PROJECT REPORT ON

AUTOMATIC DISH WASHER

CONTENTS

1. ABSTRACT
2. INTRODUCTION
3. FUNCTIONAL DESCRIPTION
4. DESCRIPTION AS PER THE DIAGRAMS
5. DIAGRAMS
BLOCK DIAGRAM
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
6. GENERAL DESCRIPTION ABOUT DISHWASHERS
7. BRIEF DESCRIPTION ABOUT MECHATRONICS
8. DETAILS ABOUT A/D CONVERTERS
9. DESCRIPTION OF MICROCONTROLLERS
10. LCD INTERFACING
11. BRIEF DESCRIPTION ABOUT RELAYS
12. HARDWARE DETAILS
13. SOFTWARE DETAILS
14. CONCLUSIONS AND REFERENCES
 AUTOMATIC DISH WASHER

ABSTRACT

Washing the dishes with hot water manually is painful activity; there
by this semi automatic machine is designed to wash the plates with
constant hot water source. The system designed here is very useful for the
big restaurants where always food serving plates are supposed to be
washed with hot water to maintain the high generic atmosphere in the
kitchen. In addition as the system is automated human efforts are reduced
to some extent to clean the plates.

To prove the concept practically, one mechanical structure is

constructed to hold all required devices. The plate or dish that is supposed
to be washed must be kept in its allotted slot over the mechanism and the
start button is to be pressed. Based on this signal the controller energizes
water sprinkling motor for few seconds and draws hot water from the
container. Water temperature is maintained constantly through a sensor,
the set value is 55O Centigrade. The heating element immersed in to the
water raises the temperature to the required level programmed through
embedded system. Whenever the water temperature rises more than the
set value, supply to the heating element will be disconnected. Similarly if
the temperature reduces to less then the set value, heater will be
energized automatically.

Likewise water will be delivered at constant temperature with an

error of 1 or 2 degrees. Water temperature will be displayed through an
LCD interfaced with microcontroller. And while the water is sprinkled over
the dish, a motor is used to rotate the dish placed mechanism in clock wise
and anti clock wise directions. After washing of the dishes, to dry the water
molecules present on the dish, a dryer that blows hot air will be activated
by the micro controller. While the dryer is activated, again the dish
mechanism will be rotated in clock and anti clock wise directions.

Major building blocks: Mechanical structure, Micro-controller,

Temperature senor, Op-amps, ADC, 10KHz signal generator, water
pumping motor, water heater, dryer, LCD, Relays, etc.
 CHAPTER 2

INTRODUCTION

A dishwasher is a type of electro-mechanical device generally used

for cleaning dishes and eating utensils. Dishwashers can be found in
restaurants and private homes. Unlike manual dishwashing, which relies
largely on physical scrubbing to remove soiling, where as the mechanized
dishwasher cleans by spraying hot water. Hot water source is essential to
clean the oily plates, for this purpose water is heated and constant
temperature must be maintained, typically water temperature is maintained
between 50 to 75 C. In few cases just warm water with lower
temperatures used for delicate items. A mix of water and detergent is used
for cleaning purposes, followed by clean water to remove the detergent
residue. Some dishwashers have multiple wash and rinse periods within
the complete cycle. In some dishwashers, a rinsing aid (also called rinse
aid) can be added to the rinse cycle to improve drying and avoid water
spots remaining on dry items. Most of the machines are having multiple
levels for washing the dishes in multiple stages. For example in level one
at specific place liquid detergent will be sprayed, in level two it (dish) will
be brushed, at level three hot water will be sprinkled forcibly over the dish,
and in level four hot air will be blown to dry and to remove the water spots
over the utensil. Like wise multilevel machines can be constructed for
commercial applications. But here, since it is a prototype module a simple
machine is constructed with single level for demo purpose.

The word 'dishwasher' may also refer to a person who washes

dishes in a restaurant, hotel or other private or commercial entities. Pots
and pans are also washed by hand by scrubbing them in a detergent and
water mix, immersing them in a rinse of plain water, and then immersing
them in a water/sanitizer solution for a period. Silverware is washed by
placing loose silverware in a tray, washing them several times like this,
then sorting them into circular holders, and washing them again in the
dishwasher.

There are several requirements where hot water is essential at

different temperature ratings for various applications. In most cases water
temperature must be maintained constantly. There by this project work is
taken up, which serves the purpose of industries and other organizations
like hotels, hospitals, etc; the same system also can be used at domestic
side for cleaning the dishes. The main purpose of this project work is to
wash the dishes with hot water which can be used to clean the oily plates
in hotels.

The system is designed with 89S51/52 ATMEL Microcontroller; this

controller is pre-programmed such that required temperature that will be
maintained automatically by controlling the heating element. Here the
required temperature is defined as 55O centigrade. The body of
temperature sensor attached to the water container can sense the water
temperature. Based on this data the microcontroller used here is aimed to
control the heating element. Set value as well as actual value of
temperature, both are displayed independently through an LCD panel
interfaced with the controller through its output port. The sensor output is
amplified in two stages using two op-amps, this circuit designed to
generate proportionate voltage according to the water temperature is
converted in to digital. For this purpose A D Converter is used and its
output (digital data) is fed to the microcontroller.
 Supply to the heating element is provided through relay contact, as
the water temperature raises to the required level heating element will be
switched off otherwise it remains in energized condition. In this concept
water temperature is maintained constantly. For sprinkling the hot water
over the dish at some force, a small water pumping motor is used. This
motor will be energized by the controller when the start button is pressed.
While sprinkling the water over the dish, another motor is used to rotate
the dish in clock and anti clock wise directions. After this a dryer is
activated by the controller to dry the dishes. Since it is a prototype module,
small DC motor is selected for the purpose which can not spray the water
forcibly. But for real application water must be sprayed at some force to
wash the plates cleanly. If required liquid type of detergent can be added in
to the water for better results. The temperature sensor immersed in to the
water measures the actual water temperature, for this purpose semi
conducting device is used as sensor, which can with stand up to 100
degree centigrade. There by the set value should be less then 100 0 C,
since it is a prototype module set value is decided as 55 0 C to complete the
demo in less time. The detailed description is provided in following chapter,
i.e. functional description.

The project work designed with microcontroller is quite useful

instrument; especially in Hospitals it is going to be an important and
essential instrument, which provides hot water at required temperature to
wash the surgical tools like knife, scissors, needles, etc. This instrument
plays major roll in hotels also, while preparing food items and while
washing the raw food materials like meet, vegetables, lot of hot water is
required at various temperatures. In domestic side also it can be used in
the kitchen, even it can be used in bath rooms to have bath with desired
temperature hot water. In addition to the above applications, industrial
applications are plenty. There by this project work is taken up, which can
be used to wash the dishes.

CHAPTER 3

FUNCTIONAL DESCRIPTION

As described in the introduction, the main function of the project

work is to wash the dishes with hot water and dry them. The operation or
the functionality will be started once the start button is pressed that
generates a logic signal to the microcontroller. Based on this signal the
controller energizes the hot water pumping motor for few seconds and
operates the DC motor in clock wise direction for some time and anti clock
wise direction for some more time. As the water is supposed to be
sprinkled over the dish at some force, here adjustable type nozzle is used
such that water falling point as well as water falling area can be adjusted.
The mechanical structure constructed to hold all required devices is aimed
to create semiautomatic dishwasher. The following is the functional
description of each major device.

Function of relay 1

Here in this project work relays are used to control the output
devices depending on the instructions of the micro controller. A total of five
relays are used in the project.

The function of first relay is to maintain the water temperature by

controlling the water heater. This relay contact is used to make or break
supply to the heating element, as this water heater is operated at 230V ac
direct mains is passed through relay contact. Since high voltage is passed
suitable relay must be selected for the purpose. The microcontroller used
in the project work is programmed to maintain the water temperature
constantly; the set value is 550 C. The sensor used for measuring the water
temperature is aimed to generate proportionate voltage according to the
temperature. This analog information is processed and finally water
temperature will be displayed through an LCD. As the controller is
programmed maintain the water temperature by 55 0 C, whenever the
temperature rises more than the set value, immediately it de-energizes the
relay by which supply to the heating element will be disconnected. Now the
controller monitors the water temperature, if it reduces by less than 54 0 C,
immediately the relay will be energized automatically and supply is
provided to the heater through this relay contact. Like wise this relay
performs the function of maintaining the water temperature by controlling
the heating element.

The second relay is aimed to control the water pumping motor

automatically when the start button is pressed. The main function of this
relay is to energize the pumping motor to sprinkle hot water with some
force to wash the dish. The controller is programmed to energize the motor
for few seconds, means once the relay is energized it should remain in
energized condition for some time duration and there by the motor
sprinkles the hot water over the dish.

The third relay is used to activate the dryer to blow hot air and dry
the dishes. After washing the dishes with water, the dryer blows hot air that
requires single phase supply just like the water heater. So through the
relay contact the supply is provided to the dryer to dry the dishes.
 The fourth and fifth relays are used to operate the DC motor that
drives the dish washing mechanism in clock wise and anti clock wise
directions for washing and drying the dishes.

Function of water pumping motor

The pumping motor used here operates at 12V DC. The main
function of this motor is to draw hot water from the water container when
required. Since it is a proto type module a small DC motor is used and it
can spray the water at some force. Though the force is not sufficient to
clean the dish, for demo purpose little force is enough, otherwise the water
may spread in all directions. For real applications, huge torque motor is
essential and dish placing area must be covered from all sides to avoid
spreading of water. The motor used here is small in size and hence it is
mounted to the water container directly. A small container with a capacity of
2-3 liters is used as water source. Depending up on the availability of
motor, any type of small motor can be used for the purpose.

Function of temperature sensing circuit

The function of this circuit is to measure the water temperature

accurately. For this purpose semi conducting device is used as
temperature sensor. This sensor offers wide variation in its resistance
according to the temperature. The resistance of this device varies
according to its body temperature, as this sensor is having tin metal body,
it can absorb the heat accurately. The sensor used here is known as
CL100 and it is a NPN transistor built in with silicon. Now this sensor
should have a direct physical contact with the water available with the
container. To achieve this, a small hole is drilled over the container at its
bottom side and sensor body is inserted in to it. To avoid water leakage, m
seal is surrounded by the sensor. Now the sensor is having physical
contact with the water.

The temperature sensing circuit is designed with two op-amps and

they are configured in two different stages. The first stage is designed as
differential amplifier; the temperature sensor is wired with this stage
between in put to out put to form a feed back loop. Now the difference
between the two inputs is amplified, depending up on the temperature, the
sensor out put varies and creates the difference. The second stage is
configured as gain amplifier and it amplifies the output of the first stage
with a gain of ten. This arrangement is made for signal conditioning, the
following is the description.

The signal conditioning circuit designed with op-amps can measure

the water temperature by generating proportionate voltage at its final out
put. Here for the purpose two op-amps are used. The first op-amp wired
with temp- sensor is configured as differential amplifier, means the
difference between two inputs is amplified. As the sensor resistance varies
according to the water temp-, one input of the op-amp is getting a variable
source. The other input of the op-amp is fixed, here with the help of a
potential dividing network reference voltage is developed and it is applied
to the second input. The circuit is designed to amplify the variation, for
example if the water temperature is raised by one degree centigrade this
circuit generates 2mv hike in its output. Since this hike is not sufficient for
the calibration, using second op-amp the first op-amp output is amplified
further. This stage is configured as voltage amplifier and the gain of this
amplifier is 10 there by 20mv per degree centigrade hike can be achieved
at final output. Finally as the water temperature raises accordingly and
proportionately final output in the form of voltage also rises. Initially cool
water temperature proportionate voltage is adjusted to a known value and
from there the hike is measured. As this circuit generates analog value,
using ADC analog values are converted in to digital and fed to the
microcontroller. Based on this digital data, the controller displays water
temperature through LCD.

The final output of the temperature sensing circuit varies according

to the temperature, as the temperature raises output voltage also
increases, this variation in the voltage is converted in to digital. The output
of the A/D converter is fed to microcontroller and depending up on the
digital value produced by the A/D converter the microcontroller displays the
temperature in degree centigrade. The conversion time is depends up on
the clock fed to ADC externally generated by 555 timer IC.

Brief description about temp- sensor: The temperature sensor

used in this project work is a semiconductor, for this purpose CL100 is
selected, this is a NPN transistor and it is having Tin metal body, Tin is a
good conductor for the temperature so that it can sense the water
temperature effectively. Most of the switching transistors are having plastic
encapsulated bodies and plastic is not a good conductor for temperature,
only CL100 is having Tin body, there by this transistor is selected for
measuring the water temperature. Since it is a semi conducting device, as
the temperature raises, according to that resistance of this transistor
junction decreases, the variation is very wide there by calibration can be
done easily. The temperature sensor can be immersed in to the water,
when it is immersed, proper care should be taken such that only the
transistor body should have a contact with water, transistor leads should
not have any contact with the water, and it should have waterproof
arrangement.

Function of microcontroller

The function of microcontroller is very important here, it can be said

as heart of the project work. The main function of this device is to display
the water temperature through an LCD interfaced with its output port. It
also displays the set value, as the set value is pre-programmed always the
display shows 500 C. in addition this chip is programmed to control the
heating element through relay and hence water temperature will be
maintained constantly. The other important function of this device is to
control the water pumping motor by sensing the dish.

The microcontroller unit is constructed with 89C51, this is a 40 pin

chip and it is having 32 I/O lines. Since the circuit designed here is having
lot of interfacing devices like ADC, LCD, Relays, etc, almost all the I/O
lines are engaged and hence it can be called as single chip processor.

Any Micro-controller, that functions according to the program written

in it. Here the program is prepared in such a way, so that the system
performs the function of automatic dishwasher. The program is nothing but
an instruction set, this is often prepared in binary code, & are referred as
machine code, there by this software is called as machine language.
Writing a program in such a code is a skilled and very tedious process. It is
prone to errors because the program is just a series of 0s and 1s and the
instructions are not easily comprehended from just looking at the pattern.
An alternative is to use an easily comprehended form of shorthand code
for the patterns 0s and 1s. Micro controller can read and it can store the
information received from the ADC and sensors. Micro-controllers are
dedicated to one task and run one specific program. The program is stored
in ROM (read-only memory) and generally does not change. If there are
any modifications in the function, or errors in the software, the existing
program must be erased from the chip & again modified program must be
loaded in the chip through chip burner. The detailed description is provided
in following chapters.
 CHAPTER 4

DESCRIPTION AS PER THE DIAGRAMS

This section of the project work is explained as per circuit and block
diagrams. The complete block circuit diagrams are provided in the
following chapter. The details are as followed.

TEMPERATOR SENSING CIRCUIT

Temperature is a Physical parameter, which can be converted into

Electrical parameter by a device called Temperature Transducer.
Transducer is also referred to as Sensor. Many types of sensors are in use
today for different applications; in general thermocouples are used for
measuring the higher degrees of temperature, but here the application is to
measure the lower degrees of temperature, there by semi conducting
device is used. For this purpose CL100 is selected, which offers high
linearity & wide range variation in resistance according to the temperature.

Any transducer that is used for measuring the temperature changes

the resistance with temperature. This variation in the resistance must be
converted in to the proportionate DC for the calibration. In general op-
amps (operational amplifiers) are used for amplifying the sensor output;
here in this project work also two op-amps are used. One is configured as
differential amplifier & the other one is configured as voltage amplifier, such
that the sensor output is amplified and calibrated. This process can be
named as instrumentation amplifier, & the output of this amplifier must be
converted in to digital for further process. The A-D (Analog to Digital)
converter used here can generate proportionate digital values through
eight bit, this eight bit data is fed to the microcontroller. This conversion
(modification) is commonly called signal conditioning.

As per the block diagram, the first block is temperature sensor and
the process begins from this sensor. The sensor used in the project work is
very sensitive, and it can detect even one degree variation also. The
methods of temperature measurement may be divided into two main
classes according as the exchange of heat between the testing body and
the hot system takes place by contact or by radiation across a space. In
the contact methods (used, for example, in thermometers or thermo
couples immersed in solids or liquids) the thermo dynamic equilibrium
between the hot body and the testing body is established by material
contact. In the non-contact methods (used, for example in radiation
pyrometers), the heat radiated in to the space through a heating element
or atmosphere temperature can be measured through specific sensors.
Here the sensor it can be used for both applications, if required it can be
firmly attached to a body of any device that will be producing heat, other
wise the same sensor can be kept in the air from where the temperature
data must be acquired.

The temperature measuring circuit is designed with two op-amps,

one op-amp is configured as differential amplifier and the other op-amp is
configured as voltage amplifier. The operational amplifier is a highly
versatile device which can perform computing & other functions like signal
conditioning, active filtering, regulating, process instrumentation etc; In fact
there is no such instrument that functions without op-amp; there by it is
called as instrumentation amplifier. Op-amps are high gain differential
amplifiers that are used to perform an operation based on the circuit
configuration. It is a linear device that has all the properties required for
nearly ideal DC amplification. An ideal Operational Amplifier is basically a
3-terminal device that consists of two high impedance inputs, one an
Inverting input marked with a negative sign, ("-") and the other a Non-
inverting input marked with a positive plus sign ("+"). In most cases LM 324
will be used because this chip is having four op-amps internally. All the four
op-amps functions independently according to their configurations. Here
also same chip is used and out of four only two op-amps are used for the
purpose.

The following is the circuit symbol of an op-amp

The circuit symbol contains following signs:

: non-inverting input
: inverting input
: output
: positive power supply
: negative power supply

The power supply pins ( and ) can be labeled in different

ways. Despite different labeling, the function remains the same to provide
additional power for amplification of signal. Often these pins are left out of
the diagram for clarity, and the power configuration is described or
assumed from the circuit.

In this circuit design, the temperature sensor is connected in

feedback loop and the resistance between the two leads of sensor will vary
according to the temperature. As the feed back resistance decreases,
according to that gain of the amplifier is increases. Operational amplifiers
are high-gain differential amplifiers that are used to perform an operation
defined by a feed back network placed around the amplifier. Two important
properties are used to analyze circuits containing these amplifiers. First,
the amplifier is assumed to have infinite input resistance, i.e., no current
flows into either input terminal. Second, the amplifier is assumed to have
infinite gain. For any finite output voltage, only an infinitesimal input voltage
is required. In negative feed back circuits, the inputs are, therefore,
assumed to beat the same potential.

Here this op-amp is used as instrumentation amplifier, the

instrumentation amplifiers job is to provide a high-level signal-ended input
for an ADC by amplifying the desired differential mode (Normal-mode)
signal and rejecting the common-mode signal. The instrumentation
amplifier is basically a high performance differential amplifier operating with
a gain typically ranging from 1-1000, very high input impedance and high
common-mode rejection.

The classic instrumentation amplifier uses two op-amps to achieve

very high performance and gain of these two op-amps can be adjusted
individually. The gain of the instrumentation amplifier can be changed by
using the variable resistance (preset) connected in feed back loop. The
feed back resistor is connected between inverting input and output
terminal. The output of the op-amp is fed to analog to digital converter for
converting the analog information into digital information.

CIRCUIT ANALYSIS
 The temperature sensing circuit contains two op-amps & they are
used to amplify the signal strength. The temperature sensor wired with one
op-amp is configured as differential amplifier, there by the difference
between two inputs created by the sensor according to the temperature is
amplified. The output of this differential amplifier is further amplified with
second op-amp. The second op-amp is configured as voltage amplifier. In
the first stage an NPN General purpose transistor (SL100) is used as a
temperature sensor and this transistor is having TIN metal body so that it
can absorb the heat properly. This transistor is connected in feed back loop
(input to output). This first stage is designed in such a way so that, as the
transistor body temperature rises, according to the temperature, the base-
emitter or base-collector junction resistance decreases. This variation in
the sensor in the form of resistance is converted in to the proportionate dc
level & difference created due to hike in the temperature is amplified at
input side.

The sensor connected in feed back loop creates the difference at

inverting input of op-amp. As the sensor body temperature rises, the
feedbacks loop resistance decreases and voltage at output increases. The
output of this stage is designed to produce 2mv/ 0C, which is not sufficient
for the calibration. Hence, using 2ND stage this voltage is amplified, and
the gain of the 2ND stage is 10, so that (2x10) 20mv per degree centigrade
can be obtained at the output of the second stage. This variable voltage
(according to the temperature) from the output of second stage is fed to
the analog to digital converter for converting the analog information in to
the digital information and this digital information is fed to the controller for
further process.
 The circuit design consisting of a transducer converts temperature in
to equivalent voltage. For this, semi conducting device is used as a sensor,
this sensor junction characteristics are depends upon the temperature. For
a transistor, the maximum average power that it can dissipate is limited by
the temperature that collector - base junction can with stand. Therefore,
maximum allowable junction temperature should not be exceeded. The
average power dissipated in collector circuit is given by the average of the
product of the collector current and collector base voltage. At any other
temperature the de-rating curves are supplied by the manufacturer to
calculate maximum allowable power (Pj).

Where TC is case temperature, Tj is junction temperature and Qj is

the thermal resistance.

In a number of Industrial and consumer applications temperature is

the most fundamental parameter, one is required to measure and control
the temperature for various applications. Usually the temperature
measurement is done with thermocouples; generally these thermocouples
are used to measure the higher ranging temperature at industries. The
output of the sensor whether it is a thermocouple or semiconductor has to
be amplified so that it can be measured with suitable measuring circuit.
The measuring circuit can be called as instrumentation amplifier & often it
is designed with op-amps. The important features of an instrumentation
amplifier are (a) High gain accuracy (b) High gain stability with low
temperature co-efficient (c) Low output impedance (d) Linearly variable
output etc.

To meet the about features, in this project work LM 324 is used. LM

324 is a quad op-amp IC i.e., this device is having four op-amps internally,
out of four op-amps only two op-amps are used for measuring the
temperature accurately

The following is the diagram of temperature measuring circuit.

In the above circuit diagram with the help of 2K preset (variable

resistor) connected at the input of first stage, the initial room temperature
corresponding output voltage can be adjusted for the easy calibration. The
output of the second stage is clamped with 5V zener and the same output
is fed to the A/D converter.

Analog to Digital Converter

As the peripheral signals usually are substantially different from the

ones that micro-controller can understand (zero and one), they have to be
converted into a pattern which can be comprehended by a micro-controller.
This task is performed by a block for analog to digital conversion or by an
ADC. This block is responsible for converting an information about some
analog value to a binary number and for follow it through to a CPU block of
microcontroller, so that CPU block can further process it.

This analog to digital converter (ADC) converts a continuous analog

input signal, into an n-bit binary number, which is easily acceptable to a
computer.

As the input increases from zero to full scale, the output code stair
steps. The width of an ideal step represents the size of the least significant

Bit (LSB) of the converter and corresponds to an input voltage of VES/2 n

for an n-bit converter. Obviously for an input voltage range of one LSB, the
output code is constant. For a given output code, the input voltage can be
any where within a one LSB quantization interval.

An actual converter has integral linearity and differential linearity

errors. Differential linearity error is the difference between the actual code-
step width and one LSB. Integral linearity error is a measure of the
deviation of the code transition points from the fitted line.

The errors of the converter are determined by the fitting of a line

through the code transition points, using least square fit, the terminal point
method, or the zero base technique to provide the reference line.
 A good converter will have less than 0.5 LSB linearity error and no
missing codes over its full temperature range. In the basic conversion
scheme of ADC, the un-known input voltage VX is connected to one input
of an analog signal comparator, and a time dependant reference voltage
VR is connected to the other input of the comparator.

In this project work ADC 0809 (8 Bit A/D converter) is used to

convert an analog voltage variations into digital pulses. The ADC 0809
data acquisition component is a monolithic CMOS device with an 8-bit
analog to digital converter, 8 channels, multi-plexer and microprocessor
compatible control logic. This chip having very high powerful performance
and offers high speed, high accuracy, minimal temperature dependence,
excellent longterm accuracy and repeatability and consumes minimal
power so that channel selection can be done automatically. ADC 0809 IC
itself has a complete data acquisition system. The converter requires an
external clock for its operation.

To produce external clock the necessary requirements are IC 555 &

some resistors and capacitors. The 555 timer chip can be used as an
oscillator to provide a clock waveform. Two external resistors and single
timing capacitors accurately control the frequency of oscillation. The value
of resistors and capacitors are adjusted in such a way that it can produce a
clock of nearly about 50 KHz.

CIRCUIT ANALYSIS

The final output of the temperature measuring circuit is fed to A/D

converter. The A/D converter used in this project work is having 8-channels
and the channel selection depends upon the address selection sent by the
Micro-controller. This ADC is having three address inputs to select one out
of eight channels of the ADC. This ADC 0809 is a successive approx.
Analog to digital converter and the clock rate at which the conversion is fed
from the IC 555 timer configured as Astable multi-vibrator. The digital
output after conversion is fed to Micro-controller which will be displayed.

Most of the real world physical quantities such as temperature,

voltage, current, pressure etc., are available in analog form and the
microcontroller will not accept this analog information, therefore it is very
much essential that this analog information should be converted into digital
information. At such condition this A/D converter places a major role
between the controller and the analog circuit. The most commonly used
ADCs are successive approximation and the integrator type. The
successive approximation ADCs are used in applications such as data
loggers and instrumentation where conversion speed is important. The
converter is used in this project work is Flash (comparator) type generally
used for high degree of accuracy applications. This kind of ADCs is used
in applications such as digital meters, panel meters and monitoring
systems where the conversion accuracy is critical.

For ADC to start converting the data after selecting the channel by
sending the address inputs, the start conversion signal is to be sent by
Micro-controller. Then ADC starts converting the analog signals voltage
into corresponding digital data. For Ex: The following table shows the
digital data corresponding to analog input.
 After conversion, the ADC generates EOC (End of conversion). This
indicates to Micro-controller that the conversion is completed and takes the
digital data corresponding to analog input. The following is Circuit diagram
of A/D Converter along with its clock generator.

In the above circuit diagram 555 timer IC is used for generating the
required clock pulses.

CLOCK GENERATOR

The clock generator circuit designed with 555 timer IC is configured

in Astable mode of operation. This circuit is designed to generate around
10 KHz square pulses, which is fed to A/D converter. The main function of
the ADC is to convert the analog data in to digital and it takes some time to
convert. The conversion time is depends up on the frequency that is fed to
this device externally. As the frequency increases conversion time
decreases, as per the data sheet of ADC 0809 provided by the
manufacturer, the frequency applied to this device should be 10 KHz
approximately, there by the conversion time will be as fast as less then 20
Milli-seconds.

When the chip is configured as Astable it starts producing a chain of

continuous pulses, in this mode of operation the required frequency can be
adjusted using two external components i.e., resistor and capacitor.
Keeping capacitor value constant where as by varying the value of resistor
the frequency can be adjusted from 1Hz to 500 KHz. Here the required
frequency is 10 KHz approximately and accordingly values of Rt and Ct
are selected.

As per the circuit diagram shown below, frequency can be adjusted

using variable resistor 100K (RB). In this circuit design the external
capacitor charges through RA+RB and discharges through RB. Thus the
duty cycle may be precisely set by the ratio of these two resistors. In this
mode of operation, the capacitor charges and discharges between 1/3 VCC
and 2/3 VCC. As in the triggered mode, the charge and discharge times, and
therefore the frequency are independent of the supply voltage. Here the
timing resistor is now split into two sections, RA and RB, with the discharge
transistor (Pin 7) connected to junction of Ra and Rb. When the power
supply is connected, the timing capacitor C charges towards 2/3 VCC
through Ra and Rb. When the capacitor voltage reaches 2/3 VCC, the upper
comparator triggers the flip-flop and the capacitor starts to discharge
towards ground through Rb. When the discharge reaches 1/3 VCC the lower
comparator is triggered and a new cycle is started. The capacitor is then
periodically charged and discharged between 2/3 VCC and 1/3 VCC
respectively. The output state is high during the charging cycle for a time
period t1, so that

t1 = (Ra + Rb) C1n

t1 = 0.693 (Ra + Rb) C

The output state is LOW during the discharge cycle for a time period
t2, given by t2 = 0.693 RbC
Thus, the total period charge and discharge is
T = t 1 + t2
= 0.693 (Ra + 2Rb) C (Seconds)
So that the output frequency is given as

TIMER CHIP APPLICATIONS

The 555 is an integrated circuit implementing a variety of timer and

multi-vibrator applications. The IC was designed and invented by Hans R.
Camenzind. It was designed in 1970 and introduced in 1971 by Signatics
(later acquired by Philips). The original name was the SE555/NE555 and
was called "The IC Time Machine". The 555 gets its name from the three
5-kOhm resistors used in typical early implementations. It is still in wide
use, thanks to its ease of use, low price and good stability.

The 555 timer is one of the most popular and versatile integrated
circuits ever produced. It includes 23 transistors, 2 diodes and 16 resistors
on a silicon chip installed in an 8-pin mini dual-in-line package (DIP-8). The
556 is a 14-pin DIP that combines two 555s on a single chip. The 558 is a
16-pin DIP that combines four slightly modified 555s on a single chip.

The 555 has three operating modes:

Monostable mode: in this mode, the 555 functions as a "one-shot".

Applications include timers, missing pulse detection, bounce free switches,
touch switches, Frequency Divider, Capacitance Measurement, Pulse
Width Modulation (PWM) etc
Astable - Free Running mode: the 555 can operate as an oscillator.
Uses include LED and lamp flashers, pulse generation, logic clocks, tone
generation, security alarms, pulse position modulation, etc.
Bistable mode or Schmitt trigger: the 555 can operate as a flip-flop, if
the DIS pin is not connected and no capacitor is used. Uses include
bounce free latched switches, etc.

The connection of the pins is as follows:

Pin. Name Purpose

1 GND Ground, low level (0V)
2 TR A short pulse high low on the trigger starts the timer
3 Q During a timing interval, the output stays at +VCC
A timing interval can be interrupted by applying a reset pulse to low
4 R
(0V)
5 CV Control voltage allows access to the internal voltage divider (2/3 VCC)
6 THR The threshold at which the interval ends (it ends if U.thr 2/3 VCC)
Connected to a capacitor whose discharge time will influence the
7 DIS
timing interval
V+,
8 The positive supply voltage which must be between 3 and 15 V
VCC
 The device either it is configured in astable or monostable, the basic
function of triggering at two different levels are common, only the
difference is that in monostable mode of operation the circuit triggers due
to the external pulses, where as in the astable mode of operation, the
capacitor charges and discharges continuously, there by the potential
applied to the trigger pin will be changed automatically. When the timer is
configured as Astable mode, it will act as an oscillator and generates
continuous pulses at specified rate. It changes states by itself according to
the support components connected externally. On (high) then off (low) then
on then off... in the schematic diagram given below, an LED is connected
at the output, which turns on turn off at every interval of one second.
According to that the timing components are selected, based on the
formulas given below frequency can be adjusted to the required level. The
following is the circuit diagram.

Description of Circuit:
 This circuit requires very few external components. The main three
are R1, R2 and C1. C2 is merely there to prevent instability problems. R3
limits current to the LED. A 9V battery is used as power source, but for the
same purpose 5V supply also can be used.

The time high (ON) and time low (OFF) are determined by R1, R2
and C1. Let's call the time high Th and the time low Tl. The total time is Tt

The formula to solve Th is:

Th = 0.693 X C1 X (R1 + R2)

In the circuit above R1 is 1 Ohm, R2 is 147,000 Ohms (147K) and the

Capacitor is .00001 Farads (10 microfarads).

Th = .693 X .00001 X (1 + 147,000)

Th = .693 X .00001 X 147001
Th = 1.014 Seconds

Now to figure out the Time low, we use the same formula ignoring R1.

Tl = 0.693 X C1 X R2
Tl = .693 X .00001 X 147,000
Tl = 1.014 seconds

All that is left to figure out is Time Total. Just add the Tl and Th.
 Tt = Th + Tl
Tt = 2.03 seconds

If we want to convert this to frequency instead of time:

F = 1/Tt
F = .5 Hertz (Hz) or cycles per second.

Using a one ohm resistor for R1 gives nearly the same time on as
off. The ratio of time ON to total time is called Duty Cycle. The example
circuit we made has a duty cycle of 1:2 or 50% (50% on and 50% off)

To make a circuit that provides with a longer time on and shorter time
off, the following is the example:

C1 = 10 microfarad (.00001 Farad)

R1 = 147K
R2 = 47K

Th = .693 X .00001 X 194,000

Th = 1.34 seconds.
Tl = .693 X .00001 X 47,000
Tl = .33 seconds

This produces a circuit with the LED on for 1.34 seconds and off .33
seconds. Its duty cycle is now 3:4 or 75%. The following is the simple
formula to figure out duty cycle.

Percentage of Duty Cycle = (Th divided by Tt) X 100

LCD DISPLAY

The LCD used here is having two rows and each row contains 16
characters, depending up on the availability of LCD panel 3 lines or 4 lines
panels can be used for the purpose, so that more information can be
displayed simultaneously. The LCD used here is having its drive circuitry
for the display internally. Since application is to display the water
temperature, set value and actual value both are displayed separately
through different rows. After initializing the LCD panel through
microcontroller, a sequence of control codes are sent to display the
characters according to the temperature.

LCD Displays are dominating LED displays, because these displays

can display alphabets, numbers and some kind of special symbols, where
as LEDs (seven segment display) can display only numbers. These LCD
displays are very useful for displaying user information and
communication. LCD displays are available in various formats. Most
common are 2 x 16, is that two lines with 16 alphanumeric characters.
Other formats are 3x16, 2x40, 3x40 etc;

In recent years LCD is finding widespread use replacing LEDs,

because of the ability to display numbers, characters, and graphics.
Another advantage is, because of its compactness and ease of
programming for characters and graphics, more information in the form of
text message or graphics can be displayed. Generally, the LCD modules
have an 8-bit interface, besides the 8-bit data bus; the interface has a few
other control lines. The 8-bit data bus is connected to port 0 and the
control lines are connected to port 2. The default data transfer between
the LCD module and an external device is 8-bits, however it is possible to
communicate with the LCD module using only four of the 8-data lines. The
R/W line is connected to ground and hence the processor cannot read any
status information from the LCD module, but can only write data to the
LCD.

The LCD panel used in this project work is having 16 pins. The
function of each pin description with table is as followed:

Pin No. Name Description

Pin no. 1 D7 Data bus line 7 (MSB)
Pin no. 2 D6 Data bus line 6
Pin no. 3 D5 Data bus line 5
Pin no. 4 D4 Data bus line 4
Pin no. 5 D3 Data bus line 3
Pin no. 6 D2 Data bus line 2
Pin no. 7 D1 Data bus line 1
Pin no. 8 D0 Data bus line 0 (LSB)
Pin no. 9 EN1 Enable signal for row 0 and 1 (1stcontroller)
0 = Write to LCD module
Pin no. 10 R/W
1 = Read from LCD module
0 = Instruction input
Pin no. 11 RS
1 = Data input
Pin no. 12 VEE Contrast adjust
Pin no. 13 VSS Power supply (GND)
Pin no. 14 VCC Power supply (+5V)
Pin no. 15 EN2 Enable signal for row 2 and 3 (2ndcontroller)
Pin no. 16 NC Not Connected

The following is the circuit diagram of LCD that is interfaced with

89C51 microcontroller.
Vcc, Vss, and VEE: While Vcc and Vss provide +5V and ground,
respectively; VEE is used for controlling LCD contrast.

RS - register select:

There are two very important registers inside the LCD. The RS pin is
used for their selection as follows. If RS = 0, the instruction command code
register is selected, allowing the user to send a command such as clear
display, cursor at home, etc. If RS = 1 the data register is selected,
allowing the user to send data to be displayed on the LCD.

R/W - read/write:
 R/W input allows the user to write information to the LCD or read
information from it. R/W = 1 when reading; R/W =0 when writing.

E - Enable:

The enable pin is used by the LCD to latch information presented to

its data pins. When data is supplied to data pins, a high to low pulse must
be applied to this pin in order for the LCD to latch in the data present at the
data pins. This pulse must be a minimum of 450 ns wide.

D0 D7: The 8 bit data pins, D0 D7, are used to send information to the
LCD or read the contents of the LCDs internal registers. To display letters
and numbers, we send ASCII codes for the letters A Z, a z, and
numbers 0 9 to these pins while making RS = 1. There are also
instructions command codes that can be sent to the LCD to clear the
display or force the cursor to the home position or blink the cursor.

RELAY

A relay is an electrical switch that opens and closes under the

control of another electrical circuit. In the original form, the switch is
operated by an electromagnet to open or close one or many sets of
contacts. A relay is able to control an output circuit of higher power than
the input circuit, it can be considered to be, in a broad sense, a form of an
electrical amplifier. So a relay can be defined as an automatic
electromagnetic/electronic switch, which can be used to make or break the
circuit. The detailed description of the relay is provided in the further
chapters. In this project two relays are used to control the cooling fan and
the DC motor individually.
 A relay is an electrical switch that opens and closes under control of
another electrical circuit. In the original form, the switch is operated by an
electromagnet to open or close one or many sets of contacts. These contacts can be
either Normally Open (NO), Normally Closed (NC), or change-over contacts.

Normally-open contacts connect the circuit when the relay is activated; the
circuit is disconnected when the relay is inactive. It is also called Form A contact
or "make" contact. Form A contact is ideal for applications that require to switch a
high-current power source from a remote device.

Normally-closed contacts disconnect the circuit when the relay is activated;

the circuit is connected when the relay is inactive. It is also called Form B contact
or "break" contact. Form B contact is ideal for applications that require the circuit
to remain closed until the relay is activated.

Change-over contacts control two circuits: one normally-open contact and

one normally-closed contact with a common terminal. It is also called Form C
contact.

The electromagnetic relay, one of mankinds first electrical device,

was used practically in telegraphy as early as 1850. The modern relay,
properly applied, is one of the most simple, effective and dependable
component available. In the majority of instances, it can achieve better
reliability at lesser cost than an equivalent solid-state complex type of
relay. The term relay was used for the first time to describe an invention
made by Samuel Morse in 1836. The device invented by Morse was a
Telegraph Amplifying Electromagnetic Device which enabled a small
current flowing in a coil to switch on a large current in another circuit and
thus helped in relay of signals.

OPERATION
 The relays used in this project work are electromagnetic relays. The
electromagnetic relay is basically a switch (or a combination of switches)
operated by the magnetic force generated by a current flowing through a
coil. Essentially, it consists of four parts an electromagnet comprising a
coil and a magnetic circuit, a movable armature, a set of contacts, and a
frame to mount all these components. However, very wide ranges of relays
have been developed to meet the requirements of the industry. This relay
is nothing but a switch, which operates electromagnetically. It opens or
closes a circuit when current through the coil is started or stopped. When
the coil is energized armature is attracted by the electromagnet and the
contacts are closed. That is how the power is applied to the signals
(indicators). The construction of the typical relay contains a code
surrounded by a coil of copper wire. The core is mounted on a metal
frame. The movable part of the relay is called armature. When a voltage is
applied to the coil terminals, the current flowing through the coil produces a
magnetic field in the core. In other words, the core acts as an
electromagnet and attracts the metal armature. When the armature is
attracted to the core, the magnetic path is from the core through armature,
through the frame, and back to the core. On removing the voltage the
spring attached to the armature returns the armature to its original position.
In this position, there is a small air-gap in the magnetic path. Hence, more
power is needed to pull in the armature than that needed to keep it held in
the attracted position.
 CHAPTER 6

GENERAL DESCRIPTION ABOUT DISHWASHERS

The first reports of a mechanical dishwashing device are of an 1850

patent by Joel Houghton of a hand-powered device. This device was made
of wood and was cranked by hand while water sprayed onto the dishes.
This device was both slow and unreliable. Another patent was granted to
L.A. Alexander in 1865 that was similar to the first but featured a hand-
cranked rack system. Neither device was practical or widely accepted.

Modern dishwashers are descended from the 1887 invention of

Josephine Cochrane who invented a new advanced dishwasher, also
hand-powered, which she unveiled at the 1893 Chicago World's Fair.
Cochrane was quite wealthy and was the granddaughter of John Fitch, the
inventor of the steamboat. She never washed dishes herself and only
invented the dishwasher because her servants were chipping her fine
china.

Models installed with permanent plumbing arrived in the 1920s. In

1924, William Howard Livens invented a small dishwasher suitable for
domestic use. It had many of the features of a modern dishwasher,
including a front door for loading, a wire rack to hold crockery and a
rotating sprayer.[2] Livens' invention was not, however, a commercial
success. Electric drying elements were added in 1940. Initially home
appliances were standalone or portable devices in a kitchen, along with
other sinks and the water heater, but with the development of the wall-to-
wall countertop and standardized height cabinets, dishwashers evolved
into standardized size and shape appliances first integrated with the sink,
and then underneath the kitchen countertop as a modular unit. Adoption
was greatest at first in commercial environments, but by the 1970s
dishwashers had become common in domestic residences in the US. By
2005, today 60 percent of US homes had dishwashers.

Evolution of spray methods

Spray methods, the direction of spray, and the shape of the wash tub
has evolved over time due to the difficulty of cleaning some types of
dishes. Plates and cutlery tend to be the easiest to clean because of their
fairly flat and open shape. Bowls, glasses, pitchers, vases, and other
containers are more difficult to clean because of the recessed inner cavity
and the need for liquid to drain out of the interior cavity. The difficulty of
cleaning a container in a dishwasher increases as the neck diameter
decreases and the interior space width and depth enlarges. This has
generally required glasses, pitchers, and other containers to be placed in
the device with the opening pointed downward and exposed directly to the
spray arm jets or impeller in the base of the unit, so that the liquid is
propelled with sufficient force as to reach all the way into the back / top of
containers with small mouth openings.

However, for a simple dishwasher with only a single impeller in the

base of the unit, glasses and other deep containers both need direct
exposure to the jet, and will block liquid from reaching objects behind
them. For this reason, glasses usually are placed into an upper basket,
and flat open-shaped plates and cutlery that the water can spray through
are placed in lower baskets.

Although direct exposure to the impeller spray has the deepest

cleaning ability for containers, providing every dish, glass, and pitcher with
direct spray in early dishwashers that only had a single impeller in the base
of the unit resulted in a fairly light packing of dishware into the device,
which may require two or three separate loads to process all the dishware.

In time, dishwashers increased in mechanical complexity to permit

more water jets striking dishes directly and unimpeded by other dishware
blocking the spray, allowing for much denser packing of dishware into the
device. The first of these mechanical improvements was the top spray arm
placed above all dishes and spraying downward, to wet the backsides of
bowls and glasses in the top rack. Prior to this, the top rack had to be ring-
shaped, to allow impeller water from the base of the unit to reach the top of
the chamber unimpeded, and then fall back down onto the dishes from
above. The top spray arm provided water to the back of the dishes,
allowing the upper rack to enlarge and fill in the open center spray region.

The second was the mid-level spray system, using either a pop-up
spray tower extending upward from the base using water pressure to
extend the tower during washing, or a fixed tower spray arm supplying
water to a secondary rotating arm suspended below the upper rack(s). This
mid-level spray system allows for large spray-blocking bowls and pans to
be placed in the bottom rack, while still getting water spray up into the
undersides of glasses and bowls in the top rack.

However, the pop-up tower or fixed tower method blocks use of the
center of the bottom rack, restricting the size of objects that can fit in the
bottom rack. A modification has been to reroute water flow to the mid-level
spray arm using tubing directed up the back wall of the wash chamber,
leaving the center of the bottom rack open and available for use.

Recently there has been the development of fixed or spinning jets on

the sidewalls of the wash chamber, as "pot/pan scrubber" jets. Large
objects such as cook-pots often cannot lie flat if stacked with other plates
and dishes, resulting in less than thorough removal of baked-on food due
to indirect water spray on the surfaces. The sidewall jets allow water spray
from previously unavailable directions, allowing pots and pans to be turned
around facing the walls, and receiving individual attention from those
specific jets.

Commercial dishwashers are able to deal with the problem of hard-

to-clean deep containers by increasing the spray force and liquid volume
by using a large pump motor of several horsepower, and large diameter
spray arms with larger jet openings, allowing much more water spray than
is possible for a residential dishwasher with limited power draw.

Characterization

Capacity: The international standard for the capacity of a dishwasher is

expressed as standard place settings. Dishes or plates of irregular
sizes may not fit properly in a dishwasher's cleaning compartment,
so it is advisable to check for compatibility before buying a
dishwasher.

Commercial dishwashers are rated as plates per hour. The rating is

based on standard sized plates of the same size. The same can be said for
commercial glass washers, as they are based on standard glasses,
normally pint glasses.
Size

North American counter-top dishwasher

Dishwashers that are installed into standard kitchen cabinets have a

standard width and depth of 60 cm (Europe) or 24 inches (US), and most
dishwashers must be installed into a hole a minimum of 86 cm (Europe) or
34 inches (US) tall. Portable dishwashers exist in 45 and 60 cm (Europe)
18 and 24 inch (US) widths, with casters and attached countertops.
Dishwashers may come in standard or tall tub designs; standard tub
dishwashers have a service kick plate beneath the dishwasher door that
allows for simpler maintenance and installation, but tall tub dishwashers
have approximately 20% more capacity and better sound dampening from
having a continuous front door.

Features (Clear model of a running dishwasher)

Present-day machines feature a drop-down front panel door,

allowing access to the interior, which usually contains two or sometimes
three pull-out racks; racks can also be referred to as "baskets". In older
U.S. models from the 1950s, the entire tub rolled out when the machine
latch was opened, and loading/removing washable items was from the top,
with the user reaching deep into the compartment for some items. Today,
"dish drawer" models mimic this style, while the half-depth design
eliminates the inconvenience of the long reach that was necessary with
older full-depth models. "Cutlery baskets" also occur.

The inside of a dishwasher, called the tub, can be composed of

plastic or stainless steel. Stainless steel tubs resist hard water, provide
better sound damping, and preserve heat to dry dishes faster. They also
come at a premium price. Older models used baked enamel on steel and
are prone to chipping and erosion; chips in the baked enamel finish must
be cleaned of all dirt and corrosion then patched with a special compound
or even a good quality two-part epoxy. All European-made dishwashers
feature a stainless steel interior as standard, even on low end models. The
same is true for a built-in water softener.

Mid-to-higher end North American dishwashers often come with hard

food disposal units, which behave like miniature garbage (waste) disposal
units that eliminate large pieces of food waste from the wash water. One
manufacturer that is known for omitting hard food disposals is Bosch, a
German brand; however, Bosch does so in order to reduce noise. If the
larger items of food waste are removed before placing in the dishwasher,
pre-rinsing is not necessary even without integrated waste disposal units.

Many newer dishwashers feature microprocessor-controlled, sensor-

assisted wash cycles that adjust the wash duration to the quantity of dirty
dishes (sensed by changes in water temperature) or the amount of dirt in
the rinse water (sensed chemically/optically). This can save water and
energy if the user runs a partial load. In such dishwashers the
electromechanical rotary switch often used to control the washing cycle is
replaced by a microprocessor but most sensors and valves are still
required to be present. However, pressure switches (some dishwashers
use a pressure switch and flow meter) are not required in most
microprocessor controlled dishwashers as they use the motor and
sometimes a rotational position sensor to sense the resistance of water,
when it senses there is no cavitations it knows it has the optimal amount of
water. A bimetal switch or wax motor opens the detergent door during the
wash cycle.

Most dishwashers include a large cone or similar structure in the

bottom dish rack to prevent placement of dishes in the center of the rack.
The dishwasher directs water from the bottom of the dishwasher up
through this structure to the upper wash arm to spray water on the top dish
rack. Some dishwashers, including many models from Whirlpool and
Kitchen-aid, use a tube attached to the top rack that connects to a water
source at the back of the dishwasher which allows full use of the bottom
rack. Late-model Frigidaire dishwashers shoot a jet of water from the top of
the washer down into the upper wash arm, again allowing full use of the
bottom rack (but requiring that a small funnel on the top rack be kept
clear).

Some dishwashers include a child-lockout feature to prevent

accidental starting or stopping of the wash cycle by children. A child lock
can sometimes be included to prevent young children opening the door
during a wash cycle. This prevents accidents with hot water and strong
detergents used during the wash cycle. Most dishwashers feature a drying
sensor and as such, a dish-washing cycle is always considered complete
when a drying indicator, usually in the form of an illuminated "end" light or
in more modern models on a digital display, exhibits to the operator that
the washing and drying cycle is now over. A dishwasher should never be
emptied before a complete process has been signified to be finished by the
control system, as this will often leave the contents unwashed or still in a
saturated state. It is a common misconception that to empty a dishwasher
before the end of a cycle will save energy, as many of the contents may
need to be re-run, hence almost doubling running costs.

Plumbing

Dishwashers can be plumbed into either the hot or cold water

supply, taking into account the maximum incoming water temperature
recommended by the manufacturer. Plumbing a dishwasher into the hot or
warm water supply can improve cleaning performance and reduce food
debris in the interior of the dishwasher. A few dishwashers may spend
much less time on the wash phase if the incoming water is hot, which can
compromise cleaning, so results will vary.

Detergent

Different kinds of dishwashing detergent contain different

combinations of the items in the list below. Not all of the ingredients below
are used in some detergent

Phosphates: Dissolves calcium and magnesium ions to prevent

'hard-water' type lime scale deposits. They can cause ecological
damage, so their use is starting to be phased out. Phosphate-free
detergents are sold as eco-friendly detergents.
Oxygen-based bleaching agents: older-style powders and liquids
contain chlorine-based bleaching agents. Breaks up and bleaches
organic deposits.
 Non-ionic surfactants: Lowers the surface tension of the water,
emulsifies oil, lipid and fat food deposits, and prevents droplet
spotting on drying.
Alkaline salts: These are a primary component, in older & original-
style dishwasher detergent powders. Highly alkaline salts attack &
dissolve grease, but are extremely corrosive if swallowed. Salts
used may include meta-silicates, alkali metal hydroxides, And
Sodium carbonate etc.
Enzymes: Breaks up and dissolves protein-based food deposits, and
possibly oil, lipid and fat deposits. Proteases do this by breaking
down the proteins into smaller peptides that are more easily washed
away.
Anti-corrosion agent: Often sodium silicate, this prevents corrosion
of dishwasher components.

Hand-washing detergent

Prior to the invention of the dishwasher in 1886, hand-washing

primarily with simple detergents was common. The invention of the
machine prompted the use of stronger detergents and rinse agents, thus
saving time. Hand-washing dish detergent (washing up liquid) should not
be used in a dishwasher, as it will create large foam of bubbles which will
leak from the dishwasher. If hand-washing detergent is accidentally used,
the foam may be removed by spraying with salt, and the dishwasher
should be forced into a drain cycle to remove the detergent and water.

Dishwasher salt

In some countries, especially those in Europe, dishwashers include

a built-in water softeners that removes calcium and magnesium ions from
the water. Dishwasher salt, which is coarse-grained sodium chloride, is
used to recharge the resin in the built-in ion-exchange system. The coarse
grains prevent it from clogging the softener unit; unlike certain types of salt
used for culinary purposes, it does not contain added insoluble anti-caking
agents or magnesium salts. The presence of magnesium salts will defeat
the purpose of removing magnesium from the water softener. Anti-caking
agents may lead to clogging or may contain magnesium. Table salt may
contain added iodine in the form of sodium iodide or potassium iodide, but
these compounds will not affect the ion-exchange system, but adding table
salt to the dishwasher's water softening unit can damage it.

If a dishwasher has a built-in water softener there will be a special

compartment inside the dishwasher where the salt is to be added when
needed. This salt compartment is separate from the detergent
compartment, and generally located at the bottom of the wash cabinet (this
is below the bottom basket). On most dishwashers, an automatic sensing
system will notify the user when more dishwasher salt is required.

Pouring detergent into the salt compartment will damage the water
softening system, however this can be reversed if the user acts very
quickly and the dishwasher is NOT used: with a suitable wet and dry
vacuum cleaner, remove the foreign substance e.g. detergent, followed by
adding water again and removing the water with the wet and dry vacuum
and repeating the process several times.

Some newer dishwashers allow the use of "all in one"

tablets/detergents (which include an amount of salt along with detergent
and a rinse agent) and are marketed as an alternative to using separate
salt and rinse aid, but dishwasher salt must still be added to the salt
compartment in very hard water areas. The use of such "all in one"
detergents does not mean that separate salt and rinse aid is not required,
as omitting separate salt and rinse aid will impair the cleaning and drying
results and may cause lime-scale damage, also, incorrect use of "all in
one" tablets/detergents may not be covered under the dishwasher's
warranty; it is advisable to check the dishwasher manufacturer's instruction
book when using these types of tablets/detergents.
 CHAPTER 7

BRIEF DESCRIPTION ABOUT MECHATRONICS

Mechatronics is an engineering field which involves various fields of

technologies working together can be called as Mechatronics. All most all
electro-mechanical machines designed for hundreds of applications falls
under the subject of mechatronics. The procedure begins from mechanical
structure and its related mechanisms driven through electrical components
like motors, solenoid coils, etc. The control circuit that restricts the
mechanical transmission through electrical devices will be in function
based on the input & output signals obtained from the sensors.

Depending up on the type of machine & its function, various sensors

are in use. Often Computers, microcontrollers, & microprocessors are used
for monitoring & controlling the machines. These days embedded control
systems are becoming popular because of its simplicity & economy. The
control circuit designed with microcontroller is acting as a single chip
computer & it offers many latest features those are offered by a big
computer. Therefore in this project work, preference is given for embedded
system. In this regard the most popular chip from atmel group, i.e.
89C2051 is used to control the machine. The main advantage of using this
chip is, it is having more I/O lines & most of them are programmable
independently, thereby lot of electronic hardware like sensors, display
systems, control keys, etc can be interfaced with this single chip.

In general Mechatronics subject can be described as an inter

disciplinary area of engineering that combines mechanical, electrical and
computer science departments. A typical mechatronic system picks up
signals from the environment, processes them to generate output signals,
transforming them for example into forces, motions and actions. It is the
extension and the completion of mechanical systems with sensors and
microcomputers which is the most important aspect. The fact that such a
system picks up changes in its environment by sensors and reacts to their
signals using the appropriate information processing, makes it different
from conventional machines.

Examples of mechatronic systems are robots, digitally controlled

combustion engines, machine tools with self-adaptive tools, contact-free
magnetic bearings, automated guided vehicles, etc. Typical for such a
product is the high amount of system knowledge and software that is
necessary for its design. Furthermore, and this is most essential, software
has become an integral part of the product itself, necessary for its function
and operation. It is fully justified to say software has become an actual
"machine element".

The approach presented here is a system-level approach to

designing electromechanical systems that merges mechanical, electrical,
control system, and embedded software design. It represents an industry-
wide effort to improve the design process by integrating the best available
development practices and technologies to streamline design, prototyping,
and deployment. If we design industrial machinery, equipment, vehicles, or
other devices with moving parts and electronically controlled actuators,
mechatronics technology may help us lower development costs, reduce
risk, and produce higher-quality products. View this web cast to lean about
the Mechatronics approach to machine design.
 As every engineer knows that the electrical energy can be converted
in to mechanical energy, & based on the signals available from the sensors
motion is controlled and it is measured. These days embedded
microcontrollers are dominating other signal processing units. Most of
electromechanical machines contain an embedded system in addition to
the mixture of mechanical, electrical, electronic, and digital components.
The designer of these systems should have knowledge about all these
fields. The purpose of this project work is to acquire knowledge regarding
these fields & for investigating the performance of embedded system, in
addition analyzing the power transmission and conversion is also
important. Mechanical engineers have to deal with issues regarding
electrical and electronics engineering design with computer knowledge,
whereas electrical and electronics engineers have to understand
mechanical issues like machine design mechanism, machine structure,
force measurement, etc.

A Mechatronics and measurement system provides comprehensive

and accessible coverage of the evolving field of mechatronics for
mechanical, electrical and aerospace engineering majors. The system
presents a concise review of electrical circuits, solid-state devices, digital
circuits, and motors all of which are fundamental to understanding
mechatronic systems. Mechatronics is a system-level approach to
designing electromechanical systems that merges mechanical, electrical,
control system, and embedded software design. It represents an industry-
wide effort to improve the design process by integrating the best available
development practices and technologies to streamline design, prototyping,
and deployment. The design considers industrial machinery, equipment,
vehicles, or other devices with moving parts and electronically controlled
actuators, mechatronics technology.
 Many books related to the Mechatronics explain the design of
simpler, more economical, reliable and versatile systems based on the
principles of mechanics, electronics and computing. These books describe
the historical development of mechatronic systems and provide a basic
background for mechatronic systems engineering. The introductory topics
on mechatronics are dealt with in the books and it will prove to be very
useful for undergraduate and postgraduate students as well as practice
engineers.
 CHAPTER 8

DETAILS ABOUT A/D CONVERTERS

The analog to digital converter (A.D) is used to convert an analog

voltage or current input to an output binary word that can be used by a
computer. Of the many techniques that have been published for performing
an A/D conversion, only a few are of interest to us: so we will consider only
the voltage to frequency, signal slope integrator, duel-slope integrator,
counter (or servo), successive approximation and flash methods. The basic
size of circuit that we will show is the 8-bit A/D converter, which for many
purposes is all that is needed. These same discussions are also useful for
10-bit, 12-bit or higher order A/D converters.

INTEGRATION A/D METHODS:

Most digital panel Meters (DPM) and digital multi-meters (DMM) use
either the single integration or duel-slope integration methods for the A/D
conversion process. The single slope integrator is simple, but is limited to
those applications that can tolerate accuracy of one or two percent.

The following is the diagram of example of single slope integrator

A/D converter.
 The single slope integrator A/D converter consists of five basic
sections: Ramp generator, comparator, and logic. Clock and an output
encoder consisting of a binary counter, latch and display in the digital
counter block. The ramp generator is an ordinary operational amplifier Miller
integrator with its input connected to a stable, fixed, reference voltage
source. This makes the input current essentially constant; so the voltage at
Ramp o/p will rise in a nearly linear manner, creating the voltage ramp.

The comparator is an operational amplifier that has an open feed back

loop. The circuit gain is the open-loop gain (A vol) of the device selected.
Typically very high even in low cost operational amplifiers. When the analog
input voltage Vx is greater than the ramp voltage, the output of the
comparator is saturated at logic HIGH level. The logic section consists of a
main AND gate, a main gate control, and a clock. The waveforms associated
with this circuit are based on un known input voltage Vx.

The AND gate requires all three inputs to be high before its output can
be HIGH also. The output of the AND gate will go HIGH every time the
clock signal is also HIGH. The encoder, in this case an B-bit binary
counter, will than see a pulse train with a length proportional to the
amplitude of the analog input voltage. If the A/D converter is designed
correctly, then the maximum range (full-scale) value of Vx. Several
problems are found in single-slope integrator A/D converters.

1) The ramp voltage may be Non-linear

2) The ramp voltage may have too steep or too shallow a slope

3) The clock pulse frequency could be wrong

4) It may be prone to changes in apparent value of Vx caused by Noise

Many of these problems are corrected by the duel-slope integrator.

This circuit also consists of five basic sections: integrator, comparator,
control logic section, binary counter and a reference current or voltage
source. An integrator is made with an operational amplifier connected with
 a capacitor in the negative feed back loop, as was the case in the single-
slope version. The comparator in this circuit is also the same sort of circuit
as was used in the previous example. In this case though, the comparator
is ground referenced by connecting +IN to ground. When a start command
is received, the control circuit resets the counter, resets the integrator to O
volts. The analog voltage creates an input current to the integrator which
causes the integrator output to begin charging capacitor; the output voltage
of the integrator will begin to rise. As soon as this voltage raises a few mill
volts above ground potential the comparator output snaps HIGH- Positive.
A HIG comparator output causes the control circuit to enable the counter,
which begins to count pulses.

Voltage to Frequency Converters:

These circuits are not A/D Converters in the strictest sense, but are
very good for representing analog data in a form that can be tape recorder
on a low cost audio-machine, or transmitted over radio. The V/F converter
output can also be used for direct input to a computer if a binary counter is
used to measure the output frequency. Two forms of V/F converter are
common. One is a voltage-controlled oscillator (VCO), that is, a regular
oscillator circuit in which the output frequency is a function of an input
controls voltage. If the VCO is connected to a binary or binary coded
decimal (BCD) counter, then the VCO be comes a V/F form of A/D converter.
The integrator, which causes the integrator output to begin charging
capacitor, the output voltage of the integrator will begin to rise. As soon as
this voltage raises a few milli-volts above ground potential the comparator
output snaps HIGH Positive. A HIG comparator output causes the control
circuit to enable the counter, which begins to count pulses. The following is
the block diagram of voltage to frequency converter
Counter type A/D Converter:

A counter type A/D converter (Also called servo or ramp A/D

converters) consists of a comparator, voltage output DAC, binary counter,
and the necessary control logic. When the start command is received, the
control logic resets the binary counter & enables the clock, and then begins
counting.

The outputs control the DAC inputs, so the DAC output voltage will
begin to rise when the counter begins to increment. As long as analog input
voltage Vx is less than Vref (The DAC output), the comparator output is
HIGH, when Vx and Vref are equal, however, the comparator output goes
low, which turns off the clock and stops the counter output at this time
represents the value of Vx. The following is the block diagram of binary A/D
converter is shown in the next page.

SUCCESSIVE APPROXIMATION A/D CONVERTERS:

Successive approximation A/D conversion is best suited for many

applications where speed is important. This type of A/D converter requires
only N+1 clock cycles to make the conversion, and some designs allow
truncation of the conversion process after fewer cycles if the final value is
found prior to N+1 Cycles. The successive approximation converter operates
by making several successive trails at comparing the analog input voltage
with a reference generated by a DAC

PARALLEL OR FLASH A/D converters: The parallel A/D

Converter is probably the fastest A/D circuit known; indeed, the very fastest
ordinary commercial products use this method. Some sources call the
parallel A/D converter the flash circuit because of its inherent high speed.
The parallel A/D converter consists of a blank of (2N-1) voltage comparators
biased by reference potential Vref though a resistor Network that keeps the
individual comparators 1-LSB a port. Since the input voltage is applied to all
the comparators simultaneously, the speed of conversion is limited
essentially by slow rate of the slowest comparator in the bank, and also by
the decoder circuit propagation time. The decoder converts the output code
to binary code needed by the computers. The A/D converter is a circuit that
is used to produce a binary number output that represents an analog voltage
applied to the input.
 CHAPTER 9

DESCRIPTION OF MICROCONTROLLERS

The controller used here is belongs to 8051 family architecture &

often it is referred to as MCS-51. This microcontroller is having an 8-bit
data bus. In this family some of the controllers are capable of addressing
64K of program memory and a separate 64K of data memory. The 8051
has 4K of code memory implemented as on-chip Read Only Memory
(ROM). The 8051 has 128 bytes of internal Random Access Memory
(RAM). The 8051 has two timer/counters, a serial port, 4 general purpose
parallel input/output ports, and interrupt control logic with five sources of
interrupts. Besides internal RAM, the 8051 has various Special Function
Registers (SFR), which are the control and data registers for on-chip
facilities. The SFRs also include the accumulator, the B register, and the
Program Status Word (PSW), which contains the CPU flags. Programming
the various internal hardware facilities of the 8051 is achieved by placing
the appropriate control words into the corresponding SFRs.

As stated, the 8051 can address 64K of external data memory and
64K of external program memory. These may be separate blocks of
memory, so that up to 128K of memory can be attached to the
microcontroller. Separate blocks of code and data memory are referred to
as the Harvard architecture. The 8051 has two separate read signals, RD#
and PSEN#. The first is activated when a byte is to be read from external
data memory, the other, from external program memory. Both of these
signals are so-called active low signals. That is, they are cleared to logic
level 0 when activated. All external code is fetched from external program
memory. In addition, bytes from external program memory may be read by
special read instructions such as the MOVC instruction. There are
separate instructions to read from external data memory, such as the
MOVX instruction. That is, the instructions determine which block of
memory is addressed, and the corresponding control signal, either RD# or
PSEN# is activated during the memory read cycle. A single block of
memory may be mapped to act as both data and program memory. This is
referred to as the Von Neumann1 architecture. In order to read from the
same block using either the RD# signal or the PSEN# signal, the two
signals are combined with a logic AND operation. This way, the output of
the AND gate is low when either input is low.
The advantage of the Harvard architecture is not simply doubling the
memory capacity of the microcontroller. Separating program and data
increases the reliability of the microcontroller, since there are no
instructions to write to the program memory. A ROM device is ideally suited
to serve as program memory. The Harvard architecture is somewhat
awkward in evaluation systems, where code needs to be loaded into
program memory. By adopting the Von Neumann architecture, code may
be written to memory as data bytes, and then executed as program
instructions.

The 8052 has 256 bytes of internal RAM and 8K of internal code
ROM. The 8051 and 8052 internal ROM cannot be programmed by the
user. The user must supply the program to the manufacturer, and the
manufacturer programs the microcontrollers during production. Due to the
setup costs, the factory masked ROM option is not economical for small
quantity productions. The 8751 and 8752 are the Erasable Programmable
Read Only Memory (EPROM) versions of the 8051 and 8052. Many
manufacturers offer the EPROM versions in windowed ceramic and non-
windowed plastic packages. These are user programmable. However, the
non-windowed versions cannot be erased. These are usually referred to as
One-Time- Programmable (OTP) microcontrollers, which are more suitable
for experimental work or for small production runs. The 8951 and 8952
contain FLASH EEPROMs (Electrically Erasable Programmable Read
Only Memory). These chips can be programmed as the EPROM versions,
using a chip programmer. Moreover, the memory may be erased. Similar to
EPROMs, Erasing FLASH memory sets all data bits (data bytes become
FFh). A bit may be cleared (made 0) by programming. However, a zero bit
may not be programmed to a one. This requires erasing the chip. Some
larger FLASH memories are organized in banks or sectors. Rather than
erasing the entire chip, you may erase a given sector and keep the
remaining sectors unchanged.

During the past decade, many manufacturers introduced enhanced

members of the 8051 microcontroller. The enhancements include more
memory, more ports, analog to - digital converters, more timers with
compare, reload and capture facilities, more interrupt sources, higher
precision multiply and divide units, idle and power down mode support,
watchdog timers, and network communication subsystems. All
microcontroller of the family use the same set of machine instructions, the
MCS-51. The enhanced features are programmed and controlled by
additional SFRs. In the remainder of this chapter, the hardware
architecture of the 8051 is presented. The enhancements brought by the
8052 and 80C515 follow. The reader is referred to the manufacturers' data
books for the specifics of other enhanced members.

Today, there is no such instrument or machine that can function

without Micro controller. Micro controllers have become an integral part of
all instruments. Many tedious from simple to dedicated tasks are left over
to the controller for solutions. In1981, Intel Corporation introduced an 8- bit
Micro controller, which is named as 8051. This controller is having 128
bytes of RAM, 4K bytes of ROM, two timers, one serial port, and four ports.
This IC is called as 8- bit Processor, means that the CPU can work on only
8-bits of data at a time. The 8051 is having four ports and each port
contain 8 input / output lines. This IC became very popular after Intel
allowed other manufacturers to make and market any flavors of the 8051
they please with the condition that they remain code compatible with the
8051. This has led to many versions of the 8051 with different speeds and
amounts of on-chip ROM marketed by many manufacturers. ATMEL is one
of the major manufacturers of these devices and are compatible with the
original 8051 as far as the instructions are concerned. The original 8051 of
Intel are having a maximum of 64K bytes of on-chip ROM, where as the
ATMEL 89C51 is having only 4K bytes on the chip. ATMEL 89C52 is
designed with 8K memory, like wise up to 20K bites on the chips are
available from ATMEL Company. The Atmel Corporation has a wide
selection of 8051 chips and out of, the AT 89C51 is a popular and
inexpensive chip used for many applications. It has 4K bytes of flash ROM;
C stands for CMOS, which has low power consumption.

The ATMEL AT89C51 is a low power, higher performance CMOS 8-

bit microcomputer with 4K bytes of flash programmable and erasable read
only memory (PEROM). Its high-density non-volatile memory compatible
with standard MCS-51 instruction set makes it a powerful controller that
provides highly flexible and cost effective solution to control applications.
Micro-controller works according to the program written in it. Most
microcontrollers today are based on the Harvard architecture, which clearly
defined the four basic components required for an embedded system.
These include a CPU core, memory for the program (ROM or Flash
memory), memory for data (RAM), one or more timers (customizable ones
and watchdog timers), as well as I/O lines to communicate with external
peripherals and complementary resources all this in a single integrated
circuit. A microcontroller differs from a general-purpose CPU chip in that
the former generally is quite easy to make into a working computer, with a
minimum of external support chips. The idea is that the microcontroller will
be placed in the device to control, hooked up to power and any information
it needs, and that's that. A traditional microprocessor won't allow you to do
this. It requires all of these tasks to be handled by other chips. For
example, some number of RAM memory chips must be added. The
amount of memory provided is more flexible in the traditional approach, but
at least a few external memory chips must be provided, and additionally
requires that many connections must be made to pass the data back and
forth to them. For instance, a typical microcontroller will have a built in
clock generator and a small amount of RAM and ROM (or EPROM or
EEPROM), meaning that to make it work, all that is needed is some control
software and a timing crystal (though some even have internal RC clocks).
Microcontrollers will also usually have a variety of input/output devices,
such as analog-to-digital converters, timers, UARTs or specialized serial
communications interfaces like IC, Serial Peripheral Interface and
Controller Area Network. Often these integrated devices can be controlled
by specialized processor instructions.

Originally, microcontrollers were only programmed in assembly

language, or later in C code. Recent microcontrollers integrated with on-
chip debug circuit accessed by In-circuit emulator via JTAG (Joint Text
Action Group) enables a programmer to debug the software of an
embedded system with a debugger.

With all latest features, this chip can be called as a mini computer.
The prime use of a microcontroller is to control the operation of a machine
using a fixed program that is stored in ROM and that does not changeover
the lifetime of the system. The microcontroller design uses a much more
limited set of instructions that are used to move code and data from
internal memory to the ALU. Many instructions are coupled with pins on the
IC package. The pins are programmable independently, that is capable of
having several different functions depending on the program. The
microcontroller is concerned with getting data from and to its own pins; the
architecture and instruction set are optimized to handle data in bit, byte,
and word size. Generally for any application, often designers chose the 8
bit controller, because they are most popular microcontrollers in use today,
another important aspect is cost effective.

The following are the features of 8051 microcontroller

1. Eight bit CPU with registers

2. 16 bit program counter and data pointer
3. 8 bit program status word
4. 8 bit stack pointer
5. Internal ROM or EPROM (4k)
6. Internal RAM of 128 bites
7. Four register banks, each containing eight registers
8. 16 bytes, which may be addressed at the bit level
9. 80 bytes of general purpose data memory
10. 32 input / output pins arranged as four 8 bit ports
11. Two sixteen bit timer / counter
12. Full duplex serial data receiver / transmitter
13. Two external and three internal interrupt sources
14. Oscillator and clock circuits
15. Control registers

The heart of the chip is the circuitry that generates the clock pulses
by which all internal operations are synchronized. Typically a quartz crystal
and capacitors are connected to the oscillator pins of microcontroller. The
crystal frequency is the final internal clock frequency of the microcontroller.
Often 12 MHz crystals are preferred for ease of program. A 12 MHz crystal
yields the convenient time of one microsecond per cycle. The
manufacturers of the 8051 devices specifies the frequency range, less
frequency other then specified may erase the data that is stored in ROM,
there by the frequency must be always be more then the above normal.
The oscillator formed by the crystal and capacitors generates a pulse train
at the frequency of the crystal.

Today in the field of microcontrollers had their beginnings in the

development of technology of integrated circuits. This development has
made it possible to store hundreds of thousands of transistors into one
chip. That was a prerequisite for production of microprocessors, and the
first computers were made by adding external peripherals such as
memory, input-output lines, timers and other. Further increasing of the
volume of the package resulted in creation of integrated circuits. These
integrated circuits contained both processor and peripherals.

Memory is part of the microcontroller whose function is to store data.

The easiest way to explain it is to describe it as one big closet with lots of
drawers. If we suppose that we marked the drawers in such a way that
they can not be confused, any of their contents will then be easily
accessible. It is enough to know the designation of the drawer and so its
contents will be known to us for sure. Memory components are exactly like
that. For a certain input we get the contents of a certain addressed
memory location and thats all. Two new concepts are brought to us:
addressing and memory location. Memory consists of all memory
locations, and addressing is nothing but selecting one of them. This means
that we need to select the desired memory location on one hand, and on
the other hand we need to wait for the contents of that location. Besides
reading from a memory location, memory must also provide for writing onto
it. This is done by supplying an additional line called control line. We will
designate this line as R/W (read/write). Control line is used in the following
way: if r/w=1, reading is done, and if opposite is true then writing is done
on the memory location. Memory is the first element, and we need a
few operation of our microcontroller.
 CHAPTER 10

LCD INTERFACING

Interfacing the display unit to the microcontroller:

As seen from the above figure, Pins from 7 to 14 are data pins used
for the selection of a particular character and pins 4 to 6 are Control signal
pins used for performing Register bank selection, Read / Write and Enable
pins respectively. By adjusting the voltage at pin number 3 we can change
the contrast of the display. To display a particular character its associated
logic sequence has to be placed on the data pins and write signal (Pin-6)
has to be enabled. Microcontroller takes care of all these things based on
the program loaded into it. In the receiving end, Microcontroller places the
logic sequence on the data pins based on the information obtained from the
decoder output.

The function of each pin is given in the following table.

Pin Symbol I/O Description

1 Vss -- Ground

2 Vcc -- +5V Power Supply

3 VEE -- Power supply to Control Contrast

4 RS I RS = 0 to select command

register, RS=1 to select data register

 5 R/W I R/W =0 for write, R/W=1 for read

6 E I/O Enable

7 DB0 I/O The 8-bit data bus

8 DB1 I/O The 8-bit data bus

9 DB2 I/O The 8-bit data bus

10 DB3 I/O The 8-bit data bus

11 DB4 I/O The 8-bit data bus

12 DB5 I/O The 8-bit data bus

13 DB6 I/O The 8-bit data bus

14 DB7 I/O The 8-bit data bus

In the above table Vcc and Vss are supply pins and VEE (Pin no.3) is
used for controlling LCD contrast. Pin No.4 is Rs pin for selecting the
register, there are two very important registers are there in side the LCD.
The RS pin is used for their selection as follows. If RS = 0, the instruction
command code register is selected, allowing the user to send a command
such as clear display. If RS=1, the data register is selected, allowing the
user to send data to be displayed on the LCD.

R/W is a read or writes Pin, which allows the user to write information
to the LCD or read information from it. R/W=1 when reading, R/W=0 when
writing. The enable (E) pin is used by the LCD to latch information presented
to its data pins. When data is supplied to data pins, a high to-low pulse
must be applied to this pin in order for the LCD to latch in the data present at
the data pins. This pulse must be a minimum of 450 ns wide.
 The 8-bit data pins, D0-D7, are used to send information to the LCD or
read the contents of the LCDS internal registers. To display letters and
numbers, we must send ASCII (Antenna Standard Code for Information Inter
Change, Pronounced ask E) codes for the letters A Z, and numbers 0 -
9 to these pins while making RS=1.

DESCRIPTION ABOUT LCD INTERFACING

This section explains about how to interface the LCD to

Microcontroller, before interfacing we have to study the operation modes of
LCDs and how to program using assembly language and C.

In recent years the LCD panels became very popular because of their
widespread use in various electronic systems like instruments to read the
parameter values, digital communications for sending or receiving the text
information, data acquisition systems, etc. These display units dominating
seven segment displays by providing more features to the user. The LCD
system can display numbers, characters, and graphics, where as seven
segments LEDs displays only numbers, there fore most of the engineers
prefers LCDs. The data fed to the LCD remains as it is and the same will be
displayed until it gets an erase signal from the controller. The data can be
stored and it can be refreshed for the next task.

The instruction command codes from microcontroller can be sent to the

LCD to clear the display, depending up on the command the cursor can be
brought to home position or blink the cursor. The LCD is having two
important resistors internally, command resistor and data register; RS pin is
used to select either command register or data register. If RS = 0, the
instruction command code register is selected and allowing the user to send
a command to clear the display. If RS = 1 the data register is selected, there
by the user is allowed to send data that is to be displayed on LCD screen.
By making RS pin to zero, we can also check the busy flag bit to see if the
LCD is ready to receive information. As already mentioned that D0 D7 of
LCD pins are 8 bit data pins and the busy flag is D7, it can be read when
R/W (Read or Write) pin is high (R/W = 0) and RS = 0, as follows; if R/W = 1,
R/S = 1. When D7 pin is high, the LCD is busy taking care of internal
operations and will not accept any new information. When D7 = 0, the LCD
is ready to receive new information. It is recommended to check the busy
flag before writing any data to the LCD. The following is the table shows the
list of instruction command codes.

Code Command to LCD Instruction

1 Clear display screen
2 Return home
4 Decrement cursor (shift cursor to left)
6 Increment cursor (shift cursor to right)
5 Shift display right
7 Shift display left
8 Display off, cursor off
A Display off, cursor on
C Display on, cursor off
E Display on, cursor blinking
F Display on, cursor blinking
10 Shift cursor position to left
14 Shift cursor position to right
18 Shift the entire display to the left
IC Shift the entire display to the right
 80 Force cursor to beginning of first line
CO Force cursor to beginning of second line
38 2 Lines and 5x7 Matrix

To send any commands from instruction command code table to the

LCD, make RS pin to zero. For data, feed high signal to RS pin, then send a
high to low pulse to the E pin to enable the internal latch of the LCD. For
this, the suitable program is to be prepared for LCD connections. Another
suitable program is to be prepared for sending code to the LCD with
checking busy flag. Depending up on the program the busy flag can be D7
of the command resistor, to read command register R/W pin must be high
and RS pin must be low, and a low to high pulse for the enable pin will
provide the command register. After reading the command register, if bit D7
(busy flag) is high, the LCD is busy and no information (either command or
data) should be issued to it. During D7 is zero; at that time we can send data
or commands to the LCD. In this method time delays are not required in the
program, because we are checking the busy flag before issuing commands
to the LCD. Enable line must be negative-edge triggered for the write and it
should be positive-edge triggered for the read.
 CHAPTER 11

BRIEF DESCRIPTION ABOUT RELAYS

Introduction

A relay is an electrical switch that opens and closes under the

control of another electrical circuit. In the original form, the switch is
operated by an electromagnet to open or close one or many sets of
contacts. A relay is able to control an output circuit of higher power than
the input circuit, it can be considered to be, in a broad sense, a form of an
electrical amplifier.

Relay

Relays are usuallly SPDT (single pole double through switch) or

DPDT (double pole double through switch) but they can have many more
sets of switch contacts, for example relays with 4 sets of changeover
contacts are readily available.
Basic operation of a relay

An electric current through a conductor will produce a magnetic field

at right angles to the direction of electron flow. If that conductor is wrapped
into a coil shape, the magnetic field produced will be oriented along the
length of the coil. The greater the current, the greater the strength of the
magnetic field, all other factors being equal.
 Relay circuit

Inductors react against changes in current because of the energy

stored in this magnetic field. When we construct a transformer from two
inductor coils around a common iron core, we use this field to transfer
energy from one coil to the other. However, there are simpler and more
direct uses for electromagnetic fields than the applications we've seen with
inductors and transformers. The magnetic field produced by a coil of
current-carrying wire can be used to exert a mechanical force on any
magnetic object, just as we can use a permanent magnet to attract
magnetic objects, except that this magnet (formed by the coil) can be
turned on or off by switching the current on or off through the coil.
If we place a magnetic object near such a coil for the purpose of
making that object move when we energize the coil with electric current,
we have what is called a solenoid. The movable magnetic object is called
an armature, and most armatures can be moved with either direct current
(DC) or alternating current (AC) energizing the coil. The polarity of the
magnetic field is irrelevant for the purpose of attracting an iron armature.
Solenoids can be used to electrically open door latches, open or shut
valves, move robotic limbs, and even actuate electric switch mechanisms
and is used to actuate a set of switch contacts

Relays can be categorized according to the magnetic system and

operation

Neutral Relays

This is the most elementary type of relay. The neutral relays have a
magnetic coil, which operates the relay at a specified current, regardless of
the polarity of the voltage applied.
 Biased Relays

Biased relays have a permanent magnet above the armature. The

relay operates if the current through the coil winding establishes a
magneto-motive force that opposes the flux by the permanent magnet. If
the fluxes are in the same direction, the relay will not operate, even for a
greater current through the coil.

Polarized Relays

Like the biased relays, the polarized relays operate only when the
current through the coil in one direction. But there the principle is different.
The relay coil has a diode connected in series with it. This blocks the
current in the reverse direction. The major difference between biased
relays and polarized relays is that the former allows the current to pass
through in the reverse direction, but does the not operate the relay and the
later blocks the current in reverse direction. You can imagine how critical
these properties when relays are connected in series to form logic circuits.

Magnetic Stick Relays or Perm polarized Relays

These relays have a magnetic circuit with high permanence. Two

coils, one to operate (pick up) and one to release (drop) are present. The
relay is activated by a current in the operate coil. On the interruption of the
current the armature remains in picked up position by the residual
magnetism. The relay is released by a current through the release coil.

Slow Release Relays

These relays have a capacitor connected in parallel to their coil.

When the operating current is interrupted the release of relay is delayed by
the stored charge in the capacitor. The relay releases as the capacitor
discharges through the coil.

Relays for AC

These are neutral relays and picked up for a.c. current through their
coil. These are very fast in action and used on power circuits of the point
motors, where high current flows through the contacts. A normal relay
would be slow and make sparks which in turn may weld the contacts
together.All relays have two operating values (voltages), one pick-up and
the other other drop away. The pick-up value is higher than the drop away
value.

Applications
To control a high-voltage circuit with a low-voltage signal, as in some
types of modems or audio amplifiers,
To control a high-current circuit with a low-current signal, as in the
starter solenoid of an automobile,
To detect and isolate faults on transmission and distribution lines by
opening and closing circuit breakers (protection relays),
To isolate the controlling circuit from the controlled circuit when the
two are at different potentials, for example when controlling a mains-
powered device from a low-voltage switch. They may also be
controlled by room occupancy detectors in an effort to conserve
energy.
To perform logic functions. For example, the boolean AND function is
realised by connecting NO relay contacts in series, the OR function
by connecting NO contacts in parallel. The change-over or Form C
contacts perform the XOR (exclusive or) function. Similar functions
for NAND and NOR are accomplished using NC contacts. The
 Ladder programming language is often used for designing relay logic
networks.

o Early computing. Before vacuum tubes and transistors, relays

were used as logical elements in digital computers. See ARRA
(computer), Harvard Mark II, Zuse Z2, and Zuse Z3.
o Safety-critical logic. Because relays are much more resistant
than semiconductors to nuclear radiation, they are widely used
in safety-critical logic, such as the control panels of radioactive
waste-handling machinery.
To perform time delay functions. Relays can be modified to delay
opening or delay closing a set of contacts. A very short (a fraction of
a second) delay would use a copper disk between the armature and
moving blade assembly. Current flowing in the disk maintains
magnetic field for a short time, lengthening release time. For a
slightly longer (up to a minute) delay, a dashpot is used. A dashpot is
a piston filled with fluid that is allowed to escape slowly. The time
period can be varied by increasing or decreasing the flow rate. For
longer time periods, a mechanical clockwork timer is installed

The electromagnetic relay, one of mankinds first electrical device,

was used practically in telegraphy as early as 1850. The modern relay,
properly applied, is one of the most simple, effective and dependable
component available. In the majority of instances, it can achieve better
reliability at lesser cost than an equivalent solid-state complex type of
relay.

The term relay was used for the first time to describe an invention
made by Samuel Morse in 1836. The device invented by Morse was a
Telegraph Amplifying Electromagnetic Device which enabled a small
current flowing in a coil to switch on a large current in another circuit and
thus helped in relay of signals.

A relay is a device that opens or closes an auxiliary circuit under

some predetermined condition in the main circuit. The object of a relay is
generally to act as a sort of electric magnifier, that is to say, it enables a
comparatively weak current to bring into operation a much stronger
current. It also provides complete electrical isolation between the
controlling circuit and the controlled circuit.

Relays are widely used in industry. Railroads, pipelines and heavy-

duty signaling operations have relied for many years to handle their
automatic and remote control problems. Most of the traffic control signals
on our streets use relays. Telephone, telegraph and telemetry systems
depend on relays to provide circuit selection and switching. Complete
automatic and many semi-automatic control processes in industrial plants
use relays extensively. In computer circuit, relays can be arranged to
provide mathematical functions and to count. In short, relays are used to
perform a wide variety of tasks in electrical and electronics engineering
activities.

Though relays are simple devices, they are rarely fully understood
by electronic equipment designers because there are so many varieties.
They have been developed to meet a wide range of requirements. A relay,
when used properly under good climatic conditions, can have a very long
life. Under other conditions, it can give considerable trouble.

The relays used in this project work are electromagnetic relays. The
electromagnetic relay is basically a switch (or a combination of switches)
operated by the magnetic force generated by a current flowing through a
coil. Essentially, it consists of four parts an electromagnet comprising a
coil and a magnetic circuit, a movable armature, a set of contacts, and a
frame to mount all these components. However, very wide ranges of
relays have been developed to meet the requirements of the industry.

This relay is nothing but a switch, which operates

electromagnetically. It opens or closes a circuit when current through the
coil is started or stopped. When the coil is energized armature is attracted
by the electromagnet and the contacts are closed. That is how the power is
applied to the signals (indicators).

The construction of the typical relay contains a code surrounded by

a coil of copper wire. The core is mounted on a metal frame. The movable
part of the relay is called armature. When a voltage is applied to the coil
terminals, the current flowing through the coil produces a magnetic field in
the core. In other words, the core acts as an electromagnet and attracts
the metal armature. When the armature is attracted to the core, the
magnetic path is from the core through armature, through the frame, and
back to the core. On removing the voltage the spring attached to the
armature returns the armature to its original position. In this position,
there is a small air-gap in the magnetic path. Hence, more power is
needed to pull in the armature than that needed to keep it held in the
attracted position.

The relay contacts and the terminals are mounted on an insulated

board. When no current flows through the relay coil, the contact arm, or
pole as it is called, mounted on the armature, touches the top contact.
When the coil is energized by the flow of current, the armature along with
the contact arm assembly moves down wards so that the contact arm
touches the bottom contact.

When an electric current is flowing through a relay coil, it is said to

be energized, and when the current flow stops, the relay is said to be de-
energized. They have a set of parallel contacts, which are all pulled in
when the electromagnet pulls in the armature. On being energized,
whether a relay makes contact(s) or breaks them depends on the design of
contact arrangements. Though the contacts are open or close
simultaneously, the sequence of operation cannot be guaranteed in this of
construction. To have a definite switching sequence, stacked contacts are
used.

RELAY CHARACTERSTICS

A relay is a device that opens or closes an auxiliary circuit under

predetermined condition in the main circuit. The object of a relay is
generally to act as a sort of electrical magnifier; that is to say, it enables a
comparatively weak current to bring into operation a much stronger
current. It also provides complete electrical isolation between the
controlling circuit and the controlled circuit.

Relays are extensively used in electronics, electrical engineering

and many other fields. A wide variety of relays have been developed to
meet the varied requirements of industry. There are relays that are
sensitive to conditions of voltage, current, temperature, frequency, or some
combination of these conditions. The basic working of an electromagnetic
relay is easy to understand. However, in order to select a relay to perform
a particular function efficiently and that too for a long time requires
knowledge of relay characteristics and that of the circuits in which the relay
is used.
 CHAPTER 12

HARDWARE DETAILS

The ICs and other important components used in this project work,
procured from the Hyderabad Electronics Market. The details or data
sheets of the ICs are down loaded from the Internet. The following are the
web sites that can be browsed for collecting the data sheets.

1. www. Texas Instruments.com

2. www. National semiconductors.com
3. www. Fairchild semiconductors.com

The following are the ICs and other important components used in
this project work

1. 89S51/52 Microcontroller Chip

2. ADC 0809
3. Voltage Regulator
4. SL 100 (Temperature Sensor)
5. LM 324 Quad Op-Amp IC
6. Relay
7. 555 Timer IC

The required PCBS (Printed Circuit boards) for the project work are
fabricated by SUNRISE CIRCUITS, Kushaiguda Industrial Estate,
Hyderabad. Kushaiguda Industrial Estate is very famous for fabricating the
Industrial grade PCBs, i.e. glass epoxy boards.
 CHAPTER - 13

CONCLUSIONS

This project work Automatic Dish Washer is successfully

designed and developed, for the demonstration purpose a prototype
module is constructed, results are found to be satisfactory. As described in
the introduction, this system is quite useful for many commercial
organizations like hotels, restaurants, function halls, etc. Here for demo
purpose simple machine is constructed which will not meet for practical
usage. To implement it for practical orientation, the technology must be
upgraded by adding all required features like brushing the dish
automatically, applying the detergent automatically, spraying the hot water
forcibly, drying the dish with hot air, etc. facilities must be added for to
make the machine as full fledged. To design such kind of machine,
mechanical movements are required to carry the dish from one place to
other with in the machine. Therefore a multilevel machine must be
constructed using electro-mechanical components. Efficient Processor is
essential for controlling entire machine accurately. Since lot of complexity
is involved in the system, it has to be implemented stage by stage to
design a multilevel machine and it will be our future work.

Presently since it is a prototype module hot water is delivered at 55 0

C, this data is pre-programmed and it is fixed. If there is any alteration in
the temperature setting, program must be modified and chip has to be re-
burned. Otherwise using a small matrix type of keyboard interfaced with
the embedded system, temperature settings can be programmed when
required according to the dish that is to be washed with high temperature
water.
REFERENCES

The following are the references made during design, development

and fabrication of the project work.

(1) Linear & Digital IC Applications By: professor B.N. Yoga Narsimhan
(2) Industrial and power Electronics By: Harish C. Roy
(3) The 8051 Micro-controller Architecture, programming & Applications
By: Kenneth J. Ayala
(4) The 8051 Microcontroller and Embedded Systems By: MD Ali Mazidi
(5) Practical transistor circuit design and analysis
By: GERALD E. WILLIAMS
(6) Programming and Customizing the 8051 Micro-controller By: Myke
Predko
(7) The concepts and Features of Micro-controllers - By: Raj Kamal
(8) Digital and Analog Communication System By: K. sam Shanmugam
(9) Digital Electronics. By JOSEPH J.CARR
(10) Electronics for you Monthly Magazine
(11) Practical Electronics
(12) Elector India