Crash Course on Grammar, Common

Usage and APA style

Ioakim Boutakidis, Ph.D.
Dept of Child & Adolescent Studies
CSUF

2010
I. Punctuation: Comma Use

College students generally do a good job with basic

punctuation, with one notable exception comma use.

Most common errors involve how to use commas to set off

clauses (dependent/independent, restrictive/non-restrictive)
 A)Use a comma in between 2 independent clauses
(clauses that could stand alone as independent
sentences) that are joined together via a common
conjunction (and, but, or, nor, for, yet so). E.g.,
I went to the baseball game, and I ate a lot of junk food in the process.

Do NOT use a comma if compounding and taking

advantage of a common subject, verb, object, etc. E.g.,
I went to the baseball game and ate a lot of junk food.

More examples:
Sarah studied for the test, and she did well.
Sarah studied and did well on the test.
 The island was peaceful and scenic.
The island was peaceful, and the island was scenic.

In general, compounding across parts of speech is

preferred to maintaining independent clauses,
unless there is a stylistic motivation.
 B) Use a comma to enclose or set-off a non-restrictive
adjective clause ( subordinate clause with a sub-verb
combo that cannot stand alone as a sentence and that
modifies a noun, but is unnecessary in indentifying that
noun). E.g.,
Michael Collins, who is a noted Irish hero of the independence movement,
has been the subject of many movies.

In the sentence above, given that Michael Collins is a proper

noun that fully identifies a single person, the clause that follows
is informative but not necessary. Compared to
 The score that I received on the math test was good.

The adjective clause that I received on the math test is

necessary in identifying which score I mean, and therefore is
restrictive and therefore does not need commas.

More examples:
The White House, which is in our nations capitol, has a neo-classical
design.
The white house that is on the corner of Main and Farmer has a neo-
classical design.
II. Active vs. Passive Voice
Active voice means that the doer of the action is the
subject of the sentence. E.g.,
Susan ran the marathon.
I kicked the ball.
The traffic stopped his progress.

In each sentence above, the subjects (Susan, I, traffic)

are the ones engaged in the action of the main verbs
(ran, kicked, stopped).
 On the other hand, Passive voice typically hides the
intended subject within a preposition. E.g.,
The marathon was run by Susan.
The ball was kicked by me.
His progress was stopped by the traffic.
Grammatically both sets of sentences are correct and
meaningfully the sentences are identical. Stylistically, active
voice sentences are preferred as they are more direct
and less clunky. It always takes more words to construct a
passive voice sentence than an active voice one.
Active voice is especially important in scientific
writing, where economy of phrase is valued in
advancing clarity.
III. Parallel Structure
Parallel structure refers to the use of similar
grammatical units when including lists of phrases in
a sentence. For example, if a sentence contains 3 phrases in
sequence (gerunds), they should all be in the same form or
tense.
I enjoy sailing, running and reading during my summer vacations.
Heres the same sentence but in non-parallel
structure:
I enjoy sailing, running, and I like to swim during my summer
vacations.
 IV. Verb Tense
Determining correct verb use by tense and number agreement
is among the most complicated issues in English grammar.
There are rules, exceptions to rules, and ambiguous markers
of time that can complicate things.

Basic agreement in number and use of the simple past,

present, and future tenses are the most fundamental issues, but
not the ones that create the biggest problems.

The perfect tenses tend to be the ones most commonly

misused.
 Present Perfect Something that started in the past, but is also
true at the present moment. E.g., Gilbert has lost a lot of money
gambling.

Past Perfect Same sentence, but now in the Past Perfect

tense: Gilbert had lost a lot of money gambling. The implication with
this construction is that while Gilbert did lose some money in the
past, it is no longer true or the case that he continues to lose
money.

Future Perfect And finally lets look at the future perfect

construction of a similar sentence: Gilbert will have lost a lot of money
gambling by the end of the week. Here the implication is that he may or
may not be losing money at the present moment, but it will happen
by the end of the week.
 2 additional verb tense considerations in
scientific/expository writing:

1) Students often mix tenses incorrectly in scientific writing. In

general, relating the results of studies or research already
completed should be done in the simple past tense.

2) Students also often choose the incorrect narrative voice, which

in turn, affects verb use. In general, 3rd person (objective) voice
should be used and NOT 1st person (I, me, we, us) or 2nd person
(you/ implied you).
V. Incomplete Sentences/Sentence Fragments
Presence of sentence fragments/ incomplete sentences is often a
symptom of careless writing, lack of proof-reading.
Fairly easy to determine whether or not this is the case.

Sentence fragments are almost always the result of a missing

noun subject or a missing verb (clearly attached to the subject) in
the predicate.

Students often fool themselves into thinking they have a

complete sentence via an implied or understood subject. This
happens quite frequently in one particular case:
 Opening Prepositional Phrase as a Subject
E.g.,
According to the study examined the effects of tobacco smoke exposure
According to the chapter mentions all kinds of different mood disorders.
In the article by Smith (2007) related the effects of alcohol on prenatal
development.
In the sentences above, the opening prepositional phrase is
incorrectly used as a subject of the sentence. It is easy to see
what the intended subject is, however, a preposition or the
object of a preposition cannot act as a subject.
The study examined the effects of tobacco smoke exposure.
The chapter mentions all kinds of different mood disorders.
Smith (2007) related the effects of alcohol on prenatal development.
 VI. Article Use
Among the most common areas of difficulty for ESL students.
The rules and presence of articles in Korean and Mandarin
Chinese, for example, are completely different.
The following are the basic rules ( a more complete guide is
available upon request)
A/An= Indefinite modifiers of a noun. (a precedes a noun
that begins with a consonant or consonant sound, an with
vowels or vowel sounds).
E.g. an honest broker
Note: If noun is preceded by an adjective, then match a/an to
the adjective sound (e.g. a broken egg, not an broken egg)
Some= Plural version for indefinite nouns
 The= Is a definite article and precedes singular and plural
nouns when the noun is particular, specific, or unique.

Note: The is not used with non-countable nouns referring

to something in a general sense, e.g., Tea is a popular drink all
over the world.
VII. Common Usage Errors
These are just some of the typical examples, many textbooks
provide much more detailed lists

Who vs. Whom

The basic rule is that one should use Who as a subject
and Whom as an object. This simple rule can eliminate
most of the errors of usage.
o Who will be invited? (subject of sentence)
o To whom will you send the invitation? (object of
preposition)
 Between vs. Among
Between can only be used when referring to or comparing two
things, whereas among should be used with or more things.

Further vs. Farther

Farther is used to refer to physically measurable differences, e.g.,
The gas station is farther down this road
Whereas further is more metaphorical or figurative in use, referring to
more of something, but not in a way that makes it clear how more is
being measured, e.g.,
If you work on this further, the results will improve.
 I vs. Me
I is a pronoun to be used as a subject in a sentence. "I"
therefore should be tied to a verb that describes the action "I" is
engaged in or a linking verb that describes a state or condition "I" is
in. Examples:
I kicked the ball.
I got a good score on my exam.
I am a CSUF student.
I was tired of studying for finals.

When to use Me
On the other hand, "ME" can only act as an object in a sentence,
typically representing the person receiving the action of a verb, or as
an object of a preposition. Examples:
The professor told me to go next.
She handed me the test.
I was happy she decided to talk to me.
 The only other confusion that sometimes arises occurs
with compound subjects or objects, in other words
when "I" or "ME" is linked to another pronoun,
subject, or object using "and" or "or" Examples:
Michael and I studied together. CORRECT "Michael" and "I" are
the compound subjects of the sentence
Michael and me studied together. INCORRECT "Me" cannot be
used as a subject in a sentence.
She told Michael and me to study together. CORRECT "Michael"
and "Me" are the one's being told something, i.e., receiving the
action of the verb "told".
She told Michael and I to study together. INCORRECT Only "Me"
can be used as an object, not "I".
 One helpful hint in determining proper use in compound cases
is to eliminate the compound and replace the subjects or
objects with just I or ME and see which "sounds" right. The
correct answer is usually more obvious once you do that. So
taking the previous sentences and applying this hint:
"I studied" vs. "Me studied" Which sounds better?
If "I" sounds better (it should!!) then stick with it even when
you add another subject like "Michael"
"She told I to study" vs. "She told ME to study." Which sounds
better?
If ME sounds better, then that's what you should stick with
even after you add "Michael" as another object.
The plural forms of I and Me follow the same rules. The plural
form of I is "WE" and the plural form of ME is "US"
 Effect vs. Affect
This distinction becomes complicated quickly. Most people
learn that effect should be used as a noun and affect as a verb.
This heuristic serves most people fairly well.

Unfortunately, it is not complete. Affect can be a noun defined

as an emotional state (His affect seemed unusually flat for someone
who just won the lottery) and effect can be used as a verb, e.g., I
want to effect a change in the political discourse of the country. )

In the sciences, typically effect is used to mean the outcomes

of a variable or process, and in that usage should be a noun.
E.g.,The effects of the medication affected the participants levels of pain.