius r rolls along the x-axis in the
positive direction. Let P be the point that is at the origin. Find the vector equation of the
cycloid traced out by P.

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Solution Suppose the circle rolled

through an angle t y
radians. Then
OP OC CP
y
Hence, OC r t i r j

and CP r sin t i r cos t j

Thus, P
OP r (t sin t ) i r (1 cos t ) j y t
Therefore, the vector equation of the
cycloid is:
C
OP r (t sin t ) i r (1 cos t ) j
and the parametric equations are: O x
B
x (t) = r (t sin t ) and y (t) =
r (1 cos t )
2.2 Calculus of Vector Valued Functions

Definition 2.3 Let F be a vector valued function defined at

each point in some open
interval containing t 0 , except possibly at t 0 itself. A
vector L is the limit of
F (t) as t approaches t 0 (or L is the limit of F at t 0 ) if for

every 0 there is
a 0 such that
if 0 t t 0 , then F (t ) L
In this case we write
im F (t ) L and say that im F (t )
t t0 t t0
exists.

Theorem 2.1 Let F (t ) f1 (t ) i f 2 (t ) j f 3 (t ) k . Then F has a

limit at t 0 if and

only if f1 (t ) , f 2 (t ) and f 3 (t ) have limits at t 0 . In

this case

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im F (t ) im f (t ) i im f (t ) j im f (t ) k
1 2 3
t t0 t t0 t t0 t t0
sin t
Example 8 Evaluate im i et j (t 2 ) k .
t 0 t
sin t
Solution Let F (t) = i et j (t 2 ) k . Then
t
im F (t ) im sin t i im et j im (t 2 ) k =

t t0 t 0 t t 0 t t0
i j 2k
sin t
Therefore, im i et j (t 2 ) k = i j 2k .
t 0 t

Theorem 2.2 Let F and G be vector valued functions, and let f and g
be real valued functions.

Assume that im F (t ) , im G (t ) and im f (t )

t t0 t t0 t t0
exist and that
im g ( s ) = t . Then
s s0 0

i) im ( F G ) (t ) = im
t t0 t t0
im
F (t ) G (t )
t t0

ii) im ( f F ) (t ) = im f (t ) im F (t )
t t0 t t0 t t0
im
iii) im ( F G ) (t ) = im F (t ) G (t )
t t0 t t0 t t0

iv) im ( F G ) (t ) = im
t t0 t t0
im
F (t ) G (t )
t t0
im im
v) ( F g ) (t ) = F ( g (t ))
t t0 t t0

sin (t 1) t 3
Example 9 Let F (t) = i j cos t k and G (t) =
t 1 t 2
t 3
(1 t 2 ) i j t2 1 k .
t 3

Then find i) im ( F G ) (t ) ii) im ( F G ) (t )

t 1 t 1

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Solutions i) im ( F G ) (t ) = im F (t ) im G (t ) =
t 1 t 1 t 1
1
(i , 4 j , k ) ( 2i , j, 2k )
4
=1 2

Therefore, im ( F G ) (t ) = 1 2 .
t 1

ii) im ( F G ) (t ) = im F (t ) im G (t ) =
t 1 t 1 t 1
1
( i , 4 j , k ) ( 2i , j, 2k )
4
1 33
= (4 2
) i ( 2 2) j k
4 4
1 33
Therefore, im ( F G ) (t ) = (4 2 ) i ( 2 2) j k .
t 1 4 4

Definition 2.4 A vector valued function F is continuous at a

point t 0 in its domain if
im
F (t) = F ( t 0 )
t t0

Theorem 2.3 A vector valued function F is continuous at a point

t 0 if and only if each of

its component functions is continuous at t 0 .

Definition 2.5 Let t 0 be a number in the domain of a vector

valued function F.
im F (t ) F (t 0 )
If exists, we call the derivative
t t0 t t0
of F at t 0 and write
im F (t ) F (t 0 )
F ' (t 0 ) .
t t0 t t0
In this case we say F has derivative at t 0 , or F is
differentiable at t 0 or that
F ' (t 0 ) exists.
Geometric Interpretation of F ' (t 0 )

Let C be the curve traced out by F, and let P0 and P be points on the curve

corresponding to F (t 0 ) and F(t) respectively.

z z
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z
P
P P F'(t0)
F(t) F(t)
P0 P0 P0
F(t0) F(t0) F(t0)
y y y
x t > t0 x t < t0 x

Now consider the vector P0 P .

P0 P = F (t) F (t 0 )
F (t ) F (t 0 )
The vector has the same direction as P0 P if t > t 0 , and has
t t0
opposite direction to P0 P if
t < t 0 . Hence F ' (t 0 ) exists, then it points in the same direction in which C is
traced out by F. F ' (t 0 ) is tangent to the curve C at P0 .

Theorem 2.4 Let F (t ) f1 (t ) i f 2 (t ) j f 3 (t ) k . Then F is

differentiable at t 0

if and only if f1 (t ) , f 2 (t ) and f 3 (t ) are differentiable at

t0 .

In this case, F ' (t 0 ) f1 ' (t 0 ) i f 2 ' (t 0 ) j f 3 ' (t 0 ) k

Example 10 Let F (t ) sin t 2 i cos t j . Then F ' (t ) 2 t cos t 2 i sin t j .

sin t
Example 11 Let G (t ) 2 cos t i j t 2 k . Then
t
t cos t sin t
G ' (t ) 2 sin t i j 2t k .
t2
Note that: For any a, b, c and for all t , F (t ) a i b j c k is a
constant vector valued function.
Example 12 Show that the derivative of a linear vector valued function is a
constant vector valued function.
Solution Let F (t ) ( x0 a t ) i ( y 0 b t ) j ( z 0 c t ) k be any linear vector
valued function.
Then F ' (t ) a i b j c k .
Therefore, F ' (t ) is a constant vector valued function.
Remark: Let F be a vector valued function defined on an interval I.

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i) If the components of F are differentiable on I, then we say that F is

differentiable on I.
ii) If I is a closed interval [a, b], then F is differentiable on [a, b] if and
only if the component
functions are differentiable on (a, b) and have appropriate one-sided
limits at a and b.
Example 13 Let F (t ) t i 1 t j . Then F is differentiable on [0, 1] but
not on [ 1, 1], since t

is not differentiable at t = 0.
Solution Left to the reader.

Theorem 2.5 Let F, G and f be differentiable at t 0 and let g

be differentiable
at s 0 with g ( s 0 ) = t 0 . Then the following
holds

i) ( F G ) ' (t 0 ) = F ' (t 0 ) G ' (t 0 )

ii) ( f F ) ' (t 0 ) =

f ' (t 0 ) F (t 0 ) f (t 0 ) F ' (t 0 )

iii) ( F G ) ' (t 0 ) =
F ' (t 0 ) G (t 0 ) F (t 0 ) G ' (t 0 )

iv) ( F G ) ' (t 0 ) =

F ' (t 0 ) G (t 0 ) F (t 0 ) G ' (t 0 )

v) ( F g ) ' ( s 0 ) = F ' ( g ( s 0 )) g ' ( s 0 ) =

F ' (t 0 ) g ' ( s 0 )

Example 14 Let F (t ) i t j t 5 k and G (t ) e t cos t i e t sin t k . Then

find
(F G ) ' (t ) and ( F G ) ' (t )

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Solution Now F ' (t ) j 5 t 4 k and

G ' (t ) e t ( cos t sin t ) i e t (sin t cost ) k .

Therefore, ( F G ) ' (t ) = (1 t 5 ) e t cos t (t 5 5 t 4 1) e t sin t .

Since, F ' (t ) G (t ) = e t (sin t i 5 t 4 cos t j cos t k )

and F (t ) G ' (t ) =

e t t (sin t cos t ) i (( t 5 1) sin t ( t 5 1) cos t ) j (cos t sin t ) k .
Therefore , ( F G ) ' (t ) e t (t 1) sin t t cos t ) i ( t 5 1) sin t ( t 5 5t 4 1) cos t j
et 2 cos t sin t k
Example 15 Let F (t ) t i 5 cos t k and G (t ) i n t j . Then find
(F G ) ' (t ) and ( F G ) ' (t )
1
Solution Now F ' (t ) i 5 sin t k and G ' (t ) j .
t
Then, F ' (t ) G (t ) =1 and F (t ) G ' (t ) = 0, ( F ' G ) (t ) =
5 n t sin t i 5 sin t j n t k

5
and ( F G ' ) (t ) = cos t i k .
t
Therefore, ( F G ) ' (t ) = 1and ( F G ) ' (t ) =
5
5 n t sin t cos t i 5 sin t j (1 n t ) k .
t

Corollary 2.6 Let F be differentiable on an interval I and assume

that there is a
non-zero number c such that
F (t ) = c for all t in I.
Then F (t ) F ' (t ) = 0 for all t in I.

Proof: Since, F (t ) = c by hypothesis, it follows that

( F F ) (t ) F (t ) F (t ) F (t ) 2
c 2 for all t in I.

Thus, F F is a constant real valued function on I.

Hence, ( F F ) ' (t ) = 0.

Therefore, F (t ) F ' (t ) = 0 for all t in I.

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Note that: If F (t ) is a constant real valued function, then for each t in the
domain of F, one and only one
of the following is true.
i) F (t) = 0 ii) F ' (t ) = 0 iii) F (t ) and F ' (t ) are
orthogonal.
Let F (t ) f1 (t ) i f 2 (t ) j f 3 (t ) k . The second derivative of F is defined to

be the derivative of F ' (t ) , denoted by F ' ' (t ) is given by:

F ' ' (t ) f1 ' ' (t ) i f 2 ' ' (t ) j f 3 ' ' (t ) k

Example 16 Let F (t ) i n t j 2 t k . Then find F ' ' (1) .
1 1
Solution F ' (t ) = j 2 k and F ' ' (t ) = 2 j .
t t
Therefore, F ' ' (t ) = j .
Velocity and Acceleration

As an object moves through space, the coordinates x, y and z of its location are
functions of time.
Let as assume that these functions are twice differentiable. Then we define
Position: r(t) = x (t ) i y (t ) j z (t ) k

dx dy dz
Velocity: v (t) = i j k
dt dt dt
dx 2 dy 2 dz 2
Speed: v (t )
dt dt dt
dv d 2r d 2x d2y d 2z
Acceleration: a (t ) i j k
dt dt 2 dt 2 dt 2 dt 2
Note that: i) The position vector r (t) is called the radial vector or radius
vector.
ii) If t 0 is fixed and t t 0 , then the vector r (t) r ( t 0 ) is called the
displacement vector.
iii) The average velocity is defined as
r (t ) r (t 0 )
t t0
and hence the velocity is the limit of the average velocity.
Example 17 Suppose the position of an object is given by
r(t) = cosh t i sinh t j t k .
Determine the velocity, speed and acceleration of the object.

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Solution v (t) = sinh t i cosh t j k ,

2 2
v (t ) cosh t sinh t 1 2 cosh t
and a (t ) cosh t i sinh t j .
Example 18 Let r(t) = r (t sin t ) i r (1 cos t ) j . Find the set of all
possible values of t
for which v (t ) = 0.
Solution v (t) = r (1 cos t ) i r sin t j .
Hence, v (t ) = 0 r (1 cos t ) = 0 and r sin t = 0.
cos t 1 and sin t = 0 t = 2n for any integer n.
Therefore, t : t = 2n for any natural number n is the required solution.

Example 19 An object moves counterclockwise along a circle of radius r0 > 0

with a constant
speed v0 > 0. Find formulas for the position, velocity and
acceleration of the object.
Solution Let us set up a coordinate system so that the circle lies in the xy
plane with center at
the origin so that the object is on the positive x-axis at t = 0.

yx
Then r(t) = r0 cos (t ) i sin (t ) j and
hence,
r(t)x (t)

v (t) = r0 ' (t ) sin (t ) i cos (t ) j .
x Since the object moves counterclockwise,

is increasing and hence ' (t ) > 0.

Thus, v (t ) = r0 ' (t ) and hence

v0
' (t )
r0
v0
Now since (0) = 0 we get (t ) t.
r0

0 v v v v
Therefore, r(t) = r0 cos t i sin 0 t j , v(t) = v0 sin 0 t i cos 0 t j
r0 r0 r0 r0
2
v0 v0 v0
and a(t) = cos t i sin t j .
r0 r0 r0

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Integration of Vector valued Functions

Definition 2.6 Let F (t ) f1 (t ) i f 2 (t ) j f 3 (t ) k , where f1 ,

f 2 and f 3 are
continuous real valued functions on [a, b]. Then the
definite integral
b

a F (t ) dt and the indefinite integral F (t ) dt are

defined by

b b b b
f (t ) dt i f (t ) dt j f (t ) dt k
a F (t ) dt
1 2 3
a a a
and
F (t ) dt f1 (t ) dt i f 2 (t ) dt j f 3 (t ) dt k
1
Example 20 Let F (t ) cosh t i sinh t j k . Find 0 F (t ) dt and F (t ) dt .

1

1


1


1

Solution F (t ) dt cosh t dt i sinh t dt j dt k
0
0

0

0
1 1 1
= sinh t i cosh t j t k
0 0 0
e2 1 (e 1) 2
= i

j t k

2e 2e
1
e2 1 (e 1) 2
Therefore, F (t ) dt =
0 2e
i



2e
j t k


F (t ) dt = cosh t dt i sinh t dt j dt k
= sinh t i cosh t j t k C , where C is a constant
vector.

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Therefore, F (t ) dt = sinh t i cosh t j t k C , where C is a

constant vector.

If F (t ) f1 (t ) i f 2 (t ) j f 3 (t ) k , where f1 , f 2 and f 3 are continuously

differentiable, then

F ' (t ) dt f1 ' (t ) i f 2 ' (t ) j f 3 ' (t ) k

= f1 ' (t ) dt i f 2 ' (t ) dt j f 3 ' (t ) dt k
= f1 (t ) c1 i f 2 (t ) c 2 j f 3 (t ) c3 k

= f1 (t ) i f 2 (t ) j f 3 (t ) k + c1 i c 2 j c3 k .
Therefore, F ' (t ) dt = f1 (t ) i f 2 (t ) j f 3 (t ) k C , where C is a
constant vector.

Space Curve and Their Lengths

Definition 2.6 A space curve (or simply curve) is the

range of a continuous
vector valued function on an interval of real
numbers.

Notation: We will generally use C to denote a curve and r to denote a vector

valued function
whose range is a curve C. In this case we say that C is
parameterized by r or that r

is a parameterization of C.

Suppose r (t ) x (t ) i y (t ) j z (t ) k . Then x = x (t ) , y = y (t ) and z =

z (t ) are parametric equations of the vector valued function r (t ) .
Let f be a continuous real valued function on an interval I. Now we need to show
that the graph of f is a curve and find a parameterization of the curve.
Now let r (t ) t i f (t ) j for all t in I. Then r (t ) is continuous and traces out
the graph of f. Thus, the graph of f is the range of r (t ) , so the graph of f is a
curve.
Hence, r (t ) t i f (t ) j is its parameterization.

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Note that: The vector valued function

r (t ) a cos t i a sin t j c t k ,c0
represents a curve called circular helix. It lies on the cylinder
x y a2 .
2 2

Properties of Space Curves

Definition 2.8 A curve C is closed if it has a

parameterization r (t ) whose domain
is a closed and bounded interval [a, b] such that
r ( a ) r (b) .

z z

r (a)
r (b)
r (a) = r (b)

y y
x x curve not closed
Closed curve

Example 21 Let r (t ) cos t i sin t j for t [0, 2].

Now r (t ) is continuous on [0, 2] and r (0) = i = r (2 ) .

Therefore, the curve traced out by r (t ) is closed curve.

Example 22 Let r (t ) cos t i sin t j t k for t [0, 2].
Now r (t ) is continuous on [0, 2] and r (0) = i while r ( 2 ) i 2 k .
Therefore, the curve traced out by r (t ) is not closed.

Definition 2.9 a) A vector valued function r (t ) defined on an interval I

is smooth if r (t )

has a continuous derivative on I and r ' (t ) 0 for

each interior point t of I.
A curve C is smooth if it has a smooth
parameterization.
b) A continuous vector valued function r (t ) defined on
an interval I is
piecewise smooth if I is composed of a finite

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number of subintervals
on each of which r (t ) is smooth and if r (t ) has one
sided derivatives at
each interior point of I.
A curve C is piecewise smooth if it has a
piecewise smooth parameterization.

Example 23 Show that r (t ) sin t i cos t j t 2 k is smooth.

Solution r ' (t ) cos t i sin t j 2 t k , r ' (t ) is continuous and r ' (t ) 0
for every t .
Therefore, r (t ) is smooth.

Example 24 Show that r (t ) (et t ) i t 2 j t 3 k is piecewise smooth.

Solution r ' (t ) (et 1) i 2 t j 3 t 2 k for all t and hence r ' (t ) is

continuous for all t . But r ' (t ) = 0 only for t = 0.

Therefore, r (t ) is piecewise smooth on ( , ).

Example 25 Find a smooth parameterization of the line segment from

x0 , y 0 , z 0
to x1 , y1 , z1 .
Solution Suppose x0 , y 0 , z 0
and x1 , y1 , z1 are distinct points in space.

x = x0 + (x x0 ) t, y = y0 + (y y0 ) t and z = z0 +(z z0 ) t

are parametric equations for the line through x0 , y 0 , z 0 and

x1, y1 , z1 .
Now (x, y, z) = x0 , y 0 , z 0
for t = 0 and (x, y, z) = x1 , y1 , z1 for t = 1.

Therefore, r (t ) =
x0( 0)ixx y0(yy0)j z0( zz 0)k for 0 t 1 is a

smooth parameterization of the segment from x0 , y 0 , z 0

to x1 , y1 , z1 .
Length of a Curve

Let C be the line segment joining the points x0 , y 0 , z 0

to x1 , y1 , z1 in space.
Then the length L of C is given by:

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L ( x1 x0 ) 2 ( y1 y 0 ) 2 ( z1 z 0 ) 2 .
Now, let C be a smooth curve and r (t ) = x (t ) i y (t ) j z (t ) k a t b,

be a smooth parameterization of C. Let T = { t0 , t1 , t 2 , ..., t n } be any partition

of [a, b], and let Lk be the length of the k th portion of C.

If t k is small, then

L k x (t k ) x(t k 1 ) 2 y (t k ) y (t k 1 ) 2 z (t k
) z (t k 1 ) 2 .
By the mean-value theorem there are numbers u k , vk and k in [ t k 1 , tk ]
such that
x (t k ) x (t k 1 ) x ' (u k ) t k ,

y (t k ) y (t k 1 ) y ' (v k ) t k

and z (t k ) z (t k 1 ) z ' ( k ) t k , where tk tk tk 1 .

Hence L k x ' (u k ) 2 y ' (v k ) 2 z ' ( k ) 2 t k .

Therefore, the total length L of C is:
n
L= L k
k 1
b
and for small t k , L a x ' (t ) 2 y ' (t ) 2 z ' (t ) 2 dt . But
x ' (t ) 2 y ' (t ) 2 z ' (t ) 2 r ' (t ) .
b
Therefore, L a r ' (t ) dt .

Definition 2.10 Let C be a curve with piecewise

smooth parameterization
r (t ) defined on [a, b]. Then the length L of the
curve C is defined by:
b
L a r ' (t ) dt

Example 26 Find the length L of the segment of the circular helix

r (t ) cos t i sin t j t k

for 0 t 2.

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Solution By definition 2.10,

2 2

0 sin t cos t
2 2
L 1 dt = 0 2 dt = 2 2 .

Therefore, L = 2 2 units.
Example 27 Find the length L of the curve
r (t ) 2t i t 2 j n t k

for 1 t 2.

1 1
Solution Now r ' (t ) 2 i 2 t j k and r ' (t ) 4 4t 2 .
t t2

2
L 2t dt 1

2
1 t L t2 nt
2
1
Hence, L 1 4 4t 2
t2
dt = = = 3 + n 2.

1
Therefore, L = 3 + n 2 units.
Note that: i) Every curve has many parameterizations.
ii) The length of a curve is independent of the parameterization of the
curve.

The Arc Length Function

Let C be a smooth curve parameterized on an interval I = [a, b] by
r (t ) x (t ) i y (t ) j z (t ) k for t in I.
Let a be a fixed number in I. We define the arc length function s by:
t t

a x ' (u ) y ' (u ) z ' (u )

2 2 2
s (t ) a r ' (u ) du = du for t

in I. (1)
If r (t) denotes the position of an object at time t a, then s (t) is the distance
traveled by the object between time a and time t.
If we differentiate (1) with respect to t, we obtain

s ' (t ) r ' (t ) = x ' (t ) 2 y ' (t ) 2 z ' (t ) 2

s (t ) r (t )
> 0, since r (t ) is smooth for all t in I.
dt dt
Thus, s (t) is increasing and hence s has an inverse.

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s (t ) 2 3
Example 28 Find if r (t ) sin 2t i cos 2t j t 2 k .
dt 3
1 r (t )
Solution r ' (t ) 2 cos 2t i 2 sin 2t j t 2 k and hence = 4 t .
dt
s (t )
Therefore, = 4 t for t 0.
dt
Note that: Any quantity depending on t also depends on s.

Arc Length s as parameter

If a smooth curve C is parameterized by r (t) for t in [a, b] and if C has length L,
then C can be parameterized by r (t (s)) for s in [0, L].
Example 29 Consider the Circular helix
.
r (t ) a cos t i a sin t j c t k
Then r ' (t ) a sin t i a cos t j c k and r ' (t ) a2 c2 .
Thus, the arc length function s (t) is given by:
t s
s (t ) 0 a 2 c 2 du t a 2 c 2 t
a 2
c2
.

Therefore, a formula for the helix using the arc length function s as a parameter
is
s s cs
r ( s ) a cos i a sin j k
.

a2 c2 a2 c2 a2 c2
s
If we set c = 0, then we get t a
which is a parameterization for a circle.
s s
r (t ) a cos
a i a sin a j

Arc length in Polar form
Let C be a smooth curve parameterized on an interval I by
r (t ) x (t ) i y (t ) j for t in I.
x r cos and y = r sin for t in I.

dx dr d dy dr d
Hence, cos r sin and sin r cos
dt dt dt dt dt dt
dx 2 dr 2 2 dr d d 2
Thus, cos 2 r cos sin r 2 sin 2
dt dt dt dt dt
dy 2 dr 2 2 dr d d 2
and sin 2 r cos sin r 2 cos 2
dt dt dt dt dt
b
dr 2 2 d 2
Consequently, Or equivalently, L a r
dt
dt
dt

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Tangents and Normals to Curves

Tangents to Curves

Definition 2.11 Let C be a smooth curve and r (t ) a

(smooth) parameterization of
C defined on an interval I. Then for any interior point
t of I, the tangent
vector T (t ) at the point r (t) is defined by
r ' (t )
T (t )
r ' (t )

Note that: T (t) is a unit vector along r ' (t ) .

Example 30 Find a formula for the tangent T (t) to the circular helix
r (t ) 2 cos t i 2 sin t j t k
Solution and r ' (t ) = 5 .
r ' (t ) 2 sin t i 2 cos t j k
2 2 1
Therefore, T (t ) sin t i cos t j k .
5 5 5
Note that: T (t) and r (t) are not orthogonal, since r ( t ) constant for all t.
Example 31 Find the tangent vector T (t) to the curve parameterized by r (t),
where

r (t ) cos 3 t i sin 3 t j for t .
6 3
Solution r ' (t ) 3 cos 2 t sin t i 3 sin 2 t cos t j and r ' (t ) =
3 sin t cos t .
Therefore, T (t ) cos t i sin t j .
Normals to Curves
Let C be a smooth curve and r (t) be a parameterization of C. Let r ' (t ) be also
smooth. Then the tangent vector T (t) is differentiable. Moreover; if T ( t ) = 1
for all t in the domain of T. But then
T ' (t ) T (t ) = 0. Hence if T ' ( t ) 0, then T ' (t ) and T (t) are
orthogonal.
Definition 2.12 Let C be a smooth curve and r (t ) a
smooth parameterization of
C defined on an interval I such that r ' (t ) is smooth.
Then for any interior
point t of I for which T ' (t ) 0, the normal vector N (t)
at the point r (t) is
defined by

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T ' (t )
N (t )
T ' (t )

Example 32 Find a formula for the normal N (t) of the curve parameterized by
r (t ) 2 cos t i 2 sin t j t k
Solution and r ' (t ) = 5 .
r ' (t ) 2 sin t i 2 cos t j k
2 2 1
Thus, T (t ) sin t i cos t j k
5 5 5
2 2 2
Hence T ' (t ) cos t i sin t j and T ' (t ) .
5 5 5
Therefore, N (t) = cos t i sin t j .
Example 33 Find a formula for the normal N (t) of the curve parameterized by

r (t ) cos3 t i sin 3 t j for t .
6 3
Solution r ' (t ) 3 cos 2 t sin t i 3 sin 2 t cos t j and r ' (t ) =
3 sin t cos t
Thus, T (t ) cos t i sin t j and T (t ) sin t i cos t j . But
T ' (t ) 1.
Therefore, N (t) = sin t i cos t j .
Example 34 Find a formula for the normal N (t) of the curve parameterized by

r (t ) t i cos t j for 0 t .
2
Solution r ' (t ) i sin t j and r ' (t ) = 1 sin 2 t .
i sin t j
Thus, T (t ) 2 0<t< and hence
1 sin t 2
sin t cos t i cos t j
T ' (t )
1 sin 2 t 2
3

cos t
Consequently, T ' (t ) .
1 sin 2 t
sin t i j
Therefore, N (t) = .2 for 0 < t <
1 sin t
2
Tangential and Normal Components of Acceleration
Note that: Since the tangent vector T and the normal vector N at any point on a
smooth curve C are orthogonal, any vector b in the plane determined by T and N
can be expressed in the form

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b bT T bN N
T
Where bT is the tangential
component of b .
bT
bN is the normal component
T N
bN
of b .
Suppose an object moves along a curve C. The velocity and acceleration vectors
lie in the plane determined by
T and N. Let r (t ) be the position vector of the object that moves along the
curve C and suppose T and N exist. Then
dr dr
v (t ) T v T
dt dt
Thus the tangential component of is v , the speed of the object, and the
normal component of the velocity is 0.
Furthermore; the acceleration vector a (t )

dTdv d v dT dT
a (t ) =
. Since = T v N,
dtdt dt dt dt
d v dT
a (t ) = aT T a N N , where aT and a N v .
dt dt
Therefore, a (t ) = aT T a N N .
The real valued functions aT and a N are the tangential and normal
components of acceleration.

Hence a
2
= aT T a N N aT T a N N = aT
2
T
2
aN
2
N
2
=

2 2
aT aN

2 2
Therefore, a N a aT .
Example 35 Let r (t ) cosh t i sinh t j t k . Then find the normal and the
tangential components of
acceleration.
Solution v (t ) sinh t i cosh t j k and v (t ) sinh 2 t cosh 2 t 1

= 2 cosh 2 t = 2 cosh t .
Then aT = 2 sinh t and a (t ) cosh t i sinh t j .
2 2 2 2
Thus, a (t ) cosh t sinh t = 2 cosh t 1 .
Consequently, a N = 2 cosh 2
t 1 2 sinh 2 t =
2
2 (cosh t sinh 2
t) 1 = 1
Therefore, aT = 2 sinh t and a N = 1.

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Orientation of Curves
Let r (t ) x (t ) i y (t ) j z (t ) k be a piecewise smooth parameterization of
the curve C. Since each tangent vector points in the direction in which the curve
is traced out by r (t ) , we say that r (t ) determines the orientation (or
direction) of the curve C.
Note that: Once a piecewise smooth curve C has a given orientation, the
tangent vectors to the curve C are
uniquely defined, independent to any parameterization r (t ) of C.
Suppose r (t ) is a piecewise smooth parameterization of the curve C on [a, b]
and let
r 1 (t ) r ( a b t ) for a t b.
Then r 1 (t ) is a piecewise smooth parameterization of C and determines an

orientation opposite to the orientation determined by r (t ) . Furthermore; an

oriented curve is a piecewise smooth curve with a
particular orientation associated with it.
Example 36 Find a piecewise smooth parameterization for the circle in the
plane x = 2 centered at the point
( 2, 2, 1) with radius 3 whose orientation is clockwise as
viewed from the yz-plane.
Solution The parameterization of the circle in the yz-plane centered at the origin
with radius 3 units oriented in
a clockwise direction as viewed from the positive x axis direction is:
r 1 (t ) 3 cos t j 3 sin t k for 0 t 2.
Thus, r (t ) = 2i 2 j k + r 1 (t ) r (t ) =
2 i ( 2 3 cos t ) j ( 1 3 sin t ) k
Now r (t ) is continuous on [0, 2] and r ' (t ) = 3 sin t j 3 cos t k .
Since r ' (t ) = 3 0 for 0 t 2, r (t ) is smooth.
Therefore, r (t ) is a piecewise smooth parameterization of the required
curve.
Curvature
Let C be a smooth curve. The direction of the tangent vector can vary from point to
point according to the nature of the curve.
Example 37

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i) If the curve is a straight line, then T (t) is a

z
constant
vector valued function, and hence
y dT
x =0
ds

z
ii) If the curve undulates gently, then the
tangent vector
y T (t) changes direction slowly along the
x
curve, and
dT
hence changes but gently.
z ds

y
x iii) If the curve twisted, then the tangent
vector T (t)
dT
changes rapidly and hence changes
ds
rapidly.

dT
Thus, the rate of change of the tangent vector, is closely related to the rate at
ds
which the curve twists and turns.
dT dT
dT dT ds

dT dt dt
Since = it follows that = = .
dt ds dt ds ds dr
dt dt
Definition 2.13 Let a curve C have a smooth parameterization

r (t ) such that r ' (t )

is differentiable. Then the curvature k of C is defined by
the formula
dT
T ' (t ) dt
k (t) = =
r ' (t ) dr
dt

Example 38 Find the curvature k of the curve traced out by

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4 3
r (t )
cos t i (1 sin t ) j cos t k
5 5
4 3
Solution r (t ) sin t i cos t j sin t k and r ' (t ) = 1.
5 5
4 3
Thus, T (t) = sin t i cos t j sin t k
5 5
4 3
T ' (t ) cos t i sin t j cos t k and T ' (t ) = 1.
5 5
Therefore, k (t) = 1.
Example 39 Find the curvature k of the graph of y = sin x.
Solution The graph of y = sin x is the range of the continuous vector valued
function
r (t ) t i sin t j
Thus, r ' (t ) i cos t j and r ' (t ) = 1 cos 2 t .
i cos t j sin t cos t i sin t j
Hence, T (t) = , T ' (t ) = 3 and
1 cos 2 t
1 cos t
2 2

sin t
T ' (t ) .
1 cos 2 t
sin t
Therefore, k (t) = 3 .
1 cos 2 t 2
Example 40 Find the curvature k of the graph of y = 3 x for x > 0.

Solution The graph of y = 3 x for x > 0 is the range of the continuous vector
valued function
3
r (t ) t i t j for t > 0
2 2 4
1
Thus, r ' (t ) i t 3 j and r ' (t ) = 1t 3 9t 3
1
3 3
4 1
Now let u = 1
9t 3
1 . Then T (t ) u ( 3t 3i j ) .
1 1 1
2
Hence, T ' (t ) u 3
( 2t 3i 6t 3 j ) and T ' (t ) 2u t 3

1
Therefore, k (t) = 6u 3 3 .
t

Definition 2.14 The radius of curvature (t) of a curve at a

point P corresponding
to t is given by

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1
(t )
k (t )

Example 41 Find the radius of curvature of the curve traced out by

1 3
r (t ) 2 t i t 2 j t k
3
Solution r ' (t ) 2 i 2t j t 2 k and r ' (t ) = 4 4t 2 t 4 = 2 t2

Then, T (t )
2 t
1
2 i 2t j t 2
2

k .

Thus, T ' (t )
1

4 i 2 (2 t 2 ) j 4 t k
2
and
2 t
2
T ' (t )
2 t2
1
Therefore, (t ) 2 t 2 .
2
2

Alternative Formulas for Curvature
Let r be a smooth parameterization of a curve C with tangent T and normal N.
Then the velocity and acceleration of an object moving along the curve C with
position r are given by:
v v T and a = aT T a N N
Hence, v a ( v T ) ( aT T a N N ) = ( v T aT T ) ( v T a N N ) =
( v aN ) ( T N )
2
Thus, v a v a N , since T N = 1, v a v aN = v T ' ,
since a N = v T '
v a T ' T '
Hence, .
v 3 v r'
v a
Therefore, k = 3 .
v
Example 42 Show that the helix r (t ) cos t i sin t j t k has constant
curvature.
Solution v (t ) sin t i cos t j k and hence v 2 and a (t) =
cos t i sin t j .
Then v a sin t i cos t j and hence v a 2 .
1
Therefore, k (t) = that is constant.
2
If r (t ) represents an object moving along a curve C in the xy plane, we have
dx dy d 2x d2y
r (t ) x (t ) i y (t ) j , v (t ) i j and a (t ) i j .
dt dt dt 2 dt 2

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dx d 2 y dy d 2 x

v a dt dt 2 dt dt 2
Then k = 3 = 3
.
v dx 2 dy 2
dt dt
2

Example 43 Find the curvature k of the plane curve C parameterized by
r (t ) 2 cos t i 3 sin t j
Solution The parametric equations are: x = 2 cos t, y = 3 sin t

dx dy d 2x d2y
Then = 2 sin t, = 3 cos t, = 2 cos t and = 3 sin
dt dt dt 2 dt 2
t.
6 sin 2 t 6 cos 2 t
Thus, k = 3 .
4 sin 2 t 9 cos 2 t 2
6
Therefore, k = 3 .
4 5 cos t
2 2

Example 44 Find the curvature k of the graph of y = sin x.

Solution y ' = cos x and y ' ' = sin x.

sin x
Therefore, k = 3 .
1 cos 2 t 2
2.4 Calculus of Vector Fields
In this section we study calculus of a type of functions called a Vector Fields,
which assigns vectors to points in space.

Definition 2.15 A vector field F consists of two parts: a

collection D of points in
space, called the domain, and a rule, which
assigns to each point (x, y, z)
in D one and only one vector F (x, y, z). In other
words, a vector field is
a vector valued function of three variables.

A vector field F is graphically represented by drawing the vector F (x, y, z) as an

arrow emanating from (x, y, z).

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z y

y x
x
F (x, y, z) =
F (x, y, z) = xi y j

Example 45 The gravitational force F (x, y, z) exerted by a point mass m at the

origin on a unit mass located
at point (x, y, z) (0, 0, 0) is given by:
Gm
F ( x, y , z ) u ( x, y , z )
x y2 z2 2

where G is a gravitational constant, u ( x, y , z ) is the unit vector emanating

from (x, y, z) and directed
towards the origin. Hence the vector field is called the gravitational field
of the point mass.
Note that: u ( x, y , z ) has the same direction as xi y j z k .
xi y j z k
Then u ( x, y , z ) = .
x2 y2 z 2

Hence, F (x, y, z) =

Gm
3
x i y j z k .
x 2 2
y z2 2
If a point (x, y, z) in space is represented by the vector r , then the gravitational
field can be written as:
Gm
F (x, y, z) = r 3
r
, where r = xi y j z k .

A vector field F can be expressed in terms of its components, say M, N and P as

follows:
F (x, y, z) = M ( x, y , z ) i N ( x , y , z ) j P ( x , y , z ) k
In short we can write
F (x, y, z) = M i N j Pk .
Note that: M, N and P are scalar fields.
Let F (x, y, z) = M i N j Pk be a vector field, we say F is continuous at (x,
y, z) if and only if M, N and P are continuous at (x, y, z).

The Gradient as a Vector Field

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Suppose f is a differentiable function of three variables. Then the gradient of f, is

a vector field, denoted by grad f or f and is given by:
f f
grad f (x, y, z) = f ( x, y , z ) = ( x, y , z ) i + ( x, y , z ) j +
x y
f
( x, y , z ) k .
z
If a vector field F is equal to the gradient of some differentiable function f of
several variables, then F is called a conservative vector field, and f is a
potential function for F.
Example 46 Show that the gravitational field F of a point mass is a conservative
vector field.
Gm
Solution F (x, y, z) = r 3
r
, where r = xi y j z k .

Then F (x, y, z) = M i N j Pk for some scalar fields M, N and P.

We need to show that there is a differentiable function f of several
variables such that
F = f.
Gm Gm Gm
Now M = r 3
x
,N= r 3
y
and P = r 3
z

x Gm
M dx = G m dx

Then 3 + k (y, z) = +k
x2 y 2 z 2 2 x y2 z2
2

(y, z)
y Gm
N dy =
Gm dy
+ (x, z) = +
3
x2 y2 z2 2 x y2 z2
2

(x, z)
z Gm
P dz =
Gm dz

and 3 + q (x, y) = +
x2 y2 z 2 2 x y2 z2
2

q (x, y)
Gm
Now let f (x, y, z) = , then F = grad f.
x y2 z2
2

Therefore, F is a conservative vector field.

Recovering a Function from its Gradient

A function of several variables can sometimes be recovered from its
gradient by successive integration.
Example 47 Find a function f of three variables such that
grad f ( x, y , z ) yz e xy i xz e xy j (e xy cos z ) k

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f f f
Solution yz e xy , xz e xy and e xy cos z
x y z
(*)
Integrating both sides of the last equation in (*) with respect to z we get:
f ( x, y , z ) ze xy sin z g ( x, y )
(**)
where g (x, y) is constant with respect to z.
Now taking partial derivatives of both sides of (**) with respect to x and
y respectively, we find that
f g f g
yz e xy + and xz e xy +
x x y y
comparing these with the first and the second equations in (*)
respectively we get:
g g
= =0
x y
Thus, g (x, y) = c with respect to x, y and z.
Therefore, f ( x, y , z ) ze xy sin z c , where c is a real number.
Example 48 Find a function f of three variables such that
grad f ( x, y, z ) (2 xy z 2 ) i x 2 j (2 xz cos z ) k

f f f
Solution = 2 xy z 2 , x 2 and 2 xz cos z
x y z
(*)
Integrating both sides of the second equation in (*) with respect to y we
get:
f ( x, y , z ) x 2 y g ( x, z ) (**)
where g (x, z) is constant with respect to y.
Now taking partial derivatives of both sides of (**) with respect to x and
z respectively, we find that
f g f g
2 xy + and
x x z z
comparing these with the first and the last equations in (*) respectively
we get:
g g
z 2 and 2 xz cos z
x z
(***)
Integrating the second equation in (***) with respect to z, we get
g (x, z) = x z 2 sin z k ( x )
(****)

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where k (x) is constant with respect to z.

Differentiating both sides of (****) with respect to x and comparing
with the first equation in (***)
we get:
dk
0 , hence k (x) = c , constant.
dx
Therefore, f ( x, y, z ) x 2 y xz 2 sin z c , where c is a real number.

Derivatives of a vector Field

There are two types of derivatives of a vector field, one that is a real valued
function and the other one is
a vector valued function.
The Divergence of a Vector Field

Definition 2.16 Let F = M i N j P k be a vector field such

M
that ,
x
N P
and exists. Then the divergence of F,
y z
denoted div F or
F is the function defined by

div F (x, y, z) = F ( x, y , z )
=
M N P
( x, y , z ) ( x, y , z ) ( x, y , z )
x y z

Example 49 Find the divergence of the vector field F, where

F ( x, y , z ) ( y z ) i ( x z ) j ( x y ) k
( y z) ( x z) ( x y)
Solution div F (x, y, z) = = 0.
x y z
Therefore, div F = 0.
Note that: If div F = 0, then F is said to be divergence free or solenoidal.
Example 50 Find the div F, if F ( x, y , z ) xe y i ye x j sin yz k .
( x e y ) ( y e x ) (sin yz )
Solution div F (x, y, z) = .
x y z
= e y e x y cos yz
Therefore, div F = e x e y y cos yz .
The Curl of a Vector Field

Definition 2.17 Let F = M i N j Pk be a vector field such

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that the first

partial derivatives of M, N and P all exist. Then the
curl of F, which
is denoted curl F or F is the function defined by
curl F (x, y, z) = F ( x, y , z )
=
P N M P N M

y z
i z x j
x y
k

The Curl of F is symbolically expressed as:

i j k

Curl F = x y z
M N P

Example 51 Find curl F if F ( x, y , z ) ( y z ) i ( x z ) j ( x y ) k

Solution M = y + z, N = x + z and P = x + y.
P N M P N M
Then = = 1, = = 1 and = = 1.
y z z x x y
Therefore, curl F = 0.

Note that: If curl F = 0, then F is said to be irrotational.

Example 52 Find curl F if F ( x, y , z ) cos x i sin y j e xy k .
Solution M = cos x, N = siny and P = e xy .
P P N M N M
Then = x e xy , = y e xy and = = = = 0.
y x z z x y
Therefore, curl F = x e xy i y e xy j .
Let f be a scalar field, then
2 f 2 f 2 f
( f ) = div (grad f) =
x 2 y 2 z 2
The right side of this formula is the Laplacian of f usually denoted by 2 f . A
function that satisfies the equation
2 f = 0
which is known as the Laplaces equation is said to be harmonic.
Let f, M and N be functions of two variables, and let F (x, y) =
M ( x, y ) i N ( x, y ) j , then
f f N M
grad f (x, y) = i j , curl F (x, y) =

k
x y x y

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M N 2 f 2 f
div F (x, y) = and 2 f (x, y) =
x y x 2 y 2
Suppose F = M i N j Pk is a vector field such that M, N and P have
continuous partial derivatives and if there is a function f such that F = grad f,
then curl F = curl (grad f) = 0, But curl F = 0 is equivalent to:
P N M P N M
, and
y z z x x y
(*)
Note that: (*) holds for a vector field F = M i N j Pk need not imply that F is
conservative.

Theorem 2. 6 Let F = M i N j Pk be a vector field. If there

is a function f
having a continuous mixed partial derivatives whose
gradient is F, then
P N M P N M
, and
y z z x x y
3
If the domain of F is and if (*) holds, then there is a
function f such
that F = grad f.

In case a vector field F is given by

F (x, y) = M ( x, y ) i N ( x, y ) j
the conditions in (*) reduce to
N M

x y
and the corresponding statements in the theorem holds for such vector fields.

Example 53 Let F ( x, y , z ) yz i xz j xy k
and G ( x, y, z ) ( x 2 y 2 ) i ( y 2 z 2 ) j ( x 2 z 2 ) k .
Show that F is the gradient of some function but G is not the gradient of any
function.
Solution For F we have

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Prepared by Tekleyohannes Negussie
 Unit II Vector Differential Calculus

P N M P N M
x , y and z .
y z z x x y
Since the domain of F is 3 , F is the gradient of some function f.

For G we have
P N
0 and 2 z , so that the first equation in (*) is not
y z
satisfied.
Therefore, G is not the gradient of any function.
xy xy
Example 54 Let F ( x, y ) y 2 e i (1 xy ) e j and
x y
G ( x, y , z ) i j .
y x
Show that F is the gradient of some function but G is not the gradient of any
function.
Solution For F we have
M N
( 2 xy ) y e xy
y x
Since the domain of F is 2 , F is the gradient of some function f.

For G we have
M x N y
2 and 2 .
y y x x
Therefore, G is not the gradient of any function.
Note that: (*) is a necessary condition for a vector field to be a conservative
field.
If (*) does not hold, then there is no scalar field f such that F = grad f.

Vector Identities
The notation that we saw in the div F and curl F is said to be the del operator
and

i j k
x y z
Note that: The derivative operations appearing in the del operator act only on
functions appearing
to the right of the del operator.
Let F and G be vector fields having continuous partial derivatives and let f and g
be scalar fields. Then
i) div (curl F ) = 0 and curl (grad f) = 0
ii) div (f F) = f div F + ( grad f ) F and curl (f F) = f (curl F) +

( grad f ) F

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Prepared by Tekleyohannes Negussie
 Unit II Vector Differential Calculus

iii) div ( F G ) = (curl F ) G F (curl G ) and div ( grad f grad g )

=0

Exercise
Show that the arc length of a polar graph is given by

2
L

r r ' 2 d

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Prepared by Tekleyohannes Negussie