LAB MANUAL

SUBJECT:

IMAGE PROCESSING

BE (COMPUTER)
SEM VII
 IMAGE PROCESSING
INDEX

CLASS: B.E(COMPUTER) SEMESTER:VII

SR. NO TITLE OF THE EXPERIMENT.

Point processing in spatial domain

1 a. Negation of an image
b. Thresholding of an image
c. Contrast Stretching of an image
2 Bit Plane Slicing

3 Histogram Equalization

4 Histogram Specification

5 Zooming by interpolation and replication

Filtering in spatial domain

6 a. Low Pass Filtering
b. High Pass Filtering
c. Median filtering
Edge Detection using derivative filter mask
7 a. Prewitt
b. Sobel
c. Laplacian
8 Data compression using Huffman coding

Filtering in frequency domain

9 a. Low pass filter
b. High pass filter
10 Hadamard transform
 Experiment No. Negation of an image
1A
Aim To study image negative

Tool MATLAB

Theory The negative of an image with gray levels in the range [ 0, L-1] is obtained by
using the negative transformation given by the expression
S= L 1 r(1)
This is according to the transformation S = T ( r ) In above transformation ( 1 ) ,
the intensity of the output image decreases as the intensity of the input increases.
The type of processing is particularly suited for enhancing white or gray detail
embedded in dark regions of an image especially when black areas are dominants
in site.

Algorithm 1. Read i/p image

2. Read maximum gray level pixel of i/p image
3. Replace input image by ( maximum i/p ) = o/p
4. Display o/p image
Questions 1. Explain application of image negation.
 Experiment No. Thresholding of an Image
1B
Aim To study thresholding of the image

Tool MATLAB

Theory Thresholding is a simple process to separate the interested object from the
background. It gives the binary image. The formula for achieving thresholding is
as follows

s=0 if r <= t
s = L-1 if r > t

L-1

t L-1 r

Algorithm 1. Read input image

2. Enter thresholding value t
3. If image pixel is less than t replace it by zero.
4. If image pixel is > t replace it by 255
5. Display input image
6. Display threshold image
7. Write input image
8. Write threshold image
Conclusion Thresholding separate out the object from the background

Questions 1. Explain local & global thresholding

2. Discuss some application of thresholding.

Experiment No. Contrast Stretching of an Image

1C
Aim To study Contrast Stretching of an image

Tool MATLAB
Theory Low contrast images can result from poor illumination, lack of dynamic range in
the imaging sensor etc. The idea behind contrast stretching is to increase the
dynamic range of the gray levels in the image being processed. The
transformation function for contrast stretching is given by
r 0 r r1
= (r-r1)+s1 r1 r r2
(r-r2 )+ s2 r2 r L-1

The location of the points (r1 , s1) & (r2 , s2) control the shape of the
transformation function.

Algorithm 1. Read input image

2. Enter values r1,r2,s1,s2
3. Calculate alpha,beta and gamma slopes.
3. if input pixel value is <= r1 then o/p = alpha x input
5. If input pixel is > r1and <=r2 then o/p = beta x (r-r1)+s1
6. otherwise o/p = gamma x (r-r2)+s2
7. Display i/p image
8. Display o/p image.
Conclusion Contrast stretching increases the contrast of the image.

Questions 1. Explain difference between contrast stretching & histogram equalization.

Experiment No. 2 Bit Plane Slicing

Aim To study Bit Plane Slicing

Tool MATLAB

Theory This transformation involves determining the number of usually significant bits in
an image. In case of a 8 bit image each pixel is represented by 8 bits. Imagine that
the image is composed of eight 1 bit planes ranging from bit plane 0 for the least
significant bit to bit plane 7 for the most significant bit. Plane 0 contains all the
lowest order bits in the bytes comprising the pixels in the image & plane 7
contains all the high order bits. The higher order bits contain usually significant
data and the other bit planes contribute to more subtle details in the iamge.
Separating a digital image into its bit planes is useful for analyzing the relative
importance played by each bit of the image.

Algorithm 1.Read i/p image

2. Use bitand operation to extract each bit
3. Do the step 2 for every pixel.
4. Display the original image and the biplanes formed by bits extracted
Conclusion Higher order bit planes carries maximum visual information

Questions 1. Explain the importance of bit plane slicing in image enhancement & image
compression.
Experiment No. 3 Histogram Equalization
Aim To implement histogram equalization.

Tool MATLAB

Theory Histogram of a digital image with gray levels in range [0,L-1] is a discrete
function h( k) = nk where k kth gray level and nk = no. of pixels of an image
having gray level rk In histogram there are 3 possibilities as follows,
1. For a dark image the components of histogram on the low (dark) side.
2. For a bright image the component are on high ( bright ) side &
3. For an image with low contrast they are in the middle of gray side.
Histogram equalization is done to spread there component uniformly over the gray
scale as far as possible.
This is obtained by function Sk = (limit k to i=0) hi /n;
k = 0,1,2,3,...i-l
Thus processed image is obtained by mapping each pixel with level rk into a
corresponding pixel with level sk in o/p image. This transformation is called
Histogram equalization

Algorithm 1. Read the i/p image & its size.

2. Obtain the gray level values of each pixel & divide them by total number of
gray level values.
3. Implement the function Sk
4. Plot the equalized histogram and original histogram.
5. Display the original and the new image.
Conclusion Digital histogram enhances image but it does not generate a flat histogram

Questions 1. What information one can get by observing histogram.

Experiment No. 4 Histogram Specification
Aim To implement histogram specification

Tool MATLAB

Theory Histogram equalization automatically determines a transformation function that

seeks to produce an output image that has a uniform histogram. But it is useful
sometimes to be able specify the shape of the histogram that we wish the
processed image to have. The method used to generate a processed image that has
a specified histogram is called histogram specification.
Sk = T(rk)= Pr(rj ) k = 0,1,2,3,...L-l
Vk= G(zk) = Pz(zj ) k = 0,1,2,3,...L-l
-1
Zk = G (T(rk)) k = 0,1,2,3,...L-l
Map each pixel with level rk into a corresponding pixel with level sk . Obtain the
transformation function G from a given histogram Pz(z). For any Zq this
transformation function yields a corresponding value Vq. We would find the
corresponding value Zq from G-1.
Algorithm Obtain the histogram of the given image.
2. Map each level rk to sk
3. Obtain the transformation function G from the given Pz(z)
4. Calculate zk for each value of sk
5. For each pixel in the original image, if the value of that pixel is rk , map this
value to its corresponding level sk ,then map level skinto the final value zk
6. Display the modified image and its histogram

Questions Explain the histogram specification in continuous domain.

Experiment No. 5 Zooming by interpolation and replication
Aim To implement the magnification by replication and interpolation

Tool MATLAB

Theory Zooming can be done in two ways.

1)Replication : In replication we simply replicate each pixel and then replicate
each row. Hence image of size n x n is zoomed to 2n x2n. Zooming by replication
gives the final image a patchy look since clusters of grey levels are formed. This
can be substantially reduced by using a better method of zooming known as
interpolation.
2) Interpolation : In this method instead of replicating each pixel, average of two
adjacent pixels along the rows is taken and placed between two pixels. The same
operation is then performed along the columns. The patchiness that was present in
the replicated image is much less in the interpolated image.

Algorithm Replication:
1. Read i/p image.
2. Replicate each pixel
3. Replicate each row
4. Display o/p image
Interpolation
1. Read i/p image
2. Average of two adjacent pixels along the rows is taken and placed between two
pixels.
3. Do the same along columns
4. Display o/p image.
Conclusion Zooming by interpolation is more effective than zooming by replication

Questions 1. Explain the methods of zooming by using convolution mask

Experiment No. Filtering in spatial domain: Low pass filtering
6A
Aim To implement low pass filtering in spatial domain

Tool MATLAB

Theory Low pass filtering as the name suggests removes the high frequency content from
the image. It is used to remove noise present in the image. Mask for the low pass
filter is :
1/9 1/9 1/9
1/9 1/9 1/9
1/9 1/9 1/9
One important thing to note from the spatial response is that all the coefficients are
positive. We could also use 5 x 5 or 7 x 7 mask as per our requirement. We place a
3 x 3 mask on the image . We start from the left hand top corner. We cannot work
with the borders and hence are normally left as they are. We then multiply each
component of the image with the corresponding value of the mask. Add these
values to get the response. Replace the center pixel of the o/p image with these
response. We now shift the mask towards the right till we reach the end of the line
and then move it downwards.

Algorithm 1. Read I/p image

2. Ignore the border pixel
3.Apply low pass mask to each and every pixel.
4. Display the o/p image
Conclusion Low pass filtering makes the image blurred.

Questions 1. Explain weighted average filter.

Experiment No. Filtering in spatial domain: High pass filtering
6B
Aim To implement high pass filtering in spatial domain

Tool MATLAB

Theory High pass filtering as the name suggests removes the low frequency content from
the image. It is used to highlight fine detail in an image or to enhance detail that
has been blurred. Mask for the high pass filter is :

-1/9 -1/9 -1/9

-1/9 8/9 -1/9
-1/9 -1/9 -1/9

One important thing to note from the spatial response is that sum of all the
coefficients is zero. We could also use 5 x 5 or 7 x 7 mask as per our requirement.
We place a 3 x 3 mask on the image . We start from the left hand top corner. We
cannot work with the borders and hence are normally left as they are. We then
multiply each component of the image with the corresponding value of the mask.
Add these values to get the response. Replace the center pixel of the o/p image
with these response. We now shift the mask towards the right till we reach the end
of the line and then move it downwards.

Algorithm 1. Read I/p image

2. Ignore the border pixel
3.Apply high pass mask to each and every pixel.
4. Display the o/p image
Conclusion High pass filtering makes the image sharpened.

Questions 1. Show that high pass= Original low pass

Experiment No. Filtering in spatial domain: Median filtering
6C
Aim To implement median filtering in spatial domain

Tool MATLAB

Theory Median filtering is a signal processing technique developed by tukey that is useful
for noise suppression in images. Here the input pixel is replaced by the median of
the pixels contained in the window around the pixel. The median filter disregards
extreme values and does not allow them to influence the selection of a pixel value
which is truly representative of the neighborhood.

Algorithm 1. Read i/p image

2. Add salt and pepper noise in the image
3. use 3 x 3 window.
4. Arrange the pixels in the window in ascending order.
5. Select the median.
6 Replace the center pixel with the median.
7. Do this process for all pixels.
8. Display the o/p image.
Conclusion Median filtering works well for impulse noise but performs poor for Gaussian
noise

Questions 1. ExplainMedian filter removes the impulse noise with example.

Experiment No. Edge Detection
7
Aim To implement Image segmentation using edge detection technique.

Tool MATLAB

Theory Image segmentation can be achieved in two ways,

1. Segmentation based on discontinuities of intensity.
2. Segmentation based on similarities in intensity edge detection form an important
part. An edge can be defined as a set of disconnected pixels that form a boundary
between 2 disjoint regions.
Edge detection is achieved through various masks.
1. Roberts Masks :
Roberts MasksF = Z5 Z9 + Z6 Z8

Z1 Z2 Z3
Z4 Z5 Z6
Z7 Z8 Z9
Therefore masks are

There are masks along x&y gradient. The sum of two Roberts Masks

1 1
1 1
Algorithm 1. Read i/p image & its size
2. apply prewitt, sobel & laplacian edge masks on i/p image
3. Display i/p image & edge detected image.
Use prewitt mask

1 1 1 1 0 1
m1 = 0 0 0 m2 = 1 0 1
1 1 1 1 0 1

sobel mask

1 2 1 1 0 1
m1 = 0 0 0 m2 = 2 0 2
1 2 1 1 0 1

laplacian

0 1 0
m= 1 4 1
0 1 0

Conclusion Prewitt is simpler to implement but sobel gives the better result. Laplacian is more
sensitive to noise.

Questions 1. Give the difference between first order derivative filter and second order
derivative filter
2. What is compass gradient mask
Experiment No. Data compression using Huffman coding
8
Aim To implement data compression using Huffman coding

Tool MATLAB

Theory It is used to reduce the space that an image uses on disk or in transit. It is the most
popular technique to remove the coding redundancy. When coding the symbols of
an information source individually Huffman coding yields the smallest possible
number of code symbols per source symbol. It is lossless coding technique.

Algorithm 1. Order the gray levels according to their frequency of use, most frequent first
2. Combine the two least used gray levels into one group, combine their
frequencies and reorder the gray levels
3. Continue to do this until only two gray levels are left
4. Now allocate a '0' to one of these gray level groups and '1' to the other
5. Work back through the groupings so that where two groups have been
combined to form a new , larger, group which is currently coded as 'ccc' , code
one of the smaller groups as 'ccc0' and the other as 'cccc1'.
Conclusion Huffman code is an instantaneous uniquely decodable block code.

Questions 1. What is uniquely decodable code?

2. Give the formulas to calculate entropy, average length, compression ratio,
coding efficiency.
Experiment No. 9A Filtering in frequency domain: low pass filtering
Aim To study Low Pass Filtering

Tool MATLAB

Theory Low pass filters attenuate or eliminate high frequency components while
leaving low frequencies untouched. High frequency components characterize
edges and other sharp details in an image so that the net effect of low pass
filtering is image blurring. The transfer function for an ideal low pass filter is
given by
H ( u,v ) = 1 if D(u,v) D0 & 0 if D(u,v)>D0
Where D0 is a specified non-negative quality and D(u,v) is the distance from
point (u,v) to the origin of the frequency plane. In case of a NxN image ,
D(u,v) = [(u N/2)2 + (V N/2)2 ]1/2

The point of transition between H(u,v)= 1 and H(u,v)=0 is called cut off
frequency. In this case it is Do .
Algorithm 1. Read the i/p image & its size.
2. Read the cutoff frequency fc
3. Implement the function d =[(u N/2)2 + (V N/2)2 ]
4. Find impulse response such that if d<fc
IR=1 else IR=0 for LPF
5. Find EFT 2- DFT of i/p image .
6. Shift 2D FFT image
7. Multiply IR with shifted 2DFFT o/p element by element.
8. Take absolute multiple value of image
9. Display Low pan image.
Conclusion As cutoff frequency goes on decreasing we get more and more blurring effect.

Questions 1. Why ideal low pass filter gives rise to ringing effect?
Experiment No. Filtering in frequency domain: High pass filtering
9B
Aim To study High Pass Filtering

Tool MATLAB

Theory This class of filters can be designed by their effect of emphasizing or strengthening
the edges within an image. A high pass filter has the inverse characteristic of a low
pass filter, it will not change the high frequency component of the signal but will
attenuate the low frequencies and eliminate any constant background intensity. The
transfer function for an ideal high pass filter is given by
H ( u,v ) = 0 if D(u,v) D0 & 1 if D(u,v)>D0
Where Do is the cutoff distance measured from the origin of the frequency plane.
D(u,v) is the distance from the point (u,v) to the origin of frequency plane for NxN
image
D(u,v) = [(u N/2)2 + (V N/2)2 ]1/2

Algorithm 1. Read the i/p image and size

2. Enter the cutoff frequency d0
3. Implement function d =[(u N/2)2 + (V N/2)2 ]
4. Make impulse response H=0 if d<d0 else H=1
5. Take two dimensional fT of i/p image
6. Shift ffT image
7. Multiply shifted ffT values pixel by pixel with IR(H) & obtain x image.
8. Take absolute value of x
9. Display HPF & original image.
Conclusion High pass filter produces sharpening of the image

Questions 1.Explain butterworth high pass filter.

Experiment No. Hadamard Transform
10
Aim To implement Hadamard transform

Tool MATLAB

Theory The Hadamard transform is based on the Hadamard matrix which is a square array
having entries of +1 or -1 only. The Hadamard matrix of order 2 is given by

H(2)= 1 1
1 -1
The rows and columns are orthogonal. For orthogonality of vectors the dot product
has to be zero. We get H(4) from the Kronecker product of H(2)
H(4) = H(2) X H(2)
So we know that the Hadamard matrices of order 2n can be recursively generated
H(2n) = H(2) X H(2n-1)
The rows of Hadamard matrix can be considered to be samples of rectangular
waves with sub-periods of 1/N units.
If x(n) is N-point 1 dimensional sequence of finite valued real numbers arranged in
a column then the Hadamard transformed sequence is given by
X = T.x X[n] = [H(N) x(n)]
The inverse Hadamard transform is given by
x(n) = 1/N H(N) X(n)
For a two dimensional sequence f of size N X N, we compute the Hadamard
transform using equation
F=TfT F = [H(N) f H(N)]

Algorithm 1. Read i/p image

2. Divide the image into 8 x 8 blocks.
3. Apply Hadamard transform to the blocks
4. Merge the blocks and display the transformed o/p image.
5. Apply inverse transform and display the image.
Conclusion Hadamard transform is the simple to implement. It is non sinusoidal, orthogonal
function. Transforms are used in image compression.

Questions Explain Haar, Walsh transform.